diff --git "a/bioindex/docstore.json" "b/bioindex/docstore.json"
new file mode 100644--- /dev/null
+++ "b/bioindex/docstore.json"
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
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"c34dc20c615bbf12a65dbc491559e3b49e41529c7d3b6409b80c6273ee75437a", "ref_doc_id": "aa0415fe-083e-4d2f-8924-2a749f6cf863"}, "5d522e93-57af-46ea-bb1a-3b1975ffed41": {"doc_hash": "dc234d65557034366a503f534eb172deded066affe25abc68fdf613c64866116", "ref_doc_id": "3d2b9a98-9d69-4e1f-a849-e3cc087b5b4b"}, "605cee3b-9aab-4f6e-8402-7a25a06028c5": {"doc_hash": "1c459fba59cc9e07b4b024b54a4866a001d1cc5caf341ab8a01847f22151ca1e", "ref_doc_id": "d5cc01f4-e071-4dde-9ac6-345162ea4e29"}}, "docstore/data": {"5377034a-bd4f-4902-92cf-1d5c65cdf6be": {"__data__": {"id_": "5377034a-bd4f-4902-92cf-1d5c65cdf6be", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "15d81271-42b6-4a87-b4be-c4401e5be4db", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1b0e4e6109e8ddb2661715413447b546d1c4b68f8029d62ad19c2ed017ac8103", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Unit I Unit IUnit I Unit IUnit I\nChapter 1\nPOPULATION\nDistribution, Density , Growth\nand CompositionThe people are very important component of a\ncountry. India is the second most populous\ncountry after China in the world with its total\npopulation of 1, 210 million (20 11). India\u2019s\npopulation is larger than the total population\nof North America, South America and Australia\nput together . Mor e often, it is argued that such\na large population invariably puts pressure\non its limited resources and is also responsible\nfor many socio-economic problems in the\ncountry.\nHow do you perceive the idea of India? Is\nit simply a territory? Does this signify an\namalgam of people? Is it a territory\ninhabited by people living under certain\ninstitutions of governance?\nIn this chapter , we will discuss the\npatterns of distribution, density, growth and\ncomposition of India\u2019s population.\nSources of Population DataSources of Population DataSources of Population DataSources of Population DataSources of Population Data\nPopulation data are collected through\nCensus operation held every 10 years in our\ncountry . The first population Census in India\nwas conducted in 1872 but its first complete\nCensus was conducted only in 1881.\nDistrib DistribDistrib DistribDistrib ution of ution ofution of ution ofution of  P P P\n P Popula opulaopula opulaopula tion tiontion tiontion\nExamine Fig. 1.1 and try to describe the\npatterns of spatial distribution of population\nshown on it. It is clear that India has a highly\nuneven pattern of population distribution. The\npercentage shares of population of the states\nand Union Territories in the country (Appendix )\nshow that Uttar Pradesh has the highest\npopulation followed by Maharashtra, Bihar and\nWest Bengal.\nLooking at the data in Appendix i, arrange the Indian\nStates and Union Territories according to their sizes\nand population and find out :\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1898, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "63a92cb9-fad6-498f-9bb9-1763c780e6d7": {"__data__": {"id_": "63a92cb9-fad6-498f-9bb9-1763c780e6d7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "205da8d1-4079-4caf-b92d-a39ffb5a61db", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "18d31974e70bbb6c7787d0be43936fe8d7f79312b4c2b1872ca607f30421c9cb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "2India : People and Economy\nFig. 1.1 : India \u2013 Distribution of Population\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 94, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "148eecb8-eac2-48cb-bc79-000dba6e9122": {"__data__": {"id_": "148eecb8-eac2-48cb-bc79-000dba6e9122", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "01944d6e-3fbb-445d-a6b0-9c032bac596a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a580e36200e4a32dc55366c62e0486acbc57cd22d4609494013f3e6b7017c4ea", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition      3\nStates/ UTs of large size and large population\nStates/ UTs of large size but small population\nStates/ UTs of smaller size but larger population\nCheck fr om the table (Appendix\u2013iA) that U.P .,\nMaharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra\nPradesh along with Tamil Nadu, Madhya\nPradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Gujarat,\ntogether account for about 76 per cent of the\ntotal population of the country. On the other\nhand, share of population is very small in the\nstates like Jammu & Kashmir (1.04%),\nArunachal Pradesh (0.11%) and Uttarakhand\n(0.84%) inspite of theses  states having fairly\nlarge geographical area.\nSuch an uneven spatial distribution of\npopulation in India suggests a close relationship\nbetween population and physical, socio-\neconomic and historical factors. As far as the\nphysical factors are concerned, it is clear that\nclimate along with terrain and availability of\nwater largely determines the pattern of the\npopulation distribution. Consequently, we\nobserve that the North Indian Plains, deltas and\nCoastal Plains have higher proportion of\npopulation than the interior districts of southern\nand central Indian States, Himalayas, some of\nthe north eastern and the western states.\nHowever, development of irrigation (Rajasthan),\navailability of mineral and energy resources\n(Jharkhand) and development of transport\nnetwork (Peninsular States) have resulted in\nmoderate to high concentration  of population\nin areas which were previously very thinly\npopulated.\nAmong the socio-economic and historical\nfactors of distribution of population, important\nones are evolution of settled agriculture and\nagricultural development; pattern of human\nsettlement; development of transport  network,\nindustrialisation and urbanisation. It is\nobserved that the regions falling in the river\nplains and coastal areas of India have remained\nthe regions of larger  population concentration.\nEven though the uses of natural resources like\nland and water in these regions have shown\nthe sign of degradation, the co ncentration of\npopulation remains high because of an earlyhistory of human settlement and development\nof transport network. On the other hand, the\nurban re gions of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata,\nBengaluru, Pune, Ahmedabad, Chennai and\nJaipur have high concentration of population\ndue to industrial development and\nurbanisation drawing a large numbers of\nrural-urban migrants.\nDensity ofDensity ofDensity ofDensity ofDensity of  P P P P Populaopulaopulaopulaopula tion\ntiontion tiontion\nDensity of population, is expressed as number\nof persons per unit area. It helps in getting a\nbetter understanding of the spatial distribution\nof population in relation to land. The density of\npopulation in India (2011) is 382 persons per\nsq km. There has been a steady increase of more\nthan 200 persons per sq km over the last 50\nyears as the density of population increased\nfrom 117 persons/ sq km in 1951 to 382\npersons/sq km in 2011.\nThe d ata shown in Appendix (i) give an\nidea of spatial variation of population densities\nin the country which ranges from as low as 17\npersons per sq km in Arunachal Pradesh to\n11,297 persons in the National Capital\nTerritory of Delhi. Among the northern Indian\nStates, Bihar (1102), W est Bengal (1029) and\nand Uttar Pradesh (828) have higher densities,\nwhile Kerala (859) and Tamil Nadu (555) have\nhigher densities among the peninsular Indian\nstates. States like Assam, Gujarat, Andhra\nPradesh, Haryana, Jharkhand, Odisha have\nmoderate densities. The hill states of the\nHimalayan region and North eastern states of\nIndia (excluding Assam) have relatively low\ndensities while the Union Territories (excluding\nAndaman and Nicobar islands) have very high\ndensities of population (Appendix\u2013i).\nThe density of population, as discussed\nin the earlier paragraph, is a crude measure\nof human and land relationship. To get a\nbetter insight into the human-land ratio in\nterms of  pressure of population on total\ncultivable land, the physiological  and the\nagricultural  densities should be found out\nwhich are significant for a country like India\nhaving a large agricultural population.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 4186, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e5876ad0-422f-4197-8d86-e5ab4143157e": {"__data__": {"id_": "e5876ad0-422f-4197-8d86-e5ab4143157e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e473437b-bcc1-4463-94dd-5f247ce9ccd3", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d3f940cad390d03892d34e889a3637d83e8a359754ae13020d2312cdadbec789", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "4India : People and Economy\nFig. 1.2 : India \u2013 Density of Population\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 89, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b18dd423-4797-49a6-b974-3bbb7396990d": {"__data__": {"id_": "b18dd423-4797-49a6-b974-3bbb7396990d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9746abcd-41aa-4ff2-ad83-f6c4685c0a68", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d809226e36db40cc6bc64537df67d17dc0c2f88f6d7405a3ca7a48fb4b78a7ad", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition      5\nPhysiological density =  total population /\nnet cultivated area\nAgricultural density = total agricultural\npopulation / net cultivable area\nAgricultural population includes cultivators\nand agricultural labourers and their family\nmembers.\nWith the help of data given in Appendix (ii), Calculate\nthe Physiological and Agricultural densities of\npopulation of Indian States and Union Territories.\nCompare them with density of population and see how\nare these different?\nGr GrGr GrGrowth of owth ofowth ofowth ofowth of  P\n P P  P Popula opulaopula opulaopula tion tiontion tiontion\nGrowth of population is the change in the\nnumber of people living in a particular area\nbetween two points of time. Its rate is expressed\nin percentage. Population growth has two\ncomponents namely; natural and induced.\nWhile the natural growth is analysed byassessing the crude birth and death rates, the\ninduced components are explained by the\nvolume of inward and outward movement of\npeople in any given area. However, in the\npresent chapter, we will only discuss the\nnatural growth of India\u2019s population.\nThe decadal and annual growth rates of\npopulation in India are both very high and\nsteadily increasing over time. The annual\ngrowth rate of India\u2019s population is 1.64 per\ncent (2011).\nPopulation Doubling TimePopulation Doubling TimePopulation Doubling TimePopulation Doubling TimePopulation Doubling Time\nPopulation doubling time is the time taken\nby any population to double  itself at its\ncurrent annual growth rate.\nThe growth rate of population in India over\nthe last one century has been caused by annual\nbirth rate and death rate and rate of migration\nand thereby shows different trends. There are\nfour distinct phases of growth identified within\nthis period:\n* Decadal growth rate :   2 1\n1p -pg = \u00d7100p\nwhere P1 = population of the base year\nP2 = population of the present year\n** Source : Census of India, 2011(Provisional)Table 1.1 : Decadal Growth Rates in India, 1901-2011\nCensus Total Population Growth Rate*\nYears Absolute Number % of Growth\n1901 238396327 ------------ ------------\n1911 252093390 (+) 13697063 (+) 5.75\n1921 251321213 (-) 772117 (-)  0.31\n1931 278977238 (+) 27656025 (+) 11.60\n1941 318660580 (+) 39683342 (+) 14.22\n1951 361088090 (+) 42420485 (+) 13.31\n1961 439234771 (+) 77682873 (+) 21.51\n1971 548159652 (+) 108924881 (+) 24.80\n1981 683329097 (+) 135169445 (+) 24.66\n1991 846302688 (+) 162973591 (+) 23.85\n2001 1028610328 (+) 182307640 (+) 21.54\n2011** 1210193422 (+) 181583094  (+) 17.64\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2590, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6e688803-c1b9-4a44-a759-fc962f95d297": {"__data__": {"id_": "6e688803-c1b9-4a44-a759-fc962f95d297", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6e0a7a6c-16b4-465a-a2b9-4441b85e6525", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2635d6f28b5fd11f64804a9a566f7a66885b1c63dca266375dd0a4568307656d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "6India : People and Economy\nFig. 1.3 : India \u2013 Growth of Population\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 88, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "295a5ef2-1cda-41ad-b504-1f07a225a7a1": {"__data__": {"id_": "295a5ef2-1cda-41ad-b504-1f07a225a7a1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b71e36bc-16d4-4913-b902-f1bc34ef2f20", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4c5f7c9fa775891cbd84ea1fd25bfa1a8ba7c3812c1cc141d61394e662a9b1ef", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition      7\nPhase I :The pe riod from 1901-1921 is\nreferred to as a period of stagnant\nor stationary phase of growth of\nIndia\u2019s population, since in this\nperiod growth rate was very low,\neven recording a negative growth\nrate during 1911-1921. Both the\nbirth rate and death rate were high\nkeeping the rate of increase low\n(Appendix\u2013iii). Poor health and\nmedical services, illiteracy of people\nat large and inefficient distribution\nsystem of food and other basic\nnecessities were largely responsible\nfor a hig h birth and death rates in\nthis period.\nPhase II :The decades 1921- 1951 are\nreferred to as the period of steady\npopulation growth. An overall\nimprovement in health and\nsanitation throughout the country\nbrought down the mortality rate. At\nthe same time better transport and\ncommunication system improved\ndistribution system. The crude\nbirth rate remained high in this\nperiod leading to higher growth rate\nthan the previous phase. This is\nimpressive at the backdrop of Great\nEconomic Depression , 1920s and\nWorld W ar II.\nPhase III : The decades 1951-1981 are\nreferred to as the period of\npopulation explosion in India,\nwhich was caused by a rapid fall\nin the mortality rate but a high\nfertility rate of population in the\ncountry. The average annual\ngrowth rate was as high as 2.2 per\ncent. It is in this period, after the\nIndependence, that developmental\nactivities were introduced through\na centralised planning process and\neconomy started showing up\nensuring the improvement of living\ncondition of people at large.\nConsequently, there was a high\nnatural increase and higher growth\nrate. Besides, increased\ninternational migration bringing inTibetans, Bangladeshis, Nepalies\nand even people from Pakistan\ncontributed to the high growth rate.\nPhase IV : In the post 1981 till present, the\ngrowth rate of country\u2019s population\nthough remained high, has started\nslowing down gradually (Table 1.1).\nA downward trend of crude birth\nrate is held responsible for such a\npopulation growth. This was, in\nturn, affected by an increase in the\nmean age at marriage, improved\nquality of life particularly education\nof females in the country.\nThe growth rate of population is, however,\nstill high in the country, and it has been\nprojected by World Development Report that\npopulation of India will touch 1,350 million by\n2025.\nThe analysis done so far shows the average\ngrowth rate, but the country also has wide\nvariation (Appendix\u2013iv) in growth rates from one\narea to another which is discussed below.\nR RRRRe\nee eegional V gional Vgional V gional Vgional V aria ariaaria ariaaria tion in tion intion in tion intion in\nP PP PPopula opulaopula opulaopula tion Gr tion Grtion Gr tion Grtion Gr owth owthowth owthowth\nThe growth rate of population during 1991-\n2001 in Indian States and Union Territories\nshows very obvious pattern.\nThe States like Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil\nNadu, Andhra Pradesh, O disha, Puducherry,\nand Goa show a low rate of growth not exceeding\n20 per cent over the decade. Kerala registered\nthe lowest growth rate (9.4) not only in this group\nof states but also in the country as a whole.\nA continuous belt of states from west to\neast in the north-west, north, and north central\nparts of the country has relatively high growth\nrate than the southern states. It  is in this belt\ncomprising Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan,\nPunjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand,\nMadhya Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam, West Bengal,\nBihar, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand, the growth\nrate on the average remained 20-25 per cent.\nDuring 2001-2011, the growth rates of\nalmost all States and Union Territories have\nregistered a lower figure compared to the\nprevious decade, namely, 1991-2001. The\npercentage decadal growth rates of the six most\npopulous States, namely, Uttar Pradesh,\nMaharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3882, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0df0a529-ad36-47e3-8602-7b04c3314f6e": {"__data__": {"id_": "0df0a529-ad36-47e3-8602-7b04c3314f6e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d1b81dea-4cc4-4729-aa0d-26b711f84a13", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "bea26636e4f6344479ca8deb188fe44ea4122a35e098fbe59796d332f997a040", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "8India : People and Economy\nPradesh and Madhya Pradesh have all fallen\nduring 2001-2011 compared to 1991-2001,\nthe fall being the lowest for Andhra Pradesh\n(3.5% percentage points) and highest for\nMaharashtra (6.7 percentage points). Tamil\nNadu (3.9 percentage points) and Puducherry\n(7.1 percentage points) have registered some\nincrease during 2001-2011 over the previous\ndecade.\nWith the help of data given in Appendix i and iA, compare\nthe growth rate of population of dif ferent States/UT s\nbetween 1991-2001 and 2001-201 1.\nTake the population growth data of the districts/selected\ndistricts of your respective state for total male and female\npopulation and represent them  with the help of\nComposite Bar Graph.\nAn important aspect of population growth\nin In dia is the growth of its adolescents. At\npresent the share of adolescents i.e. , up to the\nage group of 10-19 years is about 2 0.9 per cent\n(2011), among which male adolescents\nconstitute 5 2.7 per cent and female adolescents\nconstitute 47 .3 per cent. The adolescent\npopulation, though, regarded as the youthful\npopulation having high potentials, but at the\nsame time they are quite vulnerable if not guided\nand channelised properly. There are many\nchallenges for the society as far as these\nadolescents are concerned, some of which are\nlower age at marriage, illiteracy \u2013 particularly\nfemale illiteracy, school dropouts, low intake of\nnutrients, high rate of maternal mortality of\nadolescent mothers, high rate of HIV  and AIDS\ninfections, physical and mental disability or\nretardedness,  drug abuse and alcoholism,  juvenile\ndelinquency and commitence of crimes, etc.\nIn view of these, the Government of India\nhas undertaken certain policies to impart\nproper education to the adolescent groups so\nthat their talents are better channelised and\nproperly utilised. The National Y outh Policy isone example which has been designed to look\ninto the overall development of our large youth\nand adolescent population.\nThe National Y outh Policy (NYP\u20132014)\nlaunched in February 2014 proposes a holistic\n\u2018vision\u2019  for the youth of India, which is \u201cTo\nempower  the youth of the country to achieve\ntheir full p otential, and through them enable\nIndia to find its rightful place in the community\nof nations\u201d. The NYP\u20132014 has defined \u2018youth\u2019as\npersons in the age group of 15\u201329 years.\nThe Government of India also formulated\nthe National Policy for Skill Development and\nEntrepreneurship in 2015 to provide an\numbrella framework to all skilling activities\nbeing carried out within the country, and to\nalign these to common standards and link\nskilling with demand centres.\nIt appears from the above discussion that\nthe growth rate of population is widely variant\nover space and time in the country and also\nhighlights various social problems related to the\ngrowth of population. However , in or der to have\na better insight into the growth pattern of\npopulation it is also necessary to look into the\nsocial composition of population.\nP PPPPopula\nopulaopula opulaopula tion Compositiontion Compositiontion Compositiontion Compositiontion Composition\nPopulation composition is a distinct field of\nstudy within population geography with a vast\ncoverage of analysis of age and sex, place of\nresidence, ethnic characteristics, tribes,\nlanguage, religion, marital status, literacy and\neducation, occupational characteristics, etc. In\nthis section, the composition of Indian\npopulation with respect to their rural-urban\ncharacteristics, language, religion and pattern\nof occupation will be discussed.\nRural \u2013 Urban Composition\nComposition of population by their respective\nplaces of residence is an important indicator of\nsocial and economic characteristics. This becomes\neven more significant for a country where about\n68.8 per cent of its total population lives in village\n(2011) .\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3850, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f5989b63-daf7-48ee-b473-cb42b5b5d0b3": {"__data__": {"id_": "f5989b63-daf7-48ee-b473-cb42b5b5d0b3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4d46c086-1bd5-45ed-8ed4-aab630b93bde", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e7490dcdfe098dd10ae2356f6006bbbd9ccf018e71b080fc671a0889b65e506c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition      9\nCompare the data given in Appendix (iv) and iv A\ncalculate the percentages of rural population of the\nstates in India and represent them cartographically on\na map of India.\nDo you know that India has 640,867\nvillages according to the Census 2011 out of\nwhich 597,608 (93.2 per cent) are inhabited\nvillages? However , the distribution of rural\npopulation is not uniform throughout the\ncountry. Y ou might have noted that the states\nlike Bihar and Sikkim have very high\npercentage of rural population. The states of\nGoa and Maharashtra have only little over half\nof their total population residing in villages.\nThe Union Territories, on the other hand,\nhave smaller proportion of rural population,\nexcept Dadra and Nagar Haveli (53.38 per cent).\nThe size of villages also varies considerably. It\nis less than 200 persons in the  hill states of\nnorth-easter n India, W ester n Rajasthan and\nRann of Kuchchh and as high as 17 thousand\npersons in the states of Kerala and in parts of\nMaharashtra. A thorough examination of the\npattern of distribution of rural population of\nIndia r eveals that both at intra-State and inter -\nState levels, the relative degree of urbanisation\nand extent of rural-urban migration regulate\nthe concentration of rural population.\nYou have noted that contrary to rural\npopulation, the proportion of urban population\n(31.16 per cent) in India is quite low but it is\nshowing a much faster rate of growth over the\ndecades. The growth rate of urban population\nhas accelerated due to enhanced economic\ndevelopment and improvement in health and\nhygienic conditions.\nThe distribution of urban population too,\nas in the case of total population, has a wide\nvariation throughout the country (Appendix \u2013iv).\nCompare the data of Appendix (iv) and iv A and identify\nthe states/UT s with very high and very low proportion of\nurban population.\nIt is, however , noticed that in almost all the\nstates and Union Territories, there has been a\nconsiderable increase of urban population. Thisindicates both development of urban areas in\nterms of socio-economic conditions and an\nincreased rate of rural-urban migration. The\nrural-urban migration is conspicuous in the case\nof urban areas along the main road links and\nrailroads in the North Indian Plains, the\nindustrial areas around Kolkata, Mumbai,\nBengaluru \u2013 Mysuru, Madurai \u2013 Coimbatore,\nAhmedabad \u2013 Surat, Delhi \u2013 Kanpur and\nLudhiana \u2013 Jalandhar . In the agriculturally\nstagnant parts of the middle and lower Ganga\nPlains, T elengana, non-irrigated W ester n\nRajasthan, remote hilly, tribal areas of north-\neast, along the flood prone areas of Peninsular\nIndia and along eastern part of Madhya Pradesh,\nthe degree of urbanisation has remained low.\nLinguistic Composition\nIndia is a land of linguistic diversity. According to\nGrierson (Linguistic Survey of India, 1903 \u2013 1928),\nthere were 179 languages and as many as 544\ndialects in the country. In the context of modern\nIndia, there are about 22 scheduled languages\nand a number of non-scheduled languages.\nSee how many languages appear on a Rs 10 note.\nAmong the scheduled languages, the\nspeakers of Hindi have the highest percentage.\nThe smallest language groups are Sanskrit,\nBodo and Manipuri speakers (2011). However ,\nit is noticed that the linguistic regions in the\ncountry do not have a sharp and distinct\nboundary, rather they gradually merge and\noverlap in their respective frontier zones.\nLinguistic Classification\nThe speakers of major Indian languages\nbelong to four language families, which have\ntheir sub-families and branches or groups.\nThis can be better understood from Table 1.2.\nReligious Composition\nReligion is one of the most dominant forces\naffecting the cultural and political life of the\nmajority of Indians. Since religion virtually\npermeates into almost all the aspects of people\u2019s\nfamily and community lives, it is important to\nstudy the religious composition in detail.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3996, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2078979a-d3c4-469d-9521-bc612a8973ce": {"__data__": {"id_": "2078979a-d3c4-469d-9521-bc612a8973ce", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "10", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5e3bb254-5411-455b-97c3-bf03d80a49c1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "10", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7e310d83fff935a59247e84e3e69c6924ca8fe2fbd8cd3f277c7e538d836e4d3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "10India : People and Economy\nMuslims, the largest religious minority, are\nconcentrated in Jammu & Kashmir , certain\ndistricts of W est Bengal and Kerala, many\ndistricts of  Uttar Pradesh , in and around Delhi\nand in Lakshadweep. They form majority in\nKashmi r valley and Lakshadweep.Family Sub-Family Branch/Group Speech Areas\nAustric\n(Nishada)\n1.38%Austro-Asiatic Mon-Khmer Meghalaya, Nicobar Islands\nMunda West Bengal, Bihar , Orissa, Assam,\nMadhya Pradesh, Maharashtra\nAustro- Nesian Outside India\nSouth-Dravidian Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala\nCentral Dravidian Andhra Pradesh, M.P ., Orissa,\nMaharashtraDravidian\n(Dravida)\n20%North Dravidian Bihar , Orissa, W est Bengal,\nMadhya Pradesh\nSino-Tibetan\n(Kirata)\n0.85%Tibeto - Myanmari Jammu & Kashmir , Himachal Pradesh,\nSikkimTibeto-Himalayan\nArunachal  Pradesh North Assam\nSiamese-Chinese Assam, Nagaland, Manipur , Mizoram,\nTripura, MeghalayaAssam- Myanmari\nIndo -\nEuropean\n(Aryan) 73%Indo-Aryan Outside India Iranian\nJammu & Kashmir Dardic\nJammu & Kashmir , Punjab, Himachal\nPradesh, U.P ., Rajasthan, Haryana, M.P .,\nBihar , Orissa, W est Bengal, Assam,\nGujarat, Maharashtra, Goa.Indo-AryanTable 1.2 : Classification of Moder n Indian Languages\nSource : Ahmed, A. (1999) : Social Geography, Rawat Publication, New Delhi\nThe spatial distribution of religious\ncommunities in the country (Appendix\u2013v) shows\nthat there are certain states and districts having\nlarge numerical strength of one religion, while\nthe same may be very negligibly represented in\nother states.\nHindus  are distributed as a major group in\nmany states (ranging from 70  - 90 per cent and\nabove) except the districts of states along Indo-\nBangladesh border, Indo-Pak border, Jammu &\nKashmir, Hill States of North-East and in scattered\nareas of Deccan Plateau and Ganga Plain.\nLook at Table 1.2 and prepare a pie diagram of linguistic\ncomposition of India showing the sectoral shares of\neach linguistic group.\nOr\nPrepare a qualitative symbol map of India showing the\ndistribution of dif ferent linguistic groups in the country .Table 1.3 : Religious Communities of India , 2011\nReligious Group     2011\n        Population % of\n                       (in million)        Total\nHindus 966.3 79.8\nMuslims 172.2 14.2\nChristians 27.8 2.3\nSikhs 20.8 1.7\nBuddhists 8.4 0.7\nJains 4.5 0.4\nOther Religions and\nPersuasions (ORP) 7.9 0.7\nReligion Not Stated 2.9 0.2\nSource : Census of India, 2011\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2427, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "97869a76-f4ea-4bc6-9634-4002defb755d": {"__data__": {"id_": "97869a76-f4ea-4bc6-9634-4002defb755d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "11", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1a47dad8-6449-43a9-bfd1-5994948f2a1d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "11", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "373005608525b07f48f47350bb8316d4aa97aafaf2f51834a386d222f7afabb4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition      11\nThe Christian population is distributed\nmostly in rural areas of the country. The main\nconcentration is observed along the W ester n\ncoast around Goa, Kerala and also in the hill\nstates of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland,\nChotanagpur area and Hills of Manipur .\nSikhs are mostly concentrated in relatively\nsmall area of the country, particularly in the\nstates of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi.\nJains and Buddhists, the smallest religious\ngroups in India have their concentration only\nin selected areas of the country. Jains have\nmajor concentration in the urban areas of\nRajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra, while the\nBuddhists are concentrated mostly in\nMaharashtra. The other areas of Buddhist\nmajority are Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh,\nLadakh in Jammu & Kashmir , Tripura, and\nLahul and Spiti in Himachal Pradesh.\nThe other religions of India include\nZoroastrians, tribal and other indigenous faiths\nand beliefs. These groups are concentrated in\nsmall pockets scattered throughout the country.\nComposition of W orking Population\nThe population of India according to their\neconomic status is divided into three groups,\nnamely; main workers, marginal workers and\nnon-workers.\nIt is observed that in India, the proportion\nof workers (both main and marginal) is only 39.8per cent (2011) leaving a vast majority of  about\n60 per cent as non-workers. This indicates an\neconomic status in which there is a larger\nproportion of dependent population , further\nindicating possible existence of large  number of\nunemployed or under employed people.\nWhat is work participation rate?\nThe proportion of working population, of\nthe states and Union Territories show a\nmoderate variation from about 39.6 per cent in\nGoa to about 49.9 per cent in Daman and Diu.\nThe states with larger percentages of workers\nare Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh,\nAndhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Arunachal\nPradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Meghalaya.\nAmong the Union Territories, Dadra and Nagar\nHaveli and Daman and Diu have higher\nparticipation rate. It is understood that, in the\ncontext of a country like India, the work\nparticipation rate tends to be higher in the areas\nof lower levels of economic development since\nnumber of manual workers are needed to\nperform the subsistence or near subsistence\neconomic activities.\nThe occupational composition  (see box)\nof India\u2019s population (which actually means\nengagement of an individual in farming,\nmanufacturing, trade, services or any kind of\nprofessional activities) show a large proportion\nof primary sector workers compared to\nsecondary and tertiary sectors. About 54.6 per\ncent of total working population are cultivators\nand agricultural labourers, whereas only 3.8%\nof workers are engaged in household industries\nand 41.6 % are other workers including non-\nhousehold industries, trade, commerce,\nconstruction and repair and other services. As\nfar as the occupation of country\u2019s male and\nfemale population is concerned, male workers\nout-number female workers in all the three\nsectors (Fig.1.4 and Table 1.4).Religion and LandscapeReligion and LandscapeReligion and LandscapeReligion and LandscapeReligion and Landscape\nFormal expression of religions on\nlandscape is manifested through sacred\nstructures, use of cemetries and\nassemblages of plants and animals, groves\nof trees for religious purposes. Sacred\nstructures are widely distributed throughout\nthe country . These may range from\ninconspicuous village shrines to large Hindu\ntemples, monumental masjids  or ornately\ndesigned cathedrals in large metropolitan\ncities.  These temples, masjids , gurudwaras,\nmonastries and churches differ in size,\nform, space \u2013 use and density , while\nattributing a special dimension to the total\nlandscape of the area.Standard Census DefinitionStandard Census DefinitionStandard Census DefinitionStandard Census DefinitionStandard Census Definition\nMain Worker is a person who works for\natleast 183 days ( or six months) in a year .\nMarginal Worker is a person who works for\nless than 183 days ( or six months) in a year .\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 4109, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "49d3edee-c6b6-4003-919d-0bc396fabb1b": {"__data__": {"id_": "49d3edee-c6b6-4003-919d-0bc396fabb1b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "12", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2379f689-ebfd-4c4d-a7fd-01b86daafeae", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "12", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7332fa2ea61c86c2b3b86232726ad5c241c4e3dd6e90fef3a1b2b8287af6ca30", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "12India : People and Economy\nFig. 1.4 : India \u2013 Occupational Structure, 2011\nIdentify some issues in which\nIndia is ahead of or l agging\nbehind its neighbours.\nPromoting Gender Sensitivity through\n\u2018Beti Bachao\u2013Beti Padhao\u2019 Social\nCampaign\nThe division of the society into male, female\nand transgender is believed to be natural\nand biological. But, in reality, there are social\nconstructs and roles assigned to individuals\nwhich are reinforced by social institutions.\nConsequently, these biological differences\nbecome the basis of social differentiations,\ndiscriminations and exclusions. The\nexclusion of over half of the population\nbecomes a serious handicap to any\ndeveloping and civilised society. It is a global\nchallenge, which has been acknowledged bythe UNDP when it mentioned that, \u201cIf development\nis not engendered it is endangered\u201d (HDR  UNDP\n1995). Discrimination, in general, and gender\ndiscrimination, in particular , is a crime against\nhumanity.\nAll efforts need to be made to address the\ndenial of opportunities of education, employment,\npolitical representation, low wages for similar\ntypes of work, disregard to their entitlement to\nlive a dignified life, etc. A society, which fails to\nacknowledge and take effective measures to\nremove such discriminations, cannot be treated\nas a civilised one. The Government of India has\nduly acknowleged the adverse impacts of these\ndiscriminations and launched a nationwide\ncampaign called \u2018Beti Bachao \u2013 Beti Padhao \u2019.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1495, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "115372a7-393c-4c19-8ac4-2effc913bc8f": {"__data__": {"id_": "115372a7-393c-4c19-8ac4-2effc913bc8f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "13", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "379ef854-a3f5-486d-8472-ac0a2ab27687", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "13", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "bb3b8d16b2d536cb698fe7a4a44bd065270fae0cd8190901449feaa32588ebf8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition      13\nCategories      Population\nPersons % to Male Female\ntotal\nWorkers\nPrimary 26,30,22,473 54.6 16,54,47,075 9,75,75,398\nSecondary 1,83,36,307 3.8 97,75,635 85,60,672\nTertiary 20,03,84,531 41.6 15,66,43,220 4,37,41,311Table 1.4 : Sectoral Composition of workforce in India, 20 11Occupational Categories\nThe 201 1 Census has divided the working\npopulation of India into four major categorie s:\n1.Cultivators\n2.Agricultural Labourers\n3.Household Industrial Workers\n4.Other Workers.The number of female workers is relatively\nhigh in primary sector , though in r ecent years\nthere has been some improvement in work\nparticipation of women in secondary and\ntertiary sectors.\nIt is important to note that the proportion\nof workers in agricultural sector in India has\nshown a decline over the last few decades ( 58.2%\nin 2001 to 54.6% in 20 11). Conseq uently, the\nparticipation rate in secondary and tertiary sector\nhas registered an increase. This indicates a shift\nof dependence of workers from farm-\nbased occupations to non-farm\nbased ones, indicating a sectoral shift\nin the economy of the country.\nThe spatial variation of work\nparticipation rate in different sectors\nin the country (Appendix \u2013v and vA)\nis very wide. For instance, the states\nlike Himachal Pradesh and Nagaland\nhave very large shares of cultivators.\nOn the other hand states like Bihar ,\nAndhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,\nOdisha , Jharkhand, W est Bengal\nand Madhya Pradesh have higher proportion of\nagricultural labourers. The highly urbanised\nareas like Delhi, Chandigarh and P uducherry\nhave a very large proportion of workers being\nengaged in other services. This indicates not only\navailability of limited farming land, but also large\nscale urbanisation and industrialisation\nrequiring more workers in non-far m sectors .\nEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISES\n1. Choose the right answers of the followings from the given options.\n(i) India\u2019s population as per 2011 census is :\n(a) 1028 million (c) 3287 million\n(b) 3182 million (d) 1210 million\nPrepare composite bar graphs, one for India and the\nother for your respective states showing the proportion\nof male and female workers in agriculture, household\nindustries and other sectors, and compare.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2306, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4d848efb-aa12-4767-af72-c7a75a7ce5ab": {"__data__": {"id_": "4d848efb-aa12-4767-af72-c7a75a7ce5ab", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "14", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a5cd9d5c-aac7-4831-9df0-23569183dcde", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "14", "file_name": "legy201.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy201.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1988540, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "93c76b2bc3873640460af0a8ef1dd706b7be7b11d0829b3c4757df7ed65e7667", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "14India : People and Economy\n(ii) Which one of the following states has the highest density of population in\nIndia?\n(a) West Bengal (c) Uttar Pradesh\n(b) Kerala (d) Punjab\n(iii) Which one of the following states has the highest proportion of urban\npopulation in India according to 2011 Census?\n(a) Tamil Nadu (c) Kerala\n(b) Maharashtra (d) Goa\n(iv) Which one of the following is the largest linguistic group of India?\n(a) Sino \u2013 T ibetan (c)    Austric\n(b) Indo \u2013 Aryan (d)    Dravidian\n2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.\n(i) Very hot and dry and very cold and wet r egions of India have low density\nof population. In this light, explain the role of climate on the distribution\nof population.\n(ii) Which states have large rural population in India? Give one reason for\nsuch large rural population.\n(iii) Why do some states of India have higher rates of work participation than\nothers?\n(iv) \u2018The agricultural sector has the largest share of Indian workers.\u2019 \u2013 Explain.\n3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.\n(i) Discuss the spatial pattern of density of population in India.\n(ii) Give an account of the occupational structure of India\u2019s population.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1201, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "438a5ccf-aa05-4ccc-822a-558c2664bee3": {"__data__": {"id_": "438a5ccf-aa05-4ccc-822a-558c2664bee3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy202.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy202.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 692257, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "68ce34e2-8350-4c5e-90c3-6dab02b6c556", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy202.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy202.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 692257, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d5d57baf7728ef22734de8fad4a75606b51934e03de82cbec4e97378c71eb836", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Unit II Unit IIUnit II Unit IIUnit II\nChapter 2\nHUMAN\nSETTLEMENTSHuman Settlement means cluster of dwellings\nof any type or size where human beings live.\nFor this purpose, people may erect houses and\nother structures and command some area or\nterritory as their economic support-base. Thus,\nthe process of settlement inherently involves\ngrouping of people and apportioning of territory\nas their resource base.\nSettlements vary in size and type. They\nrange from a hamlet to metropolitan cities. With\nsize, the economic character and social structure\nof settlements changes and so do its ecology and\ntechnology. Settlements could be small and\nsparsely spaced ; they may also be large and\nclosely spaced . The sparsely located small\nsettlements are called villages, specialising in\nagriculture or other primary activities. On the\nother hand, there are fewer but larger settlements\nwhich are termed as urban settlements\nspecialising in secondary and tertiary activities.\nThe basic differences between rural and urban\nsettlements are as follows  :\n\u2022The rural settlements derive their life\nsupport or basic economic needs from\nland based primary economic activities,\nwhereas, urban settlements, depend on\nprocessing of raw materials and\nmanufacturing of finished goods on the\none hand and a variety of services on the\nother.\n\u2022Cities act as nodes of economic growth,\nprovide goods and services not only to\nurban dwellers but also to the people of\nthe rural settlements in their hinterlands\nin return for food and raw materials. This\nfunctional relationship between the urban\nand rural settlements takes place through\ntransport and communication network.\n\u2022Rural and urban settlements differ in\nterms of social relationship, attitude and\noutlook. Rural people are less mobile and\ntherefore, social relations among them are\nintimate. In urban areas, on the other\nhand, way of life is complex and fast, and\nsocial relations are formal.\nTTT\nTTypes of ypes ofypes of ypes ofypes of  R  R R  R Rur urur urural Settlemental Settlemental Settlemental Settlemental Settlement\nTypes of the settlement are determined by the\nextent of the built-up ar ea and inter -house\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2170, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3b820941-d8e7-4610-bdcb-34902de2671b": {"__data__": {"id_": "3b820941-d8e7-4610-bdcb-34902de2671b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy202.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy202.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 692257, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ffa7b51d-b233-411d-8cfa-0a8d17369531", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy202.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy202.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 692257, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "da3a8f4563a818372f8296dd56ce6aec12664e55b13a15993ab076bd36a6582a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "16India : People and Economy\nSemi-Clustered Settlements\nSemi-clustered or fragmented settlements may\nresult from tendency of clustering in a\nrestricted area of dispersed settlement. More\noften such a pattern may also result from\nsegregation or fragmentation of a large compact\nvillage. In this case, one or more sections of\nthe village society choose or is forced to live a\nlittle away from the main cluster or village. In\nsuch cases, generally, the land-owning and\ndominant community occupies the central part\nof the main village, whereas people of lower\nstrata of society and menial workers settle on\nthe outer flanks of the village. Such settlements\nare widespread in the Gujarat plain and some\nparts of Rajasthan.distance. In India compact or clustered village\nof a few hundred houses is a rather universal\nfeature, particularly in the northern plains.\nHowever , there ar e several ar eas, which have\nother forms of rural settlements. There are\nvarious factors and conditions responsible for\nhaving different types of rural settlements in\nIndia. These include: (i) physical features \u2013\nnature of terrain, altitude, climate and\navailability of water (ii) cultural and ethenic\nfactors \u2013 social structure, caste and religion\n(iii) security factors \u2013 defence against thefts and\nrobberies. Rural settlements in India can\nbroadly be put into four types:\n\u2022 Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated,\n\u2022 Semi-clustered or fragmented,\n\u2022 Hamleted, and\n\u2022 Dispersed or isolated.\nClustered Settlements\nThe clustered rural settlement is a compact or\nclosely built up area of houses. In this type of\nvillage the general living area is distinct and\nseparated from the surrounding farms, barns\nand pastures. The closely built-up area and its\nintervening streets present some recognisable\npattern or geometric shape, such as\nrectangular , radial, linear , etc. Such settlements\nare generally found in fertile alluvial plains and\nin the northeastern states. Sometimes, people\nlive in compact village for security or defence\nreasons, such as in the Bundelkhand region of\ncentral India and in Nagaland. In Rajasthan,\nscarcity of water has necessitated compact\nsettlement for maximum utilisation of available\nwater resources.Hamleted Settlements\nSometimes settlement is fragmented into several\nunits physically separated from each other\nbearing a common name. These units are locally\ncalled panna , para, palli, nagla , dhani, etc. in\nvarious parts of the country. This segmentation\nof a large village is often motivated by social\nand ethnic factors. Such villages are more\nfrequently found in the middle and lower Ganga\nplain, Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of the\nHimalayas.\nDispersed Settlements\nDispersed or isolated settlement pattern in India\nappears in the form of isolated huts or hamlets\nof few huts in remote jungles, or on small hillsFig. 2.1 : Clustered Settlements in the North-eastern statesFig. 2.2 : Semi-clustered settlements\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2938, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "70102466-24a9-4a01-ab48-8f015f4884ea": {"__data__": {"id_": "70102466-24a9-4a01-ab48-8f015f4884ea", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy202.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy202.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 692257, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fa229bd5-bc00-42df-bc22-6c8d6430486a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy202.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy202.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 692257, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "564a91b4fd87ca59f2c91feb80c06abe8aa27893063c51d825ecb264c8de0cf3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Human Settlements      17\nAncient Towns\nThere are number of towns in India having\nhistorical background spanning over 2000\nyears. Most of them developed as religious and\ncultural centr es. Varanasi is one of the important\ntowns among these. Prayag (Allahabad),\nPataliputra (Patna), Madurai are some other\nexamples of ancient towns in the country.\nMedieval Towns\nAbout 100 of the existing towns have their roots\nin the medieval period. Most of them developed\nas headquarters of principalities and kingdoms.\nThese are fort towns which came up on the\nruins of ancient towns. Important among them\nare Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur , Lucknow, Agra\nand Nagpur .\nModer n Towns\nThe British and other Europeans have\ndeveloped a number of towns in India.\nStarting their foothold on coastal locations,\nthey first developed some trading ports such\nas Surat, Daman, Goa, Pondicherry, etc. The\nBritish later consolidated their hold around\nthree principal nodes \u2013 Mumbai (Bombay),\nChennai (Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta) \u2013\nand built them in the British style. Rapidlywith farms or pasture on the slopes. Extreme\ndispersion of settlement is often caused by\nextremely fragmented nature of the terrain and\nland resource base of habitable areas. Many\nareas of Meghalaya, Uttarakhand, Himachal\nPradesh and Kerala have this type of settlement.\nUrban SettlementsUrban SettlementsUrban SettlementsUrban SettlementsUrban Settlements\nUnlike rural settlements, urban settlements\nare generally compact and larger in size.\nThey are engaged in a variety of non-\nagricultural, economic and administrative\nfunctions. As mentioned earlier , cities ar e\nfunctionally linked to rural areas around\nthem. Thus, exchange of goods and services\nis performed sometimes directly and\nsometimes through a series of market towns\nand cities. Thus, cities are connected directly\nas well as indirectly with the villages and also\nwith each other . You can see the definition of\ntowns in Chapter 10 of the book,\n\u201cFundamentals of Human Geography.\u201d\nEvolution of Towns in India\nTowns flourished since prehistoric times in\nIndia. Even at the time of Indus valley\ncivilisation, towns like Harappa and\nMohanjodaro were in existence. The following\nperiod has witnessed evolution of towns. It\ncontinued with periodic ups and downs until\nthe arrival of Europeans in India in the\neighteenth century. On the basis of their\nevolution in different periods, Indian towns may\nbe classified as:\n\u2022 Ancient towns, \u2022 Medieval towns, and\n\u2022 Modern towns.extending their domination either directly or\nthrough control over the princely states, they\nestablished their administrative centres, hill-\ntowns as summer resorts, and added new civil,\nFig. 2.3 : Dispersed settlements in Nagaland\nFig. 2.4 : A view of the modern city\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2769, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3f755c99-0ec8-4332-a093-87460fe44a59": {"__data__": {"id_": "3f755c99-0ec8-4332-a093-87460fe44a59", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy202.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy202.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 692257, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "05c2f414-585b-4a30-ae89-2613cfb2d98c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy202.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy202.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 692257, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2026773779b939a874e68f99315317d39c99c3967029eeac818365a52dc52717", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "18India : People and Economy\nYear Number of Urban Population % of Total Decennial\nTowns/UAs (in Thousands) Population Growth (%)\n1901 1,827 25,851.9 10.84 \u2014-\n1911 1,815 25,941.6 10.29 0.35\n1921 1,949 28,086.2 11.18 8.27\n1931 2,072 33,456.0 11.99 19.12\n1941 2,250 44,153.3 13.86 31.97\n1951 2,843 62,443.7 17.29 41.42\n1961 2,365 78,936.6 17.97 26.41\n1971 2,590 1,09,114 19.91 38.23\n1981 3,378 1,59,463 23.34 46.14\n1991 4,689 2,17,611 25.71 36.47\n2001 5,161 2,85,355 27.78 31.13\n2011* 6,171 3,77,000 31.16 31.08Table 2.1 : India \u2013 T rends of Urbanisation 1901-2011\nadministrative and military areas to them.\nTowns based on modern industries also\nevolved after 1850. Jamshedpur can be cited\nas an example.\nAfter ind ependence, a large number of towns\nhave been developed as administrative\nheadquarters, e.g., Chandigar h, Bhubaneswar ,\nGandhinagar , Dispur , etc., and industrial\ncentr es, such as Dur gapur , Bhilai, Sindri,\nBarauni. Some old towns also developed as\nsatellite towns around metropolitan cities, such\nas Ghaziabad, Rohtak, Gurugram around\nDelhi. With increasing investment in rural areas,\na large number of medium and small towns\nhave developed all over the country.\nUrbanisation in IndiaUrbanisation in IndiaUrbanisation in IndiaUrbanisation in IndiaUrbanisation in India\nThe level of urbanisation is measured in\nterms of percentage of urban population to\ntotal population. The level of urbanisation in\nIndia in 20 11 was 31.16  per cent, which is\nquite low in comparison to developed\ncountries. Total urban population has\nincreased eleven -fold during  the twentieth\ncentury. Enlargement of urban centres and\nemergence of new towns have played a\nsignificant role in the growth of urban\npopulation and urbanisation in the country.\n(Table 2.1). But the growth rate of\nurbanisation has slo wed down during last\ntwo decades.*Source: Census of India, 2011 http.//www.censusindia.gov.in (Provisional)\nFunctional Classification of Towns\nApart from their role as central or nodal places,\nmany towns and cities perform specialised\nservices . Some towns and cities specialise in\ncertain functions and they are known for\nsome specific activities, products or services.\nHowever , each town performs a number of\nfunctions. On the basis of dominant or\nspecialised functions, Indian cities and towns\ncan be broadly classified as follows:\nAdministrative towns and cities\nTowns supporting administrative headquarters\nof higher order are administrative towns, such\nas Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong,\nGuwahati, Imphal, Srinagar , Gandhinagar ,\nJaipur , Chennai, etc.\nIndustrial towns\nIndustries constitute prime motive force of these\ncities, such as Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore,\nModinagar , Jamshedpur , Hugli, Bhilai, etc.\nTransport Cities\nThey may be ports primarily engaged in export\nand import activities such as Kandla, Kochchi,\nKozhikode, Vishakhapatnam, etc., or hubs of\ninland transport, such as Agra, Dhulia,\nMughalsarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2973, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c918b79a-8c40-4eff-bbf2-8f19622c200c": {"__data__": {"id_": "c918b79a-8c40-4eff-bbf2-8f19622c200c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy202.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy202.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 692257, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "16cc205a-1bc5-4006-af23-1f79c09d0488", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy202.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy202.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 692257, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8b7f598eb3fc97fbf0563fb04b9b005b89fffb31aa82506da9bf5c9c0c853441", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Human Settlements      19\nCommercial towns\nTowns and cities specialising in trade and\ncommerce are kept in this class. Kolkata,\nSaharanpur , Satna, etc., ar e some examples.\nMining towns\nThese towns have developed in mineral rich\nareas such as Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi,\nAnkaleshwar , Singrauli, etc.\nGarrisson Cantonment towns\nThese towns emerged as garrisson towns such\nas Ambala, Jalandhar , Mhow, Babina,\nUdhampur , etc.\nList the urban agglomerations/cities\nstate-wise and see the state-wise\npopulation under this category of cities.\nSmart Cities MissionSmart Cities MissionSmart Cities MissionSmart Cities MissionSmart Cities Mission\nThe objective of the Smart Cities Mission\nis to promote cities that provide core\ninfrastructure, a clean and sustainable\nenvironment and give a decent quality of\nlife to its citizens. One of the features of\nSmart Cities is to apply smart solutions to\ninfrastructure and services in order to make\nthem better . For example, making areas\nless vulnerable to disasters, using fewer\nresources and providing cheaper services.\nThe focus is on sustainble and inclusive\ndevelopment and the idea is to look at\ncompact areas, create a replicable model,\nwhich will act like a lighthouse to other\naspiring cities.Educational towns\nStarting as centres of education, some of the\ntowns have grown into major campus towns,\nsuch as Roorki, V aranasi, Aligar h, Pilani,\nAllahabad, etc.\nReligious and cultural towns\nVaranasi, Mathura, Amritsar , Madurai, Puri,\nAjmer , Pushkar , Tirupati, Kurukshetra,\nHaridwar , Ujjain came to pr ominence due to\ntheir religious/cultural significance.\nTourist towns\nNainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi,\nJodhpur , Jaisalmer , Udagamandalam (Ooty),\nMount Abu are some of the tourist destinations.\nThe cities are not static in their function. The\nfunctions change due to their dynamic nature.\nEven specialised cities, as they grow into\nmetropolises become multifunctional wherein\nindustry, business, administration, transport,\netc., become important. The functions get so\nintertwined  that the city can not be categorised\nin a particular functional class.\nEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISES\n1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.\n(i) Which one of the following towns is NOT located on a river bank?\n(a) Agra (c) Patna\n(b) Bhopal (d) Kolkata\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2354, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ace8ea8e-b26b-437e-8ff8-8fa34685582a": {"__data__": {"id_": "ace8ea8e-b26b-437e-8ff8-8fa34685582a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy202.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy202.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 692257, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "55eac8b7-d78f-463f-bb49-88ae1a344314", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy202.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy202.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 692257, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2079d7660e3e2cd9778c0838ddeb31150e446776f9f205376e7bf4e5733e040d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "20India : People and Economy\n(ii) Which one of the following is NOT the part of the definition of a town as\nper the census of India?\n(a) Population density of 400 persons per sq km.\n(b) Presence of municipality, corporation, etc.\n(c) More than 75% of the population engaged in primary sector .\n(d) Population size of more than 5,000 persons.\n(iii) In which one of the following environments does one expect the presence\nof dispersed rural settlements?\n(a) Alluvial plains of Ganga\n(b) Arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan\n(c) Lower valleys of Himalayas\n(d) Forests and hills in north-east\n2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.\n(i) What are garrisson towns? What is their function?\n(ii) What are the main factors for the location of villages in desert regions?\n3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.\n(i) Discuss the features of different types of rural settlements. What are the\nfactors responsible for the settlement patterns in different physical\nenvironments?\n(ii) Can one imagine the presence of only one-function town? Why do the\ncities become multi-functional?\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1119, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "108915ae-2aeb-431d-a4e1-4c0216a456a0": {"__data__": {"id_": "108915ae-2aeb-431d-a4e1-4c0216a456a0", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7f7f97ab-6a4c-4a05-a87e-693c767068b2", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0b279febf839c7810d3f858796812f647ae9568329c9b6a54a80845913a91ddb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Unit III Unit IIIUnit III Unit IIIUnit III\nChapter 3\nLAND RESOURCES\nAND AGRICULTUREYou must have observed that the land ar ound\nyou is put to different uses. Some land is\noccupied by rivers, some may have trees and\non some parts roads and buildings have been\nbuilt. Different types of lands are suited to\ndifferent uses. Human beings thus, use land\nas a resource for production as well as residence\nand recreation. Thus, the building of your\nschool, roads on which you travel, parks in\nwhich you play, fields in which crops are grown\nand the pastures where animals graze represent\ndifferent uses to which land is put.\nLand Use CategoriesLand Use CategoriesLand Use CategoriesLand Use CategoriesLand Use Categories\nLand-use records are maintained by land\nrevenue department. The land use categories\nadd up to reporting area, which is somewhat\ndifferent from the geographical area. The\nSurvey of India is responsible for measuring\ngeographical area of administrative units in\nIndia. Have you ever used a map prepared by\nSurvey of India? The difference between the two\nconcepts are that while the former changes\nsomewhat depending on the estimates of the\nland revenue records, the latter does not change\nand stays fixed as per Survey of India\nmeasur ements. Y ou may be familiar with land\nuse categories as they are also included in your\nSocial Science textbook of Class X.\nThe land-use categories as maintained in\nthe Land Revenue Records are as follows :\n(i) Forests \n: It is important to note that\narea under actual forest cover is\ndifferent from area classified as forest.\nThe latter is the area which the\nGovernment has identified and\ndemarcated for forest growth. The land\nrevenue records are consistent with\nthe latter definition. Thus,  there may\nbe an increase in this category without\nany increase in the actual forest cover.\n(ii) Barren and Wastelands :  The land\nwhich may be classified as a wasteland\nsuch as barren hilly terrains, desert\nlands, ravines, etc. normally cannot be\nbrought under cultivation with the\navailable technology .\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2067, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d9766b94-c4b2-4174-bbe8-d8e290cac009": {"__data__": {"id_": "d9766b94-c4b2-4174-bbe8-d8e290cac009", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b0224b36-3886-4815-942d-8e18637e8df4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8c5369fdc6707b755865634d7482c124a32d69018381d53d8d34c21afecfe224", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "22 India : People and Economy\n(iii) Land put to Non-agricultural Uses  :\nLand under settlements (rural and\nurban), infrastructure (roads, canals,\netc.), industries, shops, etc., are\nincluded in this category . An expansion\nin the secondary and tertiary activities\nwould lead to an increase in this\ncategory of land-use.\n(iv) Area under Permanent Pastures and\nGrazing Lands :  Most of this type land\nis owned by the village \u2018 Panchayat \u2019 or\nthe Government. Only a small\nproportion of this land is privately\nowned. The land owned by the village\npanchayat comes under \u2018Common\nProperty Resources\u2019.\n(v) Area under Miscellaneous Tree\nCrops and Groves (Not included in\nNet sown Area) :  The land under\norchards and fruit trees are included\nin this category . Much of this land is\nprivately owned.\n(vi) Culturable W asteland :  Any land which\nis left fallow (uncultivated) for more than\nfive years is included in this category .\nIt can be brought under cultivation after\nimproving it through reclamation\npractices.\n(vii) Current Fallow  : This is the land which\nis left without cultivation for one or less\nthan one agricultural year . Fallowing\nis a cultural practice adopted for giving\nthe land rest. The land recoups the\nlost fertility through natural processes.\n(viii) Fallow other than Current Fallow  :\nThis is also a cultivable land which is\nleft uncultivated for more than a year\nbut less than five years. If the land is\nleft uncultivated for more than five\nyears, it would be categorised as\nculturable wasteland.\n(ix) Net Area Sown:  The physical extent\nof land on which crops are sown and\nharvested is known as net sown area.Land-use Changes in IndiaLand-use Changes in IndiaLand-use Changes in IndiaLand-use Changes in IndiaLand-use Changes in India\nLand-use in a region, to a large extent, is\ninfluenced by the nature of economic\nactivities carried out in that r egion. However ,\nwhile economic activities change over time,\nland, like many other natural resources, is\nfixed in terms of its area. At this stage, one\nneeds to appreciate three types of changes\nthat an economy undergoes, which affect\nland-use.\n(i) The size of the economy  (measured\nin terms of value for all the goods and\nservices produced in the economy)\ngrows over time as a result of\nincreasing population, change in\nincome levels, available technology\nand associated factors. As a result, the\npressure on land will increase with\ntime and marginal lands would come\nunder use.\n(ii) Secondly, the composition of the\neconomy would undergo a change over\ntime. In other words, the secondary and\nthe tertiary sectors usually grow much\nfaster than the primary sector , specifically\nthe agricultural sector . This type of\nchange is common in developing\ncountries , like India. This process would\nresult in a gradual shift of land from\nagricultural uses to non-agricultural\nuses. Y ou would observe that such\nchanges are sharp around large urban\nareas. The agricultural land is being used\nfor building purposes.\n(iii) Thirdly, though the contribution of the\nagricultural activities reduces over time,\nthe pressure on land for agricultural\nactivities does not decline. The reasons\nfor continued pressure on agricultural\nland are:\n(a)In developing countries, the\nshare of population dependent\non agriculture usually declines\nmuch more slowly compared to\nthe decline in the sector\u2019s share\nin GDP .\n(b)The number of people that the\nagricultural sector has to feed is\nincreasing day by day.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3468, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8bf517f9-0980-4d5b-a9fc-f9a3c793ada2": {"__data__": {"id_": "8bf517f9-0980-4d5b-a9fc-f9a3c793ada2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "088fae80-6395-443f-be24-dd9e1dd2dec8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "687dbd708b590dd24be061d0adf2f100be59021e6999c5383ca3223ad009bbd4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Land  Resources and  Agriculture      23\nCompare the changes of land-use between 195 0\u201357\nand 201 4\u201315.\nIndia has undergone major changes within\nthe economy over the past four or five decades,\nand this has influenced the land-use changes\nin the country. These changes between\n1950\u201351 and 201 4\u201315 have been shown in\nFig. 3.1. There are two points that you need to\nremember before you derive some meaning from\nthis figure. Firstly, the percentages shown in\nthe figure have been derived with respect to the\nreporting area. Secondly, since even the\nreporting area has been relatively constant over\nthe years, a decline in one category usually\nleads to an increase in some other category.\nFour categories have undergone increases,\nwhile four have registered declines. Share of\narea under forest, area under non-agricultural\nuses, current fallow lands and net area sown\nhave shown an increase. The following\nobservations can be made about these\nincreases:\n(i)The rate of increase is the highest in case\nof area under non-agricultural uses. This\nis due to the changing structure of\nIndian economy, which is increasingly\ndepending on the contribution fromindustrial and services sectors and\nexpansion of related infrastructural\nfacilities. Also, an expansion of area\nunder both urban and rural settlements\nhas added to the increase. Thus, the area\nunder non-agricultural uses is\nincreasing at the expense of wastelands\nand agricultural land.\n(ii) The increase in the share under forest,\nas explained before, can be accounted\nfor by increase in the demarcated area\nunder forest rather than an actual\nincrease in the forest cover in the country.\n(iii) The increase in the current fallow cannot\nbe explained from information\npertaining to only two points. The trend\nof current fallow fluctuates a great deal\nover years, depending on the variability\nof rainfall and cropping cycles.\n(iv) The increase in net area sown is a recent\nphenomenon due to use of culturable\nwaste land for agricultural pupose.\nBefore which it was registering a slow\ndecrease. There are indications that\nmost of the decline had occurred due to\nthe increases in area under non-\nagricultural use. (Note : the expansion\nof building activity on agricultural land\nin your village and city).Fig. 3.105101520253035404550\n1723.3\n3.28.713.4\n5.5\n2.33.36.9\n1.08\n46.1\n3.6 3.74.941.745.5\n1950-51 2014-15Changes\u25a1in\u25a1Shares\u25a1of\u25a1Land-use\u25a1Categories\u25a1in\u25a1India:\n1950 \u201351\u25a1and\u25a12014\u201315Per\u25a1cent\u25a1of\u25a1reporting\u25a1a rea\nForests Area\u25a1under\nnon-\nagricultural\nuseBarren\u25a1and\nunculturable\nwaste\nlandPermanent\npasture\nand\ngazing\u25a1landArea\u25a1Under\nMisc.\nTree\u25a1crops\nand\u25a1grovesCulturable\nWaste\nLandCurrent\nfalowNet\u25a1Area\nsownFallow\u25a1other\nthan\nCurrent\nfallow\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2697, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "eafc1c3b-71bc-44f0-9d9c-311b700c60e7": {"__data__": {"id_": "eafc1c3b-71bc-44f0-9d9c-311b700c60e7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6a74fa7f-0d5b-4d31-bb3e-30144ba8884e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "76a74be919fb4425fe4dcf8c30276fb71fef65455db2f40a19eb87a21382983d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "24 India : People and Economy\nThe four categories that have registered a\ndecline are barren and wasteland, culturable\nwasteland, area under pastures and tree crops\nand fallow lands.\nThe following explanations can be given\nfor the declining trends:\n(i)As the pressure on land increased, both\nfrom the agricultural and non-\nagricultural sectors, the wastelands and\nculturable wastelands have witnessed\ndecline over time.\n(ii) The decline in land under pastures and\ngrazing lands can be explained by\npressure from agricultural land. Illegal\nencroachment due to expansion of\ncultivation on common pasture lands is\nlargely responsible for this decline.\nWhat is the difference between actual increase and\nrate of increase? Work out the actual increase and\nrate of increases for all the land use categories\nbetween 195 0\u201351 and 201 4\u201315 from the data given in\nthe Appendix  (vi). Explain the results.\nNote for Teacher\nFor calculating actual increase, the difference of the\nland-use categories should be worked out over the two\nperiods.\nFor deriving the rate of increase, simple growth rate i.e.\n(difference of values between the two time points i.e.\nvalue of terminal year minus base year / base year or\n1960-61 value) should be used, e.g.\n100Net sown Area in 2014\u201315  Net sown Area in 1950\u201351\nNet sown Area in 1950\u201351\u0000\u0000\nCommon PrCommon PrCommon PrCommon PrCommon Pr oper operoperoperoper ty R ty Rty R ty Rty R esour esouresour esouresour ces cesces cesces\nLand, according to its ownership can broadly\nbe classified under two broad heads \u2013 private\nland and common property resources (CPRs).\nWhile the former is owned by an individual or a\ngroup of individuals, the latter is owned by the\nstate meant for the use of the community. CPRs\nprovide fodder for the livestock and fuel for the\nhouseholds along with other minor forest\nproducts like fruits, nuts, fibre, medicinal\nplants, etc. In rural areas, such land is ofparticular relevance for the livelihood of the\nlandless and marginal farmers and other\nweaker sections since many of them depend on\nincome from their livestock due to the fact that\nthey have limited access to land. CPRs also are\nimportant for women as most of the fodder and\nfuel collection is done by them in rural areas.\nThey have to devote long hours in collecting fuel\nand fodder from a degraded area of CPR.\nCPRs can be defined as community\u2019s natural\nresource, where every member has the right of\naccess and usage with specified obligations,\nwithout anybody having property rights over\nthem. Community forests, pasture lands, village\nwater bodies and other public spaces where a\ngroup larger than a household or family unit\nexercises rights of use and carries responsibility\nof management are examples of CPRs.\nAgricultural Land Use in IndiaAgricultural Land Use in IndiaAgricultural Land Use in IndiaAgricultural Land Use in IndiaAgricultural Land Use in India\nLand resource is more crucial to the livelihood\nof the people depending on agriculture:\n(i)Agriculture is a purely land based\nactivity unlike secondary and tertiary\nactivities. In other words, contribution\nof land in agricultural output is more\ncompared to its contribution in the\noutputs in the other sectors. Thus, lack\nof access to land is directly correlated\nwith incidence of poverty in rural areas.\n(ii) Quality of land has a direct bearing on\nthe productivity of agriculture, which is\nnot true for other activities.\n(iii) In rural areas, aside from its value as a\nproductive factor , land ownership has a\nsocial value and serves as a security for\ncredit, natural hazards or life\ncontingencies, and also adds to the social\nstatus.\nAn estimation of the total stock of\nagricultural land resources (i.e. total cultivable\nland) can be arrived at by adding up net sown\narea, all fallow lands and culturable wasteland.\nIt may be observed from Table 3.1 that over the\nyears, there has been a marginal decline in the\navailable total stock of cultivable land as a\npercentage to total reporting area. There has been\na greater decline of cultivated land, in spite of a\ncorresponding decline of cultivable wasteland.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 4107, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9e35d0a4-a411-4242-9072-f566ff5d33bb": {"__data__": {"id_": "9e35d0a4-a411-4242-9072-f566ff5d33bb", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5c041d0d-406f-475e-866b-4938a8eb4c00", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "da020d61bf44421c072db369f4b05123ba41ed4b3f37c82858ea7b1fbf0273eb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Land  Resources and  Agriculture      25\nIt is clear from the above discussion that\nthe scope for bringing in additional land under\nnet sown area in India is limited. There is, thus,\nan urgent need to evolve and adopt land-saving\ntechnologies. Such technologies can be classified\nunder two heads \u2013 those which raise the yield\nof any particular crop per unit area of land and\nthose which increase the total output per unit\narea of land from all crops grown over one\nagricultural year by increasing land-use\nintensity. The advantage of the latter kind of\ntechnology is that along with increasing output\nfrom limited land, it also increases the demand\nfor labour significantly. For a land scarce but\nlabour abundant country like India, a high\ncropping intensity is desirable not only for fuller\nutilisation of land resource, but also for\nreducing unemployment in the rural economy.\nThe cropping intensity (CI)  is calculated\nas follows :\n100GCACropping Intensity in percentage\nNSA=\u00d7\nCropping Seasons in India\nThere are three distinct crop\nseasons in the northern and\ninterior parts of country, namely\nkharif , rabi and zaid.  The kharif\nseason largely coincides with\nSouthwest Monsoon under which\nthe cultivation of tropical crops,\nsuch as rice, cotton, jute, jowar ,\nbajra and tur is possible. The rabi\nseason begins with the onset of\nwinter in October -November and\nends in March-April. The low\ntemperature conditions during thisAgricultural Land-use As a percentage of   As a percentage of\nCategories    Reporting Area total cultivable land\n1950-51 2014-15 1950-51\n2014-15\nCulturable W aste land 8.0 4.0 13.4 6.8\nFallow other than Current Fallow 6.1 3.6 10.2 6.2\nCurrent Fallow 3.7 4.9 6.2 8.4\nNet Area Sown 41.7 45.5 70.0 78.4\nTotal Cultivable Land 59.5 58.0 100.00 100.00Table 3.1 : Composition of Total Cultivable Land\nCropping Season Major Crops Cultivated\nNorthern States Southern States\nKharif Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Rice, Maize, Ragi,\nJune-September Maize, Jowar , Tur Jowar , Groundnut\nRabi Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds Rice, Maize, Ragi,\nOctober \u2013 March and Mustard, Barley Groundnut, Jowar\nZaid Vegetables, Fruits, Rice, V egetables,\n    April\u2013June Fodder FodderTable 3.2 : Cropping Seasons in Indiaseason facilitate the cultivation of temperate and\nsubtropical crops such as wheat, gram and\nmustard. Zaid  is a short duration summer\ncropping season beginning after harvesting of\nrabi crops. The cultivation of watermelons,\ncucumbers, vegetables and fodder crops during\nthis season is done on irrigated lands. However ,\nthis type of distinction in the cropping season\ndoes not exist in southern parts of the country.\nHere, the temperature is high enough to grow\ntropical crops during any period in the year\nprovided the soil moisture is available.\nTherefore, in this region same crops can be grown\nthrice in an agricultural year provided there is\nsufficient soil moisture.\nTypes of Farming\nOn the basis of main source of moisture for\ncrops, the farming can be classified as irrigated\nand rainfed (barani ).  There is difference in\nthe nature of irrigated farming , as well as based\non the objective of irrigation, i.e. , protective or\nproductive. The objective of protective irrigation\nis to protect the crops from adverse effects of soil\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3261, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ef16c5bb-2916-4779-a971-aaf91af24f72": {"__data__": {"id_": "ef16c5bb-2916-4779-a971-aaf91af24f72", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4903f15f-a05a-4268-97b1-69684d26cbf3", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5eba3010b3c8e86c9b4b5906aec37d837f74e21fd157db3ae8ce75ab4df62ea1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "26 India : People and Economy\nmoisture deficiency which often means that\nirrigation acts as a supplementary source of water\nover and above the rainfall.  The strategy of this\nkind of irrigation is to provide soil moisture to\nmaximum possible area.  Productive irrigation is\nmeant to provide sufficient soil moisture in the\ncropping season to achieve high productivity.  In\nsuch irrigation the water input per unit area of\ncultivated land is higher than protective irrigation.\nRainfed far ming is further classified on the basis\nof adequacy of soil moisture during cropping\nseason into dryland  and wetland  farming. In\nIndia, the dryland far ming  is lar gely confined\nto the regions having annual rainfall less than 75\ncm.  These regions grow hardy and drought\nresistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong , gram\nand guar (fodder crops) and practise various\nmeasures of soil moisture conservation and rain\nwater harvesting.  In wetland far ming , the\nrainfall is in excess of soil moisture requirement\nof plants during rainy season. Such regions may\nface flood and soil erosion hazards.  These areas\ngrow various water intensive crops such as rice,\njute and sugarcane and practise aquaculture in\nthe fresh water bodies.\nFoodgrains\nThe importance of foodgrains in Indian\nagricultural economy may be gauged from the\nfact these crops occupy about two-third of total\ncropped area in the country. Foodgrains are\ndominant crops in all parts of the country\nwhether they have subsistence or commercial\nagricultural economy. On the basis of the\nstructure of grain the foodgrains are classified\nas cereals and pulses.\nCereals\nThe cereals occupy about 54 per cent of total\ncropped area in India.  The country produces\nabout 11 per cent cereals of the world and ranks\nthird in production after China and U.S.A.  India\nproduces a variety of cereals, which are\nclassified as fine grains (rice, wheat) and coarse\ngrains (jowar , bajra, maize, ragi), etc. Account\nof important cereals has been given in the\nfollowing paragraphs :Rice\nRice is a staple food for the overwhelming\nmajority of population in India. Though, it is\nconsidered to be a crop of tropical humid areas,\nit has about 3,000 varieties which are grown in\ndifferent agro-climatic regions. These are\nsuccessfully grown from sea level to about\n2,000 m altitude and from humid areas in\neastern India to dry but irrigated areas of\nPunjab, Haryana, wester n U.P . and norther n\nRajasthan. In souther n states and W est Bengal\nthe climatic conditions allow the cultivation of\ntwo or thr ee crops of rice in an agricultural year .\nIn West Bengal far mers gr ow thr ee crops of rice\ncalled \u2018 aus\u2019, \u2018aman \u2019 and \u2018 boro\u2019.  But in\nHimalayas and northwestern parts of the\ncountry, it is grown as a kharif  crop during\nsouthwest Monsoon season.\nIndia contributes 2 2.07 per cent of rice\nprodu ction in the world and rank ed second\nafter China  in 2018 .  About one-fourth of the\ntotal cropped area in the country is under rice\ncultivation. W est Bengal, Uttar Pradesh , and\nPunjab  are the leading rice producing st ates\nin the country.  The yield level of rice is high in\nPunjab, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh ,\nTelangana , West Bengal and Kerala.  In the first\nfour of these states almost the entire land under\nrice cultivation is irrigated. Punjab and Haryana\nare not  traditional rice growing areas. Rice\ncultivation in the irrigated areas of Punjab and\nHaryana was introduced in 1970s following the\nGreen Revolution.  Genetically improved v arieties\nof seed, relatively high usage of fertili zers and\npesticides and lower levels of susceptibility of\nthe crop to pests due  to dry climatic conditions\nFig. 3.2 : Rice transplantation in southern parts of India\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3724, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "76dfed4e-a9eb-419b-b7e8-683d858d7569": {"__data__": {"id_": "76dfed4e-a9eb-419b-b7e8-683d858d7569", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "79aa480f-9da1-4018-b2b3-07f1bf6a6805", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e0b79402bdd5d62aad7713e1678313db9e70d2c794ff21faeb042ad617df744c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Land  Resources and  Agriculture      27\nFig. 3.3 :  India \u2013 Distribution of Rice\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 102, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1d90699d-80f7-4fa4-9691-e39f772036aa": {"__data__": {"id_": "1d90699d-80f7-4fa4-9691-e39f772036aa", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1383b467-477a-4475-bfec-f79d69391c7a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "30d1b49fe4591309daca76c7f52ba75f8a92d2c27bb950c5d6f88b2d1c8808c8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "28 India : People and Economy\nare responsible for higher yield of rice in this\nregion.  The yield of this crop is very low in rainfed\nareas of Madhya Pradesh, Chhat tisgarh and\nOdisha .\nWheat\nWheat is the second most important cereal crop\nin India after rice. India produces about\n12.8 per cent of total wheat production of world\n(2017). It is primarily a crop of temperate zone.\nHence, its cultivation in India is done during\nwinter i.e. rabi season. About 85 per cent of total\narea under this crop is concentrated in north\nand central regions of the country i.e. Indo-\nGangetic Plain, Malwa Plateau and Himalayas\nup to 2,700 m altitude. Being a rabi crop, it is\nmostly grown under irrigated conditions.  But it\nis a rainfed crop in Himalayan highlands and\nparts of Malwa plateau in Madhya Pradesh.\nAbout 14 per cent of the total cropped area\nin the country is under wheat cultivation. Uttar\nPradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana\nand Rajasthan are leading wheat producing\nstates.  The yield level of wheat is very high\n(above 4,000 k.g. per ha) in Punjab and\nHaryana whereas, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan\nand Bihar have moderate yields. The states like\nMadhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and\nJammu and Kashmir growing wheat under\nrainfed conditions have low yield.\nJowar\nThe coarse cereals together occupy about\n16.50 per cent of total cropped area in the\ncountry. Among these, jowar  or sorghum  alone\naccounts for about 5.3 per cent of total\ncropped area. It is main food crop in semi-arid\nareas of central and southern India.\nMaharashtra alone produces more than half\nof the total jowar  production of the country.\nOther leading producer states of jowar  are\nKarnataka, Madhya Pradesh , Andhra Pradesh\nand Telangana.  It is sown in both kharif  and\nrabi seasons in southern states. But it is a\nkharif  crop in northern India where it is mostly\ngrown as a fodder crop. South of Vindhyachal\nit is a rainfed crop and its yield level is very\nlow in this region.Bajra\nBajra is sown in hot and dry climatic conditions\nin northwestern and western parts of the\ncountry. It is a hardy crop which resists\nfrequent dry spells and drought in this region.\nIt is cultivated alone as well as part of mixed\ncropping. This coarse cereal occupies about\n5.2 per cent of total cropped area in the\ncountry.  Leading producers of bajra  are the\nstates of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh,\nRajasthan and Haryana. Being a rainfed crop,\nthe yield level of this crop is low in Rajasthan\nand fluctuates a lot fr om year to year .  Yield of\nthis crop has increased during recent years in\nHaryana and Gujarat due to introduction of\ndrought resistant varieties and expansion of\nirrigation under it.\nMaize\nMaize is a food as well as fodder crop grown\nunder semi-arid climatic conditions and over\ninferior soils.  This crop occupies only about\n3.6 per cent of total cropped area. Maize\ncultivation is not concentrated in any specific\nregion. It is sown all over India except Punjab\nand eastern and north-eastern regions. The\nleading producers of maize are the states of\nKarnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar , Andhra\nPradesh, Telangana, Rajasthan and Uttar\nPradesh.  Y ield level of maize is higher than other\ncoarse cereals.  It is high in southern states and\ndeclines towards central parts.\nPulses\nPulses are a very important ingredient of\nvegetarian food as these are rich sources of\nproteins. These are legume crops which\nincrease the natural fertility of soils through\nnitrogen fixation. India is a leading producer of\npulses in the world. The cultivation of pulses\nin the country is largely concentrated in the\ndrylands of Deccan and central plateaus and\nnorthwestern parts of the country. Pulses\noccupy about 11 per cent of the total cropped\narea in the country. Being the rainfed crops of\ndrylands, the yields of pulses are low and\nfluctuate fr om year to year . Gram and tur are\nthe main pulses cultivated in India.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3912, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ad2aaa96-5ac5-4a1a-83de-5baf08b77767": {"__data__": {"id_": "ad2aaa96-5ac5-4a1a-83de-5baf08b77767", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b19fc154-ceca-4b76-9ef3-d8d58c14b9a7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5e096065e0d43fad28230d1607e1ec81ca5aeb825e1e2d441429545576bf9a10", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Land  Resources and  Agriculture      29\nFig. 3.4 : India \u2013 Distribution of Wheat\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 102, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0d551e95-0a6d-40e9-8527-f79d219d2b15": {"__data__": {"id_": "0d551e95-0a6d-40e9-8527-f79d219d2b15", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "10", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "aea45e9e-232c-4065-b432-7fe580f41a45", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "10", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2efc53f565fd0570db00f47bbfae0e53c84e57cd2d1885366ec35547faacb0fc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "30 India : People and Economy\nGram\nGram is cultivated in subtropical areas. It is\nmostly a rainfed crop cultivated during rabi\nseason in central, western and northwestern parts\nof the country. Just one or two light showers or\nirrigations are required to grow this crop\nsuccessfully. It has been displaced from the\ncropping pattern by wheat in Haryana, Punjab\nand northern Rajasthan following the green\nrevolution. At present, gram covers only about\n2.8 per cent of the total cropped area in the\ncountry. Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,\nMaharashtra, Andhra Pradesh , Telangana  and\nRajasthan are the main producers of this pulse\ncrop. The yield of this crop continues to be low\nand fluctuates from year to year even in irrigated\nareas.\nTur (Arhar)\nTur is the second important pulse crop in the\ncountry. It is also known as red gram  or pigeon\npea. It is cultivated over marginal lands and\nunder rainfed conditions in the dry areas of\ncentral and southern states of the country.  This\ncrop occupies only about 2 per cent of total\ncropped area of India. Maharashtra alone\ncontributes about one-third of the total\nproduction of tur . Other leading pr oducer states\nare Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat and\nMadhya Pradesh. Per hectare output of this crop\nis very low and its performance is inconsistent.\nDifferentiate between different foodgrains. Mix grains of\nvarious kinds and separate cereals from pulses. Also,\nseparate fine from coarse cereals.\nOilseeds\nThe oilseeds are produced for extracting edible\noils. Drylands of Malwa plateau, Marathwada,\nGujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana, Rayalseema\nregion of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka\nplateau are oilseeds growing regions of India.\nThese crops together occupy about 14 per cent\nof total cropped area in the country.\nGroundnut, rapeseed and mustard, soyabean\nand sunflower are the main oilseed crops grown\nin India.Groundnut\nIndia produces about 18.8 per cent of the total\ngroundnut production in the world (2018). It is\nlargely a rainfed kharif  crop of drylands. But in\nsouthern India, it is cultivated during rabi season\nas well. It covers about 3.6 per cent of total\ncropped area in the country. Gujarat, Rajasthan,\nTamil Nadu, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,\nKarnataka and Maharashtra are the leading\nproducers. Y ield of gr oundnut is comparatively\nhigh in Tamil Nadu where it is partly irrigated.\nBut its yield is low in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh\nand Karnataka.\nRapeseed and Mustard\nRapeseed and mustard comprise several oilseeds\nas rai, sarson, toria  and taramira .  These are\nsubtropical crops cultivated during rabi season\nin north -western and central parts of India.\nThese are frost sensitive crops and their yields\nfluctuate fr om year to year .  But with the\nexpansion of irrigation and improvement in seed\ntechnology, their yields have improved and\nstabilised to some extent. About two-third of the\ncultivated area under these crops is irrigated.\nThese oilseeds together occupy only about\n2.5 per cent of total cropped area in the country.\nRajasthan contributes about one-third\nproduction while other leading producers are\nHaryana and Madhya Pradesh.  Y ields of these\ncrops are comparatively high in Haryana and\nRajasthan.\nOther Oilseeds\nSoyabean and sunflower are other important\noilseeds grown in India. Soyabean is mostly\ngrown in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.\nFig. 3.5 : Farmers sowing soyabean seeds in Amravati,\nMaharashtra\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3407, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "77deae15-6cd0-4f39-b814-61b401739a3b": {"__data__": {"id_": "77deae15-6cd0-4f39-b814-61b401739a3b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "11", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "42744511-5272-4918-b87e-e9ee5e24c811", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "11", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2150dae13b49da7ef7158256a1a498390b715aa217c0bd5a5c2e7d861f70c328", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Land  Resources and  Agriculture      31\nFig. 3.6 : India \u2013 Distribution of Cotton and Jute\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 112, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f66b33c5-874c-4714-8901-bb967ee05327": {"__data__": {"id_": "f66b33c5-874c-4714-8901-bb967ee05327", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "12", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1fbd33dc-2b12-4658-b13b-06422aca3958", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "12", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7809704efa853c102b7e1e2ce4da1f9fe7946ceff879d75d4fdf58ba9e1db112", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "32 India : People and Economy\nThese two states together produce about 90 per\ncent of total output of soyabean in the country.\nSunflower cultivation is concentrated in\nKarnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and\nadjoining areas of Maharashtra. It is a minor\ncrop in northern parts of the country where its\nyield is high due to irrigation.\nFibre Crops\nThese crops provide us fibre for preparing cloth,\nbags, sacks and a number of other items.\nCotton and jute are two main fibre crops grown\nin India.\nCotton\nCotton is a tropical crop grown in kharif  season\nin semi-arid areas of the country.  India lost a\nlarge proportion of cotton growing area to\nPakistan during partition.  However , its acr eage\nhas increased considerably during the last 50\nyears.  India grows both short staple (Indian)\ncotton as well as long staple (American) cotton\ncalled \u2018nar ma\u2019 in north-wester n parts of the\ncountry. Cotton requires clear sky during\nflowering stage.Gujarat, Maharashtra and Telangana Per\nhectare output of cotton is high under irrigated\nconditions in north-western region of the\ncountry.  Its yield is very low in Maharashtra\nwhere it is grown under rainfed conditions.\nJute\nJute is used for making coarse cloth, bags, sacks\nand decorative items.  It is a cash cr op in W est\nBengal and adjoining eastern parts of the\ncountry.  India lost large jute growing areas to\nEast Pakistan (Bangladesh) during partition. At\npresent, India produces about three-fifth of jute\nproduction of the world. W est Bengal accounts\nfor about three-fourth of the production in the\ncountry.  Bihar and Assam are other jute growing\nareas. Being concentrated only in a few states,\nthis crop accounts for only about 0.5 per cent of\ntotal cropped area in the country.\nOther Crops\nSugarcane, tea and coffee are other important\ncrops grown in India.\nSugarcane\nSugarcane is a crop of tropical areas.  Under\nrainfed conditions, it is cultivated in sub-humid\nand humid climates. But it is largely an irrigated\ncrop in India. In Indo-Gangetic plain, its\ncultivation is largely concentrated in Uttar\nPradesh. Sugarcane growing area in western\nIndia is spread over Maharashtra and Gujarat.\nIndia ranks second in the world in the\nproduction of cotton after China. Cotton\noccupies about 4.7 per cent of total cropped\narea in the country. There are three cotton\ngrowing areas, i.e. parts of Punjab, Haryana and\nnorthern Rajasthan in north-west, Gujarat and\nMaharashtra in the west and plateaus of\nAndhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu\nin south. Leading producers of this crop areFig. 3.7 : Cotton Cultivation\nFig. 3.8 : Sugarcane Cultivation\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2620, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4753a9e9-66bd-4f23-9b1f-2489efff69b1": {"__data__": {"id_": "4753a9e9-66bd-4f23-9b1f-2489efff69b1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "13", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "223a92bb-bd89-48ab-ab05-4ba8d23cc119", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "13", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e210126283e7385c35bdbf7c520edb634ee9a9aafc306a3e458ad18171de1859", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Land  Resources and  Agriculture      33\nFig. 3.9 : India \u2013 Distribution of Sugarcane\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 106, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6758e15d-2419-4061-ba12-e8bc0be7cd8f": {"__data__": {"id_": "6758e15d-2419-4061-ba12-e8bc0be7cd8f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "14", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "804aa633-2d75-4465-aaef-6c9559fdecb8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "14", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4bfd151e4e8a5c8cc3e0d99cebc91678b02f4b58cfdc704f82d6a13dc062d35e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "34 India : People and Economy\nIn southern India, it is cultivated in irrigated\ntracts of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Telangana\nand Andhra Pradesh.\nIndia was the second largest producer of\nsugarcane after Brazil in 2018. It accounts for\nabout 19.7 per cent of the world production of\nsugarcane.  But it occupies only 2.4 per cent of\ntotal cropped area in the country. Uttar Pradesh\nproduces about two-fifth of sugarcane of\nthe country.  Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil\nNadu, and Andhra Pradesh are other leading\nproducers of this crop where yield level of\nsugarcane is high. Its yield is low in northern\nIndia.\nTea\nTea is a plantation crop used as beverage. Black\ntea leaves are fermented whereas green tea leaves\nare unfermented. Tea leaves have rich content of\ncaffeine and tannin. It is an indigenous crop of\nhills in northern China. It is grown over\nundulating topography of hilly areas and well -\ndrained soils in humid and sub -humid tropics\nand sub -tropics. In India , tea plantation started\nin 1840s in Brahmaputra valley of Assam which\nstill is a major tea growing area in the country.\nLater on , its plantation was introduced in the\nsub-Himalayan r egion of W est Bengal (Darj eeling,\nJalpaiguri and Cooch B ehar districts).  Tea is\nalso cultivated on the lower slopes of Nilgiri andworld after China  (2018) . Assam accounts for\nabout 53.2 per cent of the total cropped area and\ncontributes more than half of total production of\ntea in the country. W est Bengal and T amil Nadu\nare the other leading producers of tea.\nCoffee\nCoffee is a tropical plantation crop. Its seeds\nare roasted, ground and are used for preparing\na beverage. There are three varieties of coffee\ni.e. arabica , robusta  and liberica . India mostly\ngrows superior quality coffee, arabica , which\nis in great demand in International market. But\nIndia produces only about 3. 17 per cent coffee\nof the world and ranks eighth after Brazil,\nVietnam, Indonesia , Colombia, Honduras,\nEthiopia and Peru in 201 8. Coffee is cultivated\nin the highlands of W ester n Ghats in\nKarnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Karnataka\nalone accounts for more than two-third of total\nproduction of coffee in the country.\nAgricultural Development in IndiaAgricultural Development in IndiaAgricultural Development in IndiaAgricultural Development in IndiaAgricultural Development in India\nIndian agricultural\n economy was largely\nsubsistence in nature before Independence.  It\nhad dismal performance in the first half of\ntwentieth century. This period witnessed severe\ndroughts and famines.  During partition about\none-third of the irrigated land in undivided\nIndia went to Pakistan. This reduced the\nproportion of irrigated area in Independent\nIndia. After Independence, the immediate goal\nof the Government was to increase foodgrains\nproduction by (i) switching over from cash\ncrops to food crops; (ii) intensification of\ncropping over already cultivated land; and (iii)\nincreasing cultivated area by bringing cultivable\nand fallow land under plough. Initially, this\nstrategy helped in increasing foodgrains\nproduction. But agricultural production\nstagnated during late \u20131950s. To overcome this\nproblem, Intensive Agricultural District\nProgramme (IADP) and Intensive Agricultural\nArea Programme (IAAP) were launched. But two\nconsecutive droughts during mid-1960s\nresulted in food crisis in the country.\nConsequently, foodgrains were imported from\nother countries.Fig. 3.10 : Tea Farming\nCardamom hills in W estern Ghats. India is a\nleading producer of tea and accounts for about\n21.22 per cent of total production in the world\n2018 . India\u2019s share in the international market\nof tea has declined substantially. It ranks\nsecond  among tea exporting countries in th e\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3734, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c9498647-e493-4a94-9905-0f03b65091c4": {"__data__": {"id_": "c9498647-e493-4a94-9905-0f03b65091c4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "15", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9831a84f-7b96-4055-ab5d-6c5d60c50b15", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "15", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6569862ef043402465b99fa7b72b256063713d211fd4323842daec7aacb944df", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Land  Resources and  Agriculture      35\nFig. 3.11 : India \u2013 Distribution of Tea and Coffee\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 112, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "56dfd420-f73e-4fb5-877b-255848bbef71": {"__data__": {"id_": "56dfd420-f73e-4fb5-877b-255848bbef71", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "16", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e4ab444b-fb50-4450-afda-e5d1d52eb5fe", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "16", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7e0ce327aa86cafb3296f2838c22dc932f42e553b64189e180ec2f7bc196b1ac", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "36 India : People and Economy\nNew seed varieties of wheat (Mexico) and\nrice (Philippines) known as high yielding\nvarieties (HYVs) were available for cultivation\nby mid-1960s. India took advantage of this and\nintroduced package technology comprising\nHYVs, along with chemical fertilisers in irrigated\nareas of Punjab, Haryana, W ester n Uttar\nPradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat. Assured\nsupply of soil moisture through irrigation was\na basic pre-requisite for the success of this new\nagricultural technology. This strategy of\nagricultural development paid dividends\ninstantly and increased the foodgrains\nproduction at very fast rate. This spurt of\nagricultural growth came to be known as\n\u2018Green Revolution \u2019. This also gave fillip to the\ndevelopment of a large number of agro-inputs,\nagro-processing industries and small-scale\nindustries. This strategy of agricultural\ndevelopment made the country self-reliant in\nfoodgrain production. But Green Revolution\nwas initially confined to irrigated areas only.\nThis led to regional disparities in agricultural\ndevelopment in the country till 1970s, after\nwhich the technology spread to the Eastern and\nCentral parts of the country.\nThe Planning Commission of India focused\nits attention on the problems of agriculture in\nrainfed areas in 1980s. It initiated agro-climatic\nplanning in 1988 to induce regionally balanced\nagricultural development in the country. It also\nemphasised on the need for diversification of\nagriculture and harnessing of resources for the\ndevelopment of dairy farming, poultry,\nhorticulture, livestock rearing and aquaculture.\nInitiation of the policy of liberalisation and\nfree market economy in 1990s influenced the\ncourse of development of Indian agriculture.Growth of Agricultural Output and Technology\nThere has been a significant increase in\nagricultural output and improvement in\ntechnology during the last 50 years.\n\u2022Production and yield of many crops such\nas rice and wheat has increased at an\nimpressive rate. Among the other crops,\nthe production of sugarcane, oilseeds and\ncotton has also increased appreciably.\n\u2022Expansion of irrigation has played a\ncrucial role in enhancing agricultural\noutput in the country. It provided basis\nfor introduction of modern agricultural\ntechnology, such as high yielding varieties\nof seeds, chemical fertilisers, pesticides and\nfarm machinery. The net irrigated area in\nthe country has also increased.\n\u2022Modern agricultural technology has\ndiffused very fast in various areas of the\ncountry. Consumption of chemical\nfertilizers has increased by 15 times since\nmid-sixties. Since the high yielding\nvarieties are highly susceptible to pests\nand diseases, the use of pesticides has\nincreased significantly since 1960s.\nNational Mission for Sustainable Agriculture\n(NMSA)\nNational Mission for Sustainable Agriculture is to\nmake agriculture more productive, sustainable,\nremunerative and climate resilient by promoting\nlocation specific integrated/composite farming\nsystems and to conserve natural resources through\nappropriate soil and moisture conservation\nmeasures. The Government has been promoting\norganic farming in the country through the scheme\nsuch as Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY)\nand Rashtriya Vikas Yojana (RKVY).Farmer\u2019s Portal of India\nThe Farmer\u2019s Portal is a platform for farmers to seek\nany information related to agriculture. Detailed\ninformation on farmers\u2019 insurance, agriculture\nstorage, crops, extension activities, seeds,\npesticides, farm machineries, etc. is provided.\nDetails of fertilizers, market prices, package and\npractices, programmes, welfare schemes are also\ngiven. Block level details related to soil fertility,\nstorage, insurance, training, etc. are available in an\ninteractive map. Users can also download farm\nfriendly handbook, scheme guidelines, etc.\n(Source: https://www.india.gov.in/farmers-portal-\nindia-department-agriculture-and-cooperation)\nPr PrPr PrProboboboboblems lems lems lems lems of ofof ofof Indian Ag Indian Ag Indian Ag Indian Ag Indian Ag ricultur riculturricultur riculturricultur e ee ee\nThe nature of problems faced by Indian\nagriculture varies according to agro-ecological\nand historical experiences of its different regions.\nHence, most of the agricultural problems in the\ncountry are region specific. Yet, there are some\nproblems which are common and range from\nphysical constraints to institutional hindrances.\nA detailed discussion on these problems follows:\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 4460, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a61f1e81-e7fe-4afe-b751-4739433f1305": {"__data__": {"id_": "a61f1e81-e7fe-4afe-b751-4739433f1305", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "17", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "db2307e7-3c80-4629-a3eb-dcde3d5b51a6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "17", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "44ef8d1c8acedcf69876abc55a4544c7dc2665695274b04114609efc18936ff7", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Land  Resources and  Agriculture      37\nDependence on Erratic Monsoon\nIrrigation covers only about 33 per cent of the\ncultivated area in India. The crop production\nin rest of the cultivated land directly depends\non rain. Poor performance of south-west\nmonsoon also adversely affects the supply of\ncanal water for irrigation. On the other hand,\nthe rainfall in Rajasthan and other drought-\nprone areas is too meagre and highly unreliable.\nEven the areas receiving high annual rainfall\nexperience considerable fluctuations. This\nmakes them vulnerable to both droughts and\nfloods. Drought is a common phenomenon in\nthe low rainfall areas, which may also experience\noccasional floods. The flash floods in drylands\nof Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan in\n2006 and 2017 are examples of this\nphenomenon. Droughts and floods continue to\nbe the twin menace in Indian agriculture.\nLow productivity\nThe yield of the crops in the country is low in\ncomparison to the international level. Per\nhectare output of most of the crops such as\nrice, wheat, cotton and oilseeds in India is\nmuch lower than th at of the U.S.A., Russia and\nJapan. Because of the very high pressure on\nthe land resources, the labour productivity in\nIndian agriculture is also very low in\ncomparison to international level. The vast\nrainfed areas of the country, particularly\ndrylands which mostly grow coarse cereals,\npulses and oilseeds have low yields.Why is agricultural productivity low in\ndry regions?\nConstraints of Financial Resources and\nIndebtedness\nThe inputs of modern agriculture are very\nexpensive. This resource intensive approach has\nbecome unmanageable for marginal and small\nfarmers as they have very meagr e or no saving\nto invest in agriculture. To tide over these\ndifficulties, most of such farmers have resorted\nto availing credit from various institutions and\nmoneylenders. Crop failures and low returns\nfrom agriculture have forced them to fall in the\ntrap of indebtedness.\nWhat are the implications of severe\nindebtedness? Do you feel that the\nrecent incidents of farmers\u2019 suicides in\ndifferent states of the country are the\nresult of indebtedness?\nLack of Land Reforms\nIndian peasantry had been exploited for a long\ntime as there had been unequal distribution of\nland. Among the three revenue systems\noperational during British period, i.e.,\nMahalwari, Ryotwari and Zamindari, the last\none was most exploitative for the peasants. After\nIndependence, land reforms were accorded\npriority, but these reforms were not\nimplemented effectively due to lack of strong\npolitical will. Most of the state governments\navoided taking politically tough decisions\nwhich went against strong political lobbies of\nlandlords. Lack of implementation of land\nreforms has resulted in continuation of\ninequitous distribution of cultivable land which\nis detrimental to agricultural development.\nSmall Farm Siz e and Fragmentation of\nLandholdings\nThere are a large number of marginal and small\nfarmers in the country.  The average size of land\nholding is shrinking under increasing\nFig. 3.12 : Roto Till Drill\u2014A modern agricultural equipment\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3122, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fb0db6f6-49dd-49cd-9caf-40e1526e4476": {"__data__": {"id_": "fb0db6f6-49dd-49cd-9caf-40e1526e4476", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "18", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a51168e8-674c-41a4-944b-e3ae3af1b50d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "18", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f914769f43298de0e9292151acfbb598a3b152d6667bd6f7889b9a0db8f745e1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "38 India : People and Economy\npopulation pressure. Furthermore, in India, the\nland holdings are mostly fragmented. There are\nsome states where consolidation of holding has\nnot been carried out even once. Even the states\nwhere it has been carried out once, second\nconsolidation is required as land holdings have\nfragmented again in the process of division of\nland among the owners of next generations. The\nsmall size fragmented landholdings are\nuneconomic.\nLack of Commercialisation\nA large number of farmers produce crops for\nself-consumption. These farmers do not have\nenough land resources to produce more than\ntheir requirement. Most of the small andmarginal farmers grow foodgrains, which are\nmeant for their own family consumption.\nModernisation and commercialisation of\nagriculture have, however, taken place in the\nirrigated areas .\nVast Underemployment\nThere is a massive underemployment in the\nagricultural sector in India, particularly in the\nunirrigated tracts. In these areas, there is a\nseasonal unemployment ranging from 4 to 8\nmonths. Even in the cropping season, work is\nnot available throughout as agricultural\noperations are not labour intensive. Hence, the\npeople engaged in agriculture do not have the\nopportunity to work round the year.\nWhat changes have you noticed in\nagricultural sector and cropping\npattern? Discuss in the class.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1375, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "63aaa4bc-f5d2-45ff-9a44-a68955670470": {"__data__": {"id_": "63aaa4bc-f5d2-45ff-9a44-a68955670470", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "19", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "099ea0c4-5ed2-44db-9eeb-1c26512d90b1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "19", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "eade5b72bc9de718dd0d718355ec3e6da8a5ca1b7d74cecf62ab9f0633f1398e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Land  Resources and  Agriculture      39\nEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISES\n1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.\n(i) Which one of the following is NOT a land-use category?\n(a) Fallow land (c) Net Area Sown\n(b) Marginal land (d) Culturable Wasteland\n(ii) What one of the following is the main reason due to which share of forest\nhas shown an increase in the last forty years?\n(a) Extensive and efficient efforts of afforestation\n(b) Increase in community forest land\n(c) Increase in notified area allocated for forest growth\n(d) Better peoples\u2019 participation in managing forest area.\n(iii) Which one of the following is the main form of degradation in irrigated\nareas?\n(a) Gully erosion (c) Salinisation of soils\n(b) Wind erosion (d) Siltation of land\n(iv) Which one of the following crops is not cultivated under dryland farming?\n(a) Ragi (c)   Groundnut\n(b) Jowar (d)   Sugarcane\n(v) In which of the following group of countries of the world, HYVs of wheat\nand rice were developed?\n(a) Japan and Australia (c)   Mexico and Philippines\n(b) U.S.A. and Japan (d)   Mexico and Singapore\nDegradation of Cultivable Land\nOne of the serious problems that arises out of\nfaulty strategy of irrigation and agricultural\ndevelopment is degradation of land resources.\nThis is serious because it may lead to depletion\nof soil fertility. The situation is particularly\nalarming in irrigated areas. A large tract of\nagricultural land has lost its fertility due to\nalkalisation and salinisation of soils and\nwaterlogging. Excessive use of chemicals such\nas insecticides and pesticides has led to their\nconcentration in toxic amounts in the soil\nprofile. Leguminous crops have been displaced\nfrom the cropping pattern in the irrigated areasand duration of fallow has substantially\nreduced owing to multiple cropping. This has\nobliterated the process of natural fertili zation\nsuch as nitrogen fixation. Rainfed areas in\nhumid and semi-arid tropics also experience\ndegradation of several types like soil erosion\nby water and wind erosion which are often\ninduced by human activities.\nPrepare a list of agricultural problems in your own\nregion. How similar or different are these problems\ncompared to the problems mentioned in this chapter?\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2282, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f4b00ef0-d64d-4035-abb2-409ce7be1f36": {"__data__": {"id_": "f4b00ef0-d64d-4035-abb2-409ce7be1f36", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "20", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c03c5936-bac3-4602-97bc-73534c81caae", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "20", "file_name": "legy203.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy203.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2758612, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "553ae7bd77e443003c9ef57c4e4551854eaed9ae28bcf4e18b77a87727f88d41", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "40 India : People and Economy\n2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.\n(i) Differentiate between barren and wasteland and culturable wasteland.\n(ii) How would you distinguish between net sown area and gross cropped\narea?\n(iii) Why is the strategy of increasing cropping intensity important in a\ncountry like India?\n(iv) How do you measure total cultivable land?\n(v) What is the difference between dryland and wetland farming?\n3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.\n(i) What are the different types of environmental problems of land resources\nin India?\n(ii) What are the important strategies for agricultural development followed\nin the post-independence period in India?\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 718, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e9f539a6-2218-4f02-b8b2-65a76cf1d54a": {"__data__": {"id_": "e9f539a6-2218-4f02-b8b2-65a76cf1d54a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "14d17b11-4f46-4841-aac5-32b069dc212f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0a6d4ae06079e44e0ab1cd086c0be9b5049b72ea01c73ddbd1f90cbc229fce12", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Unit III Unit IIIUnit III Unit IIIUnit III\nChapter 4\nWATER RESOURCESDo you think that what exists today will\ncontinue to be so, or the future is going to be\ndifferent in some respects? It can be said with\nsome certainty that the societies will witness\ndemographic transition, geographical shift of\npopulation, technological advancement,\ndegradation of environment and water scarcity.\nWater scar city is possibly to pose the greatest\nchallenge on account of its increased demand\ncoupled with shrinking supplies due to over\nutilisation and pollution. W ater is a cyclic\nresource with abundant supplies on the globe.\nApproximately, 71 per cent of the earth\u2019s\nsurface is covered with it but freshwater\nconstitutes only about 3 per cent of the total\nwater .  In fact, a very small pr oportion of\nfreshwater is effectively available for human use.\nThe availability of freshwater varies over space\nand time. The tensions and disputes on sharing\nand control of this scarce resource are becoming\ncontested issues among communities, regions,\nand states. The assessment, efficient use and\nconservation of water , ther efore, become\nnecessary to ensure development. In this\nchapter , we shall discuss water r esour\nces in\nIndia, its geographical distribution, sectoral\nutilisation, and methods of its conservation and\nmanagement.\nWater Resources of IndiaWater Resources of IndiaWater Resources of IndiaWater Resources of IndiaWater Resources of India\nIndia accounts for about 2.45 per cent of the\nworld\u2019s surface area, 4 per cent of the world\u2019s\nwater resources and about 16 per cent of the\nworld\u2019s population. The total water available\nfrom precipitation in the country in a year is\nabout 4,000 cubic km. The availability from\nsurface water and replenishable groundwater\nis 1,869 cubic km. Out of this, only 60 per cent\ncan be put to beneficial uses. Thus, the total\nutilisable water resource in the country is only\n1,122 cubic km.\nSurface W ater Resour ces\nThere are four major sour ces of sur face water .\nThese are rivers, lakes, ponds and tanks. In\nthe country, there are about 10,360 rivers\nand their tributaries longer than 1.6 km each.\nThe mean annual flow in all the river basins\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2196, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "48cd9e64-2574-4131-afdf-3c6ce1df0b02": {"__data__": {"id_": "48cd9e64-2574-4131-afdf-3c6ce1df0b02", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5de94d29-32e0-4c98-b6a6-a5349d7f69e2", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a6002ab22676ace4b6009959f9f1dc0a335f9d8717f70d1f3ce2d23214cbdd36", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "42 India : People and Economy\nof lagoons and lakes have formed. The States\nlike Kerala, Odisha and W est Bengal have vast\nsurface water resources in these lagoons and\nlakes.  Although, water is generally brackish\nin these water bodies, it is used for fishing and\nirrigating certain varieties of paddy crops,\ncoconut, etc.\nWater Demand and Utilisation\nIndia has traditionally been an agrarian\neconomy, and about two-third of its\npopulation have been dependent on\nagriculture. Hence, development of irrigation\nto increase agricultural production has been\nassigned a very high priority in the Five Y ear\nPlans, and multipurpose river valleys projects ,\nlike the Bhakra-Nangal, Hirakud, Damodar\nValley, Nagarjuna  Sagar, Indira Gandhi Canal\nProject, etc. , have been taken up. In fact,\nIndia\u2019s water demand at present is dominated\nby irrigational needs.\nAgriculture accounts for most of the\nsurface and groundwater utilisation, it\naccounts for 89 per cent of the surface water\nand 92 per cent of the groundwater utilisation.\nWhile the share of industrial sector is limited\nto 2 per cent of the surface water utilisation\nand 5 per cent of the ground-water , the shar e\nof domestic sector is higher (9 per cent) in\nsurface water utilisation as compared to\ngroundwater . The shar e of agricultural sector\nin total water utilisation is much higher than\nother sectors. However , in futur e, with\ndevelopment, the shares of industrial and\ndomestic sectors in the country are likely to\nincrease.\nDemand of W ater for Irrigation\nIn agriculture, water is mainly used for\nirrigation. Irrigation is needed because of\nspatio-temporal variability in rainfall in the\ncountry. The large tracts of the country are\ndeficient in rainfall and are drought prone.\nNorth-western India and Deccan plateau\nconstitute such areas. Winter and summer\nseasons are more or less dry in most part\nof the country. Hence, it is difficult to\npractise agriculture without assuredin India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km.\nHowever , due to topographical, hydr ological\nand other constraints, only about 690 cubic\nkm (32 per cent) of the available surface water\ncan be utilised. W ater flow in a river depends\non size of its catchment area or river basin\nand rainfall within its catchment ar ea. You\nhave studied in your Class XI textbook \u201cIndia :\nPhysical Environment\u201d  that precipitation in\nIndia has very high spatial variation, and it is\nmainly concentrated in Monsoon season. Y ou\nalso have studied in the textbook that some\nof the rivers in the country like the Ganga,\nthe Brahmaputra, and the Indus have huge\ncatchment areas. Given that precipitation is\nrelatively high in the catchment areas of the\nGanga, the Brahmaputra and the Barak\nrivers, these rivers, although account for only\nabout one-third of the total area in the\ncountry, have 60 per cent of the total surface\nwater resources. Much of the annual water\nflow in south Indian rivers like the Godavari,\nthe Krishna, and the Kaveri has been\nharnessed, but it is yet to be done in the\nBrahmaputra and the Ganga basins.\nGroundwater Resources\nThe total replenishable groundwater\nresources in the country are about 432 cubic\nkm. The level of groundwater utilisation is\nrelatively high in the river basins lying in\nnorth-western region and parts of south India.\nThe groundwater utilisation is very high\nin the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,\nand T amil Nadu. However , ther e are States like\nChhattisgarh, O disha , Kerala, etc., which utilise\nonly a small proportion of their groundwater\npotentials. States like Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh,\nBihar , Tripura and Maharashtra ar e utilising\ntheir groundwater  resources at a moderate rate.\nIf the present trend continues, the demands\nfor water would need the supplies. And such\nsituation, will be detrimental to  development,\nand can cause social upheaval and\ndisruptions.\nLagoons and Backwaters\nIndia has a vast coastline and the coast is very\nindented in some states. Due to this, a number\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3980, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "abf82b0a-3eab-451b-b077-9d72c5c8ed27": {"__data__": {"id_": "abf82b0a-3eab-451b-b077-9d72c5c8ed27", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a2c62761-d231-491f-a4f2-0179e83a3ce9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0251f7452cb33456e047ab2e78b52976dda3c57ce968c8d927b735b083558bab", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Water Resour ces     43\nFig. 4.1 : India \u2013 River Basins\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 76, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c8ecc0db-4faa-45a7-96ad-70328653241f": {"__data__": {"id_": "c8ecc0db-4faa-45a7-96ad-70328653241f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a1751021-234e-4b11-a69a-01163223ed62", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "af5191ea21ab6172121252553b8c03dbd912c46acef94583840e9c0d3b3e049d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "44 India : People and Economy\nEmer ging W ater Pr oblems\nThe per capita availability of water is dwindling\nday-by-day due to increase in population. The\navailable water resources are also getting\npolluted with industrial, agricultural and\ndomestic effluents, and this, in turn, is further\nlimiting the availability of usable water\nresources.\nDeterioration of Water QualityDeterioration of Water QualityDeterioration of Water QualityDeterioration of Water QualityDeterioration of Water Quality\nWater quality r efers to purity of water , or water\nwithout unwanted for eign substances. W ater\ngets polluted by foreign matters , such as\nmicro-organisms, chemicals, industrial and\nother wastes.  Such matters deteriorate the\nquality of water and render it unfit for human\nuse. When toxic substances enter lakes,\nstreams, rivers, ocean and other water bodies,\nthey get dissolved or lie suspended in water .\nThis r esults in pollution of water , wher eby\nquality of water deteriorates affecting aquatic\nsystems. Sometimes, these pollutants also\nseep down and pollute gr oundwater .  The\nGanga and the Y amuna ar e the two highly\npolluted rivers in the country.\nFind out which are the major towns/cities located on\nthe bank of the Ganga and its tributaries and major\nindustries they have.\nWater Conservation and Management\nSince there is a declining availability of\nfreshwater and increasing demand, the need\nhas arisen to conserve and effectively manage\nthis precious life giving resource for sustainable\ndevelopment. Given that water availability from\nsea/ocean, due to high cost of desalinisation,\nis considered negligible, India has to take quick\nsteps and make effective policies and laws, and\nadopt effective measures for its conservation.\nBesides developing water -saving technologies\nand methods, attempts are also to be made to\nprevent the pollution. There is need toirrigation during dry seasons. Even in the\nareas of ample rainfall like W est Bengal\nand Bihar , breaks in monsoon or its\nfailure creates dry spells detrimental for\nagricultur e. Water need of certain cr ops also\nmakes irrigation necessary. For instance,\nwater requirement of rice, sugarcane, jute,\netc. is very high which can be met only\nthrough irrigation.\nProvision of irrigation makes multiple\ncropping possible. It has also been found that\nirrigated lands have higher agricultural\nproductivity than unirrigated land. Further ,\nthe high yielding varieties of crops need\nregular moisture supply, which is made\npossible only by a developed irrigation\nsystems. In fact, this is why that green\nrevolution strategy of agriculture\ndevelopment in the country has largely been\nsuccessful in Punjab, Haryana and western\nUttar Pradesh.\nIn Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar\nPradesh, more than 85 per cent of their net\nsown area is under irrigation. Wheat and rice\nare grown mainly with the help of irrigation\nin these states. Of the total net irrigated area\n76.1 per cent in Punjab and 51.3 per cent in\nHaryana are irrigated through wells and\ntubewells. This shows that these states utilise\nlarge proportion of their groundwater\npotential which has resulted in groundwater\ndepletion in these states.\n The over -use of gr oundwater r esour ces\nhas led to decline in groundwater table in\nthese states. In fact, over withdrawals in some\nstates, like Rajasthan and Maharashtra, has\nincreased fluoride concentration in\ngroundwater , and this practice has led to\nincrease in concentration of arsenic in parts\nof West Bengal and Bihar .\nIntensive irrigation in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar\nPradesh is increasing salinity in the soil and depletion\nof groundwater irrigation. Discuss its likely impacts on\nagriculture.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3696, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "add7ba41-e788-4e6a-92ef-9491623ab71b": {"__data__": {"id_": "add7ba41-e788-4e6a-92ef-9491623ab71b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2b5e3ce8-181f-4639-9181-74b5f19978d8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c3cd9bf0d8c5d434bfaf3a290e4c09ba5ea1d11d7b1f01a78d96b18f353d71cf", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Water Resour ces     45\nencourage watershed development, rainwater\nharvesting, water recycling and reuse, and\nconjunctive use of water for sustaining water\nsupply in long run.\nPrevention of W ater Pollution\nAvailable water resources are degrading\nrapidly.  The major rivers of the country\ngenerally retain better water quality in less\ndensely populated upper stretches in hilly\nareas. In plains, river water is used intensively\nfor irrigation, drinking, domestic and industrial\npurposes. The drains carrying agricultural\n(fertilizers and insecticides), domestic (solid and\nliquid wastes), and industrial effluents join the\nrivers. The concentration of pollutants in rivers,especially remains very high during the summer\nseason when flow of water is low.\nThe Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)\nin collaboration with State Pollution Control\nBoards has been monitoring water quality of\nnational aquatic resources at 507 stations. The\ndata obtained from these stations show that\norganic and bacterial contamination continues\nto be the main source of pollution in rivers. The\nYamuna river is the most polluted river in the\ncountry between Delhi and Etawah. Other\nseverely polluted rivers are: the Sabarmati at\nAhmedabad, the Gomti at Lucknow, the Kali,\nthe Adyar , the Cooum (entir e stretches), the\nVaigai at Madurai and the Musi of Hyderabad\nand the Ganga at Kanpur and V aranasi.\nGroundwater pollution has occurred due to highFig. 4.2 : The Ganga and its Tributaries and Towns Located on them\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1515, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fedafbe8-269f-4593-92ac-eb14e516067c": {"__data__": {"id_": "fedafbe8-269f-4593-92ac-eb14e516067c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0f3d1e42-84aa-42d6-b10e-c8fe3f224e0e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "52a143f7e3807d89e6ad53c945a9ab34867907a9af2ac852422201e320b60cc4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "46 India : People and Economy\nconcentrations of heavy/toxic metals, fluoride\nand nitrates at different parts of the country.\nThe legislative pr ovisions such as the W ater\n(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974,\nand Environment Protection Act 1986 have\nnot been implemented effectively. The result\nis that in 1997, 251 polluting industries were\nlocated along the rivers and lakes. The W ater\nCess Act, 1977, meant to reduce pollution has\nalso made marginal impacts. There is a strong\nneed to generate public awareness about\nimportance of water and impacts of water\npollution. The public awareness and action\ncan be very effective in reducing the pollutants\nfrom agricultural activities, domestic and\nindustrial discharges.Recycle and Reuse of W ater\nAnother way through which we can improve\nfresh water availability is by recycle and reuse.\nUse of water of lesser quality such as reclaimed\nwastewater would be an attractive option for\nindustries for cooling and fire fighting to\nreduce their water cost. Similarly, in urban areas\nwater after bathing and washing utensils  can\nbe used for gar dening. W ater used for washing\nvehicle can also be used for gardening. This\nwould conserve better quality of water for\ndrinking purposes. Currently, recycling of water\nis practised on a limited scale. However , ther e\nis enormous scope for replenishing water\nthrough recycling.\nDiscuss the issues highlighted in the\nnews items.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1449, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "244e7ca7-52a6-4122-b503-3d826069a63c": {"__data__": {"id_": "244e7ca7-52a6-4122-b503-3d826069a63c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f07b5c48-75cf-4714-8822-a67fcf330e18", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1a4db893466e8166f672eb2179b6be78b15ec2482d6cfceafd89029f59db29d8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Water Resour ces     47\nObserve the quantity of water used at your home in\nvarious activities and enlist the ways in which the water\ncan be reused and recycled in various activities.\nClass teachers should organise a discussion on recycle\nand reuse of water .\nWatershed ManagementWatershed ManagementWatershed ManagementWatershed ManagementWatershed Management\nWatershed management basically r efers to\nefficient management and conservation of\nsurface and groundwater resources.  It involves\nprevention of runoff and storage and recharge\nof groundwater through various methods like\npercolation tanks, r echar ge wells, etc. However ,\nin broad sense watershed management includes\nconservation, regeneration and judicious use of\nall resour ces \u2013 natural (like land, water , plants\nand animals) and human with in a watershed.\nWatershed management aims at bringing about\nbalance between natural resources on the one\nhand and society on the other . The success of\nwatershed development largely depends upon\ncommunity participation.\nThe Central and State Governments have\ninitiated many watershed development and\nmanagement programmes in the country.\nSome of these are being implemented by non-\ngovernmental organisations also. Haryali  is\na watershed development project sponsored\nby the Central Government which aims at\nenabling the rural population to conserve\nwater for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and\nafforestation.  The Project is being executed\nby Gram Panchayats with people\u2019s\nparticipation.\nNeeru-Meeru  (Water and Y ou) pr ogramme\n(in Andhra Pradesh) and Arvary Pani Sansad\n(in Alwar , Rajasthan) have taken up\nconstructions of various water -harvesting\nstructures such as percolation tanks, dug out\nponds ( Johad ), check dams, etc. , through\npeople\u2019s participation. Tamil Nadu has made\nwater harvesting structures in the housescompulsory. No building can be constructed\nwithout making structures for water harvesting.\nWatershed development pr ojects in some\nareas have been successful in rejuvenating\nenvir onment and economy. However , ther e are\nonly a few success stories.  In majority of cases,\nthe programme is still in its nascent stage.  There\nis a need to generate awareness regarding\nbenefits of watershed development and\nmanagement among people in the country, and\nthrough this integrated water resource\nmanagement approach water availability can be\nensured on sustainable basis.\nRainwater HarvestingRainwater HarvestingRainwater HarvestingRainwater HarvestingRainwater Harvesting\nRainwater harvesting is a method to capture\nand store rainwater for various uses. It is also\nused to recharge groundwater aquifers. It is a\nlow cost and eco-friendly technique for\npreserving every drop of water by guiding the\nrain water to borewell, pits and wells. Rainwater\nharvesting  increases water availability, checks\nthe declining groundwater table, improves the\nquality of groundwater through dilution of\ncontaminants, like fluoride and nitrates,\nprevents soil erosion, and flooding and arrests\nsalt water intrusion in coastal areas if used to\nrecharge aquifers.\nRainwater harvesting has been practised\nthrough various methods by different\ncommunities in the country for a long time.\nTraditional rainwater harvesting in rural ar eas\nis done by using surface storage bodies, like\nlakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, etc. In Rajasthan,\nrainwater harvesting structures locally known\nas Kund or Tanka (a covered underground\ntank) are constructed near or in the house or\nvillage to store harvested rainwater (see Fig. 4.3\nto understand various ways of rainwater\nharvesting).\nThere is a wide scope to use rainwater\nharvesting technique to conserve precious\nwater resource. It can be done by harvesting\nrainwater on rooftops and open spaces.\nHarvesting rainwater also decreases the\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3800, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4f1e4b68-0531-487f-bcb9-19e1aff1948c": {"__data__": {"id_": "4f1e4b68-0531-487f-bcb9-19e1aff1948c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5a7034e2-626e-48f7-a8a9-0bc176cd6c83", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cf4e3791d8273633bf0efbeb8e3a4519e9ae3e4b8e4a7906eef9f76640838882", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "48 India : People and Economy\nWatershed Development in Ralegan Siddhi, Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra:Watershed Development in Ralegan Siddhi, Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra:Watershed Development in Ralegan Siddhi, Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra:Watershed Development in Ralegan Siddhi, Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra:Watershed Development in Ralegan Siddhi, Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra:\nA Case StudyA Case StudyA Case StudyA Case StudyA Case Study\nRalegan Siddhi is a small village in the district of Ahmadnagar , Maharashtra. It has become an\nexample for watershed development throughout the country .\nIn 1975, this village was caught in a web of poverty and illicit liquor trade. The transformation took place\nwhen a retired army personnel, settled down in the village and took up the task of watershed development.\nHe convinced villagers about the importance of family planning and voluntary labour; preventing open\ngrazing, felling trees, and liquor prohibition.\nVoluntary labour was necessary to ensure minimum dependence on the government for financial\naids. \u201cIt socialised the costs of the projects.\u201d explain ed the activist . Even those who were working\noutside the village contributed to the development by committing a month\u2019 s salary every year .\nWork began with the percolation tank constructed in the village. In 1975, the tank could not hold\nwater . The embankment wall leaked. People voluntarily repaired the embankment. The seven wells\nbelow it swelled with water in summer for the first time in the living memory of the people. The people\nreposed their faith in him and his visions.\nA youth group called Tarun Mandal was formed. The group worked to ban the dowry system, caste\ndiscrimination and untouchability . Liquor distilling units were removed and prohibition imposed. Open\ngrazing was completely banned with a new emphasis on stall-feeding. The cultivation of water-intensive\ncrops like sugarcane was banned. Crops such as pulses, oilseeds and certain cash crops with low\nwater requirements were encouraged.\nAll elections to local bodies began to be held\non the basis of consensus. \u201cIt made the\ncommunity leaders complete representatives\nof the people.\u201d A system of Nyay Panchayats\n(informal courts) were also set up. Since then,\nno case has been referred to the police.\nA Rs.22 lakh school building was constructed\nusing only the resources of the village. No\ndonations were taken. Money , if needed, was\nborrowed and paid back. The villagers took pride\nin this self-reliance. A new system of sharing\nlabour grew out of this infusion of pride and\nvoluntary spirit. People volunteered to help each other in agricultural operation. Landless labourers also\ngained employment. Today the village plans to\nbuy land for them in adjoining villages.\nAt present, water is adequate; agriculture is\nflourishing, though the use of fertilisers and\npesticides is very high. The prosperity also brings\nthe question of ability of the present generation\nto carry on the work after the leader of the\nmovement who declared that, \u201cThe process of\nRalegan\u2019s evolution to an ideal village will not\nstop. With changing times, people tend to evolve\nnew ways. In future, Ralegan might present a\ndifferent model to the country .\u201d\nWhat a mitigation approach can do? A success story.Ralegan Siddhi before mitigation approach\nRalegan Siddhi after mitigation approach\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3349, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b87203a9-e500-4698-95d0-951f75006116": {"__data__": {"id_": "b87203a9-e500-4698-95d0-951f75006116", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fd28bf01-cd74-4b75-9af1-9168b9bdf382", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2a02d21f439fbcc7982a4de570ff412da199cb1bff5514f900a6515b7e562488", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Water Resour ces     49\nFig. 4.3 : V arious Methods of Rainwater Harvesting\ncommunity dependence on groundwater for\ndomestic use.  Besides bridging the demand-\nsupply gap, it can also save energy to pump\ngroundwater as recharge leads to rise in\ngroundwater table. These days rainwaterharvesting is being taken up on massive scale\nin many states in the country. Urban areas\ncan specially benefit from rainwater harvesting\nas water demand has already outstripped\nsupply in most of the cities and towns.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 521, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "05379d1d-5503-4bcc-bf21-80c92673f6c3": {"__data__": {"id_": "05379d1d-5503-4bcc-bf21-80c92673f6c3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "10", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a1265f36-5111-4a2b-b6ee-3f7d7306c1b0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "10", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9bc0bb36f3ad53f02ff7caba27bc4ef8b9d25cbdd73ad8814ba77b37d0988d61", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "50 India : People and Economy\nApart from the above mentioned factors, the\nissue desalinisation of water particularly in coastal\nareas and brackish water in arid and semi-arid\nareas, transfer of water from water surplus areas\nto water deficit ar eas thr ough inter -linking ofrivers can be important remedies for solving water\nproblem in India (read more about inter linking\nof rivers). However , the most important issue fr om\nthe point of view of individual users, household\nand communities is pricing of water .\nCollect information about National W ater Policy , 2012, and Ganga Rejuvenation from the website (www .wrmin.nic.in)\nand discuss in the classroom.Highlights of India\u2019s National Water Policy, 2002Highlights of India\u2019s National Water Policy, 2002Highlights of India\u2019s National Water Policy, 2002Highlights of India\u2019s National Water Policy, 2002Highlights of India\u2019s National Water Policy, 2002\nThe National Water Policy 2002 stipulates water allocation priorities broadly in the following order:\ndrinking water; irrigation, hydro-power , navigation, industrial and other uses. The policy stipulates\nprogressive new approaches to water management. Key features include:\n\u2022Irrigation and multi-purpose projects should invariably include drinking water component, wherever\nthere is no alternative source of drinking water .\n\u2022Providing drinking water to all human beings and animals should be the first priority .\n\u2022Measures should be taken to limit and regulate the exploitation of groundwater .\n\u2022Both surface and groundwater should be regularly monitored for quality . A phased programme\nshould be undertaken for improving water quality .\n\u2022The efficiency of utilisation in all the diverse uses of water should be improved.\n\u2022Awareness of water as a scarce resource should be fostered.\n\u2022Conservation consciousness should be promoted through education, regulation, incentives and\ndisincentives.\nSource : Gover nment of India (2002), \u2018India\u2019s Refor m Initiatives in W ater Sector\u2019, Ministry for Rural Development, New Delhi\nJal Kranti Abhiyan (2015-16)Jal Kranti Abhiyan (2015-16)Jal Kranti Abhiyan (2015-16)Jal Kranti Abhiyan (2015-16)Jal Kranti Abhiyan (2015-16)\nWater is a recyclable resource but its availability is limited and the gap between supply and demand\nwill be widening over time. Climate change at the global scale will be creating water stress conditions\nin many regions of the world. India has a unique situation of high population growth and rapid economic\ndevelopment with high water demand. The Jal Kranti Abhiyan  launched by the Government of India in\n2015\u201316 with an aim to ensure water security through per capita availability of water in the country .\nPeople in different regions of India had practised the traditional knowledge of water conservation and\nmanagement to ensure water availability .\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2845, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f61e27ae-7018-49ec-ae83-cfe9feff7a65": {"__data__": {"id_": "f61e27ae-7018-49ec-ae83-cfe9feff7a65", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "11", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4d15c9b2-0253-4cb8-a78a-41440c2a65fe", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "11", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "19bc5bb8aad9fbb724b6dc7513cd910dfb3d42c05766b5c458d0a17eb446c2b4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Water Resour ces     51\nEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISES\n1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.\n(i) Which one of the following types describes water as a resource?\n(a) Abiotic resource (c) Biotic Resource\n(b) Non-renewable Resources (d) Non-cyclic Resource\n(ii) Which one of the following south Indian states has the highest\ngroundwater utilisation (in per cent) of its total ground water potential?\n(a) Tamil Nadu (c)    Andhra Pradesh\n(b) Karnataka (d)    Kerala\n(iii The highest proportion of the total water used in the country is in which\none of the following sectors?\n(a) Irrigation (c)   Domestic use\n(b) Industries (d)   None of the above\n2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.\n(i) It is said that the water resources in India have been depleting very fast.\nDiscuss the factors responsible for depletion of water resources?\n(ii) What factors are responsible for the highest groundwater development\nin the states of Punjab, Haryana, and Tamil Nadu?The Jal Kranti Abhiyan  aims at involving local bodies, NGOs and cititzens, at large, in creating\nawareness regarding its objectives. The following activities have been proposed under the Jal Kranti\nAbhiyan :\n1.Selection of one water stressed village in each 672 districts of the country to create a \u2018Jal Gram\u2019.\n2.\u00cddentification of model command area of about 1000 hectares in dif ferent parts of the country , for\nexample, UP , Haryana (North), Karnataka, Telangana, Tamil Nadu (South), Rajasthan, Gujarat\n(West), Odisha (East), Meghalaya (North-East).\n3.Abatement of pollution:\n\u2022Water conservation and artificial recharge.\n\u2022Reducing groundwater pollution.\n\u2022Construction of Arsenic-free wells in selected areas of the country .\n4.Creating mass awareness through social media, radio, TV, print media, poster and  essay writing\ncompetitions in schools.\nJal Kranti Abhiyan  is designed to provide livelihood and food security through water security .\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1981, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4d2aa545-dfa7-45f4-8f61-aef920230915": {"__data__": {"id_": "4d2aa545-dfa7-45f4-8f61-aef920230915", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "12", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c6fbc54f-232d-4982-9a2a-5650c310ec0f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "12", "file_name": "legy204.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy204.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1729824, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8debcae80f34782270d42f780aa14b976c239b62c9229315685f9eef84d48bff", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "52 India : People and Economy\n(iii) Why the share of agricultural sector in total water used in the country is\nexpected to decline?\n(iv) What can be possible impacts of consumption of contaminated/unclean\nwater on the people?\n3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.\n(i) Discuss the availability of water resources in the country and factors\nthat determine its spatial distribution?\n(ii) The depleting water resources may lead to social conflicts and disputes.\nElaborate it with suitable examples?\n(iii) What is watershed management? Do you think it can play an important\nrole in sustainable development?\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 638, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b8ec45a2-800f-4b9e-80ce-dce9d51b4bfd": {"__data__": {"id_": "b8ec45a2-800f-4b9e-80ce-dce9d51b4bfd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "eb35ebbf-4d6a-4530-9785-06f2e296c670", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "11323aefab5f37a64d46c32c21a467b11f8a35d834bbe90bd275e05f9ee21fd5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Unit III Unit IIIUnit III Unit IIIUnit III\nChapter 5\nMINERAL AND\nENERGY\nRESOURCESIndia is endowed with a rich variety of mineral\nresources due to its varied geological structure.\nBulk of the valuable minerals are products of\npre-palaezoic age (Refer: Chapter 2 of Class XI,\nTextbook: \u201cFundamentals of Physical\nGeography\u201d  and are mainly associated with\nmetamorphic and igneous rocks of the\npeninsular India. The vast alluvial plain tract\nof north India is devoid of minerals of economic\nuse. The mineral resources provide the country\nwith the necessary base for industrial\ndevelopment. In this chapter , we shall discuss\nthe availability of various types of mineral and\nenergy resources in the country.\nA mineral is a natural substance of organic\nor inorganic origin with definite chemical and\nphysical properties.\nT TT TTypes ofypes ofypes of\nypes ofypes of  Miner  Miner Miner  Miner Miner al R al Ral R al Ral R esour esouresour esouresour ces cesces cesces\nOn the basis of chemical and physical\nproperties, minerals may be grouped under two\nmain categories of metallics and non-metallics\nwhich may further be classified as follows :\nFig. 5.1 : Classification of Minerals\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1195, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "48b86b6a-20bb-4d81-8bd8-9f54d013587b": {"__data__": {"id_": "48b86b6a-20bb-4d81-8bd8-9f54d013587b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b2954291-4f84-4887-a92f-d5c4d85efbff", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "29a8d26a9c7ca22673470f8c8f327d2fd5d0de10fac54319a7477e615ee7ff2d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "54 India : People and Economy\nAs, it is clear from the Fig. 5.1 metallic\nminerals are the sources of metals. Iron ore,\ncopper , gold produce metal and are included\nin this category. Metallic minerals are further\ndivided into ferrous and non-ferrous metallic\nminerals. Ferrous, as you know, refers to iron.\nAll those minerals which have iron content are\nferrous such as iron ore itself and those which\ndo not have iron content are non-ferrous such\nas copper , bauxite, etc.\nNon-metallic minerals are either organic\nin origin such as fossil fuels also known as\nmineral fuels which are derived from the\nburied animal and plant life such as coal and\npetroleum. Other type of non-metallic\nminerals are inorganic in origin such as mica,\nlimestone and graphite, etc.\nMinerals have certain characteristics.\nThese are unevenly distributed over space.\nThere is inverse relationship in quality and\nquantity of minerals i.e. good quality minerals\nare less in quantity as compared to low\nquality minerals. The third main\ncharacteristic is that all minerals are\nexhaustible over time. These take long to\ndevelop geologically and they cannot be\nreplenished immediately at the time of need.\nThus, they have to be conserved and not\nmisused as they do not have the second crop.\nDistribution of Minerals in IndiaDistribution of Minerals in IndiaDistribution of Minerals in IndiaDistribution of Minerals in IndiaDistribution of Minerals in India\nMost of the metallic minerals in India occur in\nthe peninsular plateau region in the old\ncrystalline rocks. Over 97 per cent of coal\nreserves occur in the valleys of Damodar , Sone,\nMahanadi and Godavari. Petroleum reserves\nare located in the sedimentary basins of Assam,\nGujarat and Mumbai High i.e. off-shore region\nin the Arabian Sea. New reserves have been\nlocated in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri\nbasins. Most of the major mineral resources\noccur to the east of a line linking Mangaluru\nand Kanpur .\nMinerals are generally concentrated in\nthree broad belts in India. There may be some\nsporadic occurrences here and there in isolated\npockets. These belts are :\nThe North-Eastern Plateau Region\nThis belt covers Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand),\nOdisha Plateau, W est Bengal and parts of\nChhattisgarh. Have you ever thought about\nthe reason of major iron and steel industry\nbeing located in this region? It has variety of\nminerals viz. iron ore coal, manganese,\nbauxite, mica.\nFind out the specific region where these\nminerals are being extracted.\nThe South-W ester n Plateau Region\nThis belt extends over Karnataka, Goa and\ncontiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala.\nThis belt is rich in ferrous metals and bauxite.\nIt also contains high grade iron ore, manganese\nand limestone. This belt lacks in coal deposits\nexcept Neyveli lignite.\nThis belt does not have as diversified\nmineral deposits as the north-eastern belt.\nKerala has deposits of monazite and thorium,\nbauxite clay. Goa has iron ore deposits.\nThe North-W ester n Region\nThis belt extends along Aravali in Rajasthan and\npart of Gujarat and minerals are associated with\nDharwar system of rocks. Copper , zinc have\nbeen major minerals. Rajasthan is rich in\nbuilding stones i.e. sandstone, granite, marble.\nGypsum and Fuller\u2019s earth deposits are also\nextensive. Dolomite and limestone provide raw\nmaterials for cement industry. Gujarat is known\nfor its petr oleum deposits. Y ou may be knowing\nthat Gujarat and Rajasthan both have rich\nsources of salt.\nWhy and where Dandi March was\norganised by Mahatma Gandhi?\nThe Himalayan belt is another mineral belt\nwhere copper , lead, zinc, cobalt and tungsten\nare known to occur . They occur on both the\neastern and western parts. Assam valley has\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3691, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f614c160-3ca0-4909-8794-5a5283b7a939": {"__data__": {"id_": "f614c160-3ca0-4909-8794-5a5283b7a939", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "96f18822-c0fa-4265-a1ce-14ecf5b2a74d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "78a9e6565a3634dd894df05d482913dab1e7689ff8109fe8c343c73bfc3a6b39", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Mineral and Energy Resources      55\nmineral oil deposits. Besides oil resources are\nalso found in off-shore-areas near Mumbai\nCoast (Mumbai High).\nIn the following pages you will find the\nspatial pattern of some of the important\nminerals.\nFerrous Mineral\nFerrous minerals such as iron ore,\nmanganese, chromite, etc., provide a strong\nbase for the development of metallurgical\nindustries. Our country is well-placed in\nrespect of ferrous minerals both in reserves\nand production.\nIron Ore\nIndia is endowed with fairly abundant\nresources of iron ore. It has the largest reserve\nof iron ore in Asia. The two main types of ore\nfound in our country are haematite  and\nmagnetite . It has great demand in\ninternational market due to its superior\nquality. The iron ore mines occur in close\nproximity to the coal fields in the north-\neastern plateau region of the country which\nadds to their advantage.\nAbout 95 per cent of total reserves of iron\nore is located in the States of O disha ,\nJharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa,\nTelangana, \nAndhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.\nIn Odisha , iron ore occurs in a series of hill\nranges in Sunder garh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar .\nThe important mines are Gurumahisani,\nSulaipet, Badampahar (Mayurbhaj), Kiruburu\n(Kendujhar) and Bonai (Sundergarh). Similar\nhill ranges, Jharkhand has some of the oldest\niron ore mines and most of the iron and steel\nplants are located around them. Most of the\nimportant mines such as Noamundi and Gua\nare located in Poorbi and Pashchimi\nSinghbhum districts. This belt further extends\nto Durg, Dantewara and Bailadila. Dalli, and\nRajhara in Durg are the important mines of\niron ore in the country. In Karnataka, iron ore\ndeposits occur in Sandur -Hospet ar ea of\nBallari  district, Baba Budan hills and\nKudremukh in Chik kamagalur u district andparts of Shivamogga, Chitradurg and\nTum akuru districts. The districts of\nChandrapur , Bhandara and Ratnagiri in\nMaharashtra, Karimnagar and Warangal\ndistrict of Telangana,  Kurnool, Cuddapah and\nAnantapur districts of Andhra Pradesh, Salem\nand Nilgiris districts of Tamil Nadu are other\niron mining regions. Goa has also emerged as\nan important producer of iron ore.\nManganese\nManganese is an important raw material for\nsmelting of iron ore and also used for\nmanufacturing ferro alloys. Manganese\ndeposits are found in almost all geological\nformations, however , it is mainly associated with\nDharwar system.\nOdisha is the leading producer of\nManganese. Major mines in Odisha are\nlocated in the central part of the iron ore belt\nof India, particularly in Bonai, Kendujhar ,\nSunder garh, Gangpur , Koraput, Kalahandi\nand Bolangir .\nCan you find out its reason?\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2683, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6547684e-30e6-4d7c-b5b9-9d251adc555f": {"__data__": {"id_": "6547684e-30e6-4d7c-b5b9-9d251adc555f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fd4b09ab-8f5e-4cc3-b565-809d50d9a590", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "64c201372f78d0864f611ed05e803a112c3c4efac6b6f7f5f6d5b9f6b78c12ef", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "56 India : People and Economy\nFig. 5.2 : India \u2013 Metallic Minerals (Ferrous)\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 97, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e25cee59-fd12-4057-ade2-89f29e64c12b": {"__data__": {"id_": "e25cee59-fd12-4057-ade2-89f29e64c12b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c23eb6a4-ae34-4808-acb7-842bda63045d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "327a928c98c17ab968989958191e95f4b65d27524d4ec0d524fc905feb4eee28", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Mineral and Energy Resources      57\nKarnataka is another major producer and\nhere the mines ar e located in Dharwar , Ballari,\nBelagavi, North Canara, Chik kmagal uru,\nShivamogga , Chitradurg and Tumakuru.\nMaharashtra is also an important producer of\nmanganese, which is mined in Nagpur ,\nBhandara and Ratnagiri districts. The\ndisadvantage to these mines is that they are\nlocated far from steel plants. The manganese\nbelt of Madhya Pradesh extends in a belt in\nBalaghat-Chhindwara-Nimar -Mandla and\nJhabua districts.\nTelangana, Goa, and Jharkhand are other\nminor producers of manganese.\nNon-Ferrous Minerals\nIndia is poorly endowed with non-ferrous\nmetallic minerals except bauxite.\nBauxite\nBauxite is the ore, which is used in\nmanufacturing of aluminium. Bauxite is found\nmainly in tertiary deposits and is associated\nwith laterite rocks occurring extensively either\non the plateau or hill ranges of peninsular India\nand also in the coastal tracts of the country.\nOdisha  happens to be the largest producer\nof Bauxite. Kalahandi and Sambalpur are the\nleading producers. The other two areas which\nhave been increasing their production are\nBolangir and Koraput. The patlands of\nLohardaga  in Jharkhand have rich deposits.\nGujarat, C hhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and\nMaharashtra are other major producers.\nBhavanagar ,  and Jamnagar in Gujarat have the\nmajor deposits. C hhattisgarh has bauxite\ndeposits in Amarkantak plateau while Katni-\nJabalpur ar ea and Balaghat in M.P . have\nimportant deposits of bauxite. Kolaba, Thane,\nRatnagiri, Satara, Pune and Kolhapur in\nMaharashtra are important producers. Tamil\nNadu, Karnataka and Goa are minor producers\nof bauxite.\nCopper\nCopper is an indispensable  metal in the\nelectrical industry for making wires, electric\nmotors, transformers and generators. It isalloyable, malleable and ductile. It is also mixed\nwith gold to provide strength to jewellery.\nThe Copper deposits mainly occur in\nSinghbhum district in Jharkhand, Balaghat\ndistrict in Madhya Pradesh and Jhunjhunu and\nAlwar districts in Rajasthan.\nMinor producers of Copper are Agnigundala\nin Guntur District (Andhra Pradesh), Chitradurg\nand Hasan districts (Karnataka) and South Arcot\ndistrict (Tamil Nadu).\nNon-metallic Minerals\nAmong the non-metallic minerals produced in\nIndia, mica is the important one. The other\nminerals extracted for local consumption are\nlimestone, dolomite and phosphate.\nMica\nMica is mainly used in the electrical and\nelectronic industries. It can be split into very\nthin sheets which are tough and flexible. Mica\nin India is produced in Jharkhand, Andhra\nPradesh, Telanganga and Rajasthan followed\nby Tamil Nadu, W est Bengal and Madhya\nPradesh. In Jharkhand, high quality mica is\nobtained in a belt extending over a distance of\nabout 150 km, in length and about 22 km, in\nwidth in lower Hazaribagh plateau. In Andhra\nPradesh, Nellore district produces the best\nquality mica. In Rajasthan, mica belt extends\nfor about 320 kms from Jaipur to Bhilwara\nand ar ound Udaipur . Mica deposits also occur\nin Mysuru and Hasan districts of Karanataka,\nCoimbator e, Tiruchirapalli, Madurai and\nKanniyakumari in Tamil Nadu, Alleppey in\nKerala, Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Purulia and\nBankura in W est Bengal.\nEnergy Resources\nMineral fuels are essential for generation of\npower , requir ed by agricultur e, industry,\ntransport and other sectors of the economy.\nMineral fuels like coal, petroleum and natural\ngas (known as fossil fuels), nuclear energy\nminerals , are the conventional sources of\nenergy. These conventional sources are\nexhaustible resources.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3592, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0d745660-029e-4643-8061-7a0224bf05a6": {"__data__": {"id_": "0d745660-029e-4643-8061-7a0224bf05a6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6e00aa22-1426-40fc-92bc-18e0439b3c91", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "063ca1cf0fd807146c36e0902f88040ccb285f22e88321ec9c2ae64af35e9140", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "58 India : People and Economy\nFig. 5.3 : India \u2013 Minerals (Non-Ferrous)\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 92, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "066d5faa-fd8b-45f3-a772-066af0d39889": {"__data__": {"id_": "066d5faa-fd8b-45f3-a772-066af0d39889", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "456cfaf5-8490-4498-a558-864b884aefe5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "bdf0d41238d1eef11e7ebd97c58df63122be93120f97dfa2c6423f41d441b3f8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Mineral and Energy Resources      59\nprocessed in petrochemical industries, such as\nfertiliser , synthetic rubber , synthetic fibr e,\nmedicines, vaseline, lubricants, wax, soap and\ncosmetics.\n \nPetroleum is referred to as liquid gold\nbecause of its scarcity and diversified uses.\nCrude petroleum occurs in\nsedimentary rocks of the tertiary period. Oil\nexploration and production was\nsystematically taken up after the Oil and\nNatural Gas Commission was set up in\n1956. T ill then, Digboi in Assam was the\nonly oil producing region but the scenario\nchanged after 1956. In recent years, new\noil deposits have been found at the extreme\nwestern and eastern parts of the country.\nIn Assam, Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran\nare important oil producing areas. The\nmajor oilfields of Gujarat ar e Ankaleshwar ,\nKalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba and\nLunej. Mumbai High which lies 160 km off\nMumbai was discovered in 1973 and\nproduction commenced in 1976. Oil and\nnatural gas have been found in exploratory\nwells in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basin\non the east coast.\nOil extracted from the wells is crude oil and\ncontains many impurities. It cannot be used\ndirectly. It needs to be refined. There are two\ntypes of refineries in India: (a) field-based and\n(b) market-based. Digboi is an example of field-\nbased and Barauni is an example of market-\nbased refinery.\nNatural Gas\nNatural Gas is found with petroleum deposits\nand is released when crude oil is brought toCoal\nCoal is a one of the important minerals which\nis mainly used in the generation of thermal\npower and smelting of iron ore. Coal occurs in\nrock sequences mainly of two geological ages,\nnamely Gondwana and tertiary deposits.\nAbout 80 per cent of the coal deposits in\nIndia is of bituminous type and is of non-coking\ngrade. The most important Gondwana coal\nfields of India ar e located in Damodar V alley.\nThey lie in Jharkhand-Bengal coal belt and the\nimportant coal fields in this region are Raniganj,\nJharia, Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura.\nJharia is the largest coal field followed by\nRaniganj.  The other river valleys associated\nwith coal are Godavari, Mahanadi and Sone.\nThe most important coal mining centres are\nSingrauli in Madhya Pradesh (part of Singrauli\ncoal field lies in Uttar Pradesh), Korba in\nChhattisgarh, Talcher and Rampur in Odisha,\nChanda\u2013W ardha, Kamptee and Bander in\nMaharashtra and Singareni in Telangana and\nPandur in Andhra Pradesh.\nTertiary coals occur in Assam, Arunachal\nPradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland.  It is\nextracted from Darangiri, Cherrapunji,\nMewlong and Langrin (Meghalaya); Makum,\nJaipur and Nazira in upper Assam, Namchik \u2013\nNamphuk (Arunachal Pradesh) and Kalakot\n(Jammu and Kashmir).\nBesides, the brown coal or lignite occur in\nthe coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry,\nGujarat and Jammu and Kashmir .\nPetroleum\nCrude petroleum consists of hydrocarbons of\nliquid and gaseous states varying in chemical\ncomposition, colour and specific gravity. It is\nan essential source of energy for all internal\ncombustion engines in automobiles, railways\nand aircraft. Its numerous by-products are\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3099, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "186d6f8c-070b-41eb-88ec-93b0dd8b5542": {"__data__": {"id_": "186d6f8c-070b-41eb-88ec-93b0dd8b5542", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "30553787-6f4a-4843-b345-b28b7c5b50e1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "43b9cbec41b8cb6db873dcd20bc5ef2fd0fd18e43faa8573bc0e24838b16266b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "60 India : People and Economy\nFig. 5.4 : India \u2013 Conventional Energy Resources\nActivity: Collect information about cross country natural gas pipelines laid by GAIL (India)\nunder \u2018One Nation One Gride\u2019.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 222, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c72ddfc4-7819-45e4-bbd8-ef0048496b57": {"__data__": {"id_": "c72ddfc4-7819-45e4-bbd8-ef0048496b57", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f63405d7-384c-4ea0-92a7-8b9b12e53cef", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2ed256943a2b555c77578908b76f8413dabd430c7ff55cd810c0f5a7de27d6e8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Mineral and Energy Resources      61\nthe surface. It can be used as a domestic and\nindustrial fuel. It is used as fuel in power\nsector to generate electricity, for heating\npurpose in industries, as raw material in\nchemical, petrochemical and fertiliser\nindustries. With the expansion of gas\ninfrastructure and local city gas distribution\n(COD) networks, natural gas is also emerging\nas a preferred transport fuel (CNG) and\ncooking fuel (PNG) at homes. India\u2019s major\ngas reserves are found in the Mumbai High\nand allied fields along the west coast which\nare supplemented by finds in the Cambay\nbasin. Along the East Coast, new reserves of\nnatural gas have been discovered in the\nKrishna-Godavari basin.\nNon-Conventional Energy Sources\nFossil fuel sources, such as coal, petroleum,\nnatural gas and nuclear energy use\nexhaustible raw materials. Sustainable\nenergy resources are only the renewable\nenergy sour ces like solar , wind, hydr o-\ngeothermal and biomass. These energy\nsources are more equitably distributed and\nenvironment-friendly. The non-conventional\nenergy sources will provide more sustained,\neco-friendly cheaper energy after the initial\ncost is taken care of.\nNuclear Energy Resources\nNuclear energy has emerged as a viable source\nin recent times. Important minerals used for the\ngeneration of nuclear energy are uranium and\nthorium. Uranium deposits occur in the Dharwar\nrocks.  Geographically, uranium ores are known\nto occur in several locations along the Singbhum\nCopper belt.  It is also found in Udaipur , Alwar\nand Jhunjhun u districts of Rajasthan, Durg\ndistrict of Chhattisgarh, Bhandara district of\nMaharashtra and Kul lu district of HimachalPradesh. Thorium is mainly obtained from\nmonazite and ilmenite in the beach sands along\nthe coast of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. W orld\u2019s\nrichest monazite deposits occur in Palakkad\nand Kollam districts of Kerala, near\nVishak hapatnam in Andhra Pradesh and\nMahanadi river delta in Odisha.\nAtomic Energy Commission was\nestablished in 1948, progress could be made\nonly after the establishment of the Atomic\nEnergy Institute at T rombay in 1954 which was\nrenamed as the Bhabha Atomic Research\nCentre in 1967. The important nuclear power\nprojects are Tarapur (Maharashtra),\nRawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam\n(Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga\n(Karnataka) and Kakarapara (Gujarat).\nSolar Energy\nSun rays tapped in photovoltaic cells can be\nconverted into energy,  known as solar energy.\nThe two effective processes considered to be very\neffective to tap solar energy are photovoltaics\nand solar thermal technology.  Solar thermal\ntechnology has some relative advantages over\nall other non-renewable energy sources. It is\ncost competitive, environment friendly and easy\nto construct. Solar energy is 7 per cent more\neffective than coal or oil based plants and 10\nper cent more effective than nuclear plants. It\nis generally used more in appliances like\nheaters, crop dryers, cookers, etc.  The western\npart of India has greater potential for the\ndevelopment of solar energy in Gujarat and\nRajasthan.\nWind Energy\nWind energy is absolutely pollution free,\ninexhaustible source of energy.  The mechanism\nof energy conversion from blowing wind is\nsimple. The kinetic energy of wind, through\nturbines is converted into electrical energy. The\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3330, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4a1034b0-c410-4896-871a-3eb407c21c98": {"__data__": {"id_": "4a1034b0-c410-4896-871a-3eb407c21c98", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "10", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4a755a13-d26a-4b28-b691-840925157ec3", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "10", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "aa14ea7a7eab4ef642076d947b7ee3f1833b6ef2ba56cf9543908f19747c3b9d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "62 India : People and Economy\nFig. 5.5 : India \u2013 Oil Refineries\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 84, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "58b3c347-7a66-4f6a-a2aa-d4f64d213db4": {"__data__": {"id_": "58b3c347-7a66-4f6a-a2aa-d4f64d213db4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "11", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "daabb155-06f6-4be5-b389-e6ae82c0b300", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "11", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c8b09b7123f294db097c3ebbec6bc0958b3e689030722eb5eafe1007378ec661", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Mineral and Energy Resources      63\npermanent wind systems such the trade winds,\nwesterlies and seasonal wind like monsoon have\nbeen used as source of energy.  Besides these,\nlocal winds, land and sea breezes can also be\nused to produce electricity.\nIndia, already has started generating wind\nenergy. In Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra\nand Karnataka, favourable conditions for wind\nenergy exist.\nTidal and W ave Ener gy\nOcean currents are the store-house of infinite\nenergy. Since the beginning of seventeenth and\neighteenth century, persistent efforts were made\nto create a more efficient energy system from\nthe ceaseless tidal waves and ocean current.\nLarge tidal waves are known to occur\nalong the west coast of India. Hence, India has\ngreat potential for the development of tidalenergy along the coasts but so far these have\nnot yet been utilised.\nGeother mal Ener gy\nWhen the magma from the interior of earth,\ncomes out on the surface, tremendous heat is\nreleased. This heat energy can successfully be\ntapped and converted to electrical energy. Apart\nfrom this, the hot water that gushes out through\nthe geyser wells is also used in the generation\nof thermal energy. It is popularly known as\nGeothermal energy. This energy is now\nconsidered to be one of the key energy sources\nwhich can be developed as an alternate source.\nThe hot springs and geysers are being used\nsince medieval period. In India, a geothermal\nenergy plant has been commissioned at\nManikaran in Himachal Pradesh.\nHow are the developed\ncountries of the world\nutilising non-conventional\nenergy resources ? Discuss.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1608, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fe685525-a482-4155-8177-cd6b3af04517": {"__data__": {"id_": "fe685525-a482-4155-8177-cd6b3af04517", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "12", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "563b56c8-b38d-4e98-8692-85c1b5018c46", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "12", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8b71cbb9cd3542c4194ab50237ba5156f3b1d7d560aaae7b1a34de8dc1836b4d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "64 India : People and Economy\nThe first successful (1890) attempt to tap\nthe underground heat was made in the city\nof Boise, Idaho (U.S.A.), where a hot water\npipe network was built to give heat to the\nsurrounding buildings. This plant is still\nworking.\nBio-energy\nBio-energy refers to energy derived from biological\nproducts which includes agricultural residues,\nmunicipal, industrial and other wastes. Bio-\nenergy is a potential source of energy conversion.\nIt can be converted into electrical energy, heat\nenergy or gas for cooking. It will also process the\nwaste and garbage and produce energy. This will\nimprove economic life of rural areas in developing\ncountries, reduce environmental pollution,\nenhance self-reliance and reduce pressure on fuel\nwood. One such project converting municipal\nwaste into energy is Okhla in Delhi.Conservation of Mineral ResourcesConservation of Mineral ResourcesConservation of Mineral ResourcesConservation of Mineral ResourcesConservation of Mineral Resources\nThe challenge of sustainable development\nrequires integration of quest for economic\ndevelopment with environmental concerns.\nTraditional methods of r esour ce use r esult into\ngenerating enormous quantity of waste as well\nas create other environmental problems. Hence,\nfor sustainable development calls for the\nprotection of resources for the future\ngenerations. There is an urgent need to\nconserve the resources. The alternative energy\nsour ces like solar power , wind, wave,\ngeothermal energy are inexhaustible resource.\nThese should be developed to replace the\nexhaustible resources. In case of metallic\nminerals, use of scrap metals will enable\nrecycling of metals. Use of scrap is specially\nsignificant in metals like copper , lead and zinc\nin which India\u2019s reserves are meagre. Use of\nsubstitutes for scarce metals may also reduce\ntheir consumption. Export of strategic and\nscarce minerals must be reduced, so that the\nexisting reserve may be used for a longer period.\nEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISES\n1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.\n(i) In which one of the following States are the major oil fields located?\n(a) Assam (c) Rajasthan\n(b) Bihar (d) Tamil Nadu\n(ii) At which one of the following places was the first atomic power station\nstarted?\n(a) Kalpakkam (c) Rana Pratap Sagar\n(b) Narora (d) Tarapur\n(iii) Which one of the following minerals is known as brown diamond?\n(a) Iron (c) Manganese\n(b) Lignite (d) Mica\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2491, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a4db88cc-4c41-48ac-8aea-1d72eaf7ac8c": {"__data__": {"id_": "a4db88cc-4c41-48ac-8aea-1d72eaf7ac8c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "13", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b9e331eb-7a21-4750-984f-f22f12d70df0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "13", "file_name": "legy205.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy205.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 2146529, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6d4d795e6d05590fcaba87c5fc84b5df7bc0606c140ec5df130ec9a2df28911e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Mineral and Energy Resources      65\n(iv) Which one of the following is non-renewable source of energy?\n(a) Hydel (c)    Thermal\n(b) Solar (d)    Wind power\n2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.\n(i) Give an account of the distribution of mica in India.\n(ii) What is nuclear power? Mention the important nuclear power stations\nin India.\n(iii) Name non-ferrous metal. Discuss their spatial distribution.\n(vi) What are non-conventional sources of energy?\n3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.\n(i) Write a detailed note on the Petr oleum r esour ces of India.\n(ii) Write an essay on hydel power in India.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 652, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8f8701a6-c8df-455e-8f97-48551feb9164": {"__data__": {"id_": "8f8701a6-c8df-455e-8f97-48551feb9164", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "66507804-8c3b-40c3-9740-bd8fbe65a14a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4ec1d5f9040ebf3983b8ffe78bc4193a84f496c5aa1ba1a2954dd1e9d4a0ffa7", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "which reforms and reconstruction are often\nundertaken. Generally, there are two\napproaches to planning, i.e., sectoral planning\nand regional planning. Sectoral planning\nmeans formulation and implementation of the\nsets of schemes or programmes aimed at\ndevelopment of various sectors of the\neconomy, such as agriculture, irrigation,\nmanufacturing, power , construction,\ntransport, communication, social\ninfrastructure and services.\nThere is no uniform economic development\nover space in any country. Some areas are more\ndeveloped and some lag behind. This uneven\npattern of development over space necessitates\nthat the planners have a spatial perspective\nand draw the plans to reduce regional\nimbalance in development. This type of\nplanning is termed as regional planning.\nUnit III\nChapter 6\nPLANNING AND\nSUSTAINABLE\nDEVELOPMENT IN\nINDIAN CONTEXTThe word \u2018planning\u2019 is not new to you as it is\na part of everyday usage. Y ou must have used\nit with reference to preparation for your\nexamination or visit to a hill station. It involves\nthe process of thinking, formulation of a\nscheme or programme and implementation of\na set of actions to achieve some goal. Though\nit is a very br oad ter m, in this chapter , it has\nbeen used with reference to the process of\neconomic development. It is, thus different\nfrom the traditional hit-and-miss methods by\nOn 1 January 2015, the NITI Aayog was\nformed. India adopted centralised planning\nafter Independence, but subsequently , it\ngraduated into decentralised multi-level\nplanning. The responsibility of plan formulation\nwas with the Planning Comminssion at the\nCentre, State and district levels. But on 1\nJanuary 2015, the Planning Commision was\nreplaced by the NITI Aayog.\nNITI Aayog has been set up with the objective\nof involving the states in economic policy\nmaking for India for providing strategic and\ntechnical advice to the Central and State\ngovernments.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1922, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "98054bbb-5a6f-4266-8fcf-430159f231f4": {"__data__": {"id_": "98054bbb-5a6f-4266-8fcf-430159f231f4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "30568f4e-31d5-4e60-af6d-b5a7920568e7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "709a21d97d75355510f38f566c418250461b2586b7338d7ce00ef8055b814aa4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "plantation , agriculture, animal husbandry,\npoultry, forestry and small -scale and village\nindustry.\nDrought Prone Area Programme\nThis programme was initiated during the\nFourth Five Y ear Plan with the objectives of\nproviding employment to the people in\ndrought-prone areas and creating productive\nassets. Initially, this programme laid emphasis\non the construction of labour -intensive civil\nworks. But later on, it emphasised on irrigation\nprojects, land development programmes,\nafforestation, grassland development and\ncreation of basic rural infrastructure, such as\nelectricity, roads, market, credit and services.\nThe National Committee on Development\nof Backward Areas reviewed the performance\nof this programme. It has been observed that\nthis programme is largely confined to the\ndevelopment of agriculture and allied sectors\nwith major focus on restoration of ecological\nbalance. Since growing population pressure is\nforcing the society to utilise the marginal lands\nfor agriculture, and, thereby causing ecological\ndegradation, there is a need to create alternative\nemployment opportunities in the drought-\nprone areas. The other strategies of\ndevelopment of these areas include adoption of\nintegrated watershed development approach at\nthe micro-level. The restoration of ecological\nbalance between water , soil, plants, and human\nand animal population should be a basic\nconsideration in the strategy of development of\ndrought-prone areas.\nThe Planning Commission of India (1967)\nidentified 67 districts (entire or partly) of the\ncountry prone to drought. The Irrigation\nCommission (1972) introduced the criterion of\n30 per cent irrigated area and demarcated the\ndrought-prone areas. Broadly, the drought-\nprone area in India spread over semi-arid and\narid tract of Rajasthan, Gujarat, W ester n\nMadhya Pradesh, Marathwada region of\nMaharashtra, Rayalseema and Telangana\nplateaus of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka plateau\nand highlands and interior parts of Tamil Nadu.\nThe drought-prone areas of Punjab, Haryana\nand north-Rajasthan are largely protected due\nto spread of irrigation in these regions.\nPlanning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context      67\nTarget Area Planning\nThe planning process has to take special care\nof those areas which have remained\neconomically backward. As you know, the\neconomic development of a region depends\nupon its resource base. But sometimes\nresource-rich region also remain backward.\nEconomic development requires technology , as\nwell as , investment besides resource s. With the\nplanning experience of about one -and-a-half\ndecades, it was realised that regional\nimbalances in economic development were\ngetting accentuated. In order to arrest the\naccentuation of regional and social disparties,\nthe Planning Commission introduced the\n\u2018target area\u2019  and target group  approaches to\nplanning. Some of the examples of\nprogrammes directed towards the\ndevelopment of target areas are Command\nArea Development Programme, Drought Prone\nArea Development Programme, Desert\nDevelopment Programme, Hill Area\nDevelopment Pr ogramme. The Small Far mers\nDevelopment Agency (SFDA)  and  Marginal\nFarmers Development Agency (MFDA)  which\nare the examples of target group programme.\nIn the 8th Five Y ear Plan special ar ea\nprogrammes were designed to develop\ninfrastructure in hill areas, north-eastern\nstates, tribal areas and backward areas.\nHill Area Development Programme\nHill Area Development Programmes were\ninitiated during the Fifth Five Y ear Plan  covering\n15 districts comprising all the hilly districts of\nUttar Pradesh (present Uttara khand ), Mikir Hill\nand North Cachar hills of Assam, Darj eeling\ndistrict of W est Bengal and Nilgiri district of T amil\nNadu. The National Committee on the\nDevelopment of Backward Area in 1981\nrecommended that all the hill areas in the\ncountry having height above 600 m and not\ncovered under tribal sub-plan be treated as\nbackward hill areas.\nThe detailed plans for the development of hill\nareas were drawn keeping in view their\ntopographical, ecological, social and economic\nconditions. These programmes aimed at\nharnessing the indigenous resources of the hill\nareas through development of horticulture,\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 4207, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d2e18ccc-2e19-447f-bb47-1f0296da9516": {"__data__": {"id_": "d2e18ccc-2e19-447f-bb47-1f0296da9516", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "23fb8226-0a9a-48bb-81de-d0b95ed07f6f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a1f66c33ea3e4efcb14d7fa98c98e5cfca45e68c807d6a338d57d7ff6f208445", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "68 India : People and Economy\nCase Study \u2013 Integrated Tribal Development\nProject in Bharmaur* Region\nBharmaur tribal area comprises Bharmaur and\nHoli tehsils of Chamba district of Himachal\nPradesh. It is a notified tribal area since\n21 November 1975. Bharmaur is inhabited by\n\u2018Gaddi \u2019, a tribal community who have\nmaintained a distinct identity in the Himalayan\nregion as they practised transhumance and\nconversed through Gaddi ali dialect.\nBharmaur tribal region has harsh climate\nconditions, low resource base and fragile\nenvironment. These factors have influenced the\nsociety and Economy of the region. According\nto the 2011 census, the total population of\nBharmaur sub-division was 39,113 i.e., 21\npersons per sq km. It is one of the most\n(economically  and socially) backward areas of\nHimachal Pradesh. Historically, the Gaddis\nhave experienced geographical and political\nisolation and socio-economic deprivation. The\neconomy is largely based on agriculture and\nallied activities s uch as sheep and goat rearing.\nThe process of development of tribal area\nof Bharmaur started in 1970s when Gaddis\nwere included among \u2018 scheduled tribes \u2019.  Under\nFig. 6.1\n*The name Bhar maur is derived from Sanskrit wor d Brahmaur . In this book Bhar maur has been used to\nretain the colloquial flavour .the Fifth Five Y ear Plan, the tribal sub-plan was\nintroduced in 1974 and Bharmaur was\ndesignated as one of the five Integrated T ribal\nDevelopment Projects (ITDP) in Himachal\nPradesh. This area dev elopment plan was aimed\nat improving the quality of life of the GaddisThis region lies between 32\u00b0 1 1\u2019 N and\n32\u00b041\u2019 N latitudes and 76\u00b0 22\u2019 E and 76\u00b0\n53\u2019E longitudes. Spread over an area of\nabout 1,818 sq km, the region mostly lies\nbetween 1,500 m to 3,700 m above the\nmean sea level. This region popularly\nknown as the homeland of Gaddis is\nsurrounded by lofty mountains on all sides.\nIt has Pir Panjal  in the north and Dhaula\nDhar  in the south. In the east, the\nextension of Dhaula Dhar  converges with\nPir Panjal near Rohtang Pass . The river\nRavi and its tributaries\u2013 the Budhil  and the\nTundahen, drain this territory , and carve\nout deep gorges. These rivers divide the\nregion into four physiographic divisions\ncalled Holi, Khani , Kugti and Tundah  areas.\nBharmaur experiences freezing weather\nconditions and snowfall in winter . Its mean\nmonthly temperature in January remains\n4\u00b0C and in July 26\u00b0C.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2421, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3cc23679-f58d-42b5-8efd-3fca22907a08": {"__data__": {"id_": "3cc23679-f58d-42b5-8efd-3fca22907a08", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "85feaf2a-5de6-4879-a722-013de5730a7f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5f5690cff5c7ade8eb2d440d07c1feae50969ac36bc999a49981b32a8e661a65", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context      69\nFig. 6.2\nand narrowing the gap in the level of\ndevelopment between Bharmaur and other\nareas of Himachal Pradesh.  This plan laid the\nhighest priority on development of transport\nand communications, agriculture and allied\nactivities, and social and community services.The most significant contribution of tribal\nsub-plan in Bharmaur region is the development\nof infrastructure in terms of schools, healthcare\nfacilities, potable water , roads, communications\nand electricity.  But the villages located along the\nriver Ravi in Holi and Khani areas are the main\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 642, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "44a61a88-544f-43b7-a9ed-d3ab88c98fc9": {"__data__": {"id_": "44a61a88-544f-43b7-a9ed-d3ab88c98fc9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "deda06b2-049f-4ef9-9f7b-81585ff31232", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1b43f1cdbc6c4b41c623fc2b44dc1b8309a46db3ab9bf04b46cbd49b0c728ef4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "70 India : People and Economy\nbeneficiaries of infrastructural development. The\nremote villages in Tundah and Kugti areas still\ndo not have sufficient infrastructure.\nThe social benefits derived from ITDP\ninclude tremendous increase in literacy rate,\nimprovement in sex ratio and decline in child\nmarriage.  The female literacy rate in the region\nincreased from 1.88 per cent in 1971 to 65 per\ncent in 2011.  The difference between males and\nfemales in literacy level i.e. gender inequality,\nhas also declined. T raditionally, the Gaddis  had\nsubsistence agricultural-cum-pastoral\neconomy having emphasis on foodgrains and\nlivestock production. But during the last three\ndecades of twentieth century, the cultivation of\npulses and other cash crops has increased in\nBharmaur region.  But the crop cultivation is\nstill done with traditional technology. The\ndeclining importance of pastoralism in the\neconomy of the region can be gauged from the\nfact that at present only about one-tenth of the\ntotal households practise transhumance. But\nthe Gaddis  are still very mobile as a sizeable\nsection of them migrate to Kangra and\nsurrounding areas during winter to earn their\nlivings fr om wage labour .\nSustainable DevelopmentSustainable DevelopmentSustainable DevelopmentSustainable DevelopmentSustainable Development\nThe term development is generally used to\ndescribe the state of particular societies and the\nprocess of changes experienced by them.\nDuring a fairly large period of human history,\nthe state of the societies has largely been\ndetermined by the interaction processes\nbetween human societies and their bio-physical\nenvironment. The processes of human-\nenvironment interaction depend upon the level\nof technology and institutions nurtured by a\nsociety. While the technology and institutions\nhave helped in increasing the pace of human-\nenvironment interaction, the momentum thus,\ngenerated in return has accelerated\ntechnological progress and transformation and\ncreation of institutions.  Hence, development is\na multi-dimensional concept and signifies the\npositive, irreversible transformation of the\neconomy, society and environment.\nThe concept of development is dynamic and\nhas evolved during the second half of twentiethcentury. In the post W orld W ar II era, the concept\nof development was synonymous to economic\ngrowth which is measured in terms of temporal\nincrease in gross national product (GNP) and per\ncapita income/per capita consumption. But,\neven the countries having high economic growth,\nexperienced speedy rise in poverty because of\nits unequal distribution.  So, in 1970s, the\nphrases such as redistribution with growth  and\ngrowth and equity  were incorporated in the\ndefinition of development. While dealing with the\nquestions related to redistribution and equity,\nit was realised that the concept of development\ncannot be restricted to the economic sphere\nalone. It also includes the issues such as\nimproving the well-being and living standard of\npeople, availing of the health, education and\nequality of opportunity and ensuring political\nand civil rights. By 1980s, development emerged\nas a concept encapsulating wide-spread\nimprovement in social as well as material well-\nbeing of all in a society.\nThe notion of sustainable development\nemerged in the wake of general rise in the\nawareness of environmental issues in the late\n1960s in W estern World. It r eflected the concer n\nof people about undesirable effects of industrial\ndevelopment on the environment. The publication\nof \u2018The Population Bomb \u2019 by Ehrlich  in 1968\nand \u2018The Limits to Growth \u2019 by \nMeadows  and\nothers in 1972 further raised the level of fear\namong environmentalists in particular and people\nin general. This sets the scenario for the\nemergence of new models of development under\na broad phrase \u2018 sustainable development. \u2019\nConcerned with the growing opinion of world\ncommunity on the environmental issues, the\nUnited Nations established a World Commission\non Environment and Development  (WCED)\nheaded by the Norwegian Prime Minister Gro\nHarlem Brundtland. The Commission gave its\nreport (also known as Brundtland Report ) entitled\n\u2018Our Common Future \u2019 in 1987. The report defines\nsustainable development as a \u201c development that\nmeets the needs of the present without\ncompromising the ability of future generations\nto meet their own needs. \u201d\nSustainable development takes care of\necological, social and economic aspects of\ndevelopment during the present times and pleads\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 4497, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "46cb753c-ef54-461f-8b71-21d35af40797": {"__data__": {"id_": "46cb753c-ef54-461f-8b71-21d35af40797", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "54e5a296-ec60-4b51-9a11-1c44eee29a47", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5994cace65136abdea15dae9c93663cea01a10bdca5b1b2587bdc2942c7410ae", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context      71\nFig. 6.3\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 92, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bd44b715-a2f7-4e14-8d7b-ef0ac73976cb": {"__data__": {"id_": "bd44b715-a2f7-4e14-8d7b-ef0ac73976cb", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e152b1e9-e2b9-45e3-a6ac-b161fef5b0dd", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ba39dec0a9cf23eb5564bec4ca98fadfaa4ea47b3273d0bb6febb4332cc42b5d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "72 India : People and Economy\nfor conservation of resources to enable the future\ngenerations to use these resources. It takes into\naccount the development of whole  human kind\nwhich have common future.\nCase Study\nIndira Gandhi Canal (Nahar) Command\nArea\nIndira Gandhi Canal, previously known as the\nRajasthan Canal, is one of the largest canal\nsystems in India. Conceived by Kanwar Sain\nin 1948, the canal project was launched on 31\nMarch, 1958.  The canal originates at Harike\nbarrage in Punjab and runs parallel to\nPakistan border at an average distance of 40\nkm in Thar Desert (Marusthali) of Rajasthan.\nThe total planned length of the system is 9,060\nkm catering to the irrigation needs of a total\nculturable command area of 19.63 lakh\nhectares. Out of the total command area, about\n70 per cent was envisaged to be irrigated by\nflow system and the rest by lift system. The\nconstruction work of the canal system has been\ncarried out through two stages. The command\narea of Stage-I lies in Ganganagar ,\nHanumangarh and northern part of Bikaner\ndistricts.  It has a gently undulating topography\nand its culturable command area is 5.53 lakh\nhectares. The command area of Stage-II is spread\nover Bikaner , Jaisalmer , Bar mer, Jodhpur ,\nNagaur and Churu districts covering culturable\ncommand area of 14.10 lakh ha. It comprises\ndesert land dotted with shifting sand dunes and\ntemperature soaring to 50\u00baC in summers. In the\nlift canal , the water is lifted up to make it to flowagainst the slope of the land.  All the lift canals\nof Indira Gandhi Canal system originate at the\nleft bank of main canal while all the canals on\nthe right bank of main canal are flow channels.\nIrrigation in Stage-I command area of the\ncanal was introduced in early 1960s,\nwhereas, the command area of Stage-II began\nreceiving irrigation in mid-1980s. The\nintroduction of canal irrigation in this dry\nland has transformed its ecology, economy\nand society. It has influenced the\nenvironmental conditions of the region both\npositively as well as negatively. The\navailability of soil moisture for a longer period\nof time and various afforestation and pasture\ndevelopment programmes under CAD have\nresulted in greening the land. This has also\nhelped in reducing wind erosion and siltation\nof canal sys tems. But the intensive irrigation\nand excessive use of water has led to the\nemergence of twin environmental problems\nof waterlogging and soil salinity.\nIntroduction of canal irrigation has\nbrought about a perceptible transformation in\nthe agricultural economy of the region. Soil\nmoisture has been a limiting factor in\nsuccessful growing of crops in this area.\nSpread of canal irrigation has led to increase\nin cultivated area and intensity of cropping.\nThe traditional crops sown in the area, gram,\nbajra and jowar have been replaced by wheat,\ncotton, groundnut and rice. This is the resu lt\nof intensive irrigation. This intensive irrigation,\nno doubt, initially has led to tremendous\nincrease in agricultural and livestock\nproductivity.  This has also caused waterloggingFig. 6.5 : Indira Gandhi Canal and its adjoining areas\n Fig. 6.4: Indira Gandhi Canal\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3156, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "032a1ac1-fc21-46ff-84eb-75e6d07db3a5": {"__data__": {"id_": "032a1ac1-fc21-46ff-84eb-75e6d07db3a5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "65c5657b-adc8-42d9-8d11-6a417ab4b070", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b2a136601993785549dab299e732018499ac0d8897b2a6fa315a2babb15be042", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context      73\nand soil salinity, and thus, in the long run, it\nhampers the sustainability of agriculture.\nMeasures for Promotion of Sustainable\nDevelopment\nThe ecological sustainability of Indira Gandhi\nCanal Project has been questioned by various\nscholars. Their point of view has also largely\nbeen validated by the course of development\nthis region has taken during the last four\ndecades, which has resulted in degradation\nof physical environment. It is a hard fact that\nattaining sustainable development in the\ncommand area requires major thrust upon\nthe measures to achieve ecological\nsustainability. Hence, five of the seven\nmeasures proposed to promote sustainable\ndevelopment in the command area are meant\nto restore ecological balance.\n(i)The first requirement is strict\nimplementation of water management\npolicy.  The canal project envisages\nprotective irrigation in Stage-I and\nextensive irrigation of crops and pasture\ndevelopment in Stage-II.\n(ii)In general, the cropping pattern shall not\ninclude water intensive crops. It shall be\nadhered to and people shall be\nencouraged to grow plantation crops such\nas citrus fruits.(iii)The CAD programmes such as lining of\nwater courses, land development and\nlevelling and warabandi  system (equal\ndistribution of canal water in the\ncommand area of outlet) shall be\neffectively implemented to reduce the\nconveyance loss of water .\n(iv)The areas affected by water logging and\nsoil salinity shall be reclaimed.\n(v)The eco-development through\nafforestation, shelterbelt plantation and\npasture development is necessary\nparticularly in the fragile environment of\nStage-II.\n(vi)The social sustainability in the region can\nbe achieved only if the land allottees\nhaving poor economic background are\nprovided adequate financial and\ninstitutional support for cultivation of\nland.\n(vii)The economic sustainability in the region\ncannot be attained only through\ndevelopment of agriculture and animal\nhusbandry. The agricultural and allied\nactivities have to develop alongwith other\nsectors of economy. This shall lead to\ndiversification of economic base and\nestablishment of functional linkages\nbetween basic villages, agro-service\ncentres and market centres.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2269, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6cf50116-0571-4943-bbbd-d72a623545ed": {"__data__": {"id_": "6cf50116-0571-4943-bbbd-d72a623545ed", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "24e6e4d1-31ad-4583-b4fb-5378a06cb73c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "legy206.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy206.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1184538, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "71c9d0a93c83f239b81f4ed5e75851efcba5dac71115ef06d415d2676b4f14b2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "74 India : People and Economy\nEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISES\n1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.\n(i) Regional planning relates to :\n(a) Development of various sectors of economy.\n(b) Area specific approach of development.\n(c) Area differences in transportation network.\n(d) Development of rural areas.\n(ii) ITDP refers to which one of the following?\n(a) Integrated Tourism Development Programme\n(b) Integrated Travel Development Programme\n(c) Integrated Tribal Development Programme\n(d) Integrated Transport Development Programme\n(iii) Which one of the following is the most crucial factor for sustainable\ndevelopment in Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area?\n(a) Agricultural development\n(b) Eco-development\n(c) Transport development\n(d) Colonisation of land\n2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.\n(i) What are the social benefits of ITDP in the Bharmaur tribal region?\n(ii) Define the concept of sustainable development.\n(iii) What are the positive impacts of irrigation on Indira Gandhi Canal\nCommand Area?\n3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.\n(i) Write short notes on dr ought-pr one ar ea pr ogramme. How does this\nprogramme help in the development of dryland agriculture in India?\n(ii) Suggest the measures of promotion of sustainability in Indira Gandhi\nCanal Command Area.\nProjectProjectProjectProjectProject\n(i) Find out the area development programmes being implemented in your\nregion. Assess the impact of such programmes on the society and economy\nin your locality.\n(ii) Select your own area or identify an area facing severe environmental\nand socio-economic problems. Make an assessment of its resources and\nprepare their inventory. Suggest the measures for its sustainable\ndevelopment as it has been done in the case of Indira Gandhi Canal\nCommand Area.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1862, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "366983a1-7849-47a6-a3f6-41ec042ccf49": {"__data__": {"id_": "366983a1-7849-47a6-a3f6-41ec042ccf49", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5085cb7f-42a5-4a54-b38c-3d9ccb3da402", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6615c59bba5d786a0673d1298179c375df6a8b063c24fd0294dcf4fc2151bfce", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Unit IV Unit IVUnit IV Unit IVUnit IV\nChapter 7\nTRANSPORT AND\nCOMMUNICATIONWe use many items in our daily life. Fr om\ntoothpaste to our bed tea, milk, clothes, soaps,\nfood items, etc., are required every day. All these\ncan be purchased from the market. Have you\never thought as to how these items are brought\nfrom the site of production? All the production\nis meant for consumption. From the fields and\nfactory, the produce is brought to the place from\nwhere consumers purchase it. It is the\ntransportation of these items from the site of\ntheir production to the market which make\nthem available to the consumer .\nWe not only use material things, like fruits,\nvegetables, books, clothes, etc., but also use\nideas, views and messages in our daily life. Do\nyou know we exchange our views, ideas and\nmessages from one place to another or one\nindividual to another while communicating with\nthe help of various means?\nThe use of transport and communication\ndepends upon our need to move things from\nplace of their availability to the place of their\nuse. Human beings use various methods to\nmove goods, commodities, ideas from one place\nto another .\nThe following diagram shows the major\nmeans of transportation.\nLand T Land TLand T Land TLand T rrr rranspor ansporanspor ansporanspor t tt tt\nThe pathways and unmetalled roads have been\nused for transportation in India since ancient\ntimes. With the economic and technological\ndevelopment, metalled roads and railways were\ndeveloped to move large volume of goods and\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1531, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "21045a95-9440-4407-8e7a-a3ee32f7b70f": {"__data__": {"id_": "21045a95-9440-4407-8e7a-a3ee32f7b70f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c90a472c-3679-4d26-b98a-303b9f33488e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "941205cff48b67ce68b58c999cf1e3df975d97b4c801fb758217c941222c70d6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "76 India : People and Economy\npeople fr om one place to another . Ropeways,\ncableways and pipelines were devised to cater\nto the demands of transporting specific goods\nunder special circumstances.\nRoad Transport\nIndia has one of the second largest road networks\nin the world with a total length of about 62.16\nlakh km ( morth.nic.in, Annual Report  2020-21).the princely states and British India. After\nIndependence, twenty-year road plan (1961) was\nintroduced to improve the conditions of roads in\nIndia. However , roads continue to concentrate in\nand around urban centres. Rural and remote\nareas had the least connectivity by road.\nFor the purpose of construction and\nmaintenance, roads are classified as National\nHighways (NH), State Highways(SH), Major\nDistrict Roads and Rural Roads.\nAbout 85 per cent of passenger and 70 per cent\nof freight traf fic are carried by r oads every year .\nRoad transport is relatively suitable for shorter\ndistance travel.\nSher Shah Suri built the Shahi (Royal) road to\nstrengthen and consolidate his empire from the\nIndus V alley to the Sonar V alley in Bengal. This\nroad was renamed the Grand T runk (GT) road\nduring the British period, connecting Calcutta and\nPeshawar . At present, it extends from Amritsar\nto Kolkata.Nation al Highways\nThe main roads which are constructed and\nmaintained by the Central Government are\nknown as the National Highways. These roads\nare meant for inter -state transport and\nmovement of defence men and material in\nstrategic areas. These also connect the state\ncapitals, major cities, important ports, railway\njunctions, etc. The length of the National\nHighways has increased from 19,700 km in\n1951 to 1,36,440 km in 2020. The National\nHighways constitute only about 2 per cent of\nthe total road length but carry 40 per cent of\nthe road traffic.\nThe National Highways Authority of India\n(NHAI) was operationalised in 1995. It is an\nautonomous body under the Ministry of\nSurface T ransport. It is entrusted with the\nresponsibility of development, maintenance\nand operation of National Highways. This is also\nthe apex body to improve the quality of the roads\ndesignated as National Highways.\nA view of traffic flow in DelhiRain-soaked : Nomads go about their routine during an early morning\ndownpour in Srinagar . Traffic on the 300-km Srinagar -Jammu and 434-\nkm Srinagar-Leh National Highways is suspended as upper reaches of\nJ&K saw heavy snowfall while rain lashed the plains.\nFig. 7.1\nCollect information about National Highway number (old and\nnew) from the website morth.nic.in/national-highway-details.\nRoad transport in modern sense was very\nlimited in India befor e World W ar-II. The first\nserious attempt was made in 1943 when \u2018Nagpur\nPlan\u2019 was drawn. This plan could not be\nimplemented due to lack of coordination among\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2818, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "89e972a0-bd0b-4dd5-ac25-486c0c00705a": {"__data__": {"id_": "89e972a0-bd0b-4dd5-ac25-486c0c00705a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fb885c20-246a-44d4-afbd-3445ca55e097", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c49cdd5851a6903573e78483ed2c52559b553877036114e372af91f887d4e1d4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Transport and Communication      77\nSerial No. Road Category Length in Km\n1. National Highways  136440\n2. State Highways  176818\n3. Other Roads   5902539\nTotal 6215797Table 7.1 : India Road Network 2020\nNational HighwaysNational HighwaysNational HighwaysNational HighwaysNational Highways\nDevelopment ProjectsDevelopment ProjectsDevelopment ProjectsDevelopment ProjectsDevelopment Projects\nNHAI h as taken up some major projects in\nthe  country under different phases :\nGolden Quadrilateral :  It comprises\nconstruction of 5,846-km long 4/6 lane, high\ndensity traf fic corridor , to connect India\u2019 s four\nbig metro cities of Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai-\nKolkata. With the construction of Golden\nQuadrilateral, the time, distance and cost\nof movement among the mega cities of India\nwill be considerably minimised.\nNorth-South and East-West Corridors :\nNorth-South corridor aims at connect ing\nSrinagar in Jammu and Kashmir with\nKanniyakumari in Tamil Nadu (including\nKochchi-Salem Spur) with 4,076-km long\nroad. The E ast-West Corridor has been planned\nto connect Silchar in Assam with the port town\nof Porbandar in Gujarat with 3 ,640-km of\nroad length .Rural Roads\nThese roads are vital for providing links in the\nrural areas. About 80 per cent of the total road\nlength in India are categorised as rural roads.\nThere is regional variation in the density of rural\nroad because these are influenced by the nature\nof the terrain.\nState Highways\nThese are constructed and maintained by state\ngovernments. They join the state capitals with\ndistrict headquarters and other important\ntowns. These roads are connected to the\nNational Highways. These constitute 4 per cent\nof total road length in the country.\nDistrict Roads\nThese roads are the connecting link between\nDistrict Headquarters and the other important\nnodes in the district. They account for 14 per\ncent of the total road length of the country.\nFig. 7.2 : Road constructed under the Pradhan\nMantri Gram Sadak Yojna\nWhy are the rural roads\u2019 density very low\nin hilly , plateau and forested areas? Why\ndoes the quality of rural roads deteriorate\naway from the urban centres?Source: Ministry of Road T ransport and Highways Annual Report 20 20-21 . For latest data see website morth.nic.in\nOther Roads\nOther roads include Border Roads and\nInternational Highways. The Border Road\nOrganisation (BRO) was established in May\n1960 for accelerating economic development\nand strengthening defence preparedness\nthrough rapid and coordinated improvement\nof strategically important roads along the\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2553, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "33705ed5-1b1b-42ce-905b-b20d536b7960": {"__data__": {"id_": "33705ed5-1b1b-42ce-905b-b20d536b7960", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ef1c0a99-78b7-45ee-ac03-131c28e55bf7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1dee394e64f9eb74461fb1aec47d3d4f090845cca4709c739ad034c33c51020a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "78 India : People and Economy\nnorthern and north-eastern boundary of the\ncountry. It is a premier multifaceted\nconstruction agency. It has constructed roads\nin high altitude mountainous terrain joining\nChandigarh with Manali (Himachal Pradesh)\nand Leh (Ladakh). This road runs at an\naverage altitude of 4,270 metres above the\nmean sea level.\nFig. 7.4 : A Bus from Lahore  to Delhi at W agah Bor derFig. 7.5 : Aman Setu between Srinagar  and\nMuzaffarabadDelhi-Lahore BusFig. 7.3 : Khardung La Pass in Jammu & KashmirApart from the construction and\nmaintenance of roads in strategically sensitive\nareas, the BRO also undertakes snow clearance\nin high altitude areas. The international\nhighways are meant to promote the harmonious\nrelationship with the neighbouring countries\nby providing effective links with India. (Fig. 7.4\nand 7.5)\nThe World\u2019s longest Highway\ntunnel \u2014 Atal T unnel  (9.02 Km)\nhas been built by Border Road\nOrganisation. This tunnel connects\nManali to Lahaul-Spiti valley\nthroughout the year . Earlier the\nvalley was cut off for about 6 months\neach year owing to heavy snowfall.\nThe Tunnel is built with ultra-modern\nspecifications in the Pir Panjal\nrange of Himalayas at an altitude\nof 3000 metres from the Mean Sea\nLevel (MSL).\nSource: http://www .bro.gov .in/\npagefimg.asp?imid=144, And PIB\nDelhi 03 October 2020\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1353, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c3f0652b-041b-47fc-ab44-598761cc6ee7": {"__data__": {"id_": "c3f0652b-041b-47fc-ab44-598761cc6ee7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3104a039-62c3-4e10-a9a6-b5fd09bf760e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5a92d342df0cfa7342f4e51b98b2f542194ac3751809b37f4b08ea6041ff0625", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Transport and Communication      79\nTable 7.2 : Indian Railways:\nRailway Zones and Headquarters\nRailway Zone Headquarters\nCentral Mumbai CST\nEastern Kolkata\nEast Central Hajipur\nEast Coast Bhubaneswar\nNorthern New Delhi\nNorth Central Allahabad\nNorth Eastern Gorakhpur\nNorth East Frontier Maligaon (Guwahati)\nNorth W estern Jaipur\nSouthern Chennai\nSouth Central Secunderabad\nSouth Eastern Kolkata\nSouth East Central Bilaspur\nSouth W estern Hubli\nWestern Mumbai (Church Gate)\nWest Central Jabalpur\nWhy have Bengaluru and Hyderabad in the South and\nDelhi, Kanpur and Patna in north India have emerged\nas important nodes?\nBharatmala is a propos ed umbrella scheme for:\n(i)Development of State roads along coastal\nborder areas, including connectivity of non-\nmajor ports;\n(ii)Backward areas religious and tourist places\nconnectivity programme;\n(iii)Setubharatam Pariyojana , which is for the\nconsruction of about 1500 major bridges and\n200 rail over bridges rail under bridges; District\nHeadquarters connectivity Scheme for the\ndevelopment of about 9000 km newly declared\nNational Highways .\nThe programme is targeted for completion by 2022.\nSource: Economic Survey 2015-16 pp.146.\nRail Transport\nIndian Railways, network is one of the longest\nin the world. It facilitates the movement of both\nfreight and passengers and contributes to the\ngrowth of the economy. Mahatma Gandhi said,\nthe Indian railways  \u201c...brought people of\ndiverse cultures together to contribute to\nIndia\u2019s freedom struggle\u201d.\nIndian Railway was introduced in 1853,\nwhen a line was constructed from Bombay to\nThane covering a distance of 34 km.\nIndian Railways is the largest government\nundertaking in the country. The length of Indian\nRailways network was 67,956 km (Railway\nyearbook 2019-20). Its very large size puts a\nlot of pressure on a centralised railway\nmanagement system. Thus, in India, the railway\nsystem has been divided into 16 zones.\nOn the basis of the width of track of the Indian\nRailways, three categories have been made:\nBroad gauge: The distance between rails in\nbroad gauge is 1.676  metre. The total length of\nbroad gauge lines was 63950 km (2019-20).\nMetre gauge: The distance between rails\nis one metre. Its total length was 2402 km\n(2019-20).\nNarrow gauge: The distance between the rails\nin this case is 0.762 metre or 0.610 metre. The\ntotal length of narrow guage was 1604 km\n(2019-20). It is generally confined to hilly areas .\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2441, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "72341f40-7cc4-4105-a83a-2d9dfc682289": {"__data__": {"id_": "72341f40-7cc4-4105-a83a-2d9dfc682289", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0d8d11b5-87bd-4eaf-9caa-eef2cbaf1e26", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b09eeb93e3b391070fea0ea57da4fac5a13cbee5b35af5d7fcaf85cbea10ab4f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "80 India : People and Economy\nFig. 7.6 : River navigation in the North-eastIndian Railways has launched extensive\nprogramme to convert the metre and narrow\ngauges to br oad gauge. Mor eover , steam\nengines have been replaced by diesel and\nelectric engines. This step has increased the\nspeed, as well as, the haulage capacity.\nThe replacement of steam engines run by\ncoal has also improved the environment of the\nstations.\nMetro rail has revolutionlised the urban\ntransport system in India. Replacement of diesel\nbuses by CNG-run vehicles along with the\nintroduction of metro is a welcome step towards\ncontrolling the air pollution in urban centres.Areas around towns, raw material\nproducing areas and of plantations and other\ncommercial crops, hill stations and cantonment\ntowns were well-connected by railways from the\nBritish colonial era. These were mostly\ndeveloped for the exploitation of resources. After\nthe Independence of the country, railway routes\nhave been extended to other areas too. The most\nsignificant development has been the\ndevelopment of Konkan Railway along the\nwestern coast providing a direct link between\nMumbai and Mangaluru.\nRailway continues to remain the main means\nof transport for the masses. Railway network is\nrelatively less dense in the hill states, north eastern\nstates, central parts of India and Rajasthan.\nWater T ransport\nWaterways is an important mode of transport\nfor both passenger and cargo traffic in India. It\nis the cheapest means of transport and is most\nsuitable for carrying heavy and bulky material.\nIt is a fuel-efficient and eco-friendly mode of\ntransport. The water transport is of two types\u2013\n(a) inland waterways, and (b) oceanic waterways.\nInland W aterways\nIt was the chief mode of transport before the\nadvent of railways. It, however , faced tough\ncompetition from road and railway transport.\nMoreover , diversion of river water for irrigation\npurposes made them non-navigable in large\nKonkan RailwayKonkan RailwayKonkan RailwayKonkan RailwayKonkan Railway\nOne of the important achievements of the\nIndian Railways has been the construction\nof Konkan Railway in 1998. It is 760-km\nlong rail route connecting Roha in\nMaharashtra to Mangalore in Karnataka.\nIt is considered an engineering marvel. It\ncrosses 146 rivers, streams, nearly 2000\nbridges and 91 tunnels. Asia\u2019 s largest\ntunnel which is nearly 6.5 km long, also\nlies on this route. The states of\nMaharashtra, Goa and Karnataka are\npartners in this undertaking.Which cities of India have Metro Rail Facility? Collect\ninformation about it and discuss in the classroom.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2602, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "99c9dd83-8aab-461c-a06b-64ca0022cf03": {"__data__": {"id_": "99c9dd83-8aab-461c-a06b-64ca0022cf03", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6b821ef9-df15-4fae-aa21-f454550c24c8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e8ec9297bbf2fea4923fb7015b8e7b5b4bd8b92d526bce98e70d2ccbd43debb0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Transport and Communication      81\nFig. 7.7 : Natinal W aterway No.3\nTable 7.3:1 National W aterways of India\nWaterways Stretch Specification\nNW 1 Allahabad-Haldia\nstretch (1,620 km)It is one of the most important waterways in\nIndia, which is navigable by mechanical boats\nup to Patna and by ordinary boats up to\nHaridwar . It is divided into thr ee parts for\ndevelopmental purposes\u2013 (i) Haldia-Farakka (560\nkm), (ii) Farakka-Patna (460 km), (iii) Patna-\nAllahabad (600 km).\nNW 2 Sadiya-Dhubri stretch\n(891 km)Brahmaputra is navigable by steamers up to\nDibrugarh (1,384 km) which is shared by India\nand Bangladesh\nNW 3 Kottapuram-Kollam\nstretch (205 km)It includes 168 km of west coast canal along\nwith Champakara canal (14 km) and\nUdyogmandal canal (23 km).\nNW 4 Specified streches of Godavari and Krishna rivers along with Kakinada\nPuducherry stretch of canals (1078 km)\nNW 5 Specified str etches of river Brahmani along with Matai river , delta channels\nof Mahanadi and Brahmani rivers and East Coast canals (588km).parts of their courses. India has 14,500 km of\nnavigable waterways, contributing about 1%\nto the country\u2019s transportation. It comprises\nrivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, etc. At\npresent, 5,685 km of major rivers are navigable\nby mechanised flat bottom vessels.For the development, maintenance and\nregulation of national waterways in the country,\nthe Inland W aterways Authority was set up in\n1986. The following waterways have been\ndeclar ed as the National W aterways by the\nGovernment (Table 7.3).\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1542, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f8635569-30fb-4b99-83f6-c7453706ec72": {"__data__": {"id_": "f8635569-30fb-4b99-83f6-c7453706ec72", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2a157381-8693-4000-9305-5877f966c65a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d2fb635e83d631cfea6c1288a223038a4eddca78e807d70995af9b2a13cdb3c5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "82 India : People and Economy\nIn addition, Pawan Hans Limited mainly\nprovides helicopter services to petroleum sector\nand for tourism.\nOil and Gas PipelinesOil and Gas PipelinesOil and Gas PipelinesOil and Gas PipelinesOil and Gas Pipelines\nPipelines are the most convenient and efficient\nmode of transporting liquids and gases over\nlong distances. Even solids can also be\ntransported by pipelines after converting them\ninto slurry. Oil India Limited (OIL) under the\nadministrative set up of the Ministry of\nPetroleum and Natural Gas is engaged in the\nexploration, production and transportation of\ncrude oil and natural gas. It was incorporated\nin 1959 as a company. Asia\u2019s first cross country\npipeline covering a distance of 1,157 km was\nconstructed by OIL from Naharkatiya oilfield\nin Assam to Barauni refinery in Bihar . It was\nfurther extended up to Kanpur in 1966. GAIL\n(India) Ltd. was set up  in 1984 as a public\nsector undertaking to transport, process and\nmarket natural gas for its economic use. The\nfirst 1,700 km long Hazira-V ijaipur -\nJagdishpur (HVJ) cross country gas pipeline,\nconstructed by GAIL (India), linked Mumbai\nHigh and Bassein gas fields with various\nfertiliser , power and industrial complexes in\nwestern and northern India. This artery\nprovided impetus to Indian gas market\ndevelopment. Overall, India\u2019s gas infrastructure\nhas expanded over ten times from 1,700 km to\n18,500 km of cross-country pipelines and is\nexpected to soon reach over 34,000 km as Gas\nGrid by linking all the gas sources and\nconsuming markets across the country\nincluding North Eastern States.\nCommunication NetworksCommunication NetworksCommunication NetworksCommunication NetworksCommunication Networks\nHuman beings have evolved different methods\nof communication over time. In earlier times,\nthe messages were delivered by beating the\ndrum or hollow tree trunks, giving indicationsThe Inland W aterways Authority has also\nidentified 10 other inland waterways, which\ncould be upgraded. The backwaters (Kadal) of\nKerala has special significance in Inland\nWaterway. Apart fr om pr oviding cheap means\nof transport, they are also  attracting a large\nnumber of tourists in Kerala. The famous Nehru\nTrophy Boat Race (V ALLAMKALI) is also held\nin the backwaters.\nOceanic Routes\nIndia has a vast coastline of approximate 7,517\nkm, including islands. Twelve major and 185\nminor ports provide infrastructural support to\nthese routes. Oceanic routes play an important\nrole in the transport sector of India\u2019s economy.\nApproximately 95 per cent of India\u2019s foreign\ntrade by volume and 70 per cent by value moves\nthrough ocean routes. Apart from international\ntrade, these are also used for the purpose of\ntransportation between the islands and the rest\nof the country.\nAir Tran sportation\nAir transport  is the fastest means of movement\nfrom one place to the other . It has r educed\ndistances by minimising the travel time. It is\nessential for a vast  country like India, where\ndistances are large and the terrain and climatic\nconditions are diverse.\nAir transport in India made a beginning\nin 1911 when airmail operation commenced\nover a little distance of 10 km between\nAllahabad and Naini. But its real development\ntook place in post-Independent period. The\nAirport Authority of India is responsible for\nproviding safe, efficient air traffic and\naeronautical communication services in the\nIndian Air Space. The authority manages 125\nairports.\nPawan Hans is the helicopter service\noperating in hilly areas and is widely used by\ntourists in north-easter n sector .\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3576, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fce70415-2b07-4b89-b2dd-eaa617a4a090": {"__data__": {"id_": "fce70415-2b07-4b89-b2dd-eaa617a4a090", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b2c5704c-f4f5-4921-8e4e-8a47ae78820f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8b48e9ad51ed878982a4978bd0cc69a3e95c331a291d1c4c67c7abf31756a59a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Transport and Communication      83\nthrough smoke or fire or with the help of fast\nrunners. Horses, camels, dogs, birds and other\nanimals were also used to send messages.\nInitially, the means of communication were also\nthe means of transportation. Invention of post-\noffice, telegraph, printing press, telephone,\nsatellite, etc has made the communication much\nfaster and easier . Development in the field of\nscience and technology has significantly\ncontributed in bringing about revolution in the\nfield of communication.\nPeople use different modes of\ncommunication to convey the messages. On the\nbasis of scale and quality, the mode of\ncommunication can be divided into following\ncategories :\nPersonal Communication System\nAmong all the personal communication system\ninternet is the most effective and advanced one.\nIt is widely used in urban areas. It enables the\nuser to establish direct contact through e-mail\nto get access to the world of knowledge and\ninformation. It is increasingly used for e-\ncommerce and carrying out money\ntransactions. The internet is like a huge central\nwarehouse of data, with detailed information\non various items. The network through internet\nand e-mail provides an efficient access to\ninformation at a comparatively low cost. It\nenables us with the basic facilities of direct\ncommunication.\nMass Communication System\nRadio\nRadio broadcasting started in India in 1923 by\nthe Radio Club of Bombay. Since then, it gained\nimmense popularity and changed the socio-\ncultural life of people. Within no time, it made a\nplace in every household of the country.\nGovernment took this opportunity and brought\nthis popular mode of communication under its\ncontrol in 1930 under the Indian Broadcasting\nSystem. It was changed to All India Radio in\n1936 and to Akashwani in 1957.\nAll India Radio broadcasts a variety of\nprogrammes related to information, education\nand entertainment. Special news bulletins are\nalso broadcast at specific occasions like session\nof parliament and state legislatures.\nTelevision (T .V.)\nTelevision broadcasting has emerged as the\nmost effective audio-visual medium for\ndisseminating information and educating\nmasses. Initially, the T .V. services wer e limited\nonly to the National Capital where it began in\n1959. After 1972, several other centres became\noperational. In 1976, TV was delinked from All\nIndia Radio (AIR) and got a separate identity\nas Door darshan (DD). After INSA T-IA (National\nTelevision-DD1) became operational, Common\nNational Programmes (CNP) were started for the\nentire network and its services were extended\nto the backward and remote rural areas.\nSatellite  Communication\nSatellites are mode of communication in\nthemselves as well as they regulate the use of\nother means of communication. However , use\nof satellite in getting a continuous and synoptic\nview of larger area has made satellite\ncommunication very vital for the country due\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2930, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6cde5032-5781-43db-b5e8-9dbcc6b968b7": {"__data__": {"id_": "6cde5032-5781-43db-b5e8-9dbcc6b968b7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "10", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f343835e-29f4-4baf-967b-abb25634c838", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "10", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d018e852eea7faef26fd64271162b7c6fb50351d954314bf8000381338d6ff8b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "84 India : People and Economy\nEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISES\n1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.\n(i) In how many zones has the Indian Railways system been divided?\n(a) 9 (c) 16\n(b) 12 (d) 14\n(ii) On which river and between which two places does the National W ater\nWay No. 1 lie?\n(a) The Brahmaputra, Sadiya-Dhubri\n(b) The Ganga, Haldia-Allahabad\n(c) West Coast Canal, Kottapuram to Kollam\n(iii) In which of the following year , the first radio pr ogramme was br oadcast?\n(a) 1911 (c) 1927\n(b) 1936 (d) 1923\n2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.\n(i) Which activity does transportation convey? Name three major modes of\ntransportation.\n(ii) Discuss advantages and disadvantages of pipeline transportation.\n(iii) What do you mean by \u2018communication\u2019?\nto the economic and strategic reasons. Satellite\nimages can be used for the weather forecast,\nmonitoring of natural calamities, surveillance\nof border areas, etc.\nOn the basis of configuration and purposes,\nsatellite system in India can be grouped into two:\nIndian National Satellite System (INSAT) and\nIndian Remote Sensing Satellite System (IRS).\nThe INSAT, which was established in 1983,is a\nmulti-purpose satellite system for\ntelecommunication, meteorological observation\nand for various other data and programmes.The IRS satellite system became\noperational with the launching of IRS-IA in\nMarch 1988 fr om V aikanour in Russia. India\nhas also developed her own Launching V ehicle\nPSLV (Polar Satellite Launch V ehicle). These\nsatellites collect data in several spectral bands\nand transmit them to the ground stations for\nvarious uses. The National Remote Sensing\nCentre (NRSC) at Hyderabad provides facilities\nfor acquisition of data and its processing. These\nare very useful in the management of natural\nresources.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1852, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4acc4a6f-efeb-49b0-82fb-a6df89421cae": {"__data__": {"id_": "4acc4a6f-efeb-49b0-82fb-a6df89421cae", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "11", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "249e5a07-20dd-46dc-859f-8c09a3363da0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "11", "file_name": "legy207.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy207.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1286224, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a540a92c8e3c7e82f0632914914bc84986b825e97d24d6c77fe58192f19040f3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Transport and Communication      85\n3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.\n(i) Which are the chief means of transportation in India? Discuss the factors\naffecting their development.\n(ii) Give a detailed account of the development of railways in India and\nhighlight their importance.\n(iii) Describe the role of roads in the economic development of India.\nProject ProjectProject ProjectProject\nFind out the facilities that Indian Railways provide to the passengers.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 499, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ed1a9f4b-a85d-4dfb-a6c7-bcc98fbd1384": {"__data__": {"id_": "ed1a9f4b-a85d-4dfb-a6c7-bcc98fbd1384", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "27e92125-3882-4d83-a1c6-4fe7175a78b6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "674c30505c64489b54cf698eb4462c7321c65ae73e8c30b2766256031e8df85f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "86 India : People and Economy\nUnit IV Unit IVUnit IV Unit IVUnit IV\nChapter 8\nINTERNATIONAL\nTRADEYou have already studied about the various\naspects of International trade in the book\nFundamentals of Human Geography .\nInternational Trade is mutually beneficial as\nno country is self-sufficient. India\u2019s\ninternational trade has undergone a sea change\nin recent years in terms of volume, composition\nas well as direction. Although India\u2019s\ncontribution in the world trade is as low as\none per cent of the total volume, yet it plays a\nsignificant role in the world economy.\nLet us examine the changing pattern of\nIndia\u2019s International trade. In 1950-51, India\u2019s\nexternal trade was worth Rs.1,214 crore, which\nrose to Rs. 44,29,762 crore in 2016-17. Can\nyou calculate the percentage growth in 2016-\n17 over 1950-51? There are numerous\nreasons for this sharp rise in overseas trade,\nsuch as the momentum picked up by the\nmanufacturing sectors, the liberal policies of\nthe government and the diversification of\nmarkets.\nThe nature of India\u2019s foreign trade has\nchanged over the years (Table 8.1). Though\nthere has been an increase in the total\nvolume of import and export, the value of\nimport continued to be higher than that of\nexports.\nChanging PChanging PChanging PChanging PChanging P a aaaattern of\nttern ofttern of ttern ofttern of  the  the the  the the\nComposition ofComposition ofComposition ofComposition ofComposition of  India\u2019  India\u2019 India\u2019  India\u2019 India\u2019 s Expor s Expors Expor s Expors Expor ts tsts tsts\nSource : Economic Survey, 2016-17\nFig. 8.1Extent of gap between Exports and Imports in India\u2019s\nforeign trade During 2012-13 to 2016-17\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1667, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "928c54a6-0eb9-425b-98d4-2c741a2c20e3": {"__data__": {"id_": "928c54a6-0eb9-425b-98d4-2c741a2c20e3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b4142b70-3bfe-40b8-aa33-cbc0d9ddb0c4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9428c552df538a06da6fc19fc835c778fc84bf9f1127d7ea9e42ea8eacf75920", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "International Trade      87\nEast Asian countries are our major competitors.\nGems and jewellery contributes a larger share\nof India\u2019s foreign trade.\nStudy Table 8.3 and select major commodities exported\nin 2016-17 and draw bar diagram.\nChanging Patterns of the Composition of\nIndia\u2019s Import\nIndia faced serious food shortage during\n1950s and 1960s. The major item of import\nat that time was foodgrain, capital goods,\nmachinery and equipment. The balance of\npayment was adverse as imports were more\nthan export in spite of all the efforts of import\nsubstitution. After 1970s, foodgrain import\nwas discontinued due to the success of Green\nrevolution but the energy crisis of 1973\npushed the prices of petroleum, and import\nDraw bar diagram to show the trends of exports of all items given in the table. Use pen/pencil of different colours.Table 8.1 India\u2019s For eign T rade\nValue in Rs. Cr ores\nSource : http://commerce.nic.in/publications/annual-report - 2010-11 and Economic Survey 2016-17Year Exports Imports    Trade Balance\n2004-05 3,75,340 5,01,065 -1,25,725\n2009-10 8,45,534 13,63,736 -5,18,202\n2013-14 19,05,011 27,15,434 -8,10,423\n2016-17 18,52,340 25,77,422 -7,25,082\nCommodities 2009-10 2010-11 2015-16 2016-17\nAgriculture and allied products 10.0 9.9 12.6 12.3\nOre and Minerals 4.9 4.0 1.6 1.9\nManufactured goods 67.4 68.0 72.9 73.6\nCrude and petroleum products 16.2 16.8 11.9 11.7\nOther commodities 1.5 1.2 1.1 0.5Table 8.2 : Composition of India\u2019s Export, 2009-2017\n(Percentage share in Exports)\nSource : Economic Survey 2016-17\nThe composition of commodities in\nIndia\u2019s international trade has been\nundergoing a change over the years. The\nshare of agriculture and allied products has\ndeclined, whereas, shares of petroleum and\ncrude products and other commodities have\nincreased. The shares of ore minerals and\nmanufactured goods have largely remained\nconstant over the years from 2009-10 to\n2010-11and 2015-16 to 2016-17.\nThe decline in traditional items is largely\ndue to the tough international competition.\nAmongst the agricultural products, there is a\ndecline in the export of traditional items, such\nas coffee, cashew, etc., though an increase has\nbeen registered in floricultural products, fresh\nfruits, marine pr oducts and sugar , etc.\nManufacturing sector alone accounted for\n73.6 per cent of India\u2019s total value of export in\n2016-17. Engineering goods have shown a\nsignificant growth in the export. China and other\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2457, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0fb8f5dc-c6ba-4e05-9fbf-6dfb4cc0d572": {"__data__": {"id_": "0fb8f5dc-c6ba-4e05-9fbf-6dfb4cc0d572", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "05f30171-4892-4887-9f90-7256d1685fa6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c20fdc3cada3c4024c261f2d426a873dfe1e2999dcd384fe0a4b6e2e5589bd97", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "88 India : People and Economy\nCommodities 2016-17\nAgriculture and allied products 228001\nOres and Minerals 35947\nManufactured goods 1363232\nMineral fuels and Lubricants 216280Table 8.3 : Export of Some Principal Commodities\n(in crore rupees)\nSource :  Economic Survey 2016-17.\nbudget was also pushed up. Foodgrain import\nwas replaced by fertilisers and petroleum.\nMachine and equipment, special steel, edible\noil and chemicals largely make the import\nbasket. Examine the changing pattern of\nimports in Table 8.4 and try to comprehend\nthe shifts.\nTable 8.4  shows that there is a steep\nrise in the import  of petroleum products. It\nis used not only as a fuel but also as an\nindustrial raw material. It indicates the\ntempo of rising industrialisation and better\nstandard of living. Sporadic price rise in the\ninternational market is another reason for the\nsame. Import of capital goods maintained a\nsteady increase due to rising demand in the\nexport-oriented industrial and domestic\nsectors. Non-electrical machinery, transportequipment, manufacturers of metals and\nmachine tools were the main items of capital\ngoods. Import of food and allied products\ndeclined with a fall in imports of edible oils.\nOther major items of India\u2019s import include\npearls and semi -precious stones, gold and\nsilver , metalliferr ous or es and metal scrap,\nnon-ferrous metals, electronic goods, etc. The\ndetails of Indian imports of  some  principal\ncommodities during 201 6-17 have been given\nin Table 8 .5.\nBased on Table 8.5, few activities may\nbe undertaken:\nArrange the items in ascending or\ndescending order and write the names\nof the first five major items of India\u2019s\nimport list of 2016-17.\nWhy does India import edible oil in spite\nof being an agriculturally rich country?\nSelect five most important and five least\nimportant items and represent them by\nbar diagram.\nCan you identify some items of imports\nfor which substitutes can be developed\nin India?\nSource : Economic Survey 2016-17Commodity Group    2009-10 2010-11 2015-16 2016-17\nFood and allied products 3.7 2.9 5.1 5.6\nFuel (Coal, POL) 33.2 31.3 25.4 26.7\nFertilisers 2.3 1.9 2.1 1.3\nPaper board manufacturing and news print 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9\nCapital goods 15.0 13.1 13.0 13.6\nOthers 42.6 47.7 38.1 37.0Table 8.4 : India Composition of Import 2009-17\n(In percentage)\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2330, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "50e003bd-6d2f-48a8-9e1f-34ad7ee05822": {"__data__": {"id_": "50e003bd-6d2f-48a8-9e1f-34ad7ee05822", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fc15c679-6c5b-458b-bb87-613189c1cdd9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "86522504d61840f726354d286f705586a4ddfbc3f81bfb1337da1c0922217bea", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "International Trade      89\nhas a long tradition of sea faring and developed\nmany ports with place name suffixed with\npattan  meaning port. An interesting fact about\nports in India is that its west coast has more\nports than its east coast.Direction of Trade\nIndia  has trade relations with most of the\ncountries and major trading blocks of the\nworld.\nRegion-wise and sub-region-wise trade\nduring the period 2016-17 has been given in\nTable 8.6.\nDraw a multiple bar diagram to represent the\nmajor trading partners.\nMost of India\u2019s foreign trade is carried\nthrough sea and air r outes. However , a small\nportion is also carried through land route to\nneighbouring countries like Nepal, Bhutan,\nBangladesh and Pakistan.\nSea PSea PSea P\nSea PSea P or oror ororts as Ga ts as Gats as Ga\nts as Gats as Ga te tete tetew ww wwa aa aay yy yys of s ofs of s ofs of\nInterna InternaInterna InternaInterna tional T tional Ttional T tional Ttional T r rr rrade adeade adeade\nIndia is surrounded by sea from three sides\nand is bestowed  with a long coastline. W ater\nprovides a smooth surface for very cheap\ntransport provided there is no turbulence. India\nIndia aims to double its share in the\ninternational trade within the next five years. It\nhas already started adopting suitable measures\nsuch as import liberalisation, reduction in\nimport duties, delicensing and change from\nprocess to product patents.Commodities 2016-17\nFertilisers and fertiliser manufacturing 33726\nEdible oils 73048\nPulp and waste paper 6537\nNon-ferrous metals 262961\nIron and steel 55278\nPetroleum, oil and lubricants 582762\nPearls, precious and 159464\nsemi-precious stones\nMedicinal and Pharma products 33504\nChemical products 147350Table 8 .5 : Import of Some Principal Commodities\n(in crore rupees)\nSource : Economic Survey 2016-17\nSource : Department of Commerce based on DCCI&S\nprovisional data, Economic Survey 2011-12 and 2016-17.Region Imports\n2010-11 2016-17\nEurope 323857 403972\nAfrica 118612\n193327\nNorth America 100602 195332\nLatin America 64576 115762\nAsia and ASEAN 1029881 1544520Table 8.6 Direction of India\u2019s Import trade\n(in crore rupees)\nFig. 8.3 : Unloading of goods on port\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2175, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "813aa84d-7cc4-4318-b9c9-cc69d73c859a": {"__data__": {"id_": "813aa84d-7cc4-4318-b9c9-cc69d73c859a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d32066d9-bfbe-4b1d-9bbb-0828b78a5f49", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "155b0820b2ecf2e123030a3e1d1924bef088abcdb936723b22694c8bb3f230ab", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "90 India : People and Economy\nhave been invited for the modernisation of\nports in India.\nThe capacity of Indian ports increased from\n20 million tonnes of cargo handling in 1951 to\nmore than 837 million tonnes in 2016.\nSome of the Indian ports along with their\nhinterlands are as follows :\nKandla  Port situated at the head of Gulf\nof Kuchchh has been developed as a major\nport to cater to the needs of western and north\nwestern parts of the country and also to\nreduce the pressure at Mumbai port. The port\nis specially designed to receive large\nquantities of petroleum and petroleum\nproducts and fertiliser . The of fshor e terminal\nat Vadinar has been developed to r educe the\npressure at Kandla port.\nDemarcation of the boundary of the\nhinterland would be difficult as it is not fixed\nover space. In most of the cases, hinterland\nof one port may overlap with that of the other .\nMumbai  is a natural harbour and the\nbiggest port of the country. The port is\nsituated closer to the general routes from the\ncountries of Middle East, Mediterranean\ncountries, North Africa, North America and\nEurope where the major share of country\u2019s\noverseas trade is carried out. The port is 20\nkm long and 6-10 km wide with 54 berths\nand has the country\u2019s largest oil terminal.\nM.P., Maharashtra, Gujarat, U.P . and parts\nof Rajasthan constitute the main  hinterlands\nof Mumbai ports.\nJawaharlal Nehru Port at Nhava Sheva\nwas developed as a satellite port to relieve the\npressure at the Mumbai port. It is the largest\ncontainer port in India.\nMarmagao Port,  situated at the entrance\nof the Zuari estuary, is a natural harbour in\nGoa. It gained significance after its remodelling\nin 1961 to handle iron-ore exports to Japan.\nConstruction of Konkan railway has\nconsiderably extended the hinterland of this\nport. Karnataka, Goa, Southern Maharashtra\nconstitute its hinterland.\nNew Mangalore Port  is located in the state\nof Karnataka and caters to the needs of the\nexport of iron-ore and iron-concentrates. It also\nhandles fertilisers, petroleum products, edibleCan you find out the reasons for the\nvariations in the location of ports along\nthe two coasts?\nThough ports have been in use since\nancient times, the emergence of ports as\ngateways of international trade became\nimportant after the coming of the European\ntraders and colonisation of the country by the\nBritish. This led to the variation in the size and\nquality of ports. There are some ports which have\nvery vast area of influence and some have limited\narea of influence. At present, India has 12 major\nports and 200 minor or intermediate ports. In\ncase of the major ports, the central government\ndecides the policy and plays regulatory\nfunctions. The minor ports are there whose\npolicy and functions are regulated by state\ngovernments. The major ports handle larger\nshare of the total traffic.\nThe British used the ports as suction points\nof the resources from their hinterlands. The\nextension of railways towards the interior\nfacilitated the linking of the local markets to\nregional markets, regional markets to national\nmarkets and national markets to the international\nmarkets. This trend continued till 1947. It was\nexpected that the country\u2019s Independence will\nreverse the process, but the partition of the\ncountry snatched away two very important ports,\ni.e., Karachi port went to Pakistan and Chittagong\nport to the erstwhile east-Pakistan and now\nBangladesh. To compensate the losses, many new\nports, like the Kandla in the west and the\nDiamond Harbour near Kolkata on river Hugli in\nthe east were developed.\nDespite this major setback, Indian ports\ncontinued to grow after the Independence.\nToday , Indian ports are handling large\nvolumes of domestic , as well as , overseas\ntrade. Most of the ports are equipped with\nmodern infrastructure. Previously , the\ndevelopment and modernisation was the\nresponsibility of the government agencies,\nbut considering the increase in function and\nneed to bring these ports at par with the\ninternational ports, private entrepreneurs\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 4041, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c89b6274-c4ba-46ad-a2db-14cf206f9fbb": {"__data__": {"id_": "c89b6274-c4ba-46ad-a2db-14cf206f9fbb", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1f0951d5-91d5-432d-a1b2-9f25af6ad89e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a567a50b9687e74bdfdb2fe27cabbd60789e8a14377a0a1a572a37a0b8256317", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "International Trade      91\nFig. 8.4 : India \u2013 Major Ports and Sea Routes\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 94, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d2423624-160d-4a51-882f-07895e9c4bf1": {"__data__": {"id_": "d2423624-160d-4a51-882f-07895e9c4bf1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fd3db9e7-44a5-4167-8f61-ec32d2b82a41", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2a081b8a91bf1db15284aa2cff93c97e38eb4b69271f75153cf400cf19a927cf", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "92 India : People and Economy\noils, coffee, tea, wood pulp, yarn, granite stone,\nmolasses, etc. Karnataka is the major\nhinterland for this port.\nKochchi Port,  situated at the head of\nVembanad Kayal, popularly known as the\n\u2018Queen of the Arabian Sea\u2019, is also a natural\nharbour . This port has an advantageous\nlocation being close to the Suez-Colombo route.\nIt caters to the needs of Kerala, southern-\nKarnataka and south western Tamil Nadu.\nKolkata Port  is located on the Hugli river ,\n128 km inland from the Bay of Bengal. Like the\nMumbai port, this port was also developed by\nthe British. Kolkata had the initial advantage\nof being the capital of British India. The port\nhas lost its significance considerably on account\nof the diversion of exports to the other ports\nsuch as Vishakhapatnam, Paradwip and its\nsatellite port, Haldia.\nKolkata port is also confronted with the\nproblem of silt accumulation in the Hugli river\nwhich provides a link to the sea. Its hinterland\ncovers U.P ., Bihar , Jharkhand, W est Bengal,\nSikkim and the north-eastern states. Apart from\nthis, it also extends ports facilities to our\nneighbouring land-locked countries such as\nNepal and Bhutan.\nHaldia Port is located 105 km\ndownstream from Kolkata. It has been\nconstructed to reduce the congestion at Kolkata\nport. It handles bulk cargo like iron ore, coal,\npetroleum, petroleum products and fertilisers,\njute, jute products, cotton and cotton yarn, etc.\nParadwip Port  is situated in the\nMahanadi delta, about 100 km from Cuttack.\nIt has the deepest harbour specially suited\nto handle very large vessels. It has been\ndeveloped mainly to handle large-scale export\nof iron-ore. Odisha, Chhattisgarh and\nJharkhand  are the parts of its hinterland.\nVisakhapatnam Port  in Andhra Pradesh\nis a land-locked harbour , connected to the sea\nby a channel cut through solid rock and sand.\nAn outer harbour has been developed for\nhandling iron-ore, petroleum and general cargo.Andhra Pradesh and Telangana are the main\nhinterland for this port.\nChennai Port  is one of the oldest ports on\nthe eastern coast. It is an artificial harbour built\nin 1859. It is not much suitable for large ships\nbecause of the shallow waters near the coast.\nTamil Nadu and Puducherry are its hinterland.\nEnnore , a newly developed port in Tamil\nNadu, has been constructed 25 km north of\nChennai to relieve the pressure at Chennai port.\nTuticorin Port  was also developed to\nrelieve the pressure of Chennai port. It deals\nwith a variety of cargo, including coal, salt, food\ngrains, edible oils, sugar , chemicals and\npetroleum products.\nAirports\nAir transport plays an important role in the\ninternational trade. It has the advantage of\ntaking the least time for carriage and handling\nhigh value or perishable goods over long\ndistances. It is very costly and unsuitable for\ncarrying heavy and bulky commodities. This\nultimately reduces the participation of this\nsector in the international trade as compared\nto the oceanic routes.\nThere were 25 major airports functioning\nin the country (Annual Report 2016-17) . They\nare Ahmedabad,  Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi,\nGoa, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Mumbai,\nThiruvananthapuram, Srinagar , Jaipur , Calicut,\nNagpur , Coimbator e, Cochin, Lucknow, Pune,\nChandigarh, M angaluru, Vishakhapatnam,\nIndor e, Patna, Bhubaneswar and Kannur .\nYou have already studied about the air\ntransport in the pr evious chapter . You consult\nthe chapter on transport to find out the main\nfeatures of air transport in India.\nName the nearest domestic and international\nairports from your place. Identify the state with\nmaximum number of domestic airports.\nIdentify four cities where maximum number of air\nroutes converge and also give reasons for this.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3744, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6c5605c6-e322-471e-9761-6b0a6753e86f": {"__data__": {"id_": "6c5605c6-e322-471e-9761-6b0a6753e86f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9fe05895-f35c-40fa-9cd6-57f63aa8596e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "93471c3f38abda53a8d70cc881234ba40b95e111fa6f0542c8ed2a65ed8d3972", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "International Trade      93\nFig. 8.5 : India \u2013 Air Routes\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 78, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2a46824b-5f44-4274-988f-e79bb96d9cbb": {"__data__": {"id_": "2a46824b-5f44-4274-988f-e79bb96d9cbb", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "994f21c0-d5fd-46c7-bce6-85bc631ebafa", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "legy208.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy208.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1363331, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fb0d35b9c21a0f83c63fb3b5ffad0d15bd477b3c2e567ac2807384f248b3af8d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "94 India : People and Economy\nEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISES\n1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.\n(i) Trade between two countries is termed as\n(a) Internal trade (c) International trade\n(b) External trade (d) Local trade\n(ii) Which one of the following is a land locked harbour?\n(a) Vishakhapatnam (c) Ennor\n(b) Mumbai (d) Haldia\n(iii) Most of India\u2019s foreign trade is carried through\n(a) Land and sea (c) Sea and air\n(b) Land and air (d) Sea\n2.Answer the following questions in about 30 words.\n(i) Mention the characteristics of India\u2019s foreign trade.\n(ii) Distinguish between port and harbour .\n(iii) Explain the meaning of hinterland.\n(iv) Name important items which India imports from different countries.\n(v) Name the ports of India located on the east coast.\n3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.\n(i) Describe the composition of export and import trade of India.\n(ii) Write a note on the changing natur e of the inter national trade of India.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1032, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5595cb79-592c-4c88-a682-852afc862e30": {"__data__": {"id_": "5595cb79-592c-4c88-a682-852afc862e30", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ccfce486-0c2d-44bb-8533-dff3c2a1814b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5753413819d8c4d9c268b6dd42e2eeb6bd64a6de99b2bc61018b7003bf8bda3e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Unit V Unit VUnit V Unit VUnit V\nChapter 9\nGEOGRAPHICAL\nPERSPECTIVE ON\nSELECTED ISSUES\nAND PROBLEMSEn EnEnEnEnvir\nvirvir virvironmental Ponmental Ponmental Ponmental Ponmental P ollution ollutionollution ollutionollution\nEnvironmental pollution results from \u2018the\nrelease of substances and energy from waste\nproducts of human activities. There are many\ntypes of pollution. They are classified on the\nbasis of medium through which pollutants are\ntransported and diffused. Pollution can be\nclassified into (i) air pollution, (ii) water\npollution, (iii) land pollution and (iv) noise\npollution.\nWater Pollution\nIndiscriminate use of water by increasing\npopulation and industrial expansion has led\ndegradation of the quality of water considerably.\nSurface water available from rivers, canals,\nlakes, etc. is never pure. It contains small\nquantities of suspended particles, organic and\ninorganic substances. When concentration of\nthese substances increases, the water becomes\npolluted, and hence becomes unfit for use. In\nsuch a situation, the self-purifying capacity of\nwater is unable to purify the water .\nThough water pollutants are also created\nfrom natural sources (erosion, landslides,\ndecay and decomposition of plants and\nanimals, etc.) pollutants from human activities\nare the real causes of concern. Human beings\npollute the water through industrial,\nagricultural and cultural activities. Among\nthese activities, industry is the most significant\ncontributor .\nFig.9.1 : Cutting Through Effluent : Rowing through\na pervasive layer of foam on the heavily polluted\nYamuna on the outskirts of New Delhi\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1624, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c6f308b6-8e05-43c2-82ff-aff644f2cd5c": {"__data__": {"id_": "c6f308b6-8e05-43c2-82ff-aff644f2cd5c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c5fd101e-23e8-4e5d-8937-f3be235b0de0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "2", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6c9de2084ddb2e32ecb39c053a9f47938e5bc75f6a9c27ca1738f00c3e4b93e4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "96 India : People and Economy\nPollution Types Pollution Involved Sources of Pollution\nAir Pollution Oxides of sulphur (SO2, SO3), Oxides of\nnitrogen,  carbon monoxide, hydro-carbon,\nammonia,  lead, aldehydes asbestos and beryllium.Combustion of coal, petrol and diesel,\nindustrial processes, solid waste disposal,\nsewage disposal, etc.\nWater Pollution Odour , dissolved and suspended solids,\nammonia and urea, nitrate and nitrites,\nchloride, fluoride, carbonates, oil and grease,\ninsecticide and pesticide residue, tannin,\ncoliform MPM (bacterial count) sulphates and\nsulphides, heavy metals e.g. lead, aresenic,\nmercury, manganese, etc., radioactive\nsubstances.Sewage disposal, urban run-off, toxic\neffluents from industries, run-off over\ncultivated lands and nuclear power plants.\nLand Pollution Human and animal excreta viruses and\nbacteria, garbage and vectors therein,\npesticides and fertiliser -residue alkalinity,\nfluorides, radio-active substances.Improper human activities, disposal of\nuntreated industrial waste, use of pesticides\nand fertilisers.\nNoise Pollution High level of noise above tolerance level. Aircrafts, automobiles, trains, industrial\nprocessing and advertising media.Table 9.1 : T ypes and Sour ces of Pollution\nIndustries produce several undesirable\nproducts including industrial wastes, polluted\nwaste water , poisonous gases, chemical\nresiduals, numerous heavy metals, dust,\nsmoke, etc. Most of the industrial wastes are\ndisposed off in running water or lakes.\nConsequently, poisonous elements reach the\nreservoirs, rivers and other water bodies, which\ndestroy the bio-system of these waters. Major\nwater polluting industries ar e leather , pulp and\npaper , textiles and chemicals.\nRiver and State Polluted Stretches Nature of Pollution Main Polluters\nGanga\n(Uttar Pradesh)\nBihar\nand\nWest Bengal(a)Downstream of Kanpur\n(b)Downstr eam of V aranasi\n(c)Farrakka Barrage1.Industrial pollution from\ntowns like Kanpur\n2.Domestic wastes from\nurban centres\n3.Dumping of carcasses in\nthe riverTable 9.2 : Sour ces of Pollution in the Ganga and the Y amuna Rivers\nCities of Kanpur , Allahabad,\nVaranasi, Patna and Kolkata\nrelease domestic waste into the\nriver\nYamuna\n(Delhi)\nand\n(Uttar Pradesh)(a)Delhi to confluence with\nChambal\n(b)   Mathura and Agra1.Extraction of water by\nHaryana and Uttar\nPradesh for irrigation\n2.Agricultural run off\nresulting in high levels of\nmicro-pollutants in the\nYamuna\n3.Domestic and industrial\nwaste of Delhi flowing\ninto the riverDelhi dumping its domestic\nwasteVarious types of chemicals used in\nmodern agriculture such as inorganic\nfertilisers, pesticides and herbicides are also\npollution generating components. These\nchemicals are washed down to rivers, lakes\nand tanks. These chemicals also infiltrate the\nsoil to r each the gr ound water . Fertiliser\ninduces an increase in the nitrate content of\nsurface waters. Cultural activities such as\npilgrimage,  religious fairs, tourism, etc. also\ncause water pollution. In India, almost all\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3012, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8e2deded-75e3-4990-98b4-4b712fce563d": {"__data__": {"id_": "8e2deded-75e3-4990-98b4-4b712fce563d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3df3559b-7f66-43bc-979a-3c0db2027a47", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "3", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "df70fc0b1e9499460b278894e4d504cc3c3a23425fda2f6ed571c4d25dcfb548", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Geographical perspective on selected issues and problems      97\nsurface water sources are contaminated and\nunfit for human consumption.\nWater pollution is a sour ce of various\nwater - borne diseases. The diseases commonly\ncaused due to contaminated water are\ndiarrhoea, intestinal worms, hepatitis, etc. The\nWorld Health Or ganization shows that about\none-fourth of the communicable diseases in\nIndia ar e water -borne. Though river pollution\nis common to all rivers, yet pollution of river\nGanga flowing through one of the mot populous\nregions of India has caused great concerns\namong all. T o imporve the condition of the river ,\nNational Mission for Clean Ganga was initiated.\nThe Namami Gange Programme has been\nlaunched for the same.\nAir Pollution\nAir pollution is taken as addition of\ncontaminants , like dust, fumes, gas, fog, odour ,\nsmoke or vapour to the air in substantial\nproportion and duration that may be harmful\nto flora and fauna and to property. With\nincreasing use of varieties of fuels as  the\nsource of energy, there is a marked increase\nin emission of toxic gases into the atmosphere\nresulting in the pollution of air . Combustion\nof fossil fuels, mining and industries are the\nmain sources of air pollution. These processes\nrelease oxides of sulphur and nitrogen,hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, carbon\nmonoxide, lead and asbestos.\nAir pollution causes various diseases related\nto respiratory, nervous and circulatory systems.\nSmog inNamami Gange ProgrammeNamami Gange ProgrammeNamami Gange ProgrammeNamami Gange ProgrammeNamami Gange Programme\nGanga, as a river , has national importance\nbut the river requires cleaning by\neffectively controlling the pollution for its\nwater . The Union Government has\nlaunched the \u2018 Namami Gange\nProgramme \u2019 with the following objectives:\n\u2022developing sewerage treatment\nsystems in towns,\n\u2022monitoring of industrial effluents,\n\u2022development of river front,\n\u2022afforestation along the bank of increase\nbiodiversity ,\n\u2022cleaning of the river surface,\n\u2022development of \u2018Ganga Grams\u2019 in\nUttarakhand, UP , Bihar , Jharkhand and\nWest Bengal, and\n\u2022creating public awareness to avoid\nadding pollutants in  to the river even\nin the form of rituals.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2209, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c9ad79e8-b01d-4719-b263-866c42d3a519": {"__data__": {"id_": "c9ad79e8-b01d-4719-b263-866c42d3a519", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2e6c1307-1b41-416f-ab02-14b9d656afed", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "71b717257cb287371c63d7834c4eb58ca8c9a07a0c3e3c59af274b9906ef3992", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "98 India : People and Economy\nfrom the source of pollution, i.e. industrial\nareas, arteries of transportation, airport, etc.\nNoise pollution is hazardous in many\nmetropolitan and big cities in India.\nUrban Waste DisposalUrban Waste DisposalUrban Waste DisposalUrban Waste DisposalUrban Waste Disposal\nUrban areas are generally marked by\novercrowding, congestion, inadequate facilities\nto support the fast growing population and\nconsequent poor sanitary conditions and foul\nair. Envir onmental pollution by solid wastes\nhas now got significance because of enormous\ngrowth in the quantity of wastes generated\nfrom various sources. Solid waste refers to a\nvariety of old and used articles, for example\nstained small pieces of metals, broken\nglassware, plastic containers, polythene bags,\nash, floppies, CDs, etc. , dumped at different\nplaces. These discarded materials are also\ntermed as refuse, garbage and rubbish, etc. ,\nand are disposed of from two sources : (i)\nhousehold or domestic establishments, and (ii)\nindustrial or commercial establishments. The\nhousehold wastes are disposed off either on\npublic lands or on private contractors\u2019 sites,\nSmoky fog over cities called as urban\nsmog is caused by atmospheric pollution. It\nproves very harmful to human health. Air\npollution can also cause acid rains. Rainwater\nanalysis of urban environment has indicated\nthat pH value of the first rain after summer is\nalways lower than the subsequent rains.\nNoise Pollution\nNoise pollution refers to the state of\nunbearable and uncomfortable to human\nbeings which is caused by noise from different\nsources. This matter has become a serious\nconcern only in recent years due to a variety\nof technological innovations.\nThe main sources of noise pollution are\nvarious factories, mechanised construction\nand demolition works, automobiles and\naircraft, etc. There may be added periodical\nbut polluting noise from sirens, loudspeakers\nused in various festivals, programmes\nassociated with community activities. The level\nof steady noise is measured by sound level\nexpressed in terms of decibels (dB).\nOf all these sources, the biggest nuisance\nis the noise produced by traffic, because its\nintensity and nature depend upon factors ,\nsuch as the type of aircraft, vehicle, train and\nthe condition of road , as well as , that of vehicle\n(in case of automobiles). In sea traffic, the noise\npollution is confined to the harbour due to\nloading and unloading activities being carried.\nIndustries cause noise pollution but with\nvarying intensity depending upon the type of\nindustry.\nNoise pollution is location specific and its\nintensity declines with increase in distance\nFig. 9.2 : Noise monitoring at Panchpatmalai\nBauxite Mine\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2728, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f77fcbc1-a3c8-4ae5-af41-754f87023f2b": {"__data__": {"id_": "f77fcbc1-a3c8-4ae5-af41-754f87023f2b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1c57fd9d-d556-4a2d-80c1-d8f5337eb9b2", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "5", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4e81802981679c9a51dfe21572651f9a6de4a2813618e9f2aa91ec2a5e64935d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Geographical perspective on selected issues and problems      99\nwhereas the solid wastes of industrial units\nare collected and disposed off through public\n(municipal) facilities at low lying public\ngrounds (landfill areas). The huge turn out of\nashes and debris from industries, thermal\npower houses and building constructions or\ndemolitions have posed problems of serious\nconsequences. Solid wastes cause health\nhazard through creation of obnoxious smell,\nand harbouring of flies and rodents, which act\nas carriers of diseases like typhoid, diphtheria,\ndiarrhoea, malaria and cholera, etc. These\nwastes cause frequent nuisance as and when\nthese are carelessly handled, spread by wind\nand splitter ed thr ough rain water .\nConcentration of industrial units in and\naround urban centres gives rise to disposal of\nindustrial wastes. The dumping of industrial\nwaste into rivers leads to water pollution. River\npollution from city-based industries and\nuntreated sewage leads to serious health\nproblems downstream.\nUrban waste disposal is a serious problem\nin India. In metropolitan cities like Mumbai,\nKolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, etc., about 90\nper cent of the solid waste is collected and\ndisposed. But in most of other cities and towns\nCase Study : Case Study : Case Study : Case Study : Case Study : A Role Model to Restore the Ecology and SafeguardA Role Model to Restore the Ecology and SafeguardA Role Model to Restore the Ecology and SafeguardA Role Model to Restore the Ecology and SafeguardA Role Model to Restore the Ecology and Safeguard\nHuman Health Human Health Human Health Human Health Human Health in Dauralain Dauralain Dauralain Dauralain Daurala\nBased on the universal law \u201cPolluter pays\u201d, effort to restore the ecology and safeguard the human health with\npeople\u2019s participation has taken place in Daurala near Meerut. These efforts are now bearing fruits after a\nspan of three years when Meerut based NGO had developed a model for ecological restoration. The meeting\nof the Daurala Industries officials, NGOs , Government officials and other stakeholders at Meerut has brought\nout results. The powerful logics, authentic studies and the pressure of people have brought a new lease of life\nto the twelve thousand residents of this village. It was in the year 2003 that the pitiable condition of Dauralaites\ndrew the attention of the civil society . The groundwater of this village was contaminated with heavy metals.\nThe reason was that the untreated wastewater of Daurala industries was leaching to the groundwater table.\nThe NGO conducted a door to door survey of the health status of the residents and came out with a report.\nThe organisation, the village community and people\u2019s representatives sat together to find out sustainable\nsolutions to the health problem. The industrialists showed a keen interest towards checking the deteriorating\necology . The overhead water tank\u2019 s capacity in the village was enhanced and a 900m extra pipeline was  laid\nto supply potable water to the community . The silted pond of the village was cleaned and recharged by\ndesilting it. Large quantity of silt was removed paving way to large quantity of water so that it recharged the\naquifers. Rainwater harvesting structures have been constructed at different places which has helped in\ndiluting the contaminants of the groundwater after the monsoons. 1000 trees have also been planted which\nhave improved the environment.in the country, about 30 to 50 per cent of the\nwaste generated are left uncollected which\naccumulate on streets, in open spaces between\nhouses and in wastelands leading to serious\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3625, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "96f0ba6e-2654-4954-9ea3-6c53b1c37ac3": {"__data__": {"id_": "96f0ba6e-2654-4954-9ea3-6c53b1c37ac3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "bff634aa-d8d6-41f1-b85a-9884f4fe1c33", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c6161c38d977f406c608f1dbf256e98be4addb11d11ccb250fb9f63b830442d4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "100 India : People and Economy\nhealth hazards. These wastes should be treated\nas resource and utilised for generating energy\nand compost. Untreated wastes ferment slowly\nand release toxic biogas to the atmosphere,\nincluding methane.\nWhat do we throw away? Why?\nWhere does our waste end up?\nWhy do ragpickers sort out rubbish dumps? Does\nit have some value?\nIs our urban waste worth anything?\nRural-Urban MigrationRural-Urban MigrationRural-Urban MigrationRural-Urban MigrationRural-Urban Migration\nPopulation flow from rural to urban areas is\ncaused by many factors, like high demand for\nAt present, 47 per cent of the world\u2019s six billion population lives in cities and more will join\nthem in near future. This proportion is estimated to go up to 50 per cent by 2008. That will\nput pressure on governments to make urban areas better places to live with optimum\ninfrastructure facilities for desirable quality of life.\nBy 2050, an estimated two-thirds of the world\u2019s population will live in urban areas, imposing\neven more pressure on the space infrastructure and resources of cities, which are manifested\nin terms of sanitary , health, crime problems and urban poverty .\nUrban population grows as a result of natural increase (when birth rate exceeds death rate),\nnet in-migration (when people move in than out) , and sometime s reclassification of urban\nareas to encompass formerly rural population settlements. In India , it is estimated that after\n1961 around 60 per  cent of the urban growth has been attributed and 29 per  cent of them from\nrural areas to urban migration.Fig. 9.3 : A view of urban waste in Mahim, Mumbailabour in urban areas, low job opportunities\nin rural areas and unbalanced pattern of\ndevelopment between urban and rural areas.\nIn India, population in cities is rapidly\nincreasing. Due to low opportunities in smaller\nand medium cities, the poor people generally\nbypass these small cities and directly come to\nthe mega cities for their livelihood.\nA case study given below to have better\nunderstanding of the subject. Read it carefully\nand try to comprehend the process of rural\nurban migration.\nA Case StudyA Case StudyA Case StudyA Case StudyA Case Study\nRamesh has been working in contract as a\nwelder on construction site in Talcher ( coal\nregion of O disha ) for the last two years. He\nmoved with the contractor to various places\nlike Surat, Mumbai, Gandhi Nagar , Bharuch,\nJamnagar and so on. He remits Rs. 20,000 per\nyear to his father in his native village. The\nremittances have been mainly used for daily\nconsumption, healthcare, schooling of\nchildren, etc. Part of the money is also used in\nagriculture, purchasing of land and building\nof houses, etc. The standard of living of\nRamesh\u2019s family improved significantly.\nFifteen years ago, the situation was not the\nsame. The family was passing through very\ntough times. Three of his brothers and their\nfamilies had to survive on three acres of land.\nThe family was highly in  debt. Ramesh had to\ndiscontinue his studies after ninth standard. He\nwas further hard pressed when he got married.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3096, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b463a46c-c09d-4ed5-a7e6-cd1570187120": {"__data__": {"id_": "b463a46c-c09d-4ed5-a7e6-cd1570187120", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ce27d8fe-ccf6-4d9a-8dfc-79e5ad18c07e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e2c8b56701f35828b51fc4182159a6ca18984bc08b378e1f9f79f2ba02980d34", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Geographical perspective on selected issues and problems      101\nSimultaneously, he was also impressed by\nsome successful out-migrants of his village who\nhad been working in Ludhiana and supporting\ntheir families in village by sending money and\nsome consumer goods. Thus, due to abject\npoverty in the family and perceived job promises\nat Ludhiana, he made a move to Punjab with his\nfriend. He worked there in a woolen factory for\nsix months at the rate of only Rs. 20 per day in\n1988. Apart from the crisis of managing his\npersonal expenditure from this meagre income,\nhe was also facing difficulty in assimilation to the\nnew culture and environment. Then he decided\nto change his place of work from Ludhiana to\nSurat under the guidance of his friend. He learnt\nthe skills of welding in Surat and after that he\nhas been moving to different places with the same\ncontractor . Though the economic condition of\nRamesh\u2018s family at village improved, he is bearing\nthe pain of separation of his near and dear ones.\nHe cannot shift them with him, as the job is\ntemporary and transferable.Comments\nIn developing countries, poor , semi-illiterate and\nthe unskilled like Ramesh migrating  from rural\nareas frequently end up performing menial jobs\nat low wages in informal sector in urban areas.\nSince wages are very low to support the family\nat the place of destination , the spouse s are left\nbehind in rural areas to look after children and\nelderly people. Thus, the rur al-urban migration\nstream is dominated by the males.\nPrPrPr\nPrProb obob oboblems lems lems lems lems of ofof ofof Slums  Slums Slums  Slums Slums\nThe concept \u201cUrban or Urban Centre\u201d is defined\nin settlement geography to differentiate it from\nthe \u201cRural\u201d about which you have learnt in\nsome pr evious chapters of this book. Y ou have\nalso learnt in the book entitled \u201cFundamentals\nof Human Geography\u201d  that this concept is\ndefined differently in different countries.\nBoth urban and rural settlements are\ndifferent in their functions, sometimes,\nHave you visited a slum?\nVisit a slum in your city , and\nwrite about the problems\nfaced by slum dwellers.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2133, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d9fc496c-5224-4792-a35a-3245bc6d67db": {"__data__": {"id_": "d9fc496c-5224-4792-a35a-3245bc6d67db", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "23295f38-6103-4f26-a7a7-3b99f722489c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f464c4348b662066852fd78d3b73669c2c0ef7e25bc6bb37c578c5641b32049f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "102 India : People and Economy\ncomplementing each other . Apart fr om these, rural\nand urban areas have also emerged into two\nseparate cultural, social, political, economic and\ntechnological divide.Dharavi\u2013Asia\u2019s Largest Slum\n\u201c\u2026. Buses merely skirt the periphery . Autorickshaws cannot go there, Dharavi is part of central\nBombay where three wheelers are banned.\nOnly one main road traverses the slum, the miscalled \u2018ninety-foot road\u2019, which has been reduced to\nless than half of that for most of its length. Some of the side alleys and lanes are so narrow that not\neven a bicycle can pass. The whole neighbourhood consists of temporary buildings, two or three\nstoreyed high with rusty iron stairways to the upper part, where a single room is rented by a whole\nfamily , sometimes accommodating twelve or more people; it is a kind of tropical version of the\nindustrial dwelling of Victorian London\u2019s East End.\nBut Dharavi is a keeper of more sombre secrets than the revulsion it inspires in the rich; a revulsion,\nmoreover , that is, in direct proportion to the role it serves in the creation of the wealth of Bombay . In\nthis place of shadowless, treeless sunlight, uncollected garbage, stagnant pools of foul water , where\nthe only non-human creatures are the shining black crows and long grey rats, some of the most\nbeautiful, valuable and useful articles in India are made. From Dharavi come delicate ceramics and\npottery , exquisite embroidery and zari work, sophisticated leather goods, high-fashion garments,\nfinely-wrought metalwork, delicate jewellery settings, wood carvings and furniture that would find its\nway into the richest houses, both in India and abroad\u2026\nDharavi was an arm of the sea, that was filled by waste, largely produced by the people who have\ncome to live there: Scheduled Castes  and poor Muslims. It comprises rambling buildings of corrugated\nmetal, 20 metres high in places, used for the treatment of hides and tanning. There are pleasant\nparts, but rotting garbage is everywhere\u2026\u201d\n(Seabrook, 1996, pp. 50, 51-52)\nIndia, which has a predominance of rural\npopulation (approximately 69 per cent of the\ntotal population in 2011) and where villages\nwere considered the ideal republics by\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2234, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0db7929c-b03d-404d-b65e-7ead2f9dc31e": {"__data__": {"id_": "0db7929c-b03d-404d-b65e-7ead2f9dc31e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "887f2558-14d9-46f1-9af7-edb2e44a349b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2ed20ab5dd5fb35281e4f4ab98f80a9f97bec97ddfa11a3f894c9a11d4dc1baa", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Geographical perspective on selected issues and problems      103\nMahatma Gandhi, most of the rural areas are\nstill poor performing primary activities. Here\nmost of the villages exist as appendix to the core\nurban centre forming its hinterland.\nThis may give an impression that urban\ncentres exist as undifferentiated homogeneous\nentities in opposition to the rural areas. On the\ncontrary, urban centres in India are more\ndifferentiated in terms of the socio-economic,\npolitico-cultural and other indicators of\ndevelopment than any other areas. At the top,\nthere are farm houses and high income group\nlocalities characterised by well-developed urban\ninfrastructures, like wide roads,\nstreetlights, water and sanitation facilities, lawns,\nwell-developed green belt, parks, playgrounds\nand provisions for individual security and right\nto privacy. At the other extreme of it are the\nslums , jhuggi-jhopari  clusters and colonies of\nshanty structures. These are inhabited by those\npeople who were forced to migrate from the rural\nareas to these urban centres in search of\nlivelihood but could not afford proper housing\ndue to high rent and high costs of land. They\noccupy environmentally incompatible and\ndegraded areas.\nSlums are residential areas of the least\nchoice, dilapidated houses, poor hygienic\nconditions, poor ventilation, lack of basic\namenities, like drinking water , light and toilet\nfacilities, etc. Open defecation, unregulated\ndrainage system and overcrowded narrow street\npatterns are serious health and socio-\nenvironmental hazards.and can not afford to give proper education to\ntheir children. The poverty makes them\nvulnerable to drug abuse, alcoholism, crime,\nvandalism, escapism, apathy and ultimately\nsocial exclusion.\nWhy are the children of slum-dwellers\ndeprived of school education?\nLand DegradationLand DegradationLand DegradationLand DegradationLand Degradation\nThe pressure on agricultural land increases not\nonly due to the limited availability but also by\ndeterioration of quality of agricultural land. Soil\nerosion, waterlogging, salinisation and\nalkalinisation of land lead to land degradation.\nWhat happens if land is consistently used\nwithout managing its fertility? Land is degraded\nand productivity declines. Land degradation is\ngenerally understood either as a temporary or\na permanent decline in productive capacity of\nthe land.\nThough all degraded land may not be\nwasteland, but unchecked process of degradation\nmay lead to the conversion to wasteland.\nThere are two processes that induce land\ndegradation. These are natural and created by\nhuman beings. National Remote Sensing Centre\n(NRS C) has classified wastelands by using\nremote sensing techniques and it is possible to\ncategorise these wastelands according to the\nprocesses that have created them. There are a\nfew types of wastelands such as gullied /ravinous\nland, desertic or coastal sands, barren rocky\nareas, steep sloping land, and glacial areas, which\nare primarily caused by natural  agents. There\nare other types of degraded lands such as\nwaterlogged and marshy areas, land affected by\nsalinity and alkalinity and land with or without\nscrub, which have largely been caused by\nnatural as well as human factors.  There are some\nother types of wastelands such as degraded\nshifting cultivation area, degraded land under\nplantation crops, degraded forests, degraded\npastures, and mining and industrial wastelands,The Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) is part\nof the urban renewal mission launched\nby the Government of India to improve the\nquality of life in urban slums.\nMoreover , most of the slum population\nworks in low-paid, high risk-prone,\nunorganised sectors of the urban economy.\nConsequently, they are the undernourished,\nprone to different types of diseases and illness\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3792, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1ff51ff4-8d26-4c3e-86c9-2bfcdbd7de6a": {"__data__": {"id_": "1ff51ff4-8d26-4c3e-86c9-2bfcdbd7de6a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "10", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6ed9a369-831b-49cd-bf30-4b293ad7ef07", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "10", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9cecb0fd3878999416d6fd5466ba6dad391c30054e13cb1fe9e57f36df61f1a3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "104 India : People and Economy\nFig. 9.4 : Trees planted on Common Property\nResources in Jhabua\nSource: Evaluation Report, Rajiv Gandhi Mission for\nWatershed Management, Gover nment of Madhya\nPradesh, 2002\nFig. 9.5 : Co mmunity Participation for Land Leveling\nin Common Property Resources in\nJhabua (ASA, 2004)are caused by human action. Table 12.3 indicates\nthat wastelands caused by man-made processes\nare more important than natural processes.\nA Case StudyA Case StudyA Case StudyA Case StudyA Case Study\nJhabua district is located in the westernmost\nagro-climatic zone in Madhya Pradesh. It is, in\nfact, one of the five most backward districts of\nthe country. It is characterised by high\nconcentration of tribal population (mostly\nBhils ). The people suffer due to poverty which\nhas been accentuated by the high rate of\nresource degradation, both forest and land. The\nwatershed management programmes funded\nby both the ministries of \u201cRural Development\u201d\nand \u201cAgriculture\u201d, Government of India, have\nbeen successfully implemented in Jhabua\ndistrict which has gone a long way in preventing\nland degradation and improving soil quality.\nWatershed Management Pr ogrammes\nacknowledge the linkage between land, water\nand vegetation and attempts to improve\nlivelihoods of people through natural resource\nmanagement and community participation. In\nthe past five years, the programmes funded by\nthe Ministry of Rural Development alone\n(implemented by  Rajiv Gandhi Mission for\nWatershed Management)  has treated 20 per\ncent of the total area under Jhabua district.The Petlawad block of Jhabua is located in\nthe northernmost part of the district and\nrepresents an interesting and successful case of\nGovernment-NGO partnership and community\nparticipation in managing watershed\nprogrammes. The Bhils in Petlawad block, for\nexample, (Sat Rundi hamlet of Karravat village)\nthrough their own efforts, have revitalised large\nparts of common property resources. Each\nhousehold planted and maintained one tree on\nthe common property. They also have planted\nfodder grass on the pasture land and adopted\nsocial-fencing of these lands for at least two\nyears. Even after that, they say, there would be\nno open grazing on these lands, but stall feeding\nof cattle, and they are thus confident that the\npastures they have developed would sustain\ntheir cattle in future.\nAn interesting aspect of this experience is\nthat before the community embarked upon the\nprocess of management of the pasture, there was\nencroachment on this land by a villager from an\nadjoining village. The villagers called the tehsildar\nto ascertain the rights of the common land. The\nensuing conflict was tackled by the villagers by\noffering to make the defaulter encroaching on the\nCPR a member of their user group and sharing\nthe benefits of greening the common lands/\npastures. (See the section on CPR in chapter \u2018Land\nResources and Agriculture \u2019).\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2920, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4eb94dd1-bcdd-4bab-a936-c141d26b9ff4": {"__data__": {"id_": "4eb94dd1-bcdd-4bab-a936-c141d26b9ff4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "11", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2567318a-a94e-462e-9d86-3a993fc7eb96", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "11", "file_name": "legy209.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Geography/legy209.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 1524676, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "24c470b8d90267fa3ef7c5c2f04e6494f08ad8a441ff6915e48b4d02354dcefc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Geographical perspective on selected issues and problems      105\nEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISES\n1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.\n(i) Which one of the following river is highly polluted?\n(a) Brahmaputra (c) Yamuna\n(b) Satluj (d) Godavari\n(ii) Which one of the following deseases is caused by water pollution?\n(a) Conjunctivitis (c) Respiratory infections\n(b) Diarrhorea (d) Bronchitis\n(iii) Which one of the following is the cause of acid rain?\n(a) Water pollution (c) Noise pollution\n(b) Land pollution (d) Air pollution\n(iv) Push and pull factors are responsible for\u2013\n(a) Migration (c) Slums\n(b) Land degradation (d) Air pollution\n2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.\n(i) What is the difference between pollution and pollutants?\n(ii) Describe the major source of air pollution.\n(iii) Mention major problems associated with urban waste disposal in India.\n(iv) What are the effects of air pollution on human health.\n3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.\n(i) Describe the nature of water pollution in India.\n(ii) Describe the problem of slums in India.\n(iii) Suggest measures for reduction of land degradation.\nRationalised 2023-24", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1213, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0d689d2c-5ad3-4679-a62a-7796f7279fed": {"__data__": {"id_": "0d689d2c-5ad3-4679-a62a-7796f7279fed", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "1", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", 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"excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6a70b099-dd48-4883-bed1-d847175088c4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "4", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cf89f740495708e91ad90688071763ddafc409934c076599134e472704a9f43a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "OpenStax  \nRice University  \n6100 Main Street MS- 375 \nHouston, Texas 77005  \nTo learn more about OpenStax, visit http s://openstax.org.  \nIndividual print copies and bulk orders can be purchased through our website.  \n\u00a92023 Rice University.  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Go Stand Together Robin and Sandy Stuart Foundation The Stuart Family Foundation Tammy and Guillermo Trevi\u00f1o Valhalla Charitable Foundation White Star Education Foundation Schmidt Futures William Marsh Rice University", "start_char_idx": 3, "end_char_idx": 1994, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d40e6dba-b5b1-4944-9581-973a618317d1": {"__data__": {"id_": "d40e6dba-b5b1-4944-9581-973a618317d1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6f36091e-164e-4201-b36d-28c4a99b6c1a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "6", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a3e4f3bd06426b3ff3a7f3f035c45d12e71d08699cd56013cd0d3d05d74059c3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Your Journey to Biology Success\nLearn with us today!\nopenstax.org/kinetic          OpenStax Kinetic will help you uncover who you are as a \nscience learner and provide helpful personalized feedback \nas you explore your options for a future in science.\nThroughout the year, participate in a range of free \nresearch studies on Kinetic to deepen your:\n\u2022Foundational science knowledge\n\u2022Early science and math experiences\n\u2022STEM interests and matching careers\n\u2022Career and vocational interests\nTake part in fun, researcher-created activities \nto explore biological concepts like RNA, \ncancer, and the cell cycle! \nParticipation supports important learning \nresearch to help improve digital learning \nnationwide. All while giving you a chance \nat earning amazing prizes.\nLearn while you earn \nwith OpenStax Kinetic!\nGet involved, get learning, and get \nrewarded today with OpenStax Kinetic!", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 882, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "39d3063d-f8c9-4c7e-941d-e93d4aa8d676": {"__data__": {"id_": "39d3063d-f8c9-4c7e-941d-e93d4aa8d676", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "59a76b34-7e5f-498d-b0c4-b90666a6a85a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "7", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "bec4d1496d3c5e1f942fa2c14212ffc052a4ffe9ef706c47484ba23194281d17", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Cont ents\nPrefac e 1\nUNI T1THE CELL ULAR F OUND ATION OF LIFE\nCHAP TER 1\nIntr oduction t o Biolog y 5\nIntroduction 5\n1.1Themes and Conc epts of Biolog y 5\n1.2The P rocess of Scienc e 16\nKey Terms 24\nChap ter Summar y 24\nVisual Connection Ques tions 25\nReview Ques tions 25\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 26\nCHAP TER 2\nChemis try of Life 27\nIntroduction 27\n2.1The Building Block s of Molecules 28\n2.2Water 34\n2.3Biological Molecules 39\nKey Terms 51\nChap ter Summar y 52\nVisual Connection Ques tions 53\nReview Ques tions 53\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 54\nCHAP TER 3\nCell Structur e and F unction 55\nIntroduction 55\n3.1How Cel ls Ar e Studied 55\n3.2Comparing P rokaryotic and Euk aryotic Cel ls 59\n3.3Eukaryotic Cel ls 61\n3.4The Cel l Membr ane 74\n3.5Passive Transpor t 76\n3.6Activ e Transpor t 80\nKey Terms 84\nChap ter Summar y 85\nVisual Connection Ques tions 87\nReview Ques tions 87\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 88", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 912, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "98250b12-f795-4dbf-91a4-636247272ea1": {"__data__": {"id_": "98250b12-f795-4dbf-91a4-636247272ea1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f188c77a-428b-4e3a-bed5-0784b06bf85d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "8", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "660e61e67c9c5d5f44b9d5cca39766e86ba210e9dc5e8e101633ef8ced6890e1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "CHAP TER 4\nHow Cel ls Ob tain Ener gy 89\nIntroduction 89\n4.1Ener gy and Metabolism 90\n4.2Glycolysis 100\n4.3Citric Acid Cy cle and Oxidativ e Phosphor ylation 101\n4.4Fermentation 105\n4.5Connections t o Other Metabolic P athways 108\nKey Terms 110\nChap ter Summar y 111\nVisual Connection Ques tions 112\nReview Ques tions 112\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 113\nCHAP TER 5\nPho tosynthesis 115\nIntroduction 115\n5.1Overview of Phot osynthesis 115\n5.2The Light -Dependent R eactions o f Phot osynthesis 120\n5.3The Cal vin Cy cle 124\nKey Terms 129\nChap ter Summar y 129\nVisual Connection Ques tions 130\nReview Ques tions 130\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 130\nUNI T2CELL DIVISION AND GENET ICS\nCHAP TER 6\nReproduction a t the Cel lular L evel 133\nIntroduction 133\n6.1The Genome 133\n6.2The Cel l Cycle 135\n6.3Canc er and the Cel l Cycle 141\n6.4Prokaryotic Cel l Division 142\nKey Terms 146\nChap ter Summar y 147\nVisual Connection Ques tions 148\nReview Ques tions 148\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 149\nCHAP TER 7\nThe Cel lular Basis o f Inheritanc e 151\nIntroduction 151\n7.1Sexual R eproduction 152\n7.2Meiosis 155\n7.3Variations in Meiosis 160\nKey Terms 167\nChap ter Summar y 167\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1195, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "67f3a147-0c6b-4524-b8a8-145dd72eac3a": {"__data__": {"id_": "67f3a147-0c6b-4524-b8a8-145dd72eac3a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "10248ada-28dd-4ea3-9d90-bfe29600a596", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "9", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0773fbedff935dd864f9f5b2b763816ec962e8751033209b3a1037d51b3b507f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Visual Connection Ques tions 168\nReview Ques tions 168\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 169\nCHAP TER 8\nPatterns o f Inheritanc e 171\nIntroduction 171\n8.1Mendel \u2019s Experiments 172\n8.2Laws of Inheritanc e 176\n8.3Extensions o f the L aws of Inheritanc e 183\nKey Terms 192\nChap ter Summar y 192\nVisual Connection Ques tions 193\nReview Ques tions 194\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 195\nUNI T3MOLECUL AR BIOL OGY AND\nBIO TECHNOL OGY\nCHAP TER 9\nMolecular Biolog y 197\nIntroduction 197\n9.1The Structur e of DNA 198\n9.2DNA R eplication 202\n9.3Transcrip tion 209\n9.4Translation 212\n9.5How Genes Ar e Regulated 215\nKey Terms 219\nChap ter Summar y 220\nVisual Connection Ques tions 221\nReview Ques tions 221\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 222\nCHAP TER 10\nBiotechnolog y 223\nIntroduction 223\n10.1 Cloning and Genetic Engineering 223\n10.2 Biot echnolog y in Medicine and Agricul ture 231\n10.3 Genomics and P roteomics 234\nKey Terms 243\nChap ter Summar y 243\nVisual Connection Ques tions 244\nReview Ques tions 244\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 245\nUNI T4EVOLUTION AND THE DIVERSI TY OF", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1060, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "36ce49a2-7596-4e55-8ca0-48e809eadbb6": {"__data__": {"id_": "36ce49a2-7596-4e55-8ca0-48e809eadbb6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "10", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "90d26f98-d6f9-48aa-b47a-53e10068e69c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "10", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8960044e82371233d4f8954c3f350872bd5ba54088c9ec2c2c34c4530ca0394a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "LIFE\nCHAP TER 11\nEvolution and Its P rocesses 247\nIntroduction 247\n11.1 Disc overing Ho w Populations Chang e 248\n11.2 Mechanisms o f Evolution 254\n11.3 Evidenc e of Evolution 256\n11.4 Speciation 259\n11.5 Common Misc onceptions about Ev olution 264\nKey Terms 268\nChap ter Summar y 268\nVisual Connection Ques tions 269\nReview Ques tions 269\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 271\nCHAP TER 12\nDiversity o f Life 273\nIntroduction 273\n12.1 Organizing Lif e on Ear th 273\n12.2 Determining Ev olutionar y Relationships 278\nKey Terms 285\nChap ter Summar y 285\nVisual Connection Ques tions 286\nReview Ques tions 286\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 286\nCHAP TER 13\nDiversity o f Micr obes , Fungi, and P rotists 287\nIntroduction 287\n13.1 Prokaryotic Div ersity 288\n13.2 Eukaryotic Origins 298\n13.3 Protists 300\n13.4 Fungi 306\nKey Terms 315\nChap ter Summar y 316\nVisual Connection Ques tions 317\nReview Ques tions 317\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 318\nCHAP TER 14\nDiversity o f Plants 319\nIntroduction 319\n14.1 The Plant King dom 320\n14.2 Seedles s Plants 326\n14.3 Seed Plants: Gymnosperms 333\n14.4 Seed Plants: Angiosperms 338\nKey Terms 347\nChap ter Summar y 348\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1177, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5158c1ab-df08-4181-8a40-91c56338a05d": {"__data__": {"id_": "5158c1ab-df08-4181-8a40-91c56338a05d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "11", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1eb5aa7c-c9b9-4360-8bf7-dff5ca0d51b9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "11", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d1efa9ff9867a659e110aaa4f996c184b53f12fff2b05c6da0938ce1666c18dc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Visual Connection Ques tions 348\nReview Ques tions 349\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 349\nCHAP TER 15\nDiversity o f Animals 351\nIntroduction 351\n15.1 Featur es o f the Animal King dom 352\n15.2 Spong es and Cnidarians 357\n15.3 Flatw orms , Nemat odes , and Ar thropods 363\n15.4 Mollusk s and Annelids 370\n15.5 Echinoderms and Chor dates 376\n15.6 Vertebrates 380\nKey Terms 390\nChap ter Summar y 392\nVisual Connection Ques tions 394\nReview Ques tions 394\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 395\nUNI T5ANIMAL S TRUCTURE AND FUNCT ION\nCHAP TER 16\nThe Body \u2019s Sy stems 397\nIntroduction 397\n16.1 Homeos tasis and Osmor egulation 398\n16.2 Digestive Sy stem 402\n16.3 Circulat ory and R espir atory Sy stems 408\n16.4 Endocrine Sy stem 414\n16.5 Musculosk eletal Sy stem 420\n16.6 Nervous Sy stem 426\nKey Terms 436\nChap ter Summar y 438\nVisual Connection Ques tions 441\nReview Ques tions 441\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 443\nCHAP TER 17\nThe Immune Sy stem and Disease 445\nIntroduction 445\n17.1 Viruses 446\n17.2 Innat e Immunity 453\n17.3 Adap tive Immunity 456\n17.4 Disrup tions in the Immune Sy stem 465\nKey Terms 469\nChap ter Summar y 470\nVisual Connection Ques tions 471\nReview Ques tions 471\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 472", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1205, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "de284f33-9f19-4434-bb7c-1d3f0dd10770": {"__data__": {"id_": "de284f33-9f19-4434-bb7c-1d3f0dd10770", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "12", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": 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eproduc e 474\n18.2 Development and Or ganog enesis 478\n18.3 Human R eproduction 480\nKey Terms 491\nChap ter Summar y 492\nVisual Connection Ques tions 493\nReview Ques tions 493\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 494\nUNI T6ECOLOGY\nCHAP TER 19\nPopula tion and Community E colog y 495\nIntroduction 495\n19.1 Population Demogr aphics and Dynamics 496\n19.2 Population Gr owth and R egulation 500\n19.3 The Human P opulation 506\n19.4 Community E colog y 509\nKey Terms 520\nChap ter Summar y 521\nVisual Connection Ques tions 521\nReview Ques tions 522\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 523\nCHAP TER 20\nEcosystems and the Biospher e 525\nIntroduction 525\n20.1 Waterford's Ener gy Flo w thr ough E cosystems 526\n20.2 Biog eochemical Cy cles 533\n20.3 Terrestrial Biomes 543\n20.4 Aquatic and Marine Biomes 550\nKey Terms 559\nChap ter Summar y 560\nVisual Connection Ques tions 561\nReview Ques tions 561\nCritical Thinking Ques tions 562\nCHAP TER 21\nConser vation and Biodiv ersity 563\nIntroduction 563\n21.1 Impor tanc e of Biodiv ersity 564\n21.2 Threats t o Biodiv ersity 571\n21.3 Preser ving Biodiv ersity 578\nKey Terms 586\nChap ter Summar y 586\nVisual Connection Ques tions 587\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1271, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d20d8ca3-7b68-43ea-82e0-e50858b2e886": {"__data__": {"id_": "d20d8ca3-7b68-43ea-82e0-e50858b2e886", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "13", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", 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"0c9d00f626181e2abe3c5f2b152a22680b8106261d2f012c21ca0f19fd8d25a6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Access f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 33, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "95932c71-b8ca-4a10-bcb6-596ac92f972e": {"__data__": {"id_": "95932c71-b8ca-4a10-bcb6-596ac92f972e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "15", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e5395ee0-83ec-4218-8d4f-8483b83ba86b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "15", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "30006ca1a96db9b8950d14df57af294d0ad32de74d28fdc639a10242eb22de8c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "f42a554f-9caf-4650-88fc-b091aadbd9a5", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "2ed0f5bbc0072f9a379b25694fbe1333fb88a4f3134edac9cc766d40cf0ebb15", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "PREF ACE\nAbout OpenS tax\nOpenStax is par t of Ric e Univ ersity , which is a 501(c)(3)\nnonpr ofit charitable c orpor ation. As an educational\ninitiativ e, it's our mis sion t o impr ove educational\naccess and learning f or everyone. Thr ough our\npartnerships with philanthr opic or ganizations and our\nallianc e with other educational r esour ce companies ,\nwe're breaking do wn the mos t common barriers t o\nlearning . Because w e belie ve that e veryone should and\ncan ha ve ac cess to kno wledg e.\nAbout OpenS tax R esour ces\nCustomiz ation\nConc epts of Biolog yis lic ensed under a Cr eativ e\nCommons A ttribution 4.0 Int ernational (C C BY) license ,\nwhich means that y ou can dis tribut e, remix, and build\nupon the c ontent, as long as y ou pr ovide at tribution t o\nOpenStax and its c ontent c ontribut ors.\nBecause our book s are openl y licensed, y ou ar e free to\nuse the entir e book or select onl y the sections that ar e\nmos t relevant t o the needs o f your c ourse . Feel fr ee to\nremix the c ontent b y assigning y our s tudents c ertain\nchap ters and sections in y our s yllabus , in the or der that\nyou pr efer. You can e ven pr ovide a dir ect link in y our\nsyllabus t o the sections in the w eb vie w of your book.\nInstruct ors also ha ve the op tion o f creating a\ncustomiz ed v ersion o f their OpenStax book. Visit the\nInstruct or R esour ces section o f your book pag e on\nOpenStax. org for mor e inf ormation.\nArt attribution\nInConc epts of Biolog y, mos t art contains at tribution t o\nits cr eator within the cap tion. Because the ar t is openl y\nlicensed, an yone ma y reuse the ar t as long as the y\nprovide the same at tribution t o its original sour ce. To\nmaximiz e readability and c ontent flo w, some ar t does\nnot include at tribution in the t ext. If y ou reuse ar t from\nthis t ext that does not ha ve attribution pr ovided, use\nthe f ollowing at tribution: Cop yright Ric e Univ ersity ,\nOpenStax, under C C BY 4.0 lic ense .\nErrata\nAll OpenStax t extbook s under go a rig orous r eview\nprocess. Ho wever, like an y professional -grade\ntextbook, err ors sometimes oc cur. In addition, the wide\nrange of topics , data , and leg al cir cums tanc es in\nsociolog y chang e frequentl y, and por tions o f thetextbook ma y bec ome out o f dat e. Sinc e our book s are\nweb-based, w e can mak e updat es periodical ly when\ndeemed pedag ogical ly nec essary. If y ou ha ve a\ncorrection t o sug gest, submit it thr ough the link on y our\nbook pag e on OpenStax. org. Subject mat ter exper ts\nreview al l err ata sug gestions . OpenStax is c ommit ted\nto remaining tr anspar ent about al l updat es, so y ou wil l\nalso find a lis t of pas t and pending err ata chang es on\nyour book pag e on OpenStax. org.\nFormat\nYou can ac cess this t extbook f or fr ee in w eb vie w or\nPDF thr ough OpenStax. org, and f or a lo w cost in print.\nThe w eb vie w is the r ecommended f ormat because it is\nthe mos t accessible \u2013 including being WCA G 2.0 A A\ncompliant \u2013 and mos t curr ent. P rint v ersions ar e\navailable f or individual pur chase , or the y ma y be\nordered thr ough y our campus book store.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3120, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f42a554f-9caf-4650-88fc-b091aadbd9a5": {"__data__": {"id_": "f42a554f-9caf-4650-88fc-b091aadbd9a5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "15", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e5395ee0-83ec-4218-8d4f-8483b83ba86b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "15", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "30006ca1a96db9b8950d14df57af294d0ad32de74d28fdc639a10242eb22de8c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "95932c71-b8ca-4a10-bcb6-596ac92f972e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "15", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f65367d64d6802ff16aad6760143a0b626ce9ac044160e573481442711c9f3e9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "org. Subject mat ter exper ts\nreview al l err ata sug gestions . OpenStax is c ommit ted\nto remaining tr anspar ent about al l updat es, so y ou wil l\nalso find a lis t of pas t and pending err ata chang es on\nyour book pag e on OpenStax. org.\nFormat\nYou can ac cess this t extbook f or fr ee in w eb vie w or\nPDF thr ough OpenStax. org, and f or a lo w cost in print.\nThe w eb vie w is the r ecommended f ormat because it is\nthe mos t accessible \u2013 including being WCA G 2.0 A A\ncompliant \u2013 and mos t curr ent. P rint v ersions ar e\navailable f or individual pur chase , or the y ma y be\nordered thr ough y our campus book store.\nAbout Concepts of Biology\nConc epts of Biolog yis designed f or the single -\nsemes ter intr oduction t o biolog y course f or non-\nscienc e majors , which f or man y students is their onl y\ncollege-level scienc e course . As such, this c ourse\nrepresents an impor tant oppor tunity f or students t o\ndevelop the nec essary kno wledg e, tools , and skil ls to\nmak e inf ormed decisions as the y continue with their\nlives. Rather than being mir ed do wn with facts and\nvocabular y, the typical non-scienc e major s tudent\nneeds inf ormation pr esent ed in a w ay that is eas y to\nread and unders tand. Ev en mor e impor tantl y, the\ncontent should be meaningful . Students do much\nbetter when the y unders tand wh y biolog y is r elevant t o\ntheir e veryday lives. For these r easons ,Conc epts of\nBiolog yis gr ounded on an e volutionar y basis and\nincludes e xciting f eatur es that highlight car eers in the\nbiological scienc es and e veryday applications o f the\nconcepts at hand. W e also s trive to sho w the\ninterconnect ednes s of topics within this e xtremel y\nbroad discipline . In or der t o meet the needs o f today\u2019s\ninstruct ors and s tudents , we maintain the o verall\norganization and c overage found in mos t syllabi f or this\ncourse . A s trength o fConc epts of Biolog yis that\ninstruct ors can cus tomiz e the book, adap ting it t o the\nappr oach that w orks bes t in their clas sroom. Conc epts\nof Biolog y also includes an inno vative art program that\nincorpor ates critical thinking and click er ques tions t o\nhelp s tudents unders tand\u2014and appl y\u2014key concepts.Preface 1", "start_char_idx": 2491, "end_char_idx": 4713, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "69b60c45-91a7-4536-9f2c-9e755beb40f8": {"__data__": {"id_": "69b60c45-91a7-4536-9f2c-9e755beb40f8", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "16", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "58e4f95a-d9da-4ad0-b6b3-3929e823d1ca", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "16", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a01f6728ae5a14ba4b24842e3042ad018f95b6af0ddde57ffba36aeb691d30fc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "ae7ae361-ce32-4d57-bc7b-f52e19441cea", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "fa581138fd31a4bdcf79596de9d1541c8c9c3e6a8ec9a16d55e493fed98462f6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Coverage and Sc ope\nOur Conc epts of Biolog ytextbook adher es to the sc ope\nand sequenc e of mos t one -semes ter non-majors\ncourses nation wide . We also s trive to mak e biolog y, as\na discipline , interesting and ac cessible t o students . In\naddition t o a c ompr ehensiv e coverage of core concepts\nand f oundational r esear ch, w e ha ve inc orpor ated\nfeatur es that dr aw learners int o the discipline in\nmeaningful w ays. Our sc ope o f content w as de veloped\nafter sur veying o ver a hundr ed biolog y professors and\nlistening t o their c overage needs . We provide a\nthor ough tr eatment o f biolog y\u2019s fundamental c oncepts\nwith a sc ope that is manag eable f or ins truct ors and\nstudents alik e.\n\u2022Unit 1: The Cel lular F ounda tion o f Lif e. Our\nopening unit intr oduc es students t o the scienc es,\nincluding the pr ocess of scienc e and the\nunderl ying c oncepts from the ph ysical scienc es\nthat pr ovide a fr ame work within which learners\ncompr ehend biological pr ocesses. Additional ly,\nstudents wil l gain solid unders tanding o f the\nstructur es, functions , and pr ocesses o f the mos t\nbasic unit o f life: the c ell.\n\u2022Unit 2: Cell Division and Genetics . Our g enetics\nunit tak es learners fr om the f oundations o f cellular\nreproduction t o the e xperiments that r evealed the\nbasis o f genetics and la ws of inheritanc e.\n\u2022Unit 3: Molecular Biolog y and Bio technolog y.\nStudents wil l learn the intricacies o f DNA , protein\nsynthesis , and g ene r egulation and curr ent\napplications o f biot echnolog y and g enomics .\n\u2022Unit 4: Evolution and the Div ersity o f Lif e. The\ncore concepts of evolution ar e discus sed in this\nunit with e xamples il lustrating e volutionar y\nprocesses. Additional ly, the e volutionar y basis o f\nbiolog y reappears thr oughout the t extbook in\ngener al discus sion and is r einforced thr ough\nspecial cal l-out f eatur es highlighting specific\nevolution-based t opics . The div ersity o f life is\nexplor ed with detailed s tudy o f various or ganisms\nand discus sion o f emer ging ph ylog enetic\nrelationships betw een and among bact eria, protist\nking doms , fungi, plants , and animals .\n\u2022Unit 5: Animal S tructur e and F unction . An\nintroduction t o the f orm and function o f the animal\nbody is f ollowed b y chap ters on the immune\nsystem and animal de velopment. This unit t ouches\non the biolog y of all organisms while maintaining\nan eng aging f ocus on human anat omy and\nphysiolog y that helps s tudents c onnect t o the\ntopics .\n\u2022Unit 6: Ecolog y. Ecological c oncepts ar e broadl y\ncovered in this unit, with f eatur es highlightinglocaliz ed, r eal-world is sues o f conser vation and\nbiodiv ersity .\nPedagogic al Foundation and F eatur es\nBecause o f the impact scienc e has on s tudents and\nsociety , an impor tant g oal o f scienc e education is t o\nachie ve a scientifical ly literate population that\nconsis tently mak es inf ormed decisions . Scientific\nliteracy tr ansc ends a basic unders tanding o f scientific\nprinciples and pr ocesses t o include the ability t o mak e\nsense o f the m yriad ins tanc es wher e people enc ount er\nscienc e in da y-to-day life.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3148, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ae7ae361-ce32-4d57-bc7b-f52e19441cea": {"__data__": {"id_": "ae7ae361-ce32-4d57-bc7b-f52e19441cea", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "16", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "58e4f95a-d9da-4ad0-b6b3-3929e823d1ca", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "16", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a01f6728ae5a14ba4b24842e3042ad018f95b6af0ddde57ffba36aeb691d30fc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "69b60c45-91a7-4536-9f2c-9e755beb40f8", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "16", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "587116fd3e19fe1b72d368156bf679f45abf7d83103a654c0b56d4c284e0adeb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "\u2022Unit 6: Ecolog y. Ecological c oncepts ar e broadl y\ncovered in this unit, with f eatur es highlightinglocaliz ed, r eal-world is sues o f conser vation and\nbiodiv ersity .\nPedagogic al Foundation and F eatur es\nBecause o f the impact scienc e has on s tudents and\nsociety , an impor tant g oal o f scienc e education is t o\nachie ve a scientifical ly literate population that\nconsis tently mak es inf ormed decisions . Scientific\nliteracy tr ansc ends a basic unders tanding o f scientific\nprinciples and pr ocesses t o include the ability t o mak e\nsense o f the m yriad ins tanc es wher e people enc ount er\nscienc e in da y-to-day life. Thus , a scientifical ly literate\nperson is one who uses scienc e content kno wledg e to\nmak e inf ormed decisions , either personal ly or social ly,\nabout t opics or is sues that ha ve a c onnection with\nscienc e. Conc epts of Biolog y is gr ounded on a solid\nscientific base and designed t o promot e scientific\nliteracy. Thr oughout the t ext, y ou wil l find f eatur es that\nengage the s tudents in scientific inquir y by taking\nselect ed topics a s tep fur ther.\n\u2022Evolution Connection featur es uphold the\nimpor tanc e of evolution t o all biological s tudy\nthrough discus sions lik e \u201cGlobal Decline o f Cor al\nReefs\u201d and \u201c The R ed Queen Hypothesis .\u201d\n\u2022Career Connection featur es pr esent inf ormation\non a v ariety o f car eers in the biological scienc es,\nintroducing s tudents t o the educational\nrequir ements and da y-to-day work lif e of a v ariety\nof professions , such as f orensic scientis ts,\nregis tered dietitians , and biog eogr aphers .\n\u2022Everyday Connection featur es tie biological\nconcepts to emer ging is sues and discus s scienc e\nin terms o f everyday life. Topics include \u201cIn vasive\nSpecies\u201d and \u201cPhot osynthesis at the Gr ocery\nStore.\u201d\nAns wers t o Ques tions in the Book\nAnswers t o Visual Connection Ques tions , Review\nQues tions , and Critical Thinking Ques tions ar e provided\nin the Ins truct or Ans wer Guide via the Ins truct or\nResour ces pag e. Select ans wers t o these ques tions ar e\nprovided f or students via the Student R esour ces pag e.\nArt and Animations that Engage\nOur ar t program tak es a s traight forward appr oach\ndesigned t o help s tudents learn the c oncepts of biolog y\nthrough simple , effectiv e illustrations , phot os, and\nmicr ographs . Conc epts of Biolog y also inc orpor ates\nlinks to relevant animations and int eractiv e exercises\nthat help bring biolog y to life for students .\n\u2022Visual Connection featur es cal l out c ore fig ures in\neach chap ter for student at tention. Ques tions\nabout k ey fig ures, including click er ques tions that\ncan be used in the clas sroom, eng age students\u20192 Preface\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2507, "end_char_idx": 5250, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b35bc398-5715-4bee-a46e-289660e77400": {"__data__": {"id_": "b35bc398-5715-4bee-a46e-289660e77400", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "17", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1bb47121-801d-4a23-87c0-fcce3f26e21a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "17", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dad686a096cb107817f69258fce833e748ef8605e550f53d6073eae7de0873ee", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "1feb2ab3-014b-43c2-a127-69a8f342f0a9", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "ac5d8d47ace83986688ddaf0088ea6311d6a71c47841e4c8212dadef8efe3437", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "critical thinking and anal ytical abilities t o ensur e\ntheir g enuine unders tanding o f the c oncept at\nhand.\n\u2022Link t o Learning featur es dir ect s tudents t o online\ninteractiv e exercises and animations t o add a ful ler\ncontext and e xamples t o core content.\nAbout Our T eam\nConc epts of Biolog ywould not be pos sible if not f or the\ntremendous c ontributions o f the authors and\ncommunity r eviewing t eam\nSenior C ontributing Author s\nSamantha F owler , Cla yton Stat e Univ ersity\nRebec ca R oush, Sandhil ls Community Col lege\nJames Wise , Hamp ton Univ ersity\nContributing Author s and R eviewers\nMark Belk, Brigham Y oung Univ ersity\nLisa Bog gs, South western Oklahoma Stat e Univ ersity\nSherr yl Br overman, Duk e Univ ersity\nDavid B yres, Florida Stat e Col lege at Jack sonville\nAaron Cas sill, The Univ ersity o f Texas at San Ant onio\nKaren Champ , Col lege of Centr al Florida\nSue Chaplin, Univ ersity o f St. Thomas\nDiane Da y, Cla yton Stat e Univ ersity\nJean De Saix, Univ ersity o f Nor th Car olina at Chapel Hil l\nDavid Hunnicut t, St. Norber t Col lege\nBarbar a Kuehner , Hawaii Community Col lege\nBrenda L eady , Univ ersity o f Toledo\nBernie Mar cus, Genesee Community Col lege\nFlora Mhlang a, Lipsc omb Univ ersity\nMadeline Mignone , Dominican Col lege\nElizabeth Nash, L ong Beach City Col lege\nMark Ne wton, San Jose City Col lege\nDiana Oliv eras, Univ ersity o f Color ado Boulder\nAnn P aterson, Wil liams Bap tist Col lege\nJoel Piperber g, Mil lersville Univ ersity\nNick R eeves, Mt. San Jacint o Col lege\nAnn R eisenauer , San Jose Stat e Univ ersity\nLynn Rumf elt, Gor don Col lege\nMichael Rutledg e, Middle T ennes see Stat e Univ ersity\nEdward Saiff , Ramapo Col lege of Ne w Jerse y\nBrian Shmaefsky , King wood Col lege\nGary Shul tz, Marshal l Univ ersity\nDonald Slish, SUNY Plat tsbur gh\nAnh-Hue T u, Geor gia South western Stat e Univ ersity\nElena Z oubina , Bridg ewater Stat e Univ ersity\nLearning R esour ces\nWile y Plus f or Biolog y-Fall 2013 Pilo tWile yPLUS\nprovides an eng aging online en vironment f or eff ectiv e\nteaching and learning . Wile yPLUS builds s tudents\u2019\nconfidenc e because it tak es the g uesswork out o fstudying b y providing a clear r oadmap; what t o do , how\nto do it, and if the y did it right. With Wile yPLUS,\nstudents tak e mor e initiativ e. Ther efore, the c ourse has\na greater impact on their learning e xperienc e. Adap tive\ntools pr ovide s tudents with a personal , adap tive\nlearning e xperienc e so the y can build their pr oficiency\non topics and use their s tudy time mos t eff ectiv ely.\nPlease let us kno w if y ou w ould lik e to par ticipat e in a\nFall 2013 Pilot.\nConc epts of Biolog y Powerpoint Slides (facul ty onl y)\nThe P owerPoint slides ar e based on the e xtensiv e\nillustrations fr om Col lege Ph ysics. The y can be edit ed,\nincorpor ated int o lectur e not es, and y ou ar e free to\nshar e with an yone in the c ommunity . This is a\nrestrict ed it em r equiring facul ty regis tration. NO TE:\nThis file is v ery lar ge and ma y tak e some time t o\ndownload.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3058, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1feb2ab3-014b-43c2-a127-69a8f342f0a9": {"__data__": {"id_": "1feb2ab3-014b-43c2-a127-69a8f342f0a9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "17", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1bb47121-801d-4a23-87c0-fcce3f26e21a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "17", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dad686a096cb107817f69258fce833e748ef8605e550f53d6073eae7de0873ee", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "b35bc398-5715-4bee-a46e-289660e77400", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "17", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "02ed1ea7ca0089617381a1022e48b88e482eb5f6f0c74ef9014bed9395ac632d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Please let us kno w if y ou w ould lik e to par ticipat e in a\nFall 2013 Pilot.\nConc epts of Biolog y Powerpoint Slides (facul ty onl y)\nThe P owerPoint slides ar e based on the e xtensiv e\nillustrations fr om Col lege Ph ysics. The y can be edit ed,\nincorpor ated int o lectur e not es, and y ou ar e free to\nshar e with an yone in the c ommunity . This is a\nrestrict ed it em r equiring facul ty regis tration. NO TE:\nThis file is v ery lar ge and ma y tak e some time t o\ndownload.\nSimBio (L abor atory)SimBio \u2019s int eractiv e modules\n(virtual labs and int eractiv e tut orials and chap ters)\nprovide eng aging , disc overy-based learning t ools that\ncomplement man y of the chap ters o f Conc epts of\nBiolog y. SimBio is bes t kno wn f or their E coBeak er\u00ae and\nEvoBeak er\u00ae suit es o f simulat ed ec olog y and e volution\nlabor atories that g uide s tudents thr ough the\n\u201cdisc overy\u201d of impor tant c oncepts via a mix o f\nstructur ed and open-ended e xperimentation on\nsimulat ed s ystems . In r esponse t o popular demand,\nSimBio has beg un appl ying the same po werful\nappr oaches t o topics in c ell biolog y, genetics , and\nneur obiolog y. All of SimBio \u2019s modules include ins tant -\nfeedback ques tions that enhanc e student\ncompr ehension and aut o-graded ques tions that\nfacilitat e implementation.\nAdditional R esour ces\nStudent and Ins tructor Resour ces\nWe\u2019ve compiled additional r esour ces for both s tudents\nand ins truct ors, including Get ting Star ted Guides , an\ninstruct or\u2019s ans wer guide , test bank, and imag e slides .\nInstruct or resour ces requir e a v erified ins truct or\naccount, which y ou can appl y for when y ou log in or\ncreate your ac count on OpenStax. org. Take adv antag e\nof these r esour ces to supplement y our OpenStax book.\nInstruct or\u2019s ans wer guide .Each c omponent o f the\ninstruct or\u2019s guide is designed t o provide maximum\nguidanc e for deliv ering the c ontent in an int eresting\nand dynamic manner .\nPowerPoint lectur e slides .The P owerPoint slides\nprovide learning objectiv es, imag es and descrip tions ,\nfeatur e focuses , and discus sion ques tions as a s tarting\nplac e for ins truct ors t o build their lectur es.Preface 3", "start_char_idx": 2574, "end_char_idx": 4757, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ba3be917-5400-4649-82ab-84c2a9682c8f": {"__data__": {"id_": "ba3be917-5400-4649-82ab-84c2a9682c8f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "18", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "102d838b-752a-4aa0-868b-6dbfb20593c7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "18", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c96670f5123a0b66fccc29ede3e2ba1b51702ee89e417502df499c6ab6cb1da6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Academic Int egrit y\nAcademic int egrity builds trus t, unders tanding , equity ,\nand g enuine learning . While s tudents ma y enc ount er\nsignificant chal leng es in their c ourses and their liv es,\ndoing their o wn w ork and maintaining a high degr ee o f\nauthenticity wil l resul t in meaningful out comes that wil l\nextend far be yond their c ollege car eer. Facul ty,\nadminis trators, resour ce providers , and s tudents\nshould w ork t ogether t o maintain a fair and positiv e\nexperienc e.\nWe realiz e that s tudents benefit when academic\nintegrity gr ound rules ar e es tablished earl y in the\ncourse . To that end, OpenStax has cr eated an\ninteractiv e to aid with academic int egrity discus sions in\nyour c ourse .\nVisit our academic int egrit y slider (https://www.opens tax.org/\nr/academic -integrit y-slider ).Click and dr ag ic ons along the\ncontinuum t o align these pr actic es with y our ins titution and\ncourse policies . You ma y then include the gr aphic on y our\nsyllabus , present it in y our firs t course meeting , or cr eate a\nhandout f or students . (attribution: Cop yright Ric e Univ ersity ,\nOpenStax, under C C BY 4.0 lic ense)At OpenStax w e are also de veloping r esour ces\nsuppor ting authentic learning e xperienc es and\nassessment. Please visit this book \u2019s pag e for updat es.\nFor an in-dep th review of academic int egrity s trategies ,\nwe highl y recommend visiting the Int ernational Cent er\nof Academic Int egrity (ICAI) w ebsit e at\nhttps:/ /academicint egrity .org/\n(https:/ /academicint egrity .org).\nCommunit y Hubs\nOpenStax par tners with the Ins titut e for the Study o f\nKnowledg e Manag ement in E ducation (ISKME) t o offer\nCommunity Hubs on OER Commons \u2014a plat form f or\ninstruct ors t o shar e community -created resour ces that\nsuppor t OpenStax book s, free o f char ge. Thr ough our\nCommunity Hubs , ins truct ors can upload their o wn\nmaterials or do wnload r esour ces to use in their o wn\ncourses , including additional ancil laries , teaching\nmaterial , mul timedia , and r elevant c ourse c ontent. W e\nencourage ins truct ors t o join the hubs f or the subjects\nmos t relevant t o your t eaching and r esear ch as an\noppor tunity both t o enrich y our c ourses and t o eng age\nwith other facul ty. To reach the Community Hubs , visit\nwww .oercommons .org/hubs/opens tax.\nTechnology par tners\nAs al lies in making high-quality learning mat erials\naccessible , our t echnolog y par tners o ffer op tional lo w-\ncost tools that ar e int egrated with OpenStax book s. To\naccess the t echnolog y op tions f or your t ext, visit y our\nbook pag e on OpenStax. org.4 Preface\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2659, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "678e1efa-1f88-4f26-8168-ee513f7e6b0e": {"__data__": {"id_": "678e1efa-1f88-4f26-8168-ee513f7e6b0e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "19", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "02754284-bfc7-4e5e-9470-bea515969268", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "19", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "be0a06a2ad0df3d0866682837a880dca97790f9a10f5fab03fc23e691cfcd346", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 1\nIntroduction t o Biolog y\n1.1Themes and Conc epts of Biolog y\n1.2The P rocess of Scienc e\nViewed fr om spac e, Ear th (Figure 1.1 ) offers f ew clues about the div ersity o f life\nforms that r eside ther e. The firs t forms o f life on Ear th ar e thought t o ha ve been micr oorganisms\nthat e xisted for bil lions o f years bef ore plants and animals appear ed. The mammals , birds, and\nflowers so familiar t o us ar e all relativ ely recent, originating 130 t o 200 mil lion y ears ag o. Humans\nhave inhabit ed this planet f or onl y the las t 2.5 mil lion y ears , and onl y in the las t 300,000 y ears\nhave humans s tarted looking lik e we do t oday.\n1.1Themes and C oncepts of Biology\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Identif y and describe the pr oper ties o f life\n\u2022Describe the le vels o f organization among living things\n\u2022List examples o f diff erent sub disciplines in biolog y\nBiolog yis the scienc e that s tudies lif e. What e xactl y is lif e? This ma y sound lik e a sil ly ques tion\nwith an ob vious ans wer, but it is not eas y to define lif e. For example , a br anch o f biolog y cal led\nvirolog y studies viruses , which e xhibit some o f the char acteristics o f living entities but lack others .\nIt turns out that al though viruses can at tack living or ganisms , cause diseases , and e ven reproduc e,FIGURE 1.1This NASA imag e is a c omposit e of several sat ellite-based vie ws of Ear th. T o mak e the whole -Ear th\nimag e, NASA scientis ts combine obser vations o f diff erent par ts of the planet. (cr edit: modification o f work b y NASA)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1653, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "761edf0d-7dad-454d-a6f6-7f78b8c9c6aa": {"__data__": {"id_": "761edf0d-7dad-454d-a6f6-7f78b8c9c6aa", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "20", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "636d928a-3ef7-45d5-accc-b3785ad63e1b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "20", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b9e363c4bdd362a57ab6abca2e63cbee6ed8ad922735c09cc53d1d2ffc52f302", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "they do not meet the crit eria that biologis ts use t o define lif e.\nFrom its earlies t beginnings , biolog y has wr estled with f our ques tions: What ar e the shar ed\nproper ties that mak e something \u201c alive\u201d? Ho w do those v arious living things function? When fac ed\nwith the r emark able div ersity o f life, how do w e organiz e the diff erent kinds o f organisms so that\nwe can bet ter unders tand them? And, final ly\u2014what biologis ts ul timat ely seek t o unders tand\u2014ho w\ndid this div ersity arise and ho w is it c ontinuing? As ne w or ganisms ar e disc overed e very da y,\nbiologis ts continue t o seek ans wers t o these and other ques tions .\nProper ties o f Life\nAll groups o f living or ganisms shar e se veral key char acteristics or functions: or der, sensitivity or\nresponse t o stimuli, r eproduction, adap tation, gr owth and de velopment, r egulation/homeos tasis ,\nener gy processing , and e volution. When vie wed together , these eight char acteristics ser ve to\ndefine lif e.\nOrder\nOrganisms ar e highl y organiz ed s tructur es that c onsis t of one or mor e cells. Even v ery simple ,\nsingle -celled or ganisms ar e remark ably comple x. Inside each c ell, atoms mak e up molecules .\nThese in turn mak e up c ell components or or ganel les. Mul ticellular or ganisms , which ma y consis t\nof mil lions o f individual c ells, have an adv antag e over single -celled or ganisms in that their c ells\ncan be specializ ed to per form specific functions , and e ven sacrific ed in c ertain situations f or the\ngood o f the or ganism as a whole . Ho w these specializ ed c ells come t ogether t o form or gans such\nas the hear t, lung , or skin in or ganisms lik e the t oad sho wn in Figure 1.2 will be discus sed lat er.\nFIGURE 1.2A toad r epresents a highl y organiz ed s tructur e consis ting o f cells, tissues , organs, and or gan s ystems .\n(credit: \"Iv engo(RUS)\"/ Wikimedia Commons)\nSensitivit y or R esponse t o Stimuli\nOrganisms r espond t o div erse s timuli. F or example , plants can bend t oward a sour ce of light or\nrespond t o touch ( Figure 1.3 ). Ev en tin y bact eria can mo ve toward or a way from chemicals (a\nprocess cal led chemotaxis) or light (phot otaxis). Mo vement t oward a s timulus is c onsider ed a\npositiv e response , while mo vement a way from a s timulus is c onsider ed a neg ative response .6 1 \u2022 Intr oduc tion t o Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2418, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1fe91cc6-1373-4f61-88c7-f1cc6c5c6130": {"__data__": {"id_": "1fe91cc6-1373-4f61-88c7-f1cc6c5c6130", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "21", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6c09dab2-ed4b-48ae-92a6-9378b453692d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "21", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ddc76cf90c378b76d0815e7e91bf39ce4d9d5b44a04d9cf51d37fe02b3f909e5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 1.3The lea ves o f this sensitiv e plant ( Mimosa pudica ) wil l ins tantl y droop and f old when t ouched. Aft er a f ew minut es, the plant\nreturns t o its normal s tate. (credit: Ale x Lomas)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch this video (http://opens tax.org/l/thigmonas ty)to see ho w the sensitiv e plant r esponds t o a t ouch s timulus .\nReproduc tion\nSingle -celled or ganisms r eproduc e by firs t duplicating their DNA , which is the g enetic mat erial , and then dividing it\nequal ly as the c ell prepar es to divide t o form tw o ne w cells. Man y mul ticellular or ganisms (those made up o f mor e\nthan one c ell) pr oduc e specializ ed reproductiv e cells that wil l form ne w individuals . When r eproduction oc curs , DNA\ncontaining g enes is pas sed along t o an or ganism \u2019s offspring . These g enes ar e the r eason that the o ffspring wil l\nbelong t o the same species and wil l have char acteristics similar t o the par ent, such as fur c olor and blood type .\nAdaptation\nAll living or ganisms e xhibit a \u201c fit\u201d to their en vironment. Biologis ts refer to this fit as adap tation and it is a\nconsequenc e of evolution b y natur al selection, which oper ates in e very lineag e of reproducing or ganisms . Examples\nof adap tations ar e div erse and unique , from heat -resistant Ar chaea that liv e in boiling hot springs t o the t ongue\nlength o f a nectar -feeding moth that mat ches the siz e of the flo wer fr om which it f eeds . Adap tations enhanc e the\nreproductiv e pot ential o f the individual e xhibiting them, including their ability t o sur vive to reproduc e. Adap tations\nare not c onstant. As an en vironment chang es, natur al selection causes the char acteristics o f the individuals in a\npopulation t o track those chang es.\nGrowth and De velopment\nOrganisms gr ow and de velop ac cording t o specific ins tructions c oded f or by their g enes . These g enes pr ovide\ninstructions that wil l direct c ellular gr owth and de velopment, ensuring that a species\u2019 y oung ( Figure 1.4 ) wil l grow\nup to exhibit man y of the same char acteristics as its par ents .\n1.1 \u2022 Themes and C oncepts of Biology 7", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2137, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1aaa2b39-c720-4faa-bf9f-7fa804bb5d4b": {"__data__": {"id_": "1aaa2b39-c720-4faa-bf9f-7fa804bb5d4b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "22", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5cb0d418-e41e-47dd-8055-b3cfd75b0256", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "22", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0ddad21d8007d41b9313f1bcdaccd655f6531f7b33f46a96102a1d0a2be9c531", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 1.4Although no tw o look alik e, these kit tens ha ve inherit ed g enes fr om both par ents and shar e man y of the same char acteristics.\n(credit: Piet er & R en\u00e9e L anser)\nRegulation/Homeos tasis\nEven the smal lest organisms ar e comple x and r equir e mul tiple r egulatory mechanisms t o coordinat e int ernal\nfunctions , such as the tr anspor t of nutrients , response t o stimuli, and c oping with en vironmental s tresses.\nHomeos tasis (literally, \u201csteady s tate\u201d) refers t o the r elativ ely stable int ernal en vironment r equir ed to maintain lif e.\nFor example , organ s ystems such as the dig estive or cir culat ory systems per form specific functions lik e carr ying\noxygen thr oughout the body , remo ving w astes, deliv ering nutrients t o every cell, and c ooling the body .\nTo function pr operl y, cells requir e appr opriat e conditions such as pr oper t emper atur e, pH, and c oncentr ations o f\ndiverse chemicals . These c onditions ma y, however, chang e from one moment t o the ne xt. Or ganisms ar e able t o\nmaintain homeos tatic int ernal c onditions within a narr ow range almos t constantl y, despit e en vironmental chang es,\nby activ ation o f regulatory mechanisms . For example , man y organisms r egulate their body t emper atur e in a pr ocess\nknown as thermor egulation. Or ganisms that liv e in c old climat es, such as the polar bear ( Figure 1.5 ), ha ve body\nstructur es that help them withs tand lo w temper atur es and c onser ve body heat. In hot climat es, organisms ha ve\nmethods (such as perspir ation in humans or panting in dogs) that help them t o shed e xcess body heat.\nFIGURE 1.5Polar bears and other mammals living in ic e-covered regions maintain their body t emper atur e by gener ating heat and r educing\nheat los s thr ough thick fur and a dense la yer of fat under their skin. (cr edit: \"longhornda ve\"/Flickr)\nEner gy P rocessing\nAll organisms (such as the Calif ornia c ondor sho wn in Figure 1.6 ) use a sour ce of ener gy for their metabolic\nactivities . Some or ganisms cap ture ener gy from the Sun and c onvert it int o chemical ener gy in f ood; others use\nchemical ener gy from molecules the y tak e in.8 1 \u2022 Intr oduc tion t o Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2243, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "013ea400-8a27-44c4-8a9c-dac80873d096": {"__data__": {"id_": "013ea400-8a27-44c4-8a9c-dac80873d096", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "23", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9ec07836-8ae5-4141-9977-32cf77d26b71", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "23", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "94493699595fecc2f9570894f84d58cb06d2d1eed99ddfe9e9e5fc0be6617d28", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 1.6A lot o f ener gy is r equir ed for a Calif ornia c ondor t o fly. Chemical ener gy deriv ed fr om f ood is used t o po wer flight. Calif ornia\ncondors ar e an endang ered species; scientis ts ha ve strived to plac e a wing tag on each bir d to help them identif y and locat e each individual\nbird. (cr edit: P acific South west Region U .S. Fish and Wildlif e)\nEvolution\nThe div ersity o f life on Ear th is a r esul t of mutations , or r andom chang es in her editar y mat erial o ver time . These\nmutations al low the pos sibility f or or ganisms t o adap t to a changing en vironment. An or ganism that e volves\nchar acteristics fit f or the en vironment wil l have greater reproductiv e suc cess, subject t o the f orces o f natur al\nselection.\nLevels o f Organiz ation o f Living Things\nLiving things ar e highl y organiz ed and s tructur ed, f ollowing a hier archy on a scale fr om smal l to lar ge. The atomis\nthe smal lest and mos t fundamental unit o f mat ter that r etains the pr oper ties o f an element. It c onsis ts of a nucleus\nsurr ounded b y electr ons. Atoms f orm molecules . Amolecule is a chemical s tructur e consis ting o f at leas t two atoms\nheld t ogether b y a chemical bond. Man y molecules that ar e biological ly impor tant ar emacr omolecules , large\nmolecules that ar e typical ly formed b y combining smal ler units cal led monomers . An e xample o f a macr omolecule is\ndeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) ( Figure 1.7 ), which c ontains the ins tructions f or the functioning o f the or ganism that\ncontains it.1.1 \u2022 Themes and C oncepts of Biology 9", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1590, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a06751f7-147e-4176-a96d-bd00f09c9a78": {"__data__": {"id_": "a06751f7-147e-4176-a96d-bd00f09c9a78", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "24", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f27be890-75cb-47ba-8f0a-991aa1901888", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "24", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "21dd44cf1246580907016d6512de662c2b02ab4aa6855b7637ee1c39ba5f34a6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 1.7A molecule , like this lar ge DNA molecule , is c omposed o f atoms . (credit: \"Brian0918\"/ Wikimedia Commons)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nTo see an animation o f this DNA molecule , click here(http://opens tax.org/l/rotating _DNA2) .\nSome c ells contain ag gregates o f macr omolecules surr ounded b y membr anes; these ar e cal ledorganel les.\nOrganel les ar e smal l structur es that e xist within c ells and per form specializ ed functions . All living things ar e made o f\ncells; the cellitself is the smal lest fundamental unit o f structur e and function in living or ganisms . (This r equir ement\nis wh y viruses ar e not c onsider ed living: the y are not made o f cells. To mak e ne w viruses , the y ha ve to invade and\nhijack a living c ell; onl y then can the y ob tain the mat erials the y need t o reproduc e.) Some or ganisms c onsis t of a\nsingle c ell and others ar e mul ticellular . Cel ls ar e clas sified as pr okaryotic or euk aryotic. Prokar yotesare single -\ncelled or ganisms that lack or ganel les surr ounded b y a membr ane and do not ha ve nuclei surr ounded b y nuclear\nmembr anes; in c ontr ast, the c ells ofeukar yotesdo ha ve membr ane-bound or ganel les and nuclei.\nIn mos t mul ticellular or ganisms , cells combine t o mak etissues , which ar e groups o f similar c ells carr ying out the\nsame function. Organs are collections o f tissues gr ouped t ogether based on a c ommon function. Or gans ar e present\nnot onl y in animals but also in plants . An organ s ystemis a higher le vel of organization that c onsis ts of functional ly\nrelated or gans. For example v ertebrate animals ha ve man y organ s ystems , such as the cir culat ory system that\ntranspor ts blood thr oughout the body and t o and fr om the lungs; it includes or gans such as the hear t and blood\nvessels .Organisms are individual living entities . For example , each tr ee in a f orest is an or ganism. Single -celled\nprokaryotes and single -celled euk aryotes ar e also c onsider ed or ganisms and ar e typical ly referred to as\nmicr oorganisms .\n10 1 \u2022 Intr oduc tion t o Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2125, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0be8c1c4-4d62-4e54-8c6f-406714e3d9fe": {"__data__": {"id_": "0be8c1c4-4d62-4e54-8c6f-406714e3d9fe", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "25", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c9c09de4-6ac6-4ddc-b37a-1cd8c38c1f4a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "25", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "879341c40067021f045adc5fb428961b70eb383cf0d6138f74f6fece35f2703a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 1.8From an at om t o the entir e Ear th, biolog y examines al l aspects o f life. (credit \"molecule \": modification o f work b y Jane\nWhitne y; cr edit \" organel les\": modification o f work b y Louisa Ho ward; cr edit \" cells\": modification o f work b y Bruc e Wetzel, Harr y Schaef er,\nNational Canc er Ins titut e; cr edit \"tis sue\": modification o f work b y \"Kilbad\"/ Wikimedia Commons; cr edit \" organs\": modification o f work b y\nMariana Ruiz Vil lareal, Joaquim Al ves Gaspar; cr edit \" organisms \": modification o f work b y Peter Dut ton; cr edit \" ecosystem\": modification o f\nwork b y \"gigi4791\"/Flickr; cr edit \"biospher e\": modification o f work b y NASA)\nWhich o f the f ollowing s tatements is false?\na.Tissues e xist within or gans which e xist within or gan s ystems .\n1.1 \u2022 Themes and C oncepts of Biology 11", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 854, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d170fe9c-9fbf-4f17-aa2a-91eddb2b148f": {"__data__": {"id_": "d170fe9c-9fbf-4f17-aa2a-91eddb2b148f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "26", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "86d776cd-6b61-4d41-b9e9-992e43fab515", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "26", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "29ebad2ee6faec9f6c642d9ab25c3a89cdedf817c827ff4ad768c5b1069888a8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "a27bf670-9a4b-4258-a2ca-e2b2215a0bc1", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "c652160a3ea677a5059d564c13fc66aaedfcd5fbc6c514e4e02600ba6d5edc60", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "b.Communities e xist within populations which e xist within ec osystems .\nc.Organel les e xist within c ells which e xist within tis sues .\nd.Communities e xist within ec osystems which e xist in the biospher e.\nAll the individuals o f a species living within a specific ar ea ar e collectiv ely cal led a popula tion . For example , a forest\nmay include man y whit e pine tr ees. All of these pine tr ees r epresent the population o f whit e pine tr ees in this f orest.\nDifferent populations ma y live in the same specific ar ea. For example , the f orest with the pine tr ees includes\npopulations o f flowering plants and also insects and micr obial populations . Acommunity is the set o f populations\ninhabiting a par ticular ar ea. For ins tanc e, all of the tr ees, flowers, insects , and other populations in a f orest form the\nforest\u2019s community . The f orest itself is an ec osystem. An ecosystemconsis ts of all the living things in a par ticular\narea together with the abiotic, or non-living , par ts of that en vironment such as nitr ogen in the soil or r ainwater. At\nthe highes t level of organization ( Figure 1.8 ), the biospher eis the c ollection o f all ecosystems , and it r epresents the\nzones o f life on Ear th. It includes land, w ater, and por tions o f the atmospher e.\nThe Div ersity of Life\nThe scienc e of biolog y is v ery broad in sc ope because ther e is a tr emendous div ersity o f life on Ear th. The sour ce of\nthis div ersity is evolution , the pr ocess of gradual chang e during which ne w species arise fr om older species .\nEvolutionar y biologis ts study the e volution o f living things in e verything fr om the micr oscopic w orld t o ec osystems .\nIn the 18th c entur y, a scientis t named Carl Linnaeus firs t proposed or ganizing the kno wn species o f organisms int o a\nhierarchical tax onom y. In this s ystem, species that ar e mos t similar t o each other ar e put t ogether within a gr ouping\nknown as a g enus . Furthermor e, similar g ener a (the plur al of genus) ar e put t ogether within a famil y. This gr ouping\ncontinues until al l organisms ar e collected together int o groups at the highes t level. The curr ent tax onomic s ystem\nnow has eight le vels in its hier archy, from lo west to highes t, the y are: species , genus , famil y, order, clas s, phylum,\nking dom, domain. Thus species ar e grouped within g ener a, gener a are grouped within families , families ar e grouped\nwithin or ders , and so on ( Figure 1.9 ).\nFIGURE 1.9This diagr am sho ws the le vels o f tax onomic hier archy for a dog , from the br oades t cat egory\u2014domain\u2014t o the mos t\nspecific\u2014species .\nThe highes t level, domain, is a r elativ ely ne w addition t o the s ystem sinc e the 1970s . Scientis ts no w recogniz e thr ee\ndomains o f life, the Euk arya, the Ar chaea , and the Bact eria. The domain Euk arya contains or ganisms that ha ve cells\nwith nuclei. It includes the king doms o f fungi, plants , animals , and se veral king doms o f protists. The Ar chaea , are\nsingle -celled or ganisms without nuclei and include man y extremophiles that liv e in harsh en vironments lik e hot\nsprings . The Bact eria ar e another quit e diff erent gr oup o f single -celled or ganisms without nuclei ( Figure 1.10 ). Both\nthe Ar chaea and the Bact eria ar e prokaryotes, an inf ormal name f or cells without nuclei.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3353, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a27bf670-9a4b-4258-a2ca-e2b2215a0bc1": {"__data__": {"id_": "a27bf670-9a4b-4258-a2ca-e2b2215a0bc1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "26", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "86d776cd-6b61-4d41-b9e9-992e43fab515", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "26", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "29ebad2ee6faec9f6c642d9ab25c3a89cdedf817c827ff4ad768c5b1069888a8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "d170fe9c-9fbf-4f17-aa2a-91eddb2b148f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "26", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5ae7095bdd2b8b7cea0e6da1abfd20615025035f9892eda8a2063d63a763ed10", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Scientis ts no w recogniz e thr ee\ndomains o f life, the Euk arya, the Ar chaea , and the Bact eria. The domain Euk arya contains or ganisms that ha ve cells\nwith nuclei. It includes the king doms o f fungi, plants , animals , and se veral king doms o f protists. The Ar chaea , are\nsingle -celled or ganisms without nuclei and include man y extremophiles that liv e in harsh en vironments lik e hot\nsprings . The Bact eria ar e another quit e diff erent gr oup o f single -celled or ganisms without nuclei ( Figure 1.10 ). Both\nthe Ar chaea and the Bact eria ar e prokaryotes, an inf ormal name f or cells without nuclei. The r ecognition in the\n1970s that c ertain \u201cbact eria,\u201d no w kno wn as the Ar chaea , were as diff erent g enetical ly and biochemical ly from\nother bact erial c ells as the y were from euk aryotes, motiv ated the r ecommendation t o divide lif e int o thr ee domains .\nThis dr amatic chang e in our kno wledg e of the tr ee o f life demons trates that clas sifications ar e not permanent and\nwill chang e when ne w inf ormation bec omes a vailable .12 1 \u2022 Intr oduc tion t o Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2731, "end_char_idx": 3872, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "23450a61-d486-4bb3-89e3-383df9c15d4e": {"__data__": {"id_": "23450a61-d486-4bb3-89e3-383df9c15d4e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "27", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "52d26556-1ce7-47a7-934b-b6034dcfce62", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "27", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e38ae0eaeea93fb0f08197a894999b1d86e7d0ddded9271c6b774b4f518b059c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In addition t o the hier archical tax onomic s ystem, Linnaeus w as the firs t to name or ganisms using tw o unique names ,\nnow cal led the binomial naming s ystem. Bef ore Linnaeus , the use o f common names t o refer to organisms caused\nconfusion because ther e were regional diff erences in these c ommon names . Binomial names c onsis t of the g enus\nname (which is capitaliz ed) and the species name (al l lower-case). Both names ar e set in italics when the y are\nprint ed. Ev ery species is giv en a unique binomial which is r ecogniz ed the w orld o ver, so that a scientis t in an y\nlocation can kno w which or ganism is being r eferred to. For example , the Nor th American blue ja y is kno wn uniquel y\nasCyanocit ta cris tata . Our o wn species is Homo sapiens .\nFIGURE 1.10 These imag es represent diff erent domains . The scanning electr on micr ograph sho ws (a) bact erial c ells belong t o the domain\nBact eria, while the (b) e xtremophiles , seen al l together as c olored mats in this hot spring , belong t o domain Ar chaea . Both the (c) sunflo wer\nand (d) lion ar e par t of domain Euk arya. (credit a: modification o f work b y Rocky Mountain L abor atories , NIAID , NIH; cr edit b: modification\nof work b y Steve Jur vetson; cr edit c: modification o f work b y Michael Arrighi; cr edit d: modification o f work b y Frank V assen)\nEVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nCarl W oese and the Ph ylogene tic Tree\nThe e volutionar y relationships o f various lif e forms on Ear th can be summariz ed in a ph ylog enetic tr ee. A\nphylog enetic tr eeis a diagr am sho wing the e volutionar y relationships among biological species based on\nsimilarities and diff erences in g enetic or ph ysical tr aits or both. A ph ylog enetic tr ee is c omposed o f branch points , or\nnodes , and br anches . The int ernal nodes r epresent anc estors and ar e points in e volution when, based on scientific\nevidenc e, an anc estor is thought t o ha ve div erged to form tw o ne w species . The length o f each br anch can be\nconsider ed as es timat es o f relativ e time .\nIn the pas t, biologis ts gr ouped living or ganisms int o fiv e king doms: animals , plants , fungi, pr otists, and bact eria. The\npioneering w ork o f American micr obiologis t Carl W oese in the earl y 1970s has sho wn, ho wever, that lif e on Ear th\nhas e volved along thr ee lineag es, now cal led domains \u2014Bact eria, Archaea , and Euk arya. Woese pr oposed the\ndomain as a ne w tax onomic le vel and Ar chaea as a ne w domain, t o reflect the ne w ph ylog enetic tr ee (Figure 1.11 ).\nMan y organisms belonging t o the Ar chaea domain liv e under e xtreme c onditions and ar e cal led e xtremophiles . To\nconstruct his tr ee, Woese used g enetic r elationships r ather than similarities based on morpholog y (shape). V arious\ngenes w ere used in ph ylog enetic s tudies . Woese \u2019s tree w as construct ed fr om c ompar ative sequencing o f the g enes\nthat ar e univ ersal ly dis tribut ed, f ound in some slightl y altered form in e very organism, c onser ved (meaning that\nthese g enes ha ve remained onl y slightl y chang ed thr oughout e volution), and o f an appr opriat e length.\n1.1 \u2022 Themes and C oncepts of Biology 13", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3192, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6a521874-5353-4803-9da2-536de6256cee": {"__data__": {"id_": "6a521874-5353-4803-9da2-536de6256cee", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "28", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ec3d194a-ef4f-42d9-8a0b-2f93c6c1d275", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "28", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "db7159cb8eff2889d8d485ad8869784badf486d98fb0f43ea615c4b153e8706a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 1.11 This ph ylog enetic tr ee w as construct ed b y micr obiologis t Carl W oese using g enetic r elationships . The tr ee sho ws the\nsepar ation o f living or ganisms int o thr ee domains: Bact eria, Archaea , and Euk arya. Bact eria and Ar chaea ar e organisms without a nucleus\nor other or ganel les surr ounded b y a membr ane and, ther efore, are prokaryotes. (credit: modification o f work b y Eric Gaba)\nBranches o f Biologic al Study\nThe sc ope o f biolog y is br oad and ther efore contains man y branches and sub disciplines . Biologis ts ma y pursue one\nof those sub disciplines and w ork in a mor e focused field. F or ins tanc e, molecular biolog y studies biological\nprocesses at the molecular le vel, including int eractions among molecules such as DNA , RNA , and pr oteins , as w ell\nas the w ay the y are regulated. Micr obiolog y is the s tudy o f the s tructur e and function o f micr oorganisms . It is quit e a\nbroad br anch itself , and depending on the subject o f study , ther e are also micr obial ph ysiologis ts, ecologis ts, and\ngeneticis ts, among others .\nAnother field o f biological s tudy , neur obiolog y, studies the biolog y of the ner vous s ystem, and al though it is\nconsider ed a br anch o f biolog y, it is also r ecogniz ed as an int erdisciplinar y field o f study kno wn as neur oscienc e.\nBecause o f its int erdisciplinar y natur e, this sub discipline s tudies diff erent functions o f the ner vous s ystem using\nmolecular , cellular , developmental , medical , and c omputational appr oaches .\nFIGURE 1.12 Resear chers w ork on e xcavating dinosaur f ossils at a sit e in Cas tell\u00f3n, Spain. (cr edit: Mario Modes to)14 1 \u2022 Intr oduc tion t o Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1740, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2922f848-855b-4712-9909-b71e26958d7e": {"__data__": {"id_": "2922f848-855b-4712-9909-b71e26958d7e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "29", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ba926dd9-b7d8-4e34-a8c9-c28b32a83a3a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "29", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d989e3f9ff217ec18cc32f40a382a63930bad0505fee5c60d89b640a61f45d22", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Paleont olog y, another br anch o f biolog y, uses f ossils t o study lif e\u2019s his tory (Figure 1.12 ). Zoolog y and botan y are the\nstudy o f animals and plants , respectiv ely. Biologis ts can also specializ e as biot echnologis ts, ecologis ts, or\nphysiologis ts, to name jus t a few ar eas. Biot echnologis ts appl y the kno wledg e of biolog y to create useful pr oducts .\nEcologis ts study the int eractions o f organisms in their en vironments . Physiologis ts study the w orkings o f cells,\ntissues and or gans. This is jus t a smal l sample o f the man y fields that biologis ts can pursue . From our o wn bodies t o\nthe w orld w e liv e in, disc overies in biolog y can aff ect us in v ery dir ect and impor tant w ays. We depend on these\ndisc overies f or our heal th, our f ood sour ces, and the benefits pr ovided b y our ec osystem. Because o f this ,\nknowledg e of biolog y can benefit us in making decisions in our da y-to-day lives.\nThe de velopment o f technolog y in the tw entieth c entur y that c ontinues t oday, par ticularl y the t echnolog y to\ndescribe and manipulat e the g enetic mat erial , DNA , has tr ansformed biolog y. This tr ansformation wil l allow\nbiologis ts to continue t o unders tand the his tory of life in gr eater detail , how the human body w orks, our human\norigins , and ho w humans can sur vive as a species on this planet despit e the s tresses caused b y our incr easing\nnumbers . Biologis ts continue t o decipher hug e mysteries about lif e sug gesting that w e ha ve onl y beg un to\nunders tand lif e on the planet, its his tory, and our r elationship t o it. F or this and other r easons , the kno wledg e of\nbiolog y gained thr ough this t extbook and other print ed and electr onic media should be a benefit in whiche ver field\nyou ent er.\nCAREER C ONNE CTION\nForensic Scientis t\nForensic scienc e is the application o f scienc e to ans wer ques tions r elated to the la w. Biologis ts as w ell as chemis ts\nand biochemis ts can be f orensic scientis ts. Forensic scientis ts pr ovide scientific e videnc e for use in c ourts, and their\njob in volves e xamining tr ace mat erial as sociat ed with crimes . Int erest in f orensic scienc e has incr eased in the las t\nfew years , pos sibly because o f popular t elevision sho ws that f eatur e forensic scientis ts on the job . Also , the\ndevelopment o f molecular t echniques and the es tablishment o f DNA databases ha ve updat ed the types o f work that\nforensic scientis ts can do . Their job activities ar e primaril y related to crimes ag ains t people such as mur der, rape,\nand as saul t. Their w ork in volves anal yzing samples such as hair , blood, and other body fluids and also pr ocessing\nDNA ( Figure 1.13 ) found in man y diff erent en vironments and mat erials . Forensic scientis ts also anal yze other\nbiological e videnc e left at crime sc enes , such as insect par ts or pol len gr ains . Students who w ant t o pursue car eers\nin forensic scienc e wil l mos t likely be r equir ed to tak e chemis try and biolog y courses as w ell as some int ensiv e math\ncourses .\nFIGURE 1.13 This f orensic scientis t works in a DNA e xtraction r oom at the U .S. Arm y Criminal In vestigation L abor atory. (credit: U .S. Arm y\n1.1 \u2022 Themes and C oncepts of Biology 15", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3281, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2fa44083-d542-4b85-be12-f7ae719da898": {"__data__": {"id_": "2fa44083-d542-4b85-be12-f7ae719da898", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "30", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "355d4c47-a519-4643-8c33-4e3a0f1cd604", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "30", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "aeb6358df15f6ce1381bc741a47fe554a6e87df6729c06f439f1d8591a885660", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "6962f9b4-81ba-4200-b54a-dce4453de189", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "106e4af9c65449ed53e087d2bca2dda36f38f995cdeb665a088fdb1d06a95907", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "CID Command Public Affairs)\nScientific E thics\nScientis ts mus t ensur e that their eff orts do not cause undue damag e to humans , animals , or the en vironment. The y\nalso mus t ensur e that their r esear ch and c ommunications ar e free o f bias and that the y properl y balanc e financial ,\nlegal, saf ety, replicability , and other c onsider ations . Bioethics is an impor tant and c ontinual ly evolving field, in which\nresear chers c ollabor ate with other think ers and or ganizations . The y work t o define g uidelines f or curr ent pr actic e,\nand also c ontinual ly consider ne w de velopments and emer ging t echnologies in or der t o form ans wers f or the y ears\nand decades t o come .\nUnfortunat ely, the emer gence of bioethics as a field came aft er a number o f clearl y unethical pr actic es, wher e\nbiologis ts did not tr eat r esear ch subjects with dignity and in some cases did them harm. In the 1932 T uskegee\nsyphilis s tudy , 399 African American men w ere diagnosed with s yphilis but w ere ne ver inf ormed that the y had the\ndisease , lea ving them t o liv e with and pas s on the il lnes s to others . Doct ors e ven withheld pr oven medications\nbecause the g oal o f the s tudy w as to unders tand the impact o f untr eated s yphilis on Black men.\nWhile the decisions made in the T uskegee s tudy ar e unjus tifiable , some decisions ar e genuinel y difficul t to mak e.\nFor example , bioethicis ts ma y examine the implications o f gene editing t echnologies , including the ability t o create\norganisms that ma y displac e others in the en vironment, as w ell as the ability t o \u201cdesign \u201d human beings . In that\neffort, ethicis ts wil l likely seek t o balanc e the positiv e out comes -- such as impr oved ther apies or pr evention o f\ncertain il lnes ses -- with neg ative out comes .\nBioethics ar e not simple , and o ften lea ve scientis ts balancing benefits with harm. In this t ext and c ourse , you wil l\ndiscus s medical disc overies that, at their c ore, have what man y consider an ethical lapse . In 1951, Henriet ta Lacks,\na 30- year-old African American w oman, w as diagnosed with c ervical canc er at Johns Hopkins Hospital . Unique\nchar acteristics o f her il lnes ses g ave her c ells the ability t o divide c ontinuousl y, essential ly making them \u201cimmor tal.\u201d\nWithout her kno wledg e or permis sion, r esear chers t ook samples o f her c ells and with them cr eated the immor tal\nHeLa cell line . These c ells ha ve contribut ed to major medical disc overies , including the polio v accine and w ork\nrelated to canc er, AIDS, c ell aging , and e ven v ery recently in C OVID-19 r esear ch. F or the mos t par t, Lacks has not\nbeen cr edited for her r ole in those disc overies , and her famil y has not benefit ed fr om the bil lions o f dol lars in\npharmac eutical pr ofits ob tained par tly thr ough the use o f her c ells.\nToday, har vesting tis sue or or gans fr om a dying patient without c onsent is not onl y consider ed unethical but also\nillegal, regardles s of whether such an act c ould sa ve other patients\u2019 liv es. Part of the r ole o f ethics in scientific\nresear ch is t o examine similar is sues bef ore, during , and aft er resear ch or pr actic e tak es plac e, as w ell as t o adher e\nto es tablished pr ofessional principles and c onsider the dignity and saf ety o f all organisms in volved or aff ected b y the\nwork.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3391, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6962f9b4-81ba-4200-b54a-dce4453de189": {"__data__": {"id_": "6962f9b4-81ba-4200-b54a-dce4453de189", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "30", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "355d4c47-a519-4643-8c33-4e3a0f1cd604", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "30", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "aeb6358df15f6ce1381bc741a47fe554a6e87df6729c06f439f1d8591a885660", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "2fa44083-d542-4b85-be12-f7ae719da898", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "30", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "df1d590829e533bdcc363bf44de8f23dc07109462bab1919e4b3a9d0278f77b3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Today, har vesting tis sue or or gans fr om a dying patient without c onsent is not onl y consider ed unethical but also\nillegal, regardles s of whether such an act c ould sa ve other patients\u2019 liv es. Part of the r ole o f ethics in scientific\nresear ch is t o examine similar is sues bef ore, during , and aft er resear ch or pr actic e tak es plac e, as w ell as t o adher e\nto es tablished pr ofessional principles and c onsider the dignity and saf ety o f all organisms in volved or aff ected b y the\nwork.\n1.2The P rocess o f Scienc e\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Identif y the shar ed char acteristics o f the natur al scienc es\n\u2022Unders tand the pr ocess of scientific inquir y\n\u2022Compar e inductiv e reasoning with deductiv e reasoning\n\u2022Describe the g oals o f basic scienc e and applied scienc e16 1 \u2022 Intr oduc tion t o Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2880, "end_char_idx": 3796, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "02566ee9-6566-40cb-9223-958ac4884fb9": {"__data__": {"id_": "02566ee9-6566-40cb-9223-958ac4884fb9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "31", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1a954de0-589d-4a52-a734-c49888e4a91a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "31", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9ac53808ca1b7ea95242531cf7f89837cfcd0ee230be3db5580ccdc6f1c8471f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 1.14 Formerl y cal led blue -green alg ae, the (a) cy anobact eria seen thr ough a light micr oscope ar e some o f Ear th\u2019s oldes t life forms .\nThese (b) s tromat olites along the shor es o f Lake Thetis in W estern Aus tralia ar e ancient s tructur es formed b y the la yering o f cyanobact eria\nin shal low waters. (credit a: modification o f work b y NASA; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell; credit b: modification o f work b y Ruth El lison)\nLike geolog y, physics, and chemis try, biolog y is a scienc e that g athers kno wledg e about the natur al w orld.\nSpecifical ly, biolog y is the s tudy o f life. The disc overies o f biolog y are made b y a c ommunity o f resear chers who\nwork individual ly and t ogether using agr eed-on methods . In this sense , biolog y, like all scienc es is a social\nenterprise lik e politics or the ar ts. The methods o f scienc e include car eful obser vation, r ecord keeping , logical and\nmathematical r easoning , experimentation, and submit ting c onclusions t o the scrutin y of others . Scienc e also\nrequir es consider able imagination and cr eativity; a w ell-designed e xperiment is c ommonl y described as eleg ant, or\nbeautiful . Like politics , scienc e has c onsider able pr actical implications and some scienc e is dedicat ed to practical\napplications , such as the pr evention o f disease (see Figure 1.15 ). Other scienc e proceeds lar gely motiv ated b y\ncuriosity . What ever its g oal, ther e is no doub t that scienc e, including biolog y, has tr ansformed human e xistence and\nwill continue t o do so .\nFIGURE 1.15 Biologis ts ma y choose t o study Escherichia c oli(E. coli), a bact erium that is a normal r esident o f our dig estive tracts but which\nis also sometimes r esponsible f or disease outbr eaks. In this micr ograph, the bact erium is visualiz ed using a scanning electr on micr oscope\nand digital c olorization. (cr edit: Eric Erbe; digital c olorization b y Chris topher P oole y, USD A-ARS)\nThe Natur e of Scienc e\nBiolog y is a scienc e, but what e xactl y is scienc e? What does the s tudy o f biolog y shar e with other scientific\ndisciplines? Scienc e(from the L atin scientia ,meaning \"kno wledg e\") can be defined as kno wledg e about the natur al\nworld.\nScienc e is a v ery specific w ay of learning , or kno wing , about the w orld. The his tory of the pas t 500 y ears\ndemons trates that scienc e is a v ery po werful w ay of kno wing about the w orld; it is lar gely responsible f or the1.2 \u2022 The P rocess o f Scienc e 17", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2519, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7ecdb5d3-420e-4ba7-9ef2-13f1d658b443": {"__data__": {"id_": "7ecdb5d3-420e-4ba7-9ef2-13f1d658b443", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "32", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2ae98592-1f9e-4bee-b059-b987bb712376", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "32", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "43cf63e3ea5e4ead017b488399ad9b111812cc5e273ccf17558c855bb68a4f8d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "228f3db5-632c-4687-87b8-c6094dfaa5d9", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "000da4447a596fec4b715826316ecebeee6e41a8b09bdb1c11e2d0d27921a00e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "technological r evolutions that ha ve tak en plac e during this time . Ther e are ho wever, areas o f kno wledg e and human\nexperienc e that the methods o f scienc e cannot be applied t o. These include such things as ans wering pur ely mor al\nques tions , aes thetic ques tions , or what can be g ener ally cat egorized as spiritual ques tions . Scienc e cannot\ninvestigate these ar eas because the y are outside the r ealm o f mat erial phenomena , the phenomena o f mat ter and\nener gy, and cannot be obser ved and measur ed.\nThe scientific method is a method o f resear ch with defined s teps that include e xperiments and car eful obser vation.\nThe s teps o f the scientific method wil l be e xamined in detail lat er, but one o f the mos t impor tant aspects o f this\nmethod is the t esting o f hypotheses . Ahypothesis is a sug gested e xplanation f or an e vent, which can be t ested.\nHypotheses , or t entativ e explanations , are gener ally produc ed within the c ontext of ascientific theor y. A g ener ally\naccepted scientific theor y is thor oughl y tested and c onfirmed e xplanation f or a set o f obser vations or phenomena .\nScientific theor y is the f oundation o f scientific kno wledg e. In addition, in man y scientific disciplines (les s so in\nbiolog y) ther e arescientific la ws, often e xpressed in mathematical f ormulas , which describe ho w elements o f\nnatur e wil l beha ve under c ertain specific c onditions . Ther e is not an e volution o f hypotheses thr ough theories t o\nlaws as if the y represent ed some incr ease in c ertainty about the w orld. Hypotheses ar e the da y-to-day mat erial that\nscientis ts w ork with and the y are de veloped within the c ontext of theories . Laws are concise descrip tions o f par ts of\nthe w orld that ar e amenable t o formulaic or mathematical descrip tion.\nNatur al Scienc es\nWhat w ould y ou e xpect t o see in a museum o f natur al scienc es? F rogs? Plants? Dinosaur sk eletons? Exhibits about\nhow the br ain functions? A planetarium? Gems and miner als? Or ma ybe al l of the abo ve? Scienc e includes such\ndiverse fields as as tronom y, biolog y, comput er scienc es, geolog y, logic, ph ysics, chemis try, and mathematics ( Figure\n1.16 ). Ho wever, those fields o f scienc e related to the ph ysical w orld and its phenomena and pr ocesses ar e\nconsider ednatural scienc es. Thus , a museum o f natur al scienc es might c ontain an y of the it ems lis ted abo ve.\nFIGURE 1.16 Some fields o f scienc e include as tronom y, biolog y, comput er scienc e, geolog y, logic, ph ysics, chemis try, and mathematics .\n(credit: \"Imag e Editor\"/Flickr)\nTher e is no c omplet e agr eement when it c omes t o defining what the natur al scienc es include . For some e xper ts, the\nnatur al scienc es ar e as tronom y, biolog y, chemis try, ear th scienc e, and ph ysics. Other scholars choose t o divide\nnatur al scienc es int olife scienc es, which s tudy living things and include biolog y, and physical scienc es, which\nstudy nonliving mat ter and include as tronom y, physics, and chemis try.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3063, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "228f3db5-632c-4687-87b8-c6094dfaa5d9": {"__data__": {"id_": "228f3db5-632c-4687-87b8-c6094dfaa5d9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "32", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2ae98592-1f9e-4bee-b059-b987bb712376", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "32", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "43cf63e3ea5e4ead017b488399ad9b111812cc5e273ccf17558c855bb68a4f8d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "7ecdb5d3-420e-4ba7-9ef2-13f1d658b443", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "32", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4356593eaae1294b9a2597a4c29d4f5a4e54d66f32e377b615e1f93387b64b7e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 1.16 Some fields o f scienc e include as tronom y, biolog y, comput er scienc e, geolog y, logic, ph ysics, chemis try, and mathematics .\n(credit: \"Imag e Editor\"/Flickr)\nTher e is no c omplet e agr eement when it c omes t o defining what the natur al scienc es include . For some e xper ts, the\nnatur al scienc es ar e as tronom y, biolog y, chemis try, ear th scienc e, and ph ysics. Other scholars choose t o divide\nnatur al scienc es int olife scienc es, which s tudy living things and include biolog y, and physical scienc es, which\nstudy nonliving mat ter and include as tronom y, physics, and chemis try. Some disciplines such as bioph ysics and\nbiochemis try build on tw o scienc es and ar e int erdisciplinar y.\nScientific Inquir y\nOne thing is c ommon t o all forms o f scienc e: an ul timat e goal \u201c to kno w.\u201d Curiosity and inquir y are the driving f orces\nfor the de velopment o f scienc e. Scientis ts seek t o unders tand the w orld and the w ay it oper ates. Two methods o f18 1 \u2022 Intr oduc tion t o Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2445, "end_char_idx": 3509, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "77eccbbf-9d06-4ce7-b29a-afa56e30664b": {"__data__": {"id_": "77eccbbf-9d06-4ce7-b29a-afa56e30664b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "33", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d37d7b3e-1faa-4599-a566-e5c28cd388a7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "33", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b14790ed2d1882c26666d11909729d105c10c573cd0ae6fc862edeb83a1d3eba", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "logical thinking ar e used: inductiv e reasoning and deductiv e reasoning .\nInductiv e reasoning is a f orm o f logical thinking that uses r elated obser vations t o arriv e at a g ener al conclusion.\nThis type o f reasoning is c ommon in descrip tive scienc e. A lif e scientis t such as a biologis t mak es obser vations and\nrecords them. These data can be qualitativ e (descrip tive) or quantitativ e (consis ting o f numbers), and the r aw data\ncan be supplement ed with dr awings , pictur es, phot os, or videos . From man y obser vations , the scientis t can inf er\nconclusions (inductions) based on e videnc e. Inductiv e reasoning in volves formulating g ener alizations inf erred fr om\ncareful obser vation and the anal ysis o f a lar ge amount o f data . Brain s tudies o ften w ork this w ay. Man y brains ar e\nobser ved while people ar e doing a task. The par t of the br ain that lights up , indicating activity , is then demons trated\nto be the par t contr olling the r esponse t o that task.\nDeductiv e reasoning or deduction is the type o f logic used in h ypothesis -based scienc e. In deductiv e reasoning , the\npattern o f thinking mo ves in the opposit e dir ection as c ompar ed to inductiv e reasoning .Deductiv e reasoning is a\nform o f logical thinking that uses a g ener al principle or la w to predict specific r esul ts. From those g ener al principles ,\na scientis t can deduc e and pr edict the specific r esul ts that w ould be v alid as long as the g ener al principles ar e valid.\nFor example , a pr ediction w ould be that if the climat e is bec oming w armer in a r egion, the dis tribution o f plants and\nanimals should chang e. Comparisons ha ve been made betw een dis tributions in the pas t and the pr esent, and the\nman y chang es that ha ve been f ound ar e consis tent with a w arming climat e. Finding the chang e in dis tribution is\nevidenc e that the climat e chang e conclusion is a v alid one .\nBoth types o f logical thinking ar e related to the tw o main path ways of scientific s tudy: descrip tive scienc e and\nhypothesis -based scienc e.Descrip tive(or disc overy)scienc eaims t o obser ve, explor e, and disc over, while\nhypothesis-based scienc ebegins with a specific ques tion or pr oblem and a pot ential ans wer or solution that can be\ntested. The boundar y betw een these tw o forms o f study is o ften blurr ed, because mos t scientific endea vors\ncombine both appr oaches . Obser vations lead t o ques tions , ques tions lead t o forming a h ypothesis as a pos sible\nanswer to those ques tions , and then the h ypothesis is t ested. Thus , descrip tive scienc e and h ypothesis -based\nscienc e are in c ontinuous dialog ue.\nHypo thesis T esting\nBiologis ts study the living w orld b y posing ques tions about it and seeking scienc e-based r esponses . This appr oach\nis common t o other scienc es as w ell and is o ften referred to as the scientific method. The scientific method w as\nused e ven in ancient times , but it w as firs t document ed b y England\u2019 s Sir F rancis Bac on (1561\u20131626) ( Figure 1.17 ),\nwho set up inductiv e methods f or scientific inquir y. The scientific method is not e xclusiv ely used b y biologis ts but\ncan be applied t o almos t anything as a logical pr oblem-sol ving method.\nFIGURE 1.17 Sir F rancis Bac on is cr edited with being the firs t to document the scientific method.1.2 \u2022 The P rocess o f Scienc e 19", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3403, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8e0af685-2e1b-40a8-a64d-1e9759359b88": {"__data__": {"id_": "8e0af685-2e1b-40a8-a64d-1e9759359b88", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "34", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b500d893-c73d-43f2-a4b8-a04f5a47f3df", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "34", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6303cc1f7820c377f4ef6a09ec3935fa4ca1f362dd781c5ce7a6a218920c290f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "2984a1d8-7a8a-49a2-b9e6-812adc0da5e7", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "f1d9ecdf4b5befc1e85c94a9e5485de0c65e00a813a9db6739462c79c8d5fba8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The scientific pr ocess typical ly starts with an obser vation (o ften a pr oblem t o be sol ved) that leads t o a ques tion.\nLet\u2019s think about a simple pr oblem that s tarts with an obser vation and appl y the scientific method t o sol ve the\nproblem. One Monda y morning , a student arriv es at clas s and quickl y disc overs that the clas sroom is t oo w arm. That\nis an obser vation that also describes a pr oblem: the clas sroom is t oo w arm. The s tudent then ask s a ques tion: \u201c Why\nis the clas sroom so w arm? \u201d\nRecal l that a h ypothesis is a sug gested e xplanation that can be t ested. T o sol ve a pr oblem, se veral hypotheses ma y\nbe pr oposed. F or example , one h ypothesis might be , \u201cThe clas sroom is w arm because no one turned on the air\nconditioning .\u201d But ther e could be other r esponses t o the ques tion, and ther efore other h ypotheses ma y be\nproposed. A sec ond h ypothesis might be , \u201cThe clas sroom is w arm because ther e is a po wer failur e, and so the air\nconditioning doesn \u2019t work.\u201d\nOnc e a h ypothesis has been select ed, a pr ediction ma y be made . A pr ediction is similar t o a h ypothesis but it\ntypical ly has the f ormat \u201cIf . . . then . . . . \u201d For example , the pr ediction f or the firs t hypothesis might be , \u201cIfthe\nstudent turns on the air c onditioning ,then the clas sroom wil l no long er be t oo w arm. \u201d\nA hypothesis mus t be t estable t o ensur e that it is v alid. F or example , a h ypothesis that depends on what a bear\nthink s is not t estable , because it can ne ver be kno wn what a bear think s. It should also be falsifiable , meaning that\nit can be dispr oven b y experimental r esul ts. An e xample o f an unfalsifiable h ypothesis is \u201cBot ticelli\u2019sBirth of Venus\nis beautiful .\u201d Ther e is no e xperiment that might sho w this s tatement t o be false . To test a h ypothesis , a resear cher\nwill conduct one or mor e experiments designed t o eliminat e one or mor e of the h ypotheses . This is impor tant. A\nhypothesis can be dispr oven, or eliminat ed, but it can ne ver be pr oven. Scienc e does not deal in pr oofs lik e\nmathematics . If an e xperiment fails t o dispr ove a h ypothesis , then w e find suppor t for that e xplanation, but this is\nnot t o sa y that do wn the r oad a bet ter explanation wil l not be f ound, or a mor e car efully designed e xperiment wil l be\nfound t o falsif y the h ypothesis .\nEach e xperiment wil l have one or mor e variables and one or mor e contr ols. Avariable is an y par t of the e xperiment\nthat can v ary or chang e during the e xperiment. A contr olis a par t of the e xperiment that does not chang e. Look f or\nthe v ariables and c ontr ols in the e xample that f ollows. As a simple e xample , an e xperiment might be c onduct ed to\ntest the h ypothesis that phosphat e limits the gr owth o f alg ae in fr eshwater ponds . A series o f artificial ponds ar e\nfilled with w ater and half o f them ar e treated b y adding phosphat e each w eek, while the other half ar e treated b y\nadding a sal t that is kno wn not t o be used b y alg ae.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3059, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2984a1d8-7a8a-49a2-b9e6-812adc0da5e7": {"__data__": {"id_": "2984a1d8-7a8a-49a2-b9e6-812adc0da5e7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "34", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b500d893-c73d-43f2-a4b8-a04f5a47f3df", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "34", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6303cc1f7820c377f4ef6a09ec3935fa4ca1f362dd781c5ce7a6a218920c290f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "8e0af685-2e1b-40a8-a64d-1e9759359b88", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "34", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6c63b04ca7ba0e3861694899bf1685f1b6c6ffa9361cf9e7b3b7439a7846d63d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Avariable is an y par t of the e xperiment\nthat can v ary or chang e during the e xperiment. A contr olis a par t of the e xperiment that does not chang e. Look f or\nthe v ariables and c ontr ols in the e xample that f ollows. As a simple e xample , an e xperiment might be c onduct ed to\ntest the h ypothesis that phosphat e limits the gr owth o f alg ae in fr eshwater ponds . A series o f artificial ponds ar e\nfilled with w ater and half o f them ar e treated b y adding phosphat e each w eek, while the other half ar e treated b y\nadding a sal t that is kno wn not t o be used b y alg ae. The v ariable her e is the phosphat e (or lack o f phosphat e), the\nexperimental or tr eatment cases ar e the ponds with added phosphat e and the c ontr ol ponds ar e those with\nsomething iner t added, such as the sal t. Jus t adding something is also a c ontr ol ag ains t the pos sibility that adding\nextra mat ter to the pond has an eff ect. If the tr eated ponds sho w les ser gr owth o f alg ae, then w e ha ve found\nsuppor t for our h ypothesis . If the y do not, then w e reject our h ypothesis . Be a ware that r ejecting one h ypothesis\ndoes not det ermine whether or not the other h ypotheses can be ac cepted; it simpl y eliminat es one h ypothesis that\nis not v alid ( Figure 1.18 ). Using the scientific method, the h ypotheses that ar e inc onsis tent with e xperimental data\nare reject ed.\nIn recent y ears a ne w appr oach o f testing h ypotheses has de veloped as a r esul t of an e xponential gr owth o f data\ndeposit ed in v arious databases . Using c omput er alg orithms and s tatis tical anal yses o f data in databases , a ne w field\nof so-called \" data r esear ch\" (also r eferred to as \"in silic o\" resear ch) pr ovides ne w methods o f data anal yses and\ntheir int erpr etation. This wil l incr ease the demand f or specialis ts in both biolog y and c omput er scienc e, a pr omising\ncareer oppor tunity .20 1 \u2022 Intr oduc tion t o Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2466, "end_char_idx": 4458, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b8f63bb9-e40e-4cb4-8093-7ecb16bb5491": {"__data__": {"id_": "b8f63bb9-e40e-4cb4-8093-7ecb16bb5491", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "35", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b52c2f9f-ef50-4b77-b153-9a597584d4a2", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "35", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "277f7746a252a98bda5dbd74c7f2a3eaf7f502d5fd7beed88929053271b98261", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 1.18 The scientific method is a series o f defined s teps that include e xperiments and car eful obser vation. If a h ypothesis is not\nsuppor ted b y data , a ne w hypothesis can be pr oposed.\nIn the e xample belo w, the scientific method is used t o sol ve an e veryday problem. Which par t in the e xample belo w\nis the h ypothesis? Which is the pr ediction? Based on the r esul ts of the e xperiment, is the h ypothesis suppor ted? If it\nis not suppor ted, pr opose some al ternativ e hypotheses .\n1.My t oaster doesn \u2019t toast my bread.\n2.Why doesn \u2019t my toaster w ork?\n3.Ther e is something wr ong with the electrical outlet.\n4.If something is wr ong with the outlet, m y coffeemak er also w on\u2019t work when plug ged int o it.\n5.I plug m y coffeemak er int o the outlet.\n6.My c offeemak er w orks.\nIn pr actic e, the scientific method is not as rigid and s tructur ed as it might at firs t appear . Sometimes an e xperiment\nleads t o conclusions that fa vor a chang e in appr oach; o ften, an e xperiment brings entir ely ne w scientific ques tions\nto the puzzle . Man y times , scienc e does not oper ate in a linear fashion; ins tead, scientis ts continual ly draw\ninferences and mak e gener alizations , finding pat terns as their r esear ch pr oceeds . Scientific r easoning is mor e\ncomple x than the scientific method alone sug gests.\nBasic and Applied Scienc e\nThe scientific c ommunity has been debating f or the las t few decades about the v alue o f diff erent types o f scienc e. Is\nit valuable t o pursue scienc e for the sak e of simpl y gaining kno wledg e, or does scientific kno wledg e onl y ha ve worth\n1.2 \u2022 The P rocess o f Scienc e 21", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1686, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "856e97d1-a816-47b2-a24f-ce53fb99fda5": {"__data__": {"id_": "856e97d1-a816-47b2-a24f-ce53fb99fda5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "36", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b78bb799-a54a-4376-b865-70664effa045", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "36", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "40e0988208dfc95c9431c4c54131df27981fe4ce694d8629ed91b6fce31526b4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "b6807b26-92e3-40ec-a3b6-583c05016165", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "be4a62e00db9f35e046988ccfcf51260cb28b38cc7570beb7d4535b4db68b8ff", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "if we can appl y it t o sol ving a specific pr oblem or bet tering our liv es? This ques tion f ocuses on the diff erences\nbetw een tw o types o f scienc e: basic scienc e and applied scienc e.\nBasic scienc eor \u201cpure\u201d scienc e seek s to expand kno wledg e regardles s of the shor t-term application o f that\nknowledg e. It is not f ocused on de veloping a pr oduct or a ser vice of immediat e public or c ommer cial v alue . The\nimmediat e goal o f basic scienc e is kno wledg e for kno wledg e\u2019s sak e, though this does not mean that in the end it\nmay not r esul t in an application.\nIn contr ast,applied scienc eor \u201ctechnolog y,\u201d aims t o use scienc e to sol ve real-world pr oblems , making it pos sible ,\nfor example , to impr ove a cr op yield, find a cur e for a par ticular disease , or sa ve animals thr eatened b y a natur al\ndisas ter. In applied scienc e, the pr oblem is usual ly defined f or the r esear cher .\nSome individuals ma y per ceive applied scienc e as \u201cuseful \u201d and basic scienc e as \u201cuseles s.\u201d A ques tion these people\nmight pose t o a scientis t adv ocating kno wledg e ac quisition w ould be , \u201cWhat f or?\u201d A car eful look at the his tory of\nscienc e, however, reveals that basic kno wledg e has r esul ted in man y remark able applications o f great v alue . Man y\nscientis ts think that a basic unders tanding o f scienc e is nec essary bef ore an application is de veloped; ther efore,\napplied scienc e relies on the r esul ts gener ated thr ough basic scienc e. Other scientis ts think that it is time t o mo ve\non fr om basic scienc e and ins tead t o find solutions t o actual pr oblems . Both appr oaches ar e valid. It is true that\nther e are problems that demand immediat e attention; ho wever, few solutions w ould be f ound without the help o f\nthe kno wledg e gener ated thr ough basic scienc e.\nOne e xample o f how basic and applied scienc e can w ork t ogether t o sol ve practical pr oblems oc curr ed aft er the\ndisc overy of DNA s tructur e led t o an unders tanding o f the molecular mechanisms g overning DNA r eplication.\nStrands o f DNA , unique in e very human, ar e found in our c ells, wher e the y provide the ins tructions nec essary for lif e.\nDuring DNA r eplication, ne w copies o f DNA ar e made , shor tly bef ore a c ell divides t o form ne w cells. Unders tanding\nthe mechanisms o f DNA r eplication enabled scientis ts to de velop labor atory techniques that ar e no w used t o\nidentif y genetic diseases , pinpoint individuals who w ere at a crime sc ene, and det ermine pat ernity . Without basic\nscienc e, it is unlik ely that applied scienc e could e xist.\nAnother e xample o f the link betw een basic and applied r esear ch is the Human Genome P roject, a s tudy in which\neach human chr omosome w as anal yzed and mapped t o det ermine the pr ecise sequenc e of DNA subunits and the\nexact location o f each g ene. (The g ene is the basic unit o f her edity r epresent ed b y a specific DNA segment that\ncodes f or a functional molecule .) Other or ganisms ha ve also been s tudied as par t of this pr oject t o gain a bet ter\nunders tanding o f human chr omosomes . The Human Genome P roject ( Figure 1.19 ) relied on basic r esear ch carried\nout with non-human or ganisms and, lat er, with the human g enome . An impor tant end g oal e ventual ly became using\nthe data f or applied r esear ch seeking cur es for genetical ly related diseases .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3412, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b6807b26-92e3-40ec-a3b6-583c05016165": {"__data__": {"id_": "b6807b26-92e3-40ec-a3b6-583c05016165", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "36", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b78bb799-a54a-4376-b865-70664effa045", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "36", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "40e0988208dfc95c9431c4c54131df27981fe4ce694d8629ed91b6fce31526b4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "856e97d1-a816-47b2-a24f-ce53fb99fda5", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "36", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "27d26e17caadbe7428b3e47240eb5804cd7266880d7b1d9e3596937011deff40", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "(The g ene is the basic unit o f her edity r epresent ed b y a specific DNA segment that\ncodes f or a functional molecule .) Other or ganisms ha ve also been s tudied as par t of this pr oject t o gain a bet ter\nunders tanding o f human chr omosomes . The Human Genome P roject ( Figure 1.19 ) relied on basic r esear ch carried\nout with non-human or ganisms and, lat er, with the human g enome . An impor tant end g oal e ventual ly became using\nthe data f or applied r esear ch seeking cur es for genetical ly related diseases .\nFIGURE 1.19 The Human Genome P roject w as a 13- year c ollabor ative eff ort among r esear chers w orking in se veral diff erent fields o f\nscienc e. The pr oject w as complet ed in 2003. (cr edit: the U .S. Depar tment o f Ener gy Genome P rograms)\nWhile r esear ch eff orts in both basic scienc e and applied scienc e are usual ly car efully planned, it is impor tant t o not e\nthat some disc overies ar e made b y ser endipity , that is , by means o f a fortunat e ac cident or a lucky surprise .22 1 \u2022 Intr oduc tion t o Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2882, "end_char_idx": 3980, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "93adcce5-1560-4c56-b0bc-7fef0d86c750": {"__data__": {"id_": "93adcce5-1560-4c56-b0bc-7fef0d86c750", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "37", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7362c58f-0efa-47f4-9e9c-92a1d219e8a4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "37", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4e986d96d9054a130be7aa4cddd11fd308a8880fbaaa4047f549b9567d81995a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Penicil lin w as disc overed when biologis t Ale xander Fleming ac cidental ly left a petri dish o fStaph yloc occus bact eria\nopen. An un wanted mold gr ew, killing the bact eria. The mold turned out t o be Penicil lium , and a ne w critical ly\nimpor tant antibiotic w as disc overed. In a similar manner , Percy Lavon Julian w as an es tablished medicinal chemis t\nworking on a w ay to mas s produc e compounds with which t o manufactur e impor tant drugs . He w as focused on\nusing so ybean oil in the pr oduction o f progesterone (a hormone impor tant in the mens trual cy cle and pr egnancy),\nbut it w asn't until w ater ac cidental ly leak ed int o a lar ge so ybean oil s torage tank that he f ound his method.\nImmediat ely recognizing the r esul ting subs tanc e as s tigmas terol, a primar y ingr edient in pr ogesterone and similar\ndrugs , he beg an the pr ocess of replicating and indus trializing the pr ocess in a manner that has helped mil lions o f\npeople . Even in the highl y organiz ed w orld o f scienc e, luck \u2014when c ombined with an obser vant, curious mind\nfocused on the types o f reasoning discus sed abo ve\u2014can lead t o une xpect ed br eakthroughs .\nRepor ting Scientific W ork\nWhether scientific r esear ch is basic scienc e or applied scienc e, scientis ts mus t shar e their findings f or other\nresear chers t o expand and build upon their disc overies . Communication and c ollabor ation within and betw een sub\ndisciplines o f scienc e are key to the adv ancement o f kno wledg e in scienc e. For this r eason, an impor tant aspect o f a\nscientis t\u2019s work is dis seminating r esul ts and c ommunicating with peers . Scientis ts can shar e resul ts by presenting\nthem at a scientific meeting or c onference, but this appr oach can r each onl y the limit ed few who ar e present.\nInstead, mos t scientis ts pr esent their r esul ts in peer -reviewed ar ticles that ar e published in scientific journals .\nPeer-r eviewed ar ticles are scientific papers that ar e reviewed, usual ly anon ymousl y by a scientis t\u2019s colleag ues, or\npeers . These c olleag ues ar e qualified individuals , often e xper ts in the same r esear ch ar ea, who judg e whether or not\nthe scientis t\u2019s work is suitable f or publication. The pr ocess of peer r eview helps t o ensur e that the r esear ch\ndescribed in a scientific paper or gr ant pr oposal is original , significant, logical , and thor ough. Gr ant pr oposals , which\nare reques ts for resear ch funding , are also subject t o peer r eview. Scientis ts publish their w ork so other scientis ts\ncan r eproduc e their e xperiments under similar or diff erent c onditions t o expand on the findings .\nTher e are man y journals and the popular pr ess that do not use a peer -review system. A lar ge number o f online\nopen-ac cess journals , journals with ar ticles a vailable without c ost, are no w available man y of which use rig orous\npeer -review systems , but some o f which do not. R esul ts of any studies published in these f orums without peer\nreview ar e not r eliable and should not f orm the basis f or other scientific w ork. In one e xception, journals ma y allow a\nresear cher t o cit e a personal c ommunication fr om another r esear cher about unpublished r esul ts with the cit ed\nauthor \u2019s permis sion.1.2 \u2022 The P rocess o f Scienc e 23", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3318, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c4d53455-5bde-48dd-ab2b-78936607a642": {"__data__": {"id_": "c4d53455-5bde-48dd-ab2b-78936607a642", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "38", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "46b04c41-dc9e-4aaf-b4a9-b1fba4294594", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "38", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7c6233189b6c02c6d1fae0b60eee305ae37928a3d45d7e7cd39c6e4e3a8f7b38", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "fcf253bb-b138-4158-b450-9c8b48a57280", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "e060ad4964bc594f7dede8ea59388e6de413402ba2659d696de681e266a723f2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\napplied scienc ea form o f scienc e that sol ves real-\nworld pr oblems\natom a basic unit o f mat ter that cannot be br oken\ndown b y normal chemical r eactions\nbasic scienc escienc e that seek s to expand\nknowledg e regardles s of the shor t-term application\nof that kno wledg e\nbiolog ythe s tudy o f life\nbiospher ea collection o f all ecosystems on Ear th\ncellthe smal lest fundamental unit o f structur e and\nfunction in living things\ncommunity a set o f populations inhabiting a\nparticular ar ea\ncontr ola par t of an e xperiment that does not chang e\nduring the e xperiment\ndeductiv e reasoning a form o f logical thinking that\nuses a g ener al statement t o predict specific r esul ts\ndescrip tive scienc ea form o f scienc e that aims t o\nobser ve, explor e, and find things out\necosystem all living things in a par ticular ar ea\ntogether with the abiotic, nonliving par ts of that\nenvironment\neukar yotean or ganism with c ells that ha ve nuclei\nand membr ane-bound or ganel les\nevolution the pr ocess of gradual chang e in a\npopulation that can also lead t o ne w species arising\nfrom older species\nfalsifiable able t o be dispr oven b y experimental\nresul ts\nhomeos tasis the ability o f an or ganism t o maintain\nconstant int ernal c onditions\nhypothesis a sug gested e xplanation f or an e vent,\nwhich can be t ested\nhypothesis-based scienc ea form o f scienc e that\nbegins with a specific e xplanation that is then t ested\ninductiv e reasoning a form o f logical thinking that\nuses r elated obser vations t o arriv e at a g ener al\nconclusion\nlife scienc ea field o f scienc e, such as biolog y, that\nstudies living things\nmacr omolecule a lar ge molecule typical ly formed b ythe joining o f smal ler molecules\nmolecule a chemical s tructur e consis ting o f at leas t\ntwo atoms held t ogether b y a chemical bond\nnatural scienc ea field o f scienc e that s tudies the\nphysical w orld, its phenomena , and pr ocesses\norgan a structur e formed o f tissues oper ating\ntogether t o per form a c ommon function\norgan s ystem the higher le vel of organization that\nconsis ts of functional ly related or gans\norganel lea membr ane-bound c ompar tment or sac\nwithin a c ell\norganism an individual living entity\npeer-r eviewed ar ticle a scientific r epor t that is\nreviewed b y a scientis t\u2019s colleag ues bef ore\npublication\nphylog enetic tr ee a diagr am sho wing the\nevolutionar y relationships among biological species\nbased on similarities and diff erences in g enetic or\nphysical tr aits or both\nphysical scienc ea field o f scienc e, such as\nastronom y, physics, and chemis try, that s tudies\nnonliving mat ter\npopula tion all individuals within a species living\nwithin a specific ar ea\nprokar yotea unic ellular or ganism that lack s a\nnucleus or an y other membr ane-bound or ganel le\nscienc eknowledg e that c overs g ener al truths or the\noper ation o f gener al la ws, especial ly when ac quired\nand t ested b y the scientific method\nscientific la wa descrip tion, o ften in the f orm o f a\nmathematical f ormula , for the beha vior o f some\naspect o f natur e under c ertain specific c onditions\nscientific method a method o f resear ch with defined\nsteps that include e xperiments and car eful\nobser vation\nscientific theor ya thor oughl y tested and c onfirmed\nexplanation f or obser vations or phenomena\ntissue a group o f similar c ells carr ying out the same\nfunction\nvariable a par t of an e xperiment that can v ary or\nchang e\nChap ter Summar y\n1.1Themes and C oncepts of Biology\nBiolog y is the scienc e of life.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3550, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fcf253bb-b138-4158-b450-9c8b48a57280": {"__data__": {"id_": "fcf253bb-b138-4158-b450-9c8b48a57280", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "38", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "46b04c41-dc9e-4aaf-b4a9-b1fba4294594", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "38", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7c6233189b6c02c6d1fae0b60eee305ae37928a3d45d7e7cd39c6e4e3a8f7b38", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "c4d53455-5bde-48dd-ab2b-78936607a642", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "38", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "67be255d332da27167225f36a2402d618c7da559ed7c0e233b716fb37859e544", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "All living or ganisms shar e\nseveral key proper ties such as or der, sensitivity or\nresponse t o stimuli, r eproduction, adap tation, gr owth\nand de velopment, r egulation, homeos tasis , and ener gy\nprocessing . Living things ar e highl y organiz ed following\na hier archy that includes at oms , molecules , organel les,\ncells, tissues , organs, and or gan s ystems . Organisms , inturn, ar e grouped as populations , communities ,\necosystems , and the biospher e. Evolution is the sour ce\nof the tr emendous biological div ersity on Ear th today. A\ndiagr am cal led a ph ylog enetic tr ee can be used t o\nshow evolutionar y relationships among or ganisms .\nBiolog y is v ery broad and includes man y branches and\nsub disciplines . Examples include molecular biolog y,\nmicr obiolog y, neur obiolog y, zoolog y, and botan y,\namong others .24 1 \u2022 K ey Terms\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 3551, "end_char_idx": 4441, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8d0885ed-8fc7-444e-9e09-5eb2c45b60ca": {"__data__": {"id_": "8d0885ed-8fc7-444e-9e09-5eb2c45b60ca", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "39", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ac34fb13-6471-4994-bdf9-fea5febe8090", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "39", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cdfc5b316884d9e65c4ce7434f884434a8587be7f3aedbb37fa44b265c9e27db", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "3c9723fa-8bc0-452d-b70d-6af4f616cede", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "d7f3d279d44bc853269cd134d4dcf4cae0d1a99d0df095b528597daea976a689", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "1.2The P rocess o f Scienc e\nBiolog y is the scienc e that s tudies living or ganisms and\ntheir int eractions with one another and their\nenvironments . Scienc e attemp ts to describe and\nunders tand the natur e of the univ erse in whole or in\npart. Scienc e has man y fields; those fields r elated to\nthe ph ysical w orld and its phenomena ar e consider ed\nnatur al scienc es.\nA hypothesis is a t entativ e explanation f or an\nobser vation. A g ener ally accepted scientific theor y is\nthor oughl y tested and c onfirmed e xplanation f or a set\nof obser vations or phenomena . A scientific la w is a\ndescrip tion, o ften in the f orm o f a mathematical\nformula , of the beha vior o f an aspect o f natur e undercertain cir cums tanc es. Two types o f logical r easoning\nare used in scienc e. Inductiv e reasoning uses r esul ts to\nproduc e gener al scientific principles . Deductiv e\nreasoning is a f orm o f logical thinking that pr edicts\nresul ts by appl ying g ener al principles . The c ommon\nthread thr oughout scientific r esear ch is the use o f the\nscientific method. Scientis ts pr esent their r esul ts in\npeer -reviewed scientific papers published in scientific\njournals .\nScienc e can be basic or applied. The main g oal o f basic\nscienc e is t o expand kno wledg e without an y\nexpectation o f shor t-term pr actical application o f that\nknowledg e. The primar y goal o f applied r esear ch,\nhowever, is t o sol ve practical pr oblems .\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 1.8 Which o f the f ollowing s tatements is\nfalse?\nA.Tissues e xist within or gans which e xist within\norgan s ystems .\nB.Communities e xist within populations which\nexist within ec osystems .\nC. Organel les e xist within c ells which e xist within\ntissues .\nD.Communities e xist within ec osystems which\nexist in the biospher e.2.Figure 1.18 In the e xample belo w, the scientific\nmethod is used t o sol ve an e veryday problem.\nWhich par t in the e xample belo w is the h ypothesis?\nWhich is the pr ediction? Based on the r esul ts of the\nexperiment, is the h ypothesis suppor ted? If it is not\nsuppor ted, pr opose some al ternativ e hypotheses .\n1.My t oaster doesn \u2019t toast my bread.\n2.Why doesn \u2019t my toaster w ork?\n3.Ther e is something wr ong with the electrical\noutlet.\n4.If something is wr ong with the outlet, m y\ncoffeemak er also w on\u2019t work when plug ged\ninto it.\n5.I plug m y coffeemak er int o the outlet.\n6.My c offeemak er w orks.\nReview Ques tions\n3.The smal lest unit o f biological s tructur e that meets\nthe functional r equir ements o f \u201cliving \u201d is the\n________.\na.organ\nb.organel le\nc.cell\nd.macr omolecule\n4.Which o f the f ollowing sequenc es represents the\nhierarchy of biological or ganization fr om the mos t\ncomple x to the leas t comple x level?\na.organel le, tissue, biospher e, ecosystem,\npopulation\nb.organ, or ganism, tis sue, organel le, molecule\nc.organism, c ommunity , biospher e, molecule ,\ntissue, organ\nd.biospher e, ecosystem, c ommunity , population,\norganism5.A sug gested and t estable e xplanation f or an e vent\nis cal led a ________.\na.hypothesis\nb.variable\nc.theor y\nd.contr ol\n6.The type o f logical thinking that uses r elated\nobser vations t o arriv e at a g ener al conclusion is\ncalled ________.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3242, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3c9723fa-8bc0-452d-b70d-6af4f616cede": {"__data__": {"id_": "3c9723fa-8bc0-452d-b70d-6af4f616cede", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "39", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ac34fb13-6471-4994-bdf9-fea5febe8090", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "39", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cdfc5b316884d9e65c4ce7434f884434a8587be7f3aedbb37fa44b265c9e27db", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "8d0885ed-8fc7-444e-9e09-5eb2c45b60ca", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "39", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "86ad3007dac4d781abbb1493d06ea9ce2a9c80429b8866a0b66a578399bded02", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "a.organel le, tissue, biospher e, ecosystem,\npopulation\nb.organ, or ganism, tis sue, organel le, molecule\nc.organism, c ommunity , biospher e, molecule ,\ntissue, organ\nd.biospher e, ecosystem, c ommunity , population,\norganism5.A sug gested and t estable e xplanation f or an e vent\nis cal led a ________.\na.hypothesis\nb.variable\nc.theor y\nd.contr ol\n6.The type o f logical thinking that uses r elated\nobser vations t o arriv e at a g ener al conclusion is\ncalled ________.\na.deductiv e reasoning\nb.the scientific method\nc.hypothesis -based scienc e\nd.inductiv e reasoning1 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions 25", "start_char_idx": 2769, "end_char_idx": 3378, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "cb3ccd51-6267-4853-a141-a3132c9b8001": {"__data__": {"id_": "cb3ccd51-6267-4853-a141-a3132c9b8001", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "40", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4842423c-4a0c-4194-ad4f-e8900b2c4ece", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "40", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "91594575d80fe35f0386042d977e40f6bf4a7f705ea7c83f5bc53c4d4d576e63", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Critic al Thinking Ques tions\n7.Using e xamples , explain ho w biolog y can be s tudied\nfrom a micr oscopic appr oach t o a global appr oach.8.Give an e xample o f how applied scienc e has had a\ndirect eff ect on y our dail y life.26 1 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 301, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8cbae991-9994-4600-9022-96ed112fd0c9": {"__data__": {"id_": "8cbae991-9994-4600-9022-96ed112fd0c9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "41", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "35c91b6a-ddc1-41f6-b8a6-033906e27859", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "41", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ede83772da5d54d5a927e2968fc5b2d9fa55a4bbe606446c4ae2617b275887f4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 2\nChemis try of Life\n2.1The Building Block s of Molecules\n2.2Water\n2.3Biological Molecules\nThe elements carbon, h ydrogen, nitr ogen, o xygen, sulfur , and phosphorus ar e\nthe k ey building block s of the chemicals f ound in living things . The y form the carboh ydrates,\nnucleic acids , proteins , and lipids (al l of which wil l be defined lat er in this chap ter) that ar e the\nfundamental molecular c omponents o f all organisms . In this chap ter, we wil l discus s these\nimpor tant building block s and learn ho w the unique pr oper ties o f the at oms o f diff erent elements\naffect their int eractions with other at oms t o form the molecules o f life.\nFood pr ovides an or ganism with nutrients \u2014the mat ter it needs t o sur vive. Man y of these critical\nnutrients c ome in the f orm o f biological macr omolecules , or lar ge molecules nec essary for lif e.\nThese macr omolecules ar e buil t from diff erent c ombinations o f smal ler or ganic molecules . What\nspecific types o f biological macr omolecules do living things r equir e? Ho w ar e these molecules\nformed? What functions do the y ser ve? In this chap ter, we wil l explor e these ques tions .FIGURE 2.1Foods such as br ead, fruit, and cheese ar e rich sour ces o f biological macr omolecules . (credit:\nmodification o f work b y Bengt Nyman)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1354, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4a674577-e1be-46cc-9efa-487659c8d903": {"__data__": {"id_": "4a674577-e1be-46cc-9efa-487659c8d903", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "42", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b25b1e84-3388-4202-b09c-029fd5f4a773", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "42", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5d738ce035f6b56b052315888ce115090a2d45d62ef06d8812aa3963d49719b3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "2.1The Building Block s of Molecules\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe mat ter and elements\n\u2022Describe the int errelationship betw een pr otons, neutr ons, and electr ons, and the w ays in\nwhich electr ons can be donat ed or shar ed betw een at oms\nAt its mos t fundamental le vel, life is made up o f mat ter.Matteroccupies spac e and has mas s. All\nmatter is c omposed o felements , subs tanc es that cannot be br oken do wn or tr ansformed\nchemical ly int o other subs tanc es. Each element is made o f atoms , each with a c onstant number o f\nprotons and unique pr oper ties. A total o f 118 elements ha ve been defined; ho wever, onl y 92 oc cur\nnatur ally, and f ewer than 30 ar e found in living c ells. The r emaining 26 elements ar e uns table and,\nther efore, do not e xist for very long or ar e theor etical and ha ve yet to be det ected.\nEach element is designat ed b y its chemical s ymbol (such as H, N, O , C, and Na), and pos sesses\nunique pr oper ties. These unique pr oper ties al low elements t o combine and t o bond with each\nother in specific w ays.\nAtoms\nAn at om is the smal lest component o f an element that r etains al l of the chemical pr oper ties o f\nthat element. F or example , one h ydrogen at om has al l of the pr oper ties o f the element h ydrogen,\nsuch as it e xists as a g as at r oom t emper atur e, and it bonds with o xygen to create a w ater\nmolecule . Hydrogen at oms cannot be br oken do wn int o an ything smal ler while s till retaining the\nproper ties o f hydrogen. If a h ydrogen at om w ere broken do wn int o subat omic par ticles , it w ould\nno long er ha ve the pr oper ties o f hydrogen.\nAt the mos t basic le vel, all organisms ar e made o f a c ombination o f elements . The y contain at oms\nthat c ombine t ogether t o form molecules . In mul ticellular or ganisms , such as animals , molecules\ncan int eract t o form c ells that c ombine t o form tis sues , which mak e up or gans. These\ncombinations c ontinue until entir e mul ticellular or ganisms ar e formed.\nAll atoms c ontain pr otons, electr ons, and neutr ons ( Figure 2.2 ). The mos t common isot ope o f\nhydrogen (H) is the onl y exception and is made o f one pr oton and one electr on with no neutr ons. A\nprotonis a positiv ely char ged par ticle that r esides in the nucleus (the c ore of the at om) o f an at om\nand has a mas s of 1 and a char ge of +1. An electr onis a neg atively char ged par ticle that tr avels in\nthe spac e around the nucleus . In other w ords, it resides outside o f the nucleus . It has a negligible\nmas s and has a char ge of \u20131.\nFIGURE 2.2Atoms ar e made up o f protons and neutr ons locat ed within the nucleus , and electr ons surr ounding the\nnucleus .\nNeutr ons, like protons, reside in the nucleus o f an at om. The y ha ve a mas s of 1 and no char ge.\nThe positiv e (pr otons) and neg ative (electr ons) char ges balanc e each other in a neutr al at om,\nwhich has a net z ero char ge.28 2 \u2022 Chemis try of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3049, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d69cd4ca-9e56-4b6f-a1d8-63eb18c95eef": {"__data__": {"id_": "d69cd4ca-9e56-4b6f-a1d8-63eb18c95eef", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "43", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ce67d56e-f7ab-42e3-aabe-5447a38ce0f5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "43", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0f4a75f20f599a2096eb3b4cb88d556a5e21b11d5dee513e5b58778a94b26db3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Because pr otons and neutr ons each ha ve a mas s of 1, the mas s of an at om is equal t o the number o f protons and\nneutr ons o f that at om. The number o f electr ons does not fact or int o the o verall mas s, because their mas s is so\nsmal l.\nAs s tated earlier , each element has its o wn unique pr oper ties. Each c ontains a diff erent number o f protons and\nneutr ons, giving it its o wn at omic number and mas s number . The atomic number of an element is equal t o the\nnumber o f protons that element c ontains . The mas s number , or at omic mas s, is the number o f protons plus the\nnumber o f neutr ons o f that element. Ther efore, it is pos sible t o det ermine the number o f neutr ons b y sub tracting\nthe at omic number fr om the mas s number .\nThese numbers pr ovide inf ormation about the elements and ho w the y wil l react when c ombined. Diff erent elements\nhave diff erent mel ting and boiling points , and ar e in diff erent s tates (liquid, solid, or g as) at r oom t emper atur e. The y\nalso c ombine in diff erent w ays. Some f orm specific types o f bonds , wher eas others do not. Ho w the y combine is\nbased on the number o f electr ons pr esent. Because o f these char acteristics, the elements ar e arr anged int o the\nperiodic table o f elements , a char t of the elements that includes the at omic number and r elativ e atomic mas s of\neach element. The periodic table also pr ovides k ey inf ormation about the pr oper ties o f elements ( Figure 2.2 )\u2014often\nindicat ed b y color-coding . The arr angement o f the table also sho ws ho w the electr ons in each element ar e\norganiz ed and pr ovides impor tant details about ho w at oms wil l react with each other t o form molecules .\nIsotopes are diff erent f orms o f the same element that ha ve the same number o f protons, but a diff erent number o f\nneutr ons. Some elements , such as carbon, potas sium, and ur anium, ha ve natur ally oc curring isot opes . Carbon-12,\nthe mos t common isot ope o f carbon, c ontains six pr otons and six neutr ons. Ther efore, it has a mas s number o f 12\n(six pr otons and six neutr ons) and an at omic number o f 6 (which mak es it carbon). Carbon-14 c ontains six pr otons\nand eight neutr ons. Ther efore, it has a mas s number o f 14 (six pr otons and eight neutr ons) and an at omic number o f\n6, meaning it is s till the element carbon. These tw o alternat e forms o f carbon ar e isot opes . Some isot opes ar e\nunstable and wil l lose pr otons, other subat omic par ticles , or ener gy to form mor e stable elements . These ar e cal led\nradioactiv e iso topes or radioisot opes .2.1 \u2022 The Building Block s of Molecules 29", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2653, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0cf10f6d-ad4d-4d91-951a-415e788e4119": {"__data__": {"id_": "0cf10f6d-ad4d-4d91-951a-415e788e4119", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "44", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6c898c68-c577-41e6-9a68-358c45ea61fe", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "44", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ecd53c14fd60ee7f590a4849746a1e32243d4b397474e3564de0681e17457769", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 2.3Arranged in c olumns and r ows based on the char acteristics o f the elements , the periodic table pr ovides k ey inf ormation about\nthe elements and ho w the y might int eract with each other t o form molecules . Mos t periodic tables pr ovide a k ey or leg end t o the\ninformation the y contain.\nHow man y neutr ons do (K ) potas sium-39 and potas sium-40 ha ve, respectiv ely?\nEVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nCarbon Dating\nCarbon-14 (14C) is a natur ally oc curring r adioisot ope that is cr eated in the atmospher e by cosmic r ays. This is a\ncontinuous pr ocess, so mor e14C is al ways being cr eated. As a living or ganism de velops , the r elativ e level of14C in\nits body is equal t o the c oncentr ation o f14C in the atmospher e. When an or ganism dies , it is no long er ing esting14C,\nso the r atio wil l decline .14C deca ys to14N by a pr ocess cal led beta deca y; it giv es o ff ener gy in this slo w pr ocess.\nAfter appr oximat ely 5,730 y ears , onl y one -half o f the s tarting c oncentr ation o f14C wil l have been c onverted to14N.\nThe time it tak es for half o f the original c oncentr ation o f an isot ope t o deca y to its mor e stable f orm is cal led its half-\nlife. Because the half-lif e of14C is long , it is used t o ag e formerl y living objects , such as f ossils. Using the r atio o f the\n14C concentr ation f ound in an object t o the amount o f14C det ected in the atmospher e, the amount o f the isot ope\nthat has not y et deca yed can be det ermined. Based on this amount, the ag e of the f ossil can be calculat ed to about\n50,000 y ears ( Figure 2.4 ). Isot opes with long er half-liv es, such as potas sium-40, ar e used t o calculat e the ag es o f\nolder f ossils. Thr ough the use o f carbon dating , scientis ts can r econstruct the ec olog y and biog eogr aphy of\norganisms living within the pas t 50,000 y ears .\n30 2 \u2022 Chemis try of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1941, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "db03efb8-2a7b-418d-9fd3-5a1a779884b5": {"__data__": {"id_": "db03efb8-2a7b-418d-9fd3-5a1a779884b5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "45", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "40dc0a7c-4869-40a3-a803-0346e43052c2", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "45", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "47160ca372a91c96584ae0a1431ec54d3dbbc84f0fd80e4f07ab6d47e5fb1e35", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 2.4The ag e of remains that c ontain carbon and ar e les s than about 50,000 y ears old, such as this p ygmy mammoth, can be\ndetermined using carbon dating . (credit: Bil l Faulkner /NPS)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nTo learn mor e about at oms and isot opes , and ho w you can t ell one isot ope fr om another , visit this site\n(http://opens tax.org/l/isot opes) and run the simulation.\nChemic al Bonds\nHow elements int eract with one another depends on ho w their electr ons ar e arr anged and ho w man y openings f or\nelectr ons e xist at the out ermos t region wher e electr ons ar e present in an at om. Electr ons e xist at ener gy levels that\nform shel ls ar ound the nucleus . The closes t shel l can hold up t o tw o electr ons. The closes t shel l to the nucleus is\nalways filled firs t, bef ore an y other shel l can be fil led. Hy drogen has one electr on; ther efore, it has onl y one spot\noccupied within the lo west shel l. Helium has tw o electr ons; ther efore, it can c omplet ely fill the lo west shel l with its\ntwo electr ons. If y ou look at the periodic table , you wil l see that h ydrogen and helium ar e the onl y tw o elements in\nthe firs t row. This is because the y onl y ha ve electr ons in their firs t shel l. Hydrogen and helium ar e the onl y tw o\nelements that ha ve the lo west shel l and no other shel ls.\nThe sec ond and thir d ener gy levels can hold up t o eight electr ons. The eight electr ons ar e arr anged in f our pairs and\none position in each pair is fil led with an electr on bef ore an y pairs ar e complet ed.\nLooking at the periodic table ag ain ( Figure 2.3 ), you wil l notic e that ther e are se ven rows. These r ows correspond t o\nthe number o f shel ls that the elements within that r ow ha ve. The elements within a par ticular r ow ha ve incr easing\nnumbers o f electr ons as the c olumns pr oceed fr om left t o right. Al though each element has the same number o f\nshel ls, not al l of the shel ls ar e complet ely filled with electr ons. If y ou look at the sec ond r ow of the periodic table ,\nyou wil l find lithium (Li), ber yllium (Be), bor on (B), carbon (C), nitr ogen (N), o xygen (O), fluorine (F ), and neon (Ne).\nThese al l have electr ons that oc cupy onl y the firs t and sec ond shel ls. Lithium has onl y one electr on in its out ermos t\nshel l, ber yllium has tw o electr ons, bor on has thr ee, and so on, until the entir e shel l is fil led with eight electr ons, as is\nthe case with neon.\nNot al l elements ha ve enough electr ons t o fill their out ermos t shel ls, but an at om is at its mos t stable when al l of the\nelectr on positions in the out ermos t shel l are filled. Because o f these v acancies in the out ermos t shel ls, we see the\nformation o fchemical bonds , or int eractions betw een tw o or mor e of the same or diff erent elements that r esul t in\nthe f ormation o f molecules . To achie ve greater stability , atoms wil l tend t o complet ely fill their out er shel ls and wil l\nbond with other elements t o ac complish this g oal b y sharing electr ons, accepting electr ons fr om another at om, or\ndonating electr ons t o another at om. Because the out ermos t shel ls of the elements with lo w at omic numbers (up t o\n2.1 \u2022 The Building Block s of Molecules 31", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3262, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "06143547-b579-40c8-a3c8-b4fe5d9f3464": {"__data__": {"id_": "06143547-b579-40c8-a3c8-b4fe5d9f3464", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "46", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4921b820-2317-495d-949a-c64b5d376e68", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "46", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "68ece0b89b9f6baf83c0f325c3c143756f4a668721e41e0ea5e13739f6f67e88", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "calcium, with at omic number 20) can hold eight electr ons, this is r eferred to as the octet rule . An element can\ndonat e, accept, or shar e electr ons with other elements t o fill its out er shel l and satis fy the oct et rule .\nWhen an at om does not c ontain equal numbers o f protons and electr ons, it is cal led an ion. Because the number o f\nelectr ons does not equal the number o f protons, each ion has a net char ge. Positiv e ions ar e formed b y losing\nelectr ons and ar e cal ledcations . Neg ative ions ar e formed b y gaining electr ons and ar e cal ledanions .\nFor example , sodium onl y has one electr on in its out ermos t shel l. It tak es les s ener gy for sodium t o donat e that one\nelectr on than it does t o ac cept seven mor e electr ons t o fill the out er shel l. If sodium loses an electr on, it no w has 11\nprotons and onl y 10 electr ons, lea ving it with an o verall char ge of +1. It is no w cal led a sodium ion.\nThe chlorine at om has se ven electr ons in its out er shel l. Again, it is mor e ener gy-efficient f or chlorine t o gain one\nelectr on than t o lose se ven. Ther efore, it tends t o gain an electr on to create an ion with 17 pr otons and 18 electr ons,\ngiving it a net neg ative (\u20131) char ge. It is no w cal led a chloride ion. This mo vement o f electr ons fr om one element t o\nanother is r eferred to as electr on tr ansfer. As Figure 2.5 illustrates, a sodium at om (Na) onl y has one electr on in its\noutermos t shel l, wher eas a chlorine at om (Cl) has se ven electr ons in its out ermos t shel l. A sodium at om wil l donat e\nits one electr on to emp ty its shel l, and a chlorine at om wil l accept that electr on to fill its shel l, bec oming chloride .\nBoth ions no w satis fy the oct et rule and ha ve complet e out ermos t shel ls. Because the number o f electr ons is no\nlong er equal t o the number o f protons, each is no w an ion and has a +1 (sodium) or \u20131 (chloride) char ge.\nFIGURE 2.5Elements t end t o fill their out ermos t shel ls with electr ons. To do this , the y can either donat e or ac cept electr ons fr om other\nelements .\nIonic Bonds\nTher e are four types o f bonds or int eractions: ionic, c ovalent, h ydrogen bonds , and v an der W aals int eractions . Ionic\nand c ovalent bonds ar e strong int eractions that r equir e a lar ger ener gy input t o break apar t. When an element\ndonat es an electr on fr om its out er shel l, as in the sodium at om e xample abo ve, a positiv e ion is f ormed. The\nelement ac cepting the electr on is no w neg atively char ged. Because positiv e and neg ative char ges at tract, these ions\nstay together and f orm an ionic bond , or a bond betw een ions . The elements bond t ogether with the electr on fr om\none element s taying pr edominantl y with the other element. When Na+and Cl\u2013ions c ombine t o produc e NaCl , an\nelectr on fr om a sodium at om s tays with the other se ven fr om the chlorine at om, and the sodium and chloride ions\nattract each other in a lat tice of ions with a net z ero char ge.\nCovalent Bonds\nAnother type o f strong chemical bond betw een tw o or mor e atoms is a covalent bond . These bonds f orm when an\nelectr on is shar ed betw een tw o elements and ar e the s trongest and mos t common f orm o f chemical bond in living\norganisms . Covalent bonds f orm betw een the elements that mak e up the biological molecules in our c ells. Unlik e32 2 \u2022 Chemis try of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3449, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a371b2be-58d7-4fd0-bd81-4bbc639d36e5": {"__data__": {"id_": "a371b2be-58d7-4fd0-bd81-4bbc639d36e5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "47", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8d9aa0e8-4b59-4c54-a5a2-a451fbc3f202", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "47", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1cd9fc36e2138f6a35b3f718a2a76b818066031679aaa9d869477eaa212fce07", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "145ff5fc-2a81-4349-88e7-bb6486981aec", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "db102d6230e02c8f0160efd0f0c36a55bb750700295b0358176596cfc2273b43", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "ionic bonds , covalent bonds do not dis sociat e in w ater.\nThe h ydrogen and o xygen at oms that c ombine t o form w ater molecules ar e bound t ogether b y covalent bonds . The\nelectr on fr om the h ydrogen at om divides its time betw een the out er shel l of the h ydrogen at om and the inc omplet e\nouter shel l of the o xygen at om. T o complet ely fill the out er shel l of an o xygen at om, tw o electr ons fr om tw o\nhydrogen at oms ar e needed, henc e the subscrip t \u201c2\u201d in H 2O. The electr ons ar e shar ed betw een the at oms , dividing\ntheir time betw een them t o \u201cfill\u201d the out er shel l of each. This sharing is a lo wer ener gy state for al l of the at oms\ninvolved than if the y existed without their out er shel ls fil led.\nTher e are tw o types o f covalent bonds: polar and nonpolar .Nonpolar c ovalent bonds form betw een tw o atoms o f\nthe same element or betw een diff erent elements that shar e the electr ons equal ly. For example , an o xygen at om can\nbond with another o xygen at om t o fill their out er shel ls. This as sociation is nonpolar because the electr ons wil l be\nequal ly dis tribut ed betw een each o xygen at om. T wo covalent bonds f orm betw een the tw o oxygen at oms because\noxygen requir es tw o shar ed electr ons t o fill its out ermos t shel l. Nitr ogen at oms wil l form thr ee c ovalent bonds (also\ncalled triple c ovalent) betw een tw o atoms o f nitr ogen because each nitr ogen at om needs thr ee electr ons t o fill its\noutermos t shel l. Another e xample o f a nonpolar c ovalent bond is f ound in the methane (CH 4) molecule . The carbon\natom has f our electr ons in its out ermos t shel l and needs f our mor e to fill it. It g ets these f our fr om f our h ydrogen\natoms , each at om pr oviding one . These elements al l shar e the electr ons equal ly, creating f our nonpolar c ovalent\nbonds ( Figure 2.6 ).\nIn a polar c ovalent bond , the electr ons shar ed b y the at oms spend mor e time closer t o one nucleus than t o the\nother nucleus . Because o f the unequal dis tribution o f electr ons betw een the diff erent nuclei, a slightl y positiv e (\u03b4+)\nor slightl y neg ative (\u03b4\u2013) char ge de velops . The c ovalent bonds betw een h ydrogen and o xygen at oms in w ater ar e\npolar c ovalent bonds . The shar ed electr ons spend mor e time near the o xygen nucleus , giving it a smal l neg ative\nchar ge, than the y spend near the h ydrogen nuclei, giving these molecules a smal l positiv e char ge.\nFIGURE 2.6The w ater molecule (left) depicts a polar bond with a slightl y positiv e char ge on the h ydrogen at oms and a slightl y neg ative\nchar ge on the o xygen. Examples o f nonpolar bonds include methane (middle) and o xygen (right).\nHydrogen Bonds\nIonic and c ovalent bonds ar e strong bonds that r equir e consider able ener gy to break. Ho wever, not al l bonds\nbetw een elements ar e ionic or c ovalent bonds . Weaker bonds can also f orm. These ar e attractions that oc cur\nbetw een positiv e and neg ative char ges that do not r equir e much ener gy to break. T wo weak bonds that oc cur\nfrequentl y are hydrogen bonds and v an der W aals int eractions . These bonds giv e rise t o the unique pr oper ties o f\nwater and the unique s tructur es o f DNA and pr oteins .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3243, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "145ff5fc-2a81-4349-88e7-bb6486981aec": {"__data__": {"id_": "145ff5fc-2a81-4349-88e7-bb6486981aec", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "47", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8d9aa0e8-4b59-4c54-a5a2-a451fbc3f202", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "47", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1cd9fc36e2138f6a35b3f718a2a76b818066031679aaa9d869477eaa212fce07", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "a371b2be-58d7-4fd0-bd81-4bbc639d36e5", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "47", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "adeb9a54cf6d765ab735ea98d2e76c5883a480d36d86085a9215d1e71deb623a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Examples o f nonpolar bonds include methane (middle) and o xygen (right).\nHydrogen Bonds\nIonic and c ovalent bonds ar e strong bonds that r equir e consider able ener gy to break. Ho wever, not al l bonds\nbetw een elements ar e ionic or c ovalent bonds . Weaker bonds can also f orm. These ar e attractions that oc cur\nbetw een positiv e and neg ative char ges that do not r equir e much ener gy to break. T wo weak bonds that oc cur\nfrequentl y are hydrogen bonds and v an der W aals int eractions . These bonds giv e rise t o the unique pr oper ties o f\nwater and the unique s tructur es o f DNA and pr oteins .\nWhen polar c ovalent bonds c ontaining a h ydrogen at om f orm, the h ydrogen at om in that bond has a slightl y positiv e\nchar ge. This is because the shar ed electr on is pul led mor e strongl y toward the other element and a way from the\nhydrogen nucleus . Because the h ydrogen at om is slightl y positiv e (\u03b4+), it wil l be at tracted to neighboring neg ative\npartial char ges (\u03b4 \u2013). When this happens , a w eak int eraction oc curs betw een the \u03b4+ char ge of the h ydrogen at om o f\none molecule and the \u03b4 \u2013 char ge of the other molecule . This int eraction is cal led a hydrogen bond . This type o f bond\nis common; f or example , the liquid natur e of water is caused b y the h ydrogen bonds betw een w ater molecules\n(Figure 2.7 ). Hy drogen bonds giv e water the unique pr oper ties that sus tain lif e. If it w ere not f or hydrogen bonding ,2.1 \u2022 The Building Block s of Molecules 33", "start_char_idx": 2630, "end_char_idx": 4139, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a1ea6f65-159b-48d4-9723-2f7d62edea6b": {"__data__": {"id_": "a1ea6f65-159b-48d4-9723-2f7d62edea6b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "48", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "22843cf9-33ba-45cc-8050-c88751c69762", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "48", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a942183c081207ac7a46d23360d13125fdffe056011314335d3e747fc5149b4c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "water w ould be a g as rather than a liquid at r oom t emper atur e.\nFIGURE 2.7Hydrogen bonds f orm betw een slightl y positiv e (\u03b4+) and slightl y neg ative (\u03b4\u2013) char ges o f polar c ovalent molecules , such as\nwater.\nHydrogen bonds can f orm betw een diff erent molecules and the y do not al ways ha ve to include a w ater molecule .\nHydrogen at oms in polar bonds within an y molecule can f orm bonds with other adjac ent molecules . For example ,\nhydrogen bonds hold t ogether tw o long s trands o f DNA t o giv e the DNA molecule its char acteristic double -stranded\nstructur e. Hydrogen bonds ar e also r esponsible f or some o f the thr ee-dimensional s tructur e of proteins .\nvan der W aals Int eractions\nLike hydrogen bonds ,van der W aals int eractions are weak at tractions or int eractions betw een molecules . The y\noccur betw een polar , covalentl y bound, at oms in diff erent molecules . Some o f these w eak at tractions ar e caused b y\ntempor ary par tial char ges formed when electr ons mo ve around a nucleus . These w eak int eractions betw een\nmolecules ar e impor tant in biological s ystems .\nCAREER C ONNE CTION\nRadiogr aphy Technician\nHave you or an yone y ou kno w ever had a magnetic r esonanc e imaging (MRI) scan, a mammogr am, or an X -ray?\nThese t ests pr oduc e imag es o f your so ft tis sues and or gans (as with an MRI or mammogr am) or y our bones (as\nhappens in an X -ray) by using either r adio waves or special isot opes (r adiolabeled or fluor escently labeled) that ar e\ningested or inject ed int o the body . These t ests pr ovide data f or disease diagnoses b y creating imag es o f your or gans\nor sk eletal s ystem.\nMRI imaging w orks by subjecting h ydrogen nuclei, which ar e abundant in the w ater in so ft tis sues , to fluctuating\nmagnetic fields , which cause them t o emit their o wn magnetic field. This signal is then r ead b y sensors in the\nmachine and int erpr eted b y a c omput er to form a detailed imag e.\nSome r adiogr aphy technologis ts and t echnicians specializ e in c omput ed tomogr aphy, MRI, and mammogr aphy. The y\nproduc e films or imag es o f the body that help medical pr ofessionals e xamine and diagnose . Radiologis ts w ork\ndirectly with patients , explaining machiner y, preparing them f or exams , and ensuring that their body or body par ts\nare positioned c orrectly to produc e the needed imag es. Physicians or r adiologis ts then anal yze the t est resul ts.\nRadiogr aphy technicians can w ork in hospitals , doct ors\u2019 o ffices, or specializ ed imaging c enters. Training t o bec ome a\nradiogr aphy technician happens at hospitals , colleges, and univ ersities that o ffer certificat es, associat e\u2019s degr ees, or\nbachelor \u2019s degr ees in r adiogr aphy.\n2.2Water\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the pr oper ties o f water that ar e critical t o maintaining lif e\nDo y ou e ver w onder wh y scientis ts spend time looking f or w ater on other planets? It is because w ater is es sential t o\nlife; even minut e traces o f it on another planet can indicat e that lif e could or did e xist on that planet. W ater is one o f\n34 2 \u2022 Chemis try of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3217, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3aaa2a32-0d5b-46e9-9569-6fe42d479a96": {"__data__": {"id_": "3aaa2a32-0d5b-46e9-9569-6fe42d479a96", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "49", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8e017c4d-8fa5-4a88-bf66-bf2d704dad88", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "49", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "723629b9579733f63aca027be47674eb002eb1ae44d8edbc78d46740b5c538a1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "2d9216bd-0de2-4ee1-8ed6-a81dc7db55e1", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "e4c0fe6416a696cab8b9fd11c31d7a9ec0ec469b0030567eeab829267b1ede9c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "the mor e abundant molecules in living c ells and the one mos t critical t o life as w e kno w it. Appr oximat ely 60\u201370\npercent o f your body is made up o f water. Without it, lif e simpl y would not e xist.\nWater Is P olar\nThe h ydrogen and o xygen at oms within w ater molecules f orm polar c ovalent bonds . The shar ed electr ons spend\nmor e time as sociat ed with the o xygen at om than the y do with h ydrogen at oms . Ther e is no o verall char ge to a w ater\nmolecule , but ther e is a slight positiv e char ge on each h ydrogen at om and a slight neg ative char ge on the o xygen\natom. Because o f these char ges, the slightl y positiv e hydrogen at oms r epel each other and f orm the unique shape\nseen in Figure 2.7 . Each w ater molecule at tracts other w ater molecules because o f the positiv e and neg ative\nchar ges in the diff erent par ts of the molecule . Water also at tracts other polar molecules (such as sug ars), f orming\nhydrogen bonds . When a subs tanc e readil y forms h ydrogen bonds with w ater, it can dis solve in w ater and is r eferred\nto as hydrophilic (\u201cwater-loving \u201d). Hy drogen bonds ar e not r eadil y formed with nonpolar subs tanc es lik e oils and\nfats ( Figure 2.8 ). These nonpolar c ompounds ar ehydrophobic (\u201cwater-fearing \u201d) and wil l not dis solve in w ater.\nFIGURE 2.8As this macr oscopic imag e of oil and w ater sho w, oil is a nonpolar c ompound and, henc e, wil l not dis solve in w ater. Oil and\nwater do not mix. (cr edit: Gautam Dogr a)\nWater Stabiliz es Temper ature\nThe h ydrogen bonds in w ater al low it t o absorb and r elease heat ener gy mor e slo wly than man y other subs tanc es.\nTemper atureis a measur e of the motion (kinetic ener gy) of molecules . As the motion incr eases , ener gy is higher\nand thus t emper atur e is higher . Water absorbs a gr eat deal o f ener gy bef ore its t emper atur e rises . Incr eased ener gy\ndisrup ts the h ydrogen bonds betw een w ater molecules . Because these bonds can be cr eated and disrup ted rapidl y,\nwater absorbs an incr ease in ener gy and t emper atur e chang es onl y minimal ly. This means that w ater moder ates\ntemper atur e chang es within or ganisms and in their en vironments . As ener gy input c ontinues , the balanc e betw een\nhydrogen-bond f ormation and des truction s wings t oward the des truction side . Mor e bonds ar e broken than ar e\nformed. This pr ocess resul ts in the r elease o f individual w ater molecules at the sur face of the liquid (such as a body\nof water, the lea ves o f a plant, or the skin o f an or ganism) in a pr ocess cal ledevapor ation . Evapor ation o f sweat,\nwhich is 90 per cent w ater, allows for cooling o f an or ganism, because br eaking h ydrogen bonds r equir es an input o f\nener gy and tak es heat a way from the body .\nConversel y, as molecular motion decr eases and t emper atur es dr op, les s ener gy is pr esent t o break the h ydrogen\nbonds betw een w ater molecules . These bonds r emain intact and begin t o form a rigid, lat tice-like structur e (e.g.,\nice) (Figure 2.9 a). When fr ozen, ic e is les s dense than liquid w ater (the molecules ar e far ther apar t). This means that\nice floats on the sur face of a body o f water (Figure 2.9 b).", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3223, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2d9216bd-0de2-4ee1-8ed6-a81dc7db55e1": {"__data__": {"id_": "2d9216bd-0de2-4ee1-8ed6-a81dc7db55e1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "49", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8e017c4d-8fa5-4a88-bf66-bf2d704dad88", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "49", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "723629b9579733f63aca027be47674eb002eb1ae44d8edbc78d46740b5c538a1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "3aaa2a32-0d5b-46e9-9569-6fe42d479a96", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "49", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "235da3acb48ed702e8ecd746a73b7c2ee2dbf46ca272eb63cff63a8fdcca37aa", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Evapor ation o f sweat,\nwhich is 90 per cent w ater, allows for cooling o f an or ganism, because br eaking h ydrogen bonds r equir es an input o f\nener gy and tak es heat a way from the body .\nConversel y, as molecular motion decr eases and t emper atur es dr op, les s ener gy is pr esent t o break the h ydrogen\nbonds betw een w ater molecules . These bonds r emain intact and begin t o form a rigid, lat tice-like structur e (e.g.,\nice) (Figure 2.9 a). When fr ozen, ic e is les s dense than liquid w ater (the molecules ar e far ther apar t). This means that\nice floats on the sur face of a body o f water (Figure 2.9 b). In lak es, ponds , and oc eans , ice wil l form on the sur face of\nthe w ater, creating an insulating barrier t o protect the animal and plant lif e beneath fr om fr eezing in the w ater. If this\ndid not happen, plants and animals living in w ater w ould fr eeze in a block o f ice and c ould not mo ve freely, making\nlife in c old t emper atur es difficul t or impos sible .2.2 \u2022 W ater 35", "start_char_idx": 2597, "end_char_idx": 3614, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "dfb06962-8139-4a56-adf0-f3766d2e3f3b": {"__data__": {"id_": "dfb06962-8139-4a56-adf0-f3766d2e3f3b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "50", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "46f627b0-f0d1-4d2a-b203-9e89a575898d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "50", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "31a271f42f55d18fa2e9cc5027aa1933229629df86be7e9ea9ac66dd3f4d9b6c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 2.9(a) The lat tice structur e of ice mak es it les s dense than the fr eely flo wing molecules o f liquid w ater. Ice's lo wer density enables\nit to (b) float on w ater. (credit a: modification o f work b y Jane Whitne y; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Carlos P onte)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nClick here(http://opens tax.org/l/ic e_lattice)to see a 3-D animation o f the s tructur e of an ic e lat tice.\nWater Is an Ex cellent Solv ent\nBecause w ater is polar , with slight positiv e and neg ative char ges, ionic c ompounds and polar molecules can r eadil y\ndissolve in it. W ater is , ther efore, what is r eferred to as a solvent\u2014a subs tanc e capable o f dis solving another\nsubs tanc e. The char ged par ticles wil l form h ydrogen bonds with a surr ounding la yer of water molecules . This is\nreferred to as a spher e of hydration and ser ves to keep the par ticles separ ated or dispersed in the w ater. In the case\nof table sal t (NaCl) mix ed in w ater (Figure 2.10 ), the sodium and chloride ions separ ate, or dis sociat e, in the w ater,\nand spher es o f hydration ar e formed ar ound the ions . A positiv ely char ged sodium ion is surr ounded b y the par tially\nnegative char ges o f oxygen at oms in w ater molecules . A neg atively char ged chloride ion is surr ounded b y the\npartially positiv e char ges o f hydrogen at oms in w ater molecules . These spher es o f hydration ar e also r eferred to as\nhydration shel ls. The polarity o f the w ater molecule mak es it an eff ectiv e sol vent and is impor tant in its man y roles\nin living s ystems .\nFIGURE 2.10 When table sal t (NaCl) is mix ed in w ater, spher es o f hydration f orm ar ound the ions .\n36 2 \u2022 Chemis try of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1739, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5e897ae4-d25f-45f0-b2d8-36839f3d9126": {"__data__": {"id_": "5e897ae4-d25f-45f0-b2d8-36839f3d9126", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "51", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c26efc0d-66b1-4f61-993f-4f34b7cf0a7a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "51", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1aa7727ad872c966f96fd96e2bc3e1d550dc2884b14cea52e5f5ab6988c93759", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "b2446d62-b608-4137-a08d-7fe123107c0d", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "2301ef8da650f53b61ce200cb61001f7fa00ce85b555b3c9aafa9e15a991f107", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Water Is C ohesiv e\nHave you e ver fil led up a glas s of water to the v ery top and then slo wly added a f ew mor e drops? Bef ore it o verflows,\nthe w ater actual ly forms a dome -like shape abo ve the rim o f the glas s. This w ater can s tay abo ve the glas s because\nof the pr oper ty ofcohesion . In c ohesion, w ater molecules ar e attracted to each other (because o f hydrogen\nbonding ), keeping the molecules t ogether at the liquid-air ( gas) int erface, although ther e is no mor e room in the\nglas s. Cohesion giv es rise t osurface tension , the capacity o f a subs tanc e to withs tand rup ture when plac ed under\ntension or s tress. When y ou dr op a smal l scr ap o f paper ont o a dr oplet o f water, the paper floats on t op o f the w ater\ndroplet, al though the object is denser (hea vier) than the w ater. This oc curs because o f the sur face tension that is\ncreated b y the w ater molecules . Cohesion and sur face tension k eep the w ater molecules intact and the it em floating\non the t op. It is e ven pos sible t o \u201cfloat \u201d a s teel needle on t op o f a glas s of water if y ou plac e it g ently, without\nbreaking the sur face tension ( Figure 2.11 ).\nFIGURE 2.11 The w eight o f a needle on t op o f water pul ls the sur face tension do wnward; at the same time , the sur face tension o f the w ater\nis pul ling it up , suspending the needle on the sur face of the w ater and k eeping it fr om sinking . Notic e the indentation in the w ater ar ound\nthe needle . (credit: Cor y Zank er)\nThese c ohesiv e forces ar e also r elated to the w ater\u2019s proper ty ofadhesion , or the at traction betw een w ater\nmolecules and other molecules . This is obser ved when w ater \u201cclimbs\u201d up a s traw plac ed in a glas s of water. You wil l\nnotic e that the w ater appears t o be higher on the sides o f the s traw than in the middle . This is because the w ater\nmolecules ar e attracted to the s traw and ther efore adher e to it.\nCohesiv e and adhesiv e forces ar e impor tant f or sus taining lif e. For example , because o f these f orces, water can flo w\nup fr om the r oots t o the t ops o f plants t o feed the plant.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nTo learn mor e about w ater, visit the U .S. Geological Sur vey Water Scienc e for Schools: Al l About W ater!websit e.\n(http://opens tax.org/l/about _water)\nBuffers, pH, A cids, and Bases\nThe pH o f a solution is a measur e of its acidity or bascicity . You ha ve probabl y used litmus paper , paper that has\nbeen tr eated with a natur al w ater-soluble dy e so it can be used as a pH indicat or, to test how much acid or base\n(basicity) e xists in a solution. Y ou might ha ve even used some t o mak e sur e the w ater in an out door s wimming pool\nis pr operl y treated. In both cases , this pH t est measur es the amount o f hydrogen ions that e xists in a giv en solution.\nHigh c oncentr ations o f hydrogen ions yield a lo w pH, wher eas lo w le vels o f hydrogen ions r esul t in a high pH. The\noverall concentr ation o f hydrogen ions is in versel y related to its pH and can be measur ed on the pH scale (Figure\n2.12 ). Ther efore, the mor e hydrogen ions pr esent, the lo wer the pH; c onversel y, the f ewer hydrogen ions , the higher\nthe pH.\nThe pH scale r anges fr om 0 t o 14.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3247, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b2446d62-b608-4137-a08d-7fe123107c0d": {"__data__": {"id_": "b2446d62-b608-4137-a08d-7fe123107c0d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "51", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c26efc0d-66b1-4f61-993f-4f34b7cf0a7a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "51", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1aa7727ad872c966f96fd96e2bc3e1d550dc2884b14cea52e5f5ab6988c93759", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "5e897ae4-d25f-45f0-b2d8-36839f3d9126", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "51", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "30f33417433199f961e3ac91e261b2ac034ed68d28f2350a86e775cb9768b319", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Y ou might ha ve even used some t o mak e sur e the w ater in an out door s wimming pool\nis pr operl y treated. In both cases , this pH t est measur es the amount o f hydrogen ions that e xists in a giv en solution.\nHigh c oncentr ations o f hydrogen ions yield a lo w pH, wher eas lo w le vels o f hydrogen ions r esul t in a high pH. The\noverall concentr ation o f hydrogen ions is in versel y related to its pH and can be measur ed on the pH scale (Figure\n2.12 ). Ther efore, the mor e hydrogen ions pr esent, the lo wer the pH; c onversel y, the f ewer hydrogen ions , the higher\nthe pH.\nThe pH scale r anges fr om 0 t o 14. A chang e of one unit on the pH scale r epresents a chang e in the c oncentr ation o f\nhydrogen ions b y a fact or of 10, a chang e in tw o units r epresents a chang e in the c oncentr ation o f hydrogen ions b y\na fact or of 100. Thus , smal l chang es in pH r epresent lar ge chang es in the c oncentr ations o f hydrogen ions . Pur e\n2.2 \u2022 W ater 37", "start_char_idx": 2619, "end_char_idx": 3600, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "24bced95-ef40-429c-8968-895492bb5117": {"__data__": {"id_": "24bced95-ef40-429c-8968-895492bb5117", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "52", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6af59f17-6ea2-42d3-8578-72a3b595cc97", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "52", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d0ae63532e79c3a23343363853952ceac53f9c293154aeb293ac2f542171c0db", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "water is neutr al. It is neither acidic nor basic, and has a pH o f 7.0. An ything belo w 7.0 (r anging fr om 0.0 t o 6.9) is\nacidic, and an ything abo ve 7.0 (fr om 7.1 t o 14.0) is alk aline . The blood in y our v eins is slightl y alk aline (pH = 7.4).\nThe en vironment in y our s tomach is highl y acidic (pH = 1 t o 2). Or ange juic e is mildl y acidic (pH = appr oximat ely\n3.5), wher eas baking soda is basic (pH = 9.0).\nFIGURE 2.12 The pH scale measur es the amount o f hydrogen ions (H+) in a subs tanc e. (credit: modification o f work b y Edward Stevens)\nAcids are subs tanc es that pr ovide h ydrogen ions (H+) and lo wer pH, wher eas bases provide h ydroxide ions (OH\u2013)\nand r aise pH. The s tronger the acid, the mor e readil y it donat es H+. For example , hydrochloric acid and lemon juic e\nare very acidic and r eadil y giv e up H+when added t o water. Con versel y, bases ar e those subs tanc es that r eadil y\ndonat e OH\u2013. The OH\u2013ions c ombine with H+to produc e water, which r aises a subs tanc e\u2019s pH. Sodium h ydroxide and\nman y household cleaners ar e very alk aline and giv e up OH\u2013rapidl y when plac ed in w ater, ther eby raising the pH.\nMos t cells in our bodies oper ate within a v ery narr ow windo w of the pH scale , typical ly ranging onl y from 7.2 t o 7.6.\nIf the pH o f the body is outside o f this r ange, the r espir atory system malfunctions , as do other or gans in the body .\nCells no long er function pr operl y, and pr oteins wil l break do wn. De viation outside o f the pH r ange can induc e coma\nor even cause death.\nSo ho w is it that w e can ing est or inhale acidic or basic subs tanc es and not die? Buff ers ar e the k ey.Buffersreadil y\nabsorb e xcess H+or OH\u2013, keeping the pH o f the body car efully maintained in the af orementioned narr ow range.\nCarbon dio xide is par t of a pr ominent buff er system in the human body; it k eeps the pH within the pr oper r ange. This\nbuff er system in volves carbonic acid (H 2CO3) and bicarbonat e (HC O3\u2013) anion. If t oo much H+enters the body ,\nbicarbonat e wil l combine with the H+to create carbonic acid and limit the decr ease in pH. Lik ewise , if too much OH\u2013\nis intr oduc ed int o the s ystem, carbonic acid wil l rapidl y dis sociat e int o bicarbonat e and H+ions . The H+ions can\ncombine with the OH\u2013ions , limiting the incr ease in pH. While carbonic acid is an impor tant pr oduct in this r eaction,\nits pr esenc e is fleeting because the carbonic acid is r eleased fr om the body as carbon dio xide g as each time w e\nbreathe . Without this buff er system, the pH in our bodies w ould fluctuat e too much and w e would fail t o sur vive.38 2 \u2022 Chemis try of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2702, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "41338003-45e4-41e6-83c8-326b8853cc63": {"__data__": {"id_": "41338003-45e4-41e6-83c8-326b8853cc63", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "53", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e69cb43c-aaf4-4ad9-942b-a793528f88a1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "53", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cab7859d8da765f2731c8c7a3db252b30c80ba9be955158e3acceeb611a6d306", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "2.3Biologic al Molecules\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the w ays in which carbon is critical t o life\n\u2022Explain the impact o f slight chang es in amino acids on or ganisms\n\u2022Describe the f our major types o f biological molecules\n\u2022Unders tand the functions o f the f our major types o f molecules\nThe lar ge molecules nec essary for lif e that ar e buil t from smal ler or ganic molecules ar e cal led biological\nmacr omolecules . Ther e are four major clas ses o f biological macr omolecules (carboh ydrates, lipids , proteins , and\nnucleic acids), and each is an impor tant c omponent o f the c ell and per forms a wide arr ay of functions . Combined,\nthese molecules mak e up the majority o f a c ell\u2019s dry mas s. Biological macr omolecules ar e organic, meaning the y\ncontain carbon and ar e bound t o hydrogen, and ma y contain o xygen, nitr ogen, and additional minor elements .\nCarbon\nIt is o ften said that lif e is \u201c carbon-based. \u201d This means that carbon at oms , bonded t o other carbon at oms or other\nelements , form the fundamental c omponents o f man y, if not mos t, of the molecules f ound uniquel y in living things .\nOther elements pla y impor tant r oles in biological molecules , but carbon c ertainl y qualifies as the \u201c foundation \u201d\nelement f or molecules in living things . It is the bonding pr oper ties o f carbon at oms that ar e responsible f or its\nimpor tant r ole.\nCarbon Bonding\nCarbon c ontains f our electr ons in its out er shel l. Ther efore, it can f orm f our c ovalent bonds with other at oms or\nmolecules . The simples t organic carbon molecule is methane (CH 4), in which f our h ydrogen at oms bind t o a carbon\natom ( Figure 2.13 ).\nFIGURE 2.13 Carbon can f orm f our c ovalent bonds t o create an or ganic molecule . The simples t carbon molecule is methane (CH 4),\ndepict ed her e.\nHowever, structur es that ar e mor e comple x are made using carbon. An y of the h ydrogen at oms can be r eplac ed with\nanother carbon at om c ovalentl y bonded t o the firs t carbon at om. In this w ay, long and br anching chains o f carbon\ncompounds can be made ( Figure 2.14 a). The carbon at oms ma y bond with at oms o f other elements , such as\nnitrogen, o xygen, and phosphorus ( Figure 2.14 b). The molecules ma y also f orm rings , which themsel ves can link\nwith other rings ( Figure 2.14 c). This div ersity o f molecular f orms ac counts f or the div ersity o f functions o f the\nbiological macr omolecules and is based t o a lar ge degr ee on the ability o f carbon t o form mul tiple bonds with itself\nand other at oms .2.3 \u2022 Biologic al Molecules 39", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2645, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "73d4e7e1-f4a0-4924-a7da-a32f08f07e6a": {"__data__": {"id_": "73d4e7e1-f4a0-4924-a7da-a32f08f07e6a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "54", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "14b187c3-eed9-4d5f-8133-866047c38346", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "54", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "22cd05f38fda59a9f8ef0b4ef1c24e72525229af33eee0bc5091451852a882cc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 2.14 These e xamples sho w thr ee molecules (f ound in living or ganisms) that c ontain carbon at oms bonded in v arious w ays to other\ncarbon at oms and the at oms o f other elements . (a) This molecule o f stearic acid has a long chain o f carbon at oms . (b) Gl ycine , a c omponent\nof proteins , contains carbon, nitr ogen, o xygen, and h ydrogen at oms . (c) Gluc ose, a sug ar, has a ring o f carbon at oms and one o xygen at om.\nCarboh ydrates\nCarboh ydratesare macr omolecules with which mos t consumers ar e some what familiar . To lose w eight, some\nindividuals adher e to \u201clo w-carb \u201d diets . Athlet es, in c ontr ast, often \u201c carb -load\u201d bef ore impor tant c ompetitions t o\nensur e that the y ha ve sufficient ener gy to compet e at a high le vel. Carboh ydrates ar e, in fact, an es sential par t of our\ndiet; gr ains , fruits , and v egetables ar e all natur al sour ces o f carboh ydrates. Carboh ydrates pr ovide ener gy to the\nbody , par ticularl y thr ough gluc ose, a simple sug ar. Carboh ydrates also ha ve other impor tant functions in humans ,\nanimals , and plants .\nCarboh ydrates can be r epresent ed b y the f ormula (CH 2O)n, wher enis the number o f carbon at oms in the molecule .\nIn other w ords, the r atio o f carbon t o hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in carboh ydrate molecules . Carboh ydrates ar e\nclas sified int o thr ee sub types: monosac charides , disac charides , and pol ysaccharides .\nMonosac charides (mono - = \u201c one\u201d; sac char - = \u201c sweet\u201d) ar e simple sug ars, the mos t common o f which is gluc ose. In\nmonosac charides , the number o f carbon at oms usual ly ranges fr om thr ee to six. Mos t monosac charide names end\nwith the suffix - ose. Depending on the number o f carbon at oms in the sug ar, the y ma y be kno wn as trioses (thr ee\ncarbon at oms), pent oses (fiv e carbon at oms), and he xoses (six carbon at oms).\nMonosac charides ma y exist as a linear chain or as ring-shaped molecules; in aqueous solutions , the y are usual ly\nfound in the ring f orm.\nThe chemical f ormula f or gluc ose is C 6H12O6. In mos t living species , gluc ose is an impor tant sour ce of ener gy.\nDuring c ellular r espir ation, ener gy is r eleased fr om gluc ose, and that ener gy is used t o help mak e adenosine\ntriphosphat e (ATP). Plants s ynthesiz e gluc ose using carbon dio xide and w ater by the pr ocess of phot osynthesis , and\nthe gluc ose, in turn, is used f or the ener gy requir ements o f the plant. The e xcess synthesiz ed gluc ose is o ften s tored\nas starch that is br oken do wn b y other or ganisms that f eed on plants .\nGalact ose (par t of lact ose, or milk sug ar) and fruct ose (f ound in fruit) ar e other c ommon monosac charides . Although\ngluc ose, galact ose, and fruct ose al l have the same chemical f ormula (C 6H12O6), the y diff er structur ally and\nchemical ly (and ar e kno wn as isomers) because o f diff ering arr angements o f atoms in the carbon chain ( Figure\n2.15 ).40 2 \u2022 Chemis try of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3012, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9c0deb6a-c26b-4638-87cc-4dfaaa213120": {"__data__": {"id_": "9c0deb6a-c26b-4638-87cc-4dfaaa213120", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "55", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8e3d2dc0-6a19-4f77-9e3d-3cef3dc927d7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "55", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "779cd1b1ed7e5f7841b4c38b04072ae040c3f33da7cc5f4603e2313cf9d9782d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "05c88583-4e29-4412-8cb4-27ad728a12dd", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "3e468bd4fe6defc4d140cdf93eb02ff7852cd9c990bd05b4d8f3b7c4bc8cdc75", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 2.15 Gluc ose, galact ose, and fruct ose ar e isomeric monosac charides , meaning that the y ha ve the same chemical f ormula but\nslightl y diff erent s tructur es.\nDisac charides (di- = \u201c two\u201d) form when tw o monosac charides under go a deh ydration r eaction (a r eaction in which\nthe r emo val of a w ater molecule oc curs). During this pr ocess, the h ydroxyl gr oup (\u2013 OH) o f one monosac charide\ncombines with a h ydrogen at om o f another monosac charide , releasing a molecule o f water (H 2O) and f orming a\ncovalent bond betw een at oms in the tw o sug ar molecules .\nCommon disac charides include lact ose, mal tose, and sucr ose. Lactose is a disac charide c onsis ting o f the monomers\ngluc ose and g alact ose. It is f ound natur ally in milk. Mal tose, or mal t sug ar, is a disac charide f ormed fr om a\ndehydration r eaction betw een tw o gluc ose molecules . The mos t common disac charide is sucr ose, or table sug ar,\nwhich is c omposed o f the monomers gluc ose and fruct ose.\nA long chain o f monosac charides link ed b y covalent bonds is kno wn as a polysaccharide (poly- = \u201c man y\u201d). The\nchain ma y be br anched or unbr anched, and it ma y contain diff erent types o f monosac charides . Polysaccharides ma y\nbe v ery lar ge molecules . Star ch, gl ycogen, c ellulose , and chitin ar e examples o f pol ysaccharides .\nStarchis the s tored form o f sug ars in plants and is made up o f am ylose and am ylopectin (both pol ymers o f gluc ose).\nPlants ar e able t o synthesiz e gluc ose, and the e xcess gluc ose is s tored as s tarch in diff erent plant par ts, including\nroots and seeds . The s tarch that is c onsumed b y animals is br oken do wn int o smal ler molecules , such as gluc ose.\nThe c ells can then absorb the gluc ose.\nGlycogenis the s torage form o f gluc ose in humans and other v ertebrates, and is made up o f monomers o f gluc ose.\nGlycogen is the animal equiv alent o f starch and is a highl y branched molecule usual ly stored in liv er and muscle\ncells. Whene ver gluc ose le vels decr ease , glycogen is br oken do wn t o release gluc ose.\nCellulose is one o f the mos t abundant natur al biopol ymers . The c ell walls of plants ar e mos tly made o f cellulose ,\nwhich pr ovides s tructur al suppor t to the c ell. Wood and paper ar e mos tly cellulosic in natur e. Cel lulose is made up\nof gluc ose monomers that ar e link ed b y bonds betw een par ticular carbon at oms in the gluc ose molecule .\nEvery other gluc ose monomer in c ellulose is flipped o ver and pack ed tightl y as e xtended long chains . This giv es\ncellulose its rigidity and high t ensile s trength\u2014 which is so impor tant t o plant c ells. Cel lulose pas sing thr ough our\ndigestive system is cal led dietar y fiber . While the gluc ose-gluc ose bonds in c ellulose cannot be br oken do wn b y\nhuman dig estive enzymes , herbiv ores such as c ows, buffalos , and horses ar e able t o dig est grass that is rich in\ncellulose and use it as a f ood sour ce. In these animals , certain species o f bact eria r eside in the dig estive system o f\nherbiv ores and secr ete the enzyme c ellulase .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3117, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "05c88583-4e29-4412-8cb4-27ad728a12dd": {"__data__": {"id_": "05c88583-4e29-4412-8cb4-27ad728a12dd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "55", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8e3d2dc0-6a19-4f77-9e3d-3cef3dc927d7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "55", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "779cd1b1ed7e5f7841b4c38b04072ae040c3f33da7cc5f4603e2313cf9d9782d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "9c0deb6a-c26b-4638-87cc-4dfaaa213120", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "55", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "61a2cd43a29ccb40fe37d460201fef1cc296fe1aa3422e677e80f199ab9ca77f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "This giv es\ncellulose its rigidity and high t ensile s trength\u2014 which is so impor tant t o plant c ells. Cel lulose pas sing thr ough our\ndigestive system is cal led dietar y fiber . While the gluc ose-gluc ose bonds in c ellulose cannot be br oken do wn b y\nhuman dig estive enzymes , herbiv ores such as c ows, buffalos , and horses ar e able t o dig est grass that is rich in\ncellulose and use it as a f ood sour ce. In these animals , certain species o f bact eria r eside in the dig estive system o f\nherbiv ores and secr ete the enzyme c ellulase . The appendix also c ontains bact eria that br eak do wn c ellulose , giving\nit an impor tant r ole in the dig estive systems o f some ruminants . Cel lulases can br eak do wn c ellulose int o gluc ose\nmonomers that can be used as an ener gy sour ce by the animal .\nCarboh ydrates ser ve other functions in diff erent animals . Arthropods , such as insects , spiders , and cr abs, have an\nouter sk eleton, cal led the e xoskeleton, which pr otects their int ernal body par ts. This e xoskeleton is made o f the2.3 \u2022 Biologic al Molecules 41", "start_char_idx": 2563, "end_char_idx": 3657, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2628994b-e54f-4279-bc47-44a6cacf5129": {"__data__": {"id_": "2628994b-e54f-4279-bc47-44a6cacf5129", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "56", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "497f53ea-774f-4e6c-8684-26938faa76d7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "56", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "26b4728f3957bd41118d67aac7b516b44b7fe049d1845bde0e6b21920ceea7ef", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "biological macr omolecule chitin , which is a nitr ogenous carboh ydrate. It is made o f repeating units o f a modified\nsugar containing nitr ogen.\nThus , thr ough diff erences in molecular s tructur e, carboh ydrates ar e able t o ser ve the v ery diff erent functions o f\nener gy storage (starch and gl ycogen) and s tructur al suppor t and pr otection (c ellulose and chitin) ( Figure 2.16 ).\nFIGURE 2.16 Although their s tructur es and functions diff er, all pol ysaccharide carboh ydrates ar e made up o f monosac charides and ha ve\nthe chemical f ormula (CH 2O)n.\nCAREER C ONNE CTION\nRegistered Die titian\nObesity is a w orldwide heal th concern, and man y diseases , such as diabet es and hear t disease , are bec oming mor e\nprevalent because o f obesity . This is one o f the r easons wh y regis tered dietitians ar e incr easingl y sought aft er for\nadvic e. Regis tered dietitians help plan f ood and nutrition pr ograms f or individuals in v arious set tings . The y often\nwork with patients in heal th-car e facilities , designing nutrition plans t o prevent and tr eat diseases . For example ,\ndietitians ma y teach a patient with diabet es ho w to manag e blood-sug ar le vels b y eating the c orrect types and\namounts o f carboh ydrates. Dietitians ma y also w ork in nursing homes , schools , and priv ate practic es.\nTo bec ome a r egis tered dietitian, one needs t o earn at leas t a bachelor \u2019s degr ee in diet etics , nutrition, f ood\ntechnolog y, or a r elated field. In addition, r egis tered dietitians mus t complet e a super vised int ernship pr ogram and\npass a national e xam. Those who pursue car eers in diet etics tak e courses in nutrition, chemis try, biochemis try,\nbiolog y, micr obiolog y, and human ph ysiolog y. Dietitians mus t bec ome e xper ts in the chemis try and functions o f food\n(proteins , carboh ydrates, and fats).\nLipids\nLipids include a div erse gr oup o f compounds that ar e unit ed b y a c ommon f eatur e.Lipids are hydrophobic (\u201c water-\nfearing \u201d), or insoluble in w ater, because the y are nonpolar molecules . This is because the y are hydrocarbons that\ninclude onl y nonpolar carbon-carbon or carbon-h ydrogen bonds . Lipids per form man y diff erent functions in a c ell.\nCells store ener gy for long-t erm use in the f orm o f lipids cal led fats . Lipids also pr ovide insulation fr om the\nenvironment f or plants and animals ( Figure 2.17 ). For example , the y help k eep aquatic bir ds and mammals dr y\nbecause o f their w ater-repel ling natur e. Lipids ar e also the building block s of man y hormones and ar e an impor tant\n42 2 \u2022 Chemis try of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2652, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "37a38d3e-d802-40f0-8b1a-535bef9e14d0": {"__data__": {"id_": "37a38d3e-d802-40f0-8b1a-535bef9e14d0", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "57", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e0fb6de3-c55c-4915-9172-f70af921cc93", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "57", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0b1fccdb5ad85c98a3ffac12d11fbe20f369f16ae48a0d72421b939ff1eb5922", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "constituent o f the plasma membr ane. Lipids include fats , oils , waxes, phospholipids , and s teroids .\nFIGURE 2.17 Hydrophobic lipids in the fur o f aquatic mammals , such as this riv er ot ter, protect them fr om the elements . (credit: K en\nBosma)\nAfatmolecule , such as a trigl yceride , consis ts of two main c omponents \u2014glycerol and fat ty acids . Glycerol is an\norganic c ompound with thr ee carbon at oms , five hydrogen at oms , and thr ee h ydroxyl (\u2013 OH) gr oups . Fatty acids ha ve\na long chain o f hydrocarbons t o which an acidic carbo xyl gr oup is at tached, henc e the name \u201c fatty acid. \u201d The\nnumber o f carbons in the fat ty acid ma y range from 4 t o 36; mos t common ar e those c ontaining 12\u201318 carbons . In a\nfat molecule , a fat ty acid is at tached t o each o f the thr ee o xygen at oms in the \u2013 OH gr oups o f the gl ycerol molecule\nwith a c ovalent bond ( Figure 2.18 ).\nFIGURE 2.18 Lipids include fats , such as trigl ycerides , which ar e made up o f fatty acids and gl ycerol, phospholipids , and s teroids .\nDuring this c ovalent bond f ormation, thr ee w ater molecules ar e released. The thr ee fat ty acids in the fat ma y be\nsimilar or dis similar . These fats ar e also cal ledtrigl ycerides because the y ha ve thr ee fat ty acids . Some fat ty acids2.3 \u2022 Biologic al Molecules 43", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1321, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1ad9d92f-ac6d-45e2-b258-f22ab6569182": {"__data__": {"id_": "1ad9d92f-ac6d-45e2-b258-f22ab6569182", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "58", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4f26db00-0b1a-4234-88ef-5ba34a707780", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "58", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "187e9503ed45d6530664e5eb91bd8eebb99bcdc7a58e7d0263a2c19362705c0b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "e4d9924a-aa0c-489f-9f6f-e06240beb7b2", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "57358443fecbfbcaeda328b1be92565501a19177eeb8e21b407102c24794293a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "have common names that specif y their origin. F or example , palmitic acid, a satur ated fat ty acid, is deriv ed fr om the\npalm tr ee. Arachidic acid is deriv ed fr omArachis h ypog aea, the scientific name f or peanuts .\nFatty acids ma y be satur ated or unsatur ated. In a fat ty acid chain, if ther e are onl y single bonds betw een\nneighboring carbons in the h ydrocarbon chain, the fat ty acid is satur ated.Saturated fa tty acids are satur ated with\nhydrogen; in other w ords, the number o f hydrogen at oms at tached t o the carbon sk eleton is maximiz ed.\nWhen the h ydrocarbon chain c ontains a double bond, the fat ty acid is an unsa turated fa tty acid .\nMos t unsatur ated fats ar e liquid at r oom t emper atur e and ar e cal ledoils. If ther e is one double bond in the\nmolecule , then it is kno wn as a monounsatur ated fat (e .g., oliv e oil), and if ther e is mor e than one double bond, then\nit is kno wn as a pol yunsatur ated fat (e .g., canola oil).\nSatur ated fats t end t o get pack ed tightl y and ar e solid at r oom t emper atur e. Animal fats with s tearic acid and\npalmitic acid c ontained in meat, and the fat with butyric acid c ontained in but ter, are examples o f satur ated fats .\nMammals s tore fats in specializ ed c ells cal led adipocyt es, wher e globules o f fat oc cupy mos t of the c ell. In plants ,\nfat or oil is s tored in seeds and is used as a sour ce of ener gy during embr yonic de velopment.\nUnsatur ated fats or oils ar e usual ly of plant origin and c ontain unsatur ated fat ty acids . The double bond causes a\nbend or a \u201ckink \u201d that pr events the fat ty acids fr om packing tightl y, keeping them liquid at r oom t emper atur e. Oliv e\noil, corn oil , canola oil , and c od liv er oil ar e examples o f unsatur ated fats . Unsatur ated fats help t o impr ove blood\ncholes terol le vels, wher eas satur ated fats might c ontribut e to plaque f ormation in the ar teries , which incr eases the\nrisk o f a hear t attack.\nIn the f ood indus try, oils ar e artificial ly hydrogenat ed to mak e them semi-solid, leading t o les s spoilag e and\nincreased shelf lif e. Simpl y speaking , hydrogen g as is bubbled thr ough oils t o solidif y them. During this\nhydrogenation pr ocess, double bonds o f the cis-conformation in the h ydrocarbon chain ma y be c onverted to double\nbonds in the trans-conformation. This f orms a trans-fatfrom a cis-fat. The orientation o f the double bonds aff ects\nthe chemical pr oper ties o f the fat ( Figure 2.19 ).\nFIGURE 2.19 During the h ydrogenation pr ocess, the orientation ar ound the double bonds is chang ed, making a trans-fat fr om a cis-fat. This\nchang es the chemical pr oper ties o f the molecule .\nMargarine , some types o f peanut but ter, and shor tening ar e examples o f artificial ly hydrogenat edtrans-fats . Recent\nstudies ha ve sho wn that an incr ease in trans-fats in the human diet ma y lead t o an incr ease in le vels o f low-density\nlipopr otein (LDL), or \u201cbad\u201d choles terol, which, in turn, ma y lead t o plaque deposition in the ar teries , resul ting in\nhear t disease . Man y fas t food r estaur ants ha ve recently eliminat ed the use o ftrans-fats , and U .S. food labels ar e\nnow requir ed to lis t their trans-fat c ontent.\nEssential fat ty acids ar e fat ty acids that ar e requir ed but not s ynthesiz ed b y the human body .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3344, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e4d9924a-aa0c-489f-9f6f-e06240beb7b2": {"__data__": {"id_": "e4d9924a-aa0c-489f-9f6f-e06240beb7b2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "58", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4f26db00-0b1a-4234-88ef-5ba34a707780", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "58", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "187e9503ed45d6530664e5eb91bd8eebb99bcdc7a58e7d0263a2c19362705c0b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "1ad9d92f-ac6d-45e2-b258-f22ab6569182", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "58", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0a602ad0dc8fcd0bb67780d2779853f0694aa38166b599f7ee886f5802c2143a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Margarine , some types o f peanut but ter, and shor tening ar e examples o f artificial ly hydrogenat edtrans-fats . Recent\nstudies ha ve sho wn that an incr ease in trans-fats in the human diet ma y lead t o an incr ease in le vels o f low-density\nlipopr otein (LDL), or \u201cbad\u201d choles terol, which, in turn, ma y lead t o plaque deposition in the ar teries , resul ting in\nhear t disease . Man y fas t food r estaur ants ha ve recently eliminat ed the use o ftrans-fats , and U .S. food labels ar e\nnow requir ed to lis t their trans-fat c ontent.\nEssential fat ty acids ar e fat ty acids that ar e requir ed but not s ynthesiz ed b y the human body . Consequentl y, the y\nmus t be supplement ed thr ough the diet. Omeg a-3 fat ty acids fal l into this cat egory and ar e one o f onl y tw o kno wn\nessential fat ty acids f or humans (the other being omeg a-6 fat ty acids). The y are a type o f pol yunsatur ated fat and44 2 \u2022 Chemis try of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2693, "end_char_idx": 3672, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e154c9fe-2bc3-4f02-877b-14baf2d1b6e8": {"__data__": {"id_": "e154c9fe-2bc3-4f02-877b-14baf2d1b6e8", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "59", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "552281b6-fb5f-4742-ac23-51292a6f6c38", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "59", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "bb895944d4951a9eff6261b68d9a2f96e76dacfba98cfa25beeb8687696420ae", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "e06cb1a5-c354-4a5f-a438-337d542e4c83", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "254c4dd441daff9f476bde82fc7d1ffb10b67317761e1799902cc2c4eb947f74", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "are cal led omeg a-3 fat ty acids because the thir d carbon fr om the end o f the fat ty acid par ticipat es in a double bond.\nSalmon, tr out, and tuna ar e good sour ces o f omeg a-3 fat ty acids . Omeg a-3 fat ty acids ar e impor tant in br ain\nfunction and normal gr owth and de velopment. The y ma y also pr event hear t disease and r educ e the risk o f canc er.\nLike carboh ydrates, fats ha ve received a lot o f bad publicity . It is true that eating an e xcess of fried f oods and other\n\u201cfatty\u201d foods leads t o weight g ain. Ho wever, fats do ha ve impor tant functions . Fats ser ve as long-t erm ener gy\nstorage. The y also pr ovide insulation f or the body . Ther efore, \u201cheal thy\u201d unsatur ated fats in moder ate amounts\nshould be c onsumed on a r egular basis .\nPhospholipids are the major c onstituent o f the plasma membr ane. Like fats , the y are composed o f fatty acid chains\nattached t o a gl ycerol or similar backbone . Ins tead o f thr ee fat ty acids at tached, ho wever, ther e are tw o fat ty acids\nand the thir d carbon o f the gl ycerol backbone is bound t o a phosphat e group. The phosphat e group is modified b y\nthe addition o f an alc ohol .\nA phospholipid has both h ydrophobic and h ydrophilic r egions . The fat ty acid chains ar e hydrophobic and e xclude\nthemsel ves fr om w ater, wher eas the phosphat e is h ydrophilic and int eracts with w ater.\nCells ar e surr ounded b y a membr ane, which has a bila yer of phospholipids . The fat ty acids o f phospholipids fac e\ninside , away from w ater, wher eas the phosphat e group can fac e either the outside en vironment or the inside o f the\ncell, which ar e both aqueous .\nSteroids and W axes\nUnlik e the phospholipids and fats discus sed earlier ,steroids have a ring s tructur e. Although the y do not r esemble\nother lipids , the y are grouped with them because the y are also h ydrophobic. Al l steroids ha ve four, link ed carbon\nrings and se veral of them, lik e choles terol, have a shor t tail .\nCholes terol is a s teroid. Choles terol is mainl y synthesiz ed in the liv er and is the pr ecursor o f man y steroid hormones ,\nsuch as t estosterone and es tradiol . It is also the pr ecursor o f vitamins E and K . Choles terol is the pr ecursor o f bile\nsalts, which help in the br eakdown o f fats and their subsequent absorp tion b y cells. Although choles terol is o ften\nspok en o f in neg ative terms , it is nec essary for the pr oper functioning o f the body . It is a k ey component o f the\nplasma membr anes o f animal c ells.\nWaxes ar e made up o f a h ydrocarbon chain with an alc ohol (\u2013 OH) gr oup and a fat ty acid. Examples o f animal w axes\ninclude bees wax and lanolin. Plants also ha ve waxes, such as the c oating on their lea ves, that helps pr event them\nfrom dr ying out.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nFor an additional perspectiv e on lipids , watch this video about types o f fat (http://opens tax.org/l/lipids) .\nProteins\nProteins are one o f the mos t abundant or ganic molecules in living s ystems and ha ve the mos t div erse r ange of\nfunctions o f all macr omolecules . Proteins ma y be s tructur al, regulatory, contr actile , or pr otectiv e; the y ma y ser ve in\ntranspor t, storage, or membr anes; or the y ma y be t oxins or enzymes .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3253, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e06cb1a5-c354-4a5f-a438-337d542e4c83": {"__data__": {"id_": "e06cb1a5-c354-4a5f-a438-337d542e4c83", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "59", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "552281b6-fb5f-4742-ac23-51292a6f6c38", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "59", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "bb895944d4951a9eff6261b68d9a2f96e76dacfba98cfa25beeb8687696420ae", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "e154c9fe-2bc3-4f02-877b-14baf2d1b6e8", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "59", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d52b75cefc6eb972db0b785d332e6392fde90af89b22dcde20a45c8276e1cfc6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Examples o f animal w axes\ninclude bees wax and lanolin. Plants also ha ve waxes, such as the c oating on their lea ves, that helps pr event them\nfrom dr ying out.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nFor an additional perspectiv e on lipids , watch this video about types o f fat (http://opens tax.org/l/lipids) .\nProteins\nProteins are one o f the mos t abundant or ganic molecules in living s ystems and ha ve the mos t div erse r ange of\nfunctions o f all macr omolecules . Proteins ma y be s tructur al, regulatory, contr actile , or pr otectiv e; the y ma y ser ve in\ntranspor t, storage, or membr anes; or the y ma y be t oxins or enzymes . Each c ell in a living s ystem ma y contain\nthousands o f diff erent pr oteins , each with a unique function. Their s tructur es, like their functions , vary greatly. The y\nare all, however, pol ymers o f amino acids , arr anged in a linear sequenc e.\nThe functions o f proteins ar e very div erse because ther e are 20 diff erent chemical ly dis tinct amino acids that f orm\nlong chains , and the amino acids can be in an y order. For example , proteins can function as enzymes or hormones .\nEnzymes , which ar e produc ed b y living c ells, are catal ysts in biochemical r eactions (lik e dig estion) and ar e usual ly\nproteins . Each enzyme is specific f or the subs trate (a r eactant that binds t o an enzyme) upon which it acts . Enzymes\ncan function t o break molecular bonds , to rearr ange bonds , or t o form ne w bonds . An e xample o f an enzyme is\nsaliv ary am ylase , which br eaks do wn am ylose , a c omponent o f starch.\nHormones are chemical signaling molecules , usual ly proteins or s teroids , secr eted b y an endocrine gland or gr oup\nof endocrine c ells that act t o contr ol or r egulate specific ph ysiological pr ocesses, including gr owth, de velopment,\n2.3 \u2022 Biologic al Molecules 45", "start_char_idx": 2625, "end_char_idx": 4466, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "390e25b2-2385-406c-992c-70474b71b45a": {"__data__": {"id_": "390e25b2-2385-406c-992c-70474b71b45a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "60", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0be891f6-9608-4b7d-a5fd-54d750e28228", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "60", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "989c181d275231253499715b204a60d031998e17161bb2eac81221357ccde8a5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "metabolism, and r eproduction. F or example , insulin is a pr otein hormone that maintains blood gluc ose le vels.\nProteins ha ve diff erent shapes and molecular w eights; some pr oteins ar e globular in shape wher eas others ar e\nfibrous in natur e. For example , hemoglobin is a globular pr otein, but c ollagen, f ound in our skin, is a fibr ous pr otein.\nProtein shape is critical t o its function. Chang es in t emper atur e, pH, and e xposur e to chemicals ma y lead t o\npermanent chang es in the shape o f the pr otein, leading t o a los s of function or dena turation (to be discus sed in\nmor e detail lat er). Al l proteins ar e made up o f diff erent arr angements o f the same 20 kinds o f amino acids .\nAmino acids are the monomers that mak e up pr oteins . Each amino acid has the same fundamental s tructur e, which\nconsis ts of a c entr al carbon at om bonded t o an amino gr oup (\u2013NH 2), a carbo xyl gr oup (\u2013 COOH), and a h ydrogen\natom. Ev ery amino acid also has another v ariable at om or gr oup o f atoms bonded t o the c entr al carbon at om kno wn\nas the R gr oup. The R gr oup is the onl y diff erence in s tructur e betw een the 20 amino acids; other wise , the amino\nacids ar e identical ( Figure 2.20 ).\nFIGURE 2.20 Amino acids ar e made up o f a c entr al carbon bonded t o an amino gr oup (\u2013NH 2), a carbo xyl gr oup (\u2013 COOH), and a h ydrogen\natom. The c entr al carbon \u2019s fourth bond v aries among the diff erent amino acids , as seen in these e xamples o f alanine , valine , lysine , and\naspar tic acid.\nThe chemical natur e of the R gr oup det ermines the chemical natur e of the amino acid within its pr otein (that is ,\nwhether it is acidic, basic, polar , or nonpolar).\nThe sequenc e and number o f amino acids ul timat ely det ermine a pr otein\u2019s shape , size, and function. Each amino\nacid is at tached t o another amino acid b y a c ovalent bond, kno wn as a pep tide bond, which is f ormed b y a\ndehydration r eaction. The carbo xyl gr oup o f one amino acid and the amino gr oup o f a sec ond amino acid c ombine ,\nreleasing a w ater molecule . The r esul ting bond is the pep tide bond.\nThe pr oducts f ormed b y such a link age are cal led pol ypep tides . While the t erms pol ypep tide and pr otein ar e46 2 \u2022 Chemis try of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2307, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c805f7bd-45a9-4f03-9685-b93dcc9e5eea": {"__data__": {"id_": "c805f7bd-45a9-4f03-9685-b93dcc9e5eea", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "61", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "43cb2cd4-8977-4c01-af92-d6fad654daf8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "61", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "aa095d538a34baf232e21190d4c0390ea2fa2b41ef99c5f7e41f6ff19a788961", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "4ad1043d-a20b-4b51-8547-ce9b19243ea9", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "dc8b46a49b709cb5b7859675e8b014734ced7563dbcfb059aa126315c78d7c36", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "sometimes used int erchang eabl y, apolypep tide is technical ly a pol ymer o f amino acids , wher eas the t erm pr otein is\nused f or a pol ypep tide or pol ypep tides that ha ve combined t ogether , have a dis tinct shape , and ha ve a unique\nfunction.\nEVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nThe E volutionar y Signific ance of Cytochr ome c\nCytochr ome c is an impor tant c omponent o f the molecular machiner y that har vests ener gy from gluc ose. Because\nthis pr otein\u2019s role in pr oducing c ellular ener gy is crucial , it has chang ed v ery little o ver mil lions o f years . Protein\nsequencing has sho wn that ther e is a c onsider able amount o f sequenc e similarity among cyt ochr ome c molecules o f\ndifferent species; e volutionar y relationships can be as sessed b y measuring the similarities or diff erences among\nvarious species\u2019 pr otein sequenc es.\nFor example , scientis ts ha ve det ermined that human cyt ochr ome c c ontains 104 amino acids . For each cyt ochr ome\nc molecule that has been sequenc ed to dat e from diff erent or ganisms , 37 o f these amino acids appear in the same\nposition in each cyt ochr ome c. This indicat es that al l of these or ganisms ar e desc ended fr om a c ommon anc estor.\nOn c omparing the human and chimpanz ee pr otein sequenc es, no sequenc e diff erence was found. When human and\nrhesus monk ey sequenc es w ere compar ed, a single diff erence was found in one amino acid. In c ontr ast, human-t o-\nyeast comparisons sho w a diff erence in 44 amino acids , sug gesting that humans and chimpanz ees ha ve a mor e\nrecent c ommon anc estor than humans and the rhesus monk ey, or humans and y east.\nProtein S tructure\nAs discus sed earlier , the shape o f a pr otein is critical t o its function. T o unders tand ho w the pr otein g ets its final\nshape or c onformation, w e need t o unders tand the f our le vels o f protein s tructur e: primar y, sec ondar y, tertiary, and\nquat ernar y (Figure 2.21 ).\nThe unique sequenc e and number o f amino acids in a pol ypep tide chain is its primar y structur e. The unique\nsequenc e for every protein is ul timat ely det ermined b y the g ene that enc odes the pr otein. An y chang e in the g ene\nsequenc e ma y lead t o a diff erent amino acid being added t o the pol ypep tide chain, causing a chang e in pr otein\nstructur e and function. Wil liam W arrick Car dozo sho wed that sickle -cell anemia is caused b y a chang e in pr otein\nstrucur e as a r esul t of gene enc oding , meaning that it is an inherit ed disor der. In sickle c ell anemia , the hemoglobin\n\u03b2 chain has a single amino acid subs titution, causing a chang e in both the s tructur e and function o f the pr otein.\nWhat is mos t remark able t o consider is that a hemoglobin molecule is made up o f two alpha chains and tw o beta\nchains that each c onsis t of about 150 amino acids . The molecule , ther efore, has about 600 amino acids . The\nstructur al diff erence betw een a normal hemoglobin molecule and a sickle c ell molecule \u2014that dr amatical ly\ndecr eases lif e expectancy in the aff ected individuals \u2014is a single amino acid o f the 600.\nBecause o f this chang e of one amino acid in the chain, the normal ly bic onca ve, or disc-shaped, r ed blood c ells\nassume a cr escent or \u201c sickle \u201d shape , which clogs ar teries . This can lead t o a m yriad o f serious heal th pr oblems ,\nsuch as br eathles snes s, dizzines s, headaches , and abdominal pain f or those who ha ve this disease .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3451, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4ad1043d-a20b-4b51-8547-ce9b19243ea9": {"__data__": {"id_": "4ad1043d-a20b-4b51-8547-ce9b19243ea9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "61", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "43cb2cd4-8977-4c01-af92-d6fad654daf8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "61", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "aa095d538a34baf232e21190d4c0390ea2fa2b41ef99c5f7e41f6ff19a788961", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "c805f7bd-45a9-4f03-9685-b93dcc9e5eea", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "61", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f8f714a9717e8ad28daaf2387037368a24882a008b028b15294a381dd3b873a3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The molecule , ther efore, has about 600 amino acids . The\nstructur al diff erence betw een a normal hemoglobin molecule and a sickle c ell molecule \u2014that dr amatical ly\ndecr eases lif e expectancy in the aff ected individuals \u2014is a single amino acid o f the 600.\nBecause o f this chang e of one amino acid in the chain, the normal ly bic onca ve, or disc-shaped, r ed blood c ells\nassume a cr escent or \u201c sickle \u201d shape , which clogs ar teries . This can lead t o a m yriad o f serious heal th pr oblems ,\nsuch as br eathles snes s, dizzines s, headaches , and abdominal pain f or those who ha ve this disease .\nFolding pat terns r esul ting fr om int eractions betw een the non-R gr oup por tions o f amino acids giv e rise t o the\nsecondar y structur e of the pr otein. The mos t common ar e the alpha (\u03b1)-helix and beta (\u03b2)-pleat ed sheet s tructur es.\nBoth s tructur es ar e held in shape b y hydrogen bonds . In the alpha helix, the bonds f orm betw een e very fourth\namino acid and cause a twis t in the amino acid chain.\nIn the \u03b2 -pleat ed sheet, the \u201c pleats\u201d ar e formed b y hydrogen bonding betw een at oms on the backbone o f the\npolypep tide chain. The R gr oups ar e attached t o the carbons , and e xtend abo ve and belo w the f olds o f the pleat. The\npleat ed segments align par allel to each other , and h ydrogen bonds f orm betw een the same pairs o f atoms on each\nof the aligned amino acids . The \u03b1 -helix and \u03b2 -pleat ed sheet s tructur es ar e found in man y globular and fibr ous\nproteins .\nThe unique thr ee-dimensional s tructur e of a pol ypep tide is kno wn as its t ertiary structur e. This s tructur e is caused\nby chemical int eractions betw een v arious amino acids and r egions o f the pol ypep tide. Primaril y, the int eractions\namong R gr oups cr eate the c omple x thr ee-dimensional t ertiary structur e of a pr otein. Ther e ma y be ionic bonds\n2.3 \u2022 Biologic al Molecules 47", "start_char_idx": 2839, "end_char_idx": 4754, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2b56cb0e-e39c-4b4c-9903-a3dbdc49a4b5": {"__data__": {"id_": "2b56cb0e-e39c-4b4c-9903-a3dbdc49a4b5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "62", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "68eee037-d773-4fb7-822b-4ec5d1ebe92f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "62", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "051d51110bf00c1a63c3f00170bd656faf6d92855a9b4767987361be1d489afd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "formed betw een R gr oups on diff erent amino acids , or h ydrogen bonding be yond that in volved in the sec ondar y\nstructur e. When pr otein f olding tak es plac e, the h ydrophobic R gr oups o f nonpolar amino acids la y in the int erior o f\nthe pr otein, wher eas the h ydrophilic R gr oups la y on the outside . The f ormer types o f interactions ar e also kno wn as\nhydrophobic int eractions .\nIn natur e, some pr oteins ar e formed fr om se veral pol ypep tides , also kno wn as subunits , and the int eraction o f these\nsubunits f orms the quat ernar y structur e. Weak int eractions betw een the subunits help t o stabiliz e the o verall\nstructur e. For example , hemoglobin is a c ombination o f four pol ypep tide subunits .\nFIGURE 2.21 The f our le vels o f protein s tructur e can be obser ved in these il lustrations . (credit: modification o f work b y National Human\nGenome R esear ch Ins titut e)\nEach pr otein has its o wn unique sequenc e and shape held t ogether b y chemical int eractions . If the pr otein is subject\nto chang es in t emper atur e, pH, or e xposur e to chemicals , the pr otein s tructur e ma y chang e, losing its shape in what\nis kno wn as denatur ation as discus sed earlier . Denatur ation is o ften reversible because the primar y structur e is\npreser ved if the denaturing ag ent is r emo ved, al lowing the pr otein t o resume its function. Sometimes denatur ation\nis irr eversible , leading t o a los s of function. One e xample o f protein denatur ation can be seen when an eg g is fried or\nboiled. The albumin pr otein in the liquid eg g whit e is denatur ed when plac ed in a hot pan, changing fr om a clear\nsubs tanc e to an opaque whit e subs tanc e. Not al l proteins ar e denatur ed at high t emper atur es; f or ins tanc e, bact eria\nthat sur vive in hot springs ha ve proteins that ar e adap ted to function at those t emper atur es.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nFor an additional perspectiv e on pr oteins , explor e \u201cBiomolecules: The P roteins\u201d thr ough this int eractiv eanimation\n(http://opens tax.org/l/pr oteins) .\n48 2 \u2022 Chemis try of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2126, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4d6f3cd5-12a6-4338-ac6a-177dfd489e05": {"__data__": {"id_": "4d6f3cd5-12a6-4338-ac6a-177dfd489e05", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "63", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "73b42401-18ed-4fbf-bb9d-bdecf4718793", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "63", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4643e8fc0e441f107431ca6e3a70b6d439f58a22175f8d319f4e61e4b97b8f57", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Nucleic A cids\nNucleic acids ar e key macr omolecules in the c ontinuity o f life. The y carr y the g enetic blueprint o f a c ell and carr y\ninstructions f or the functioning o f the c ell.\nThe tw o main types o fnucleic acids aredeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) . DNA is the\ngenetic mat erial f ound in al l living or ganisms , ranging fr om single -celled bact eria t o mul ticellular mammals .\nThe other type o f nucleic acid, RNA , is mos tly involved in pr otein s ynthesis . The DNA molecules ne ver lea ve the\nnucleus , but ins tead use an RNA int ermediar y to communicat e with the r est of the c ell. Other types o f RNA ar e also\ninvolved in pr otein s ynthesis and its r egulation.\nDNA and RNA ar e made up o f monomers kno wn as nucleo tides . The nucleotides c ombine with each other t o form a\npolynucleotide , DNA or RNA . Each nucleotide is made up o f thr ee c omponents: a nitr ogenous base , a pent ose (fiv e-\ncarbon) sug ar, and a phosphat e group ( Figure 2.22 ). Each nitr ogenous base in a nucleotide is at tached t o a sug ar\nmolecule , which is at tached t o a phosphat e group.\nFIGURE 2.22 A nucleotide is made up o f thr ee c omponents: a nitr ogenous base , a pent ose sug ar, and a phosphat e group.\nDNA Double -Helic al Structure\nDNA has a double -helical s tructur e (Figure 2.23 ). It is c omposed o f two strands , or pol ymers , of nucleotides . The\nstrands ar e formed with bonds betw een phosphat e and sug ar gr oups o f adjac ent nucleotides . The s trands ar e\nbonded t o each other at their bases with h ydrogen bonds , and the s trands c oil about each other along their length,\nhenc e the \u201c double helix \u201d descrip tion, which means a double spir al.\nFIGURE 2.23 The double -helix model sho ws DNA as tw o par allel s trands o f intertwining molecules . (credit: Jer ome W alker, Dennis Myts)\nThe al ternating sug ar and phosphat e groups lie on the outside o f each s trand, f orming the backbone o f the DNA . The\nnitrogenous bases ar e stack ed in the int erior , like the s teps o f a s taircase , and these bases pair; the pairs ar e bound2.3 \u2022 Biologic al Molecules 49", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2140, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3f6eafa9-bed8-4f35-b15f-28f6a9fe36f7": {"__data__": {"id_": "3f6eafa9-bed8-4f35-b15f-28f6a9fe36f7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "64", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "259e4c4a-b60b-4cf2-a29b-54d4e952216f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "64", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4919bf8d1520baed240a548dcceb8dd39d447e8b4ab391f2103584ffe5a8324e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "to each other b y hydrogen bonds . The bases pair in such a w ay that the dis tanc e betw een the backbones o f the tw o\nstrands is the same al l along the molecule .50 2 \u2022 Chemis try of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 225, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0efa1809-9467-4a12-9462-e7f2cb8682c7": {"__data__": {"id_": "0efa1809-9467-4a12-9462-e7f2cb8682c7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "65", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d4ee0317-b29d-4a58-8ebc-a9e396e11c09", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "65", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e2c048fc5dcef5f21d9ac119b08bcbed9c2b2ebd9242cb9ebc334bcb9058c515", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "431270ac-482b-4459-8681-24338095b028", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "e84ff7a1a61cd91a9d2787d912b36ac61d248341701f3274adcaa2913e4f3ccd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nacid a subs tanc e that donat es h ydrogen ions and\nther efore lowers pH\nadhesion the at traction betw een w ater molecules\nand molecules o f a diff erent subs tanc e\namino acid a monomer o f a pr otein\nanion a neg ative ion f ormed b y gaining electr ons\natomic number the number o f protons in an at om\nbase a subs tanc e that absorbs h ydrogen ions and\nther efore raises pH\nbuffer a solution that r esists a chang e in pH b y\nabsorbing or r eleasing h ydrogen or h ydroxide ions\ncarboh ydratea biological macr omolecule in which\nthe r atio o f carbon t o hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1;\ncarboh ydrates ser ve as ener gy sour ces and\nstructur al suppor t in c ells\ncation a positiv e ion f ormed b y losing electr ons\ncellulose a pol ysaccharide that mak es up the c ell\nwalls of plants and pr ovides s tructur al suppor t to\nthe c ell\nchemical bond an int eraction betw een tw o or mor e\nof the same or diff erent elements that r esul ts in the\nformation o f molecules\nchitin a type o f carboh ydrate that f orms the out er\nskeleton o f arthropods , such as insects and\ncrus taceans , and the c ell walls of fungi\ncohesion the int ermolecular f orces betw een w ater\nmolecules caused b y the polar natur e of water;\ncreates sur face tension\ncovalent bond a type o f strong bond betw een tw o or\nmor e of the same or diff erent elements; f orms when\nelectr ons ar e shar ed betw een elements\ndena turation the los s of shape in a pr otein as a r esul t\nof chang es in t emper atur e, pH, or e xposur e to\nchemicals\ndeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) a double -stranded\npolymer o f nucleotides that carries the her editar y\ninformation o f the c ell\ndisac charide two sug ar monomers that ar e link ed\ntogether b y a gl ycodsidic bond\nelectr on a neg atively char ged par ticle that r esides\noutside o f the nucleus in the electr on orbital; lack s\nfunctional mas s and has a char ge of \u20131\nelectr on tr ansfer the mo vement o f electr ons fr om\none element t o another\nelement one o f 118 unique subs tanc es that cannot\nbe br oken do wn int o smal ler subs tanc es and r etain\nthe char acteristic o f that subs tanc e; each element\nhas a specified number o f protons and unique\nproper ties\nenzyme a catal yst in a biochemical r eaction that is\nusual ly a c omple x or c onjug ated pr otein\nevapor ation the r elease o f water molecules fr omliquid w ater to form w ater vapor\nfata lipid molecule c omposed o f thr ee fat ty acids and\na glycerol (trigl yceride) that typical ly exists in a solid\nform at r oom t emper atur e\nglycogen a storage carboh ydrate in animals\nhormone a chemical signaling molecule , usual ly a\nprotein or s teroid, secr eted b y an endocrine gland or\ngroup o f endocrine c ells; acts t o contr ol or r egulate\nspecific ph ysiological pr ocesses\nhydrogen bond a weak bond betw een par tially\npositiv ely char ged h ydrogen at oms and par tially\nnegatively char ged elements or molecules\nhydrophilic describes a subs tanc e that dis solves in\nwater; w ater-loving\nhydrophobic describes a subs tanc e that does not\ndissolve in w ater; w ater-fearing\nion an at om or c ompound that does not c ontain equal\nnumbers o f protons and electr ons,", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3164, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "431270ac-482b-4459-8681-24338095b028": {"__data__": {"id_": "431270ac-482b-4459-8681-24338095b028", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "65", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d4ee0317-b29d-4a58-8ebc-a9e396e11c09", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "65", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e2c048fc5dcef5f21d9ac119b08bcbed9c2b2ebd9242cb9ebc334bcb9058c515", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "0efa1809-9467-4a12-9462-e7f2cb8682c7", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "65", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "89cb7eeb871acd1d243bcb459f4d5448d566fbbdb33bc9ee6818d1547b31e7ef", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "usual ly a\nprotein or s teroid, secr eted b y an endocrine gland or\ngroup o f endocrine c ells; acts t o contr ol or r egulate\nspecific ph ysiological pr ocesses\nhydrogen bond a weak bond betw een par tially\npositiv ely char ged h ydrogen at oms and par tially\nnegatively char ged elements or molecules\nhydrophilic describes a subs tanc e that dis solves in\nwater; w ater-loving\nhydrophobic describes a subs tanc e that does not\ndissolve in w ater; w ater-fearing\nion an at om or c ompound that does not c ontain equal\nnumbers o f protons and electr ons, and ther efore\nhas a net char ge\nionic bond a chemical bond that f orms betw een ions\nof opposit e char ges\nisotope one or mor e forms o f an element that ha ve\ndifferent numbers o f neutr ons\nlipids a clas s of macr omolecules that ar e nonpolar\nand insoluble in w ater\nlitmus paper filter paper that has been tr eated with a\nnatur al w ater-soluble dy e so it can be used as a pH\nindicat or\nmacr omolecule a lar ge molecule , often formed b y\npolymerization o f smal ler monomers\nmas s number the number o f protons plus neutr ons in\nan at om\nmatter anything that has mas s and oc cupies spac e\nmonosac charide a single unit or monomer o f\ncarboh ydrates\nneutr on a par ticle with no char ge that r esides in the\nnucleus o f an at om; has a mas s of 1\nnonpolar c ovalent bond a type o f covalent bond that\nforms betw een at oms when electr ons ar e shar ed\nequal ly betw een at oms , resul ting in no r egions with\npartial char ges as in polar c ovalent bonds\nnucleic acid a biological macr omolecule that carries\nthe g enetic inf ormation o f a c ell and carries\ninstructions f or the functioning o f the c ell\nnucleo tide a monomer o f nucleic acids; c ontains a\npent ose sug ar, a phosphat e group, and a\nnitrogenous base\nnucleus (chemis try) the dense c enter of an at om\nmade up o f protons and (e xcept in the case o f a\nhydrogen at om) neutr ons\noctet rule states that the out ermos t shel l of an\nelement with a lo w at omic number can hold eight2 \u2022 K ey Terms 51", "start_char_idx": 2610, "end_char_idx": 4638, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "80f4261f-9cc1-4bda-9640-5b4f2d85a878": {"__data__": {"id_": "80f4261f-9cc1-4bda-9640-5b4f2d85a878", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "66", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "30a75cf7-fdcd-4323-a646-6968b50e656c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "66", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "72ebbfa1835a712eb86ea8f792759942de81f29da8d90363f4295de3761b0afb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "9796cf08-cc5f-4c98-a330-3597d428a72c", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "807ac1927b89fec1e3a6d232fa6cd76cca2cd288a10a75fcb3f668d217cb9892", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "electr ons\noil an unsatur ated fat that is a liquid at r oom\ntemper atur e\nperiodic table o f elements an or ganizational char t of\nelements , indicating the at omic number and mas s\nnumber o f each element; also pr ovides k ey\ninformation about the pr oper ties o f elements\npH scale a scale r anging fr om 0 t o 14 that measur es\nthe appr oximat e concentr ation o f hydrogen ions o f a\nsubs tanc e\nphospholipid a major c onstituent o f the membr anes\nof cells; c omposed o f two fat ty acids and a\nphosphat e group at tached t o the gl ycerol backbone\npolar c ovalent bond a type o f covalent bond in which\nelectr ons ar e pul led t oward one at om and a way\nfrom another , resul ting in slightl y positiv e and\nslightl y neg ative char ged regions o f the molecule\npolypep tide a long chain o f amino acids link ed b y\npeptide bonds\npolysaccharide a long chain o f monosac charides;\nmay be br anched or unbr anched\nprotein a biological macr omolecule c omposed o f one\nor mor e chains o f amino acids\nproton a positiv ely char ged par ticle that r esides in\nthe nucleus o f an at om; has a mas s of 1 and a\nchar ge of +1\nradioactiv e iso tope an isot ope that spontaneousl y\nemits par ticles or ener gy to form a mor e stable\nelementribonucleic acid (RNA) a single -stranded pol ymer o f\nnucleotides that is in volved in pr otein s ynthesis\nsaturated fa tty acid a long-chain h ydrocarbon with\nsingle c ovalent bonds in the carbon chain; the\nnumber o f hydrogen at oms at tached t o the carbon\nskeleton is maximiz ed\nsolvent a subs tanc e capable o f dis solving another\nsubs tanc e\nstarch a storage carboh ydrate in plants\nsteroid a type o f lipid c omposed o f four fused\nhydrocarbon rings\nsurface tension the c ohesiv e force at the sur face of a\nbody o f liquid that pr events the molecules fr om\nsepar ating\ntemper aturea measur e of molecular motion\ntrans-fata form o f unsatur ated fat with the h ydrogen\natoms neighboring the double bond acr oss from\neach other r ather than on the same side o f the\ndouble bond\ntrigl yceride a fat molecule; c onsis ts of thr ee fat ty\nacids link ed to a gl ycerol molecule\nunsa turated fa tty acid a long-chain h ydrocarbon that\nhas one or mor e than one double bonds in the\nhydrocarbon chain\nvan der W aals int eraction a weak at traction or\ninteraction betw een molecules caused b y slightl y\npositiv ely char ged or slightl y neg atively char ged\natoms\nChap ter Summar y\n2.1The Building Block s of Molecules\nMatter is an ything that oc cupies spac e and has mas s. It\nis made up o f atoms o f diff erent elements . All of the 92\nelements that oc cur natur ally ha ve unique qualities\nthat al low them t o combine in v arious w ays to create\ncompounds or molecules . Atoms , which c onsis t of\nprotons, neutr ons, and electr ons, are the smal lest units\nof an element that r etain al l of the pr oper ties o f that\nelement. Electr ons can be donat ed or shar ed betw een\natoms t o create bonds , including ionic, c ovalent, and\nhydrogen bonds , as w ell as v an der W aals int eractions .\n2.2Water\nWater has man y proper ties that ar e critical t o\nmaintaining lif e. It is polar , allowing f or the f ormation o f\nhydrogen bonds , which al low ions and other polar\nmolecules t o dis solve in w ater. Ther efore, water is an\nexcellent sol vent.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3293, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9796cf08-cc5f-4c98-a330-3597d428a72c": {"__data__": {"id_": "9796cf08-cc5f-4c98-a330-3597d428a72c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "66", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "30a75cf7-fdcd-4323-a646-6968b50e656c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "66", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "72ebbfa1835a712eb86ea8f792759942de81f29da8d90363f4295de3761b0afb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "80f4261f-9cc1-4bda-9640-5b4f2d85a878", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "66", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b3f83eab1e03d372bb8e1381365a4de936b45b7aa984e22c8ab7d7bbed0b608b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Atoms , which c onsis t of\nprotons, neutr ons, and electr ons, are the smal lest units\nof an element that r etain al l of the pr oper ties o f that\nelement. Electr ons can be donat ed or shar ed betw een\natoms t o create bonds , including ionic, c ovalent, and\nhydrogen bonds , as w ell as v an der W aals int eractions .\n2.2Water\nWater has man y proper ties that ar e critical t o\nmaintaining lif e. It is polar , allowing f or the f ormation o f\nhydrogen bonds , which al low ions and other polar\nmolecules t o dis solve in w ater. Ther efore, water is an\nexcellent sol vent. The h ydrogen bonds betw een w ater\nmolecules giv e water the ability t o hold heat bet ter\nthan man y other subs tanc es. As the t emper atur e rises ,\nthe h ydrogen bonds betw een w ater continual ly break\nand r eform, al lowing f or the o verall temper atur e toremain s table , although incr eased ener gy is added t o\nthe s ystem. W ater\u2019s cohesiv e forces al low for the\nproper ty of sur face tension. Al l of these unique\nproper ties o f water ar e impor tant in the chemis try of\nliving or ganisms .\nThe pH o f a solution is a measur e of the c oncentr ation\nof hydrogen ions in the solution. A solution with a high\nnumber o f hydrogen ions is acidic and has a lo w pH\nvalue . A solution with a high number o f hydroxide ions\nis basic and has a high pH v alue . The pH scale r anges\nfrom 0 t o 14, with a pH o f 7 being neutr al. Buff ers ar e\nsolutions that moder ate pH chang es when an acid or\nbase is added t o the buff er system. Buff ers ar e\nimpor tant in biological s ystems because o f their ability\nto maintain c onstant pH c onditions .\n2.3Biologic al Molecules\nLiving things ar e carbon-based because carbon pla ys\nsuch a pr ominent r ole in the chemis try of living things .\nThe f our c ovalent bonding positions o f the carbon at om\ncan giv e rise t o a wide div ersity o f compounds with\nman y functions , accounting f or the impor tanc e of52 2 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2716, "end_char_idx": 4716, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3d025360-3cda-4ce1-b901-a3ed4aa495a4": {"__data__": {"id_": "3d025360-3cda-4ce1-b901-a3ed4aa495a4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "67", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "588f4952-8bc3-4c6f-8b88-51e35761dabb", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "67", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "856afa656d0715fcabfe4f39a42a89eb4f2db07047448f00c5ba88ecf2715cea", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "1da36293-d211-4d7a-96ac-478b607e8939", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "bdd34c9d5cff5bed61c76d653e0acc1322f2fcb654965672869007676362e240", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "carbon in living things . Carboh ydrates ar e a gr oup o f\nmacr omolecules that ar e a vital ener gy sour ce for the\ncell, provide s tructur al suppor t to man y organisms , and\ncan be f ound on the sur face of the c ell as r eceptors or\nfor cell recognition. Carboh ydrates ar e clas sified as\nmonosac charides , disac charides , and pol ysaccharides ,\ndepending on the number o f monomers in the\nmolecule .\nLipids ar e a clas s of macr omolecules that ar e nonpolar\nand h ydrophobic in natur e. Major types include fats\nand oils , waxes, phospholipids , and s teroids . Fats and\noils ar e a s tored form o f ener gy and can include\ntriglycerides . Fats and oils ar e usual ly made up o f fatty\nacids and gl ycerol.\nProteins ar e a clas s of macr omolecules that canperform a div erse r ange of functions f or the c ell. The y\nhelp in metabolism b y providing s tructur al suppor t and\nby acting as enzymes , carriers or as hormones . The\nbuilding block s of proteins ar e amino acids . Proteins\nare organiz ed at f our le vels: primar y, sec ondar y,\ntertiary, and quat ernar y. Protein shape and function ar e\nintricat ely link ed; an y chang e in shape caused b y\nchang es in t emper atur e, pH, or chemical e xposur e ma y\nlead t o protein denatur ation and a los s of function.\nNucleic acids ar e molecules made up o f repeating units\nof nucleotides that dir ect c ellular activities such as c ell\ndivision and pr otein s ynthesis . Each nucleotide is made\nup o f a pent ose sug ar, a nitr ogenous base , and a\nphosphat e group. Ther e are tw o types o f nucleic acids:\nDNA and RNA .\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 2.3 How man y neutr ons do (K ) potas sium-39\nand potas sium-40 ha ve, respectiv ely?\nReview Ques tions\n2.Magnesium has an at omic number o f 12. Which o f\nthe f ollowing s tatements is true o f a neutr al\nmagnesium at om?\na.It has 12 pr otons, 12 electr ons, and 12\nneutr ons.\nb.It has 12 pr otons, 12 electr ons, and six\nneutr ons.\nc.It has six pr otons, six electr ons, and no\nneutr ons.\nd.It has six pr otons, six electr ons, and six\nneutr ons.\n3.Which type o f bond r epresents a w eak chemical\nbond?\na.hydrogen bond\nb.ionic bond\nc.covalent bond\nd.polar c ovalent bond\n4.An isot ope o f sodium (Na) has a mas s number o f\n22. Ho w man y neutr ons does it ha ve?\na.11\nb.12\nc.22\nd.445.Which o f the f ollowing s tatements is not true?\na.Water is polar .\nb.Water stabiliz es temper atur e.\nc.Water is es sential f or lif e.\nd.Water is the mos t abundant at om in Ear th\u2019s\natmospher e.\n6.Using a pH met er, you find the pH o f an unkno wn\nsolution t o be 8.0. Ho w would y ou describe this\nsolution?\na.weakl y acidic\nb.strongl y acidic\nc.weakl y basic\nd.strongl y basic\n7.The pH o f lemon juic e is about 2.0, wher eas t omat o\njuice's pH is about 4.0. Appr oximat ely ho w much o f\nan incr ease in h ydrogen ion c oncentr ation is ther e\nbetw een t omat o juic e and lemon juic e?", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2912, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1da36293-d211-4d7a-96ac-478b607e8939": {"__data__": {"id_": "1da36293-d211-4d7a-96ac-478b607e8939", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "67", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "588f4952-8bc3-4c6f-8b88-51e35761dabb", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "67", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "856afa656d0715fcabfe4f39a42a89eb4f2db07047448f00c5ba88ecf2715cea", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "3d025360-3cda-4ce1-b901-a3ed4aa495a4", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "67", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fba88193363c799eb64ba30e516edf91d013129115a8141781fb45117a00f722", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "a.Water is polar .\nb.Water stabiliz es temper atur e.\nc.Water is es sential f or lif e.\nd.Water is the mos t abundant at om in Ear th\u2019s\natmospher e.\n6.Using a pH met er, you find the pH o f an unkno wn\nsolution t o be 8.0. Ho w would y ou describe this\nsolution?\na.weakl y acidic\nb.strongl y acidic\nc.weakl y basic\nd.strongl y basic\n7.The pH o f lemon juic e is about 2.0, wher eas t omat o\njuice's pH is about 4.0. Appr oximat ely ho w much o f\nan incr ease in h ydrogen ion c oncentr ation is ther e\nbetw een t omat o juic e and lemon juic e?\na.2 times\nb.10 times\nc.100 times\nd.1000 times\n8.An e xample o f a monosac charide is ________.\na.fruct ose\nb.gluc ose\nc.galact ose\nd.all of the abo ve2 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions 53", "start_char_idx": 2368, "end_char_idx": 3100, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ec695cfb-a1f6-49eb-976f-bdb70df74789": {"__data__": {"id_": "ec695cfb-a1f6-49eb-976f-bdb70df74789", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "68", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ad18ca52-f7f1-462e-85e7-8f45cb520f5f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "68", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "564e03761b8ef4adeb49a4ecc35ed8e1adb60ebd34e6c49c64925e0544ac43cd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "9.Cellulose and s tarch ar e examples o f ________.\na.monosac charides\nb.disac charides\nc.lipids\nd.polysaccharides\n10.Phospholipids ar e impor tant c omponents o f\n__________.\na.the plasma membr ane o f cells\nb.the ring s tructur e of steroids\nc.the w axy c overing on lea ves\nd.the double bond in h ydrocarbon chains11.The monomers that mak e up pr oteins ar e cal led\n_________.\na.nucleotides\nb.disac charides\nc.amino acids\nd.chaper ones\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n12.Why are hydrogen bonds and v an der W aals\ninteractions nec essary for cells?\n13.Why can some insects w alk on w ater?\n14.Explain wh y water is an e xcellent sol vent.15.Explain at leas t thr ee functions that lipids ser ve in\nplants and/or animals .\n16.Explain what happens if e ven one amino acid is\nsubs titut ed for another in a pol ypep tide chain.\nProvide a specific e xample .54 2 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 926, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9b93d7b7-037e-4553-bc63-28d0351522ba": {"__data__": {"id_": "9b93d7b7-037e-4553-bc63-28d0351522ba", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "69", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c6a8db88-5e0e-4e8d-aa96-93eb601965d0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "69", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f30b9ebb381029ee2f29cbd364b9ed71aabf4cf0deeac0a9ba2f310a98822f22", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 3\nCell Structur e and F unction\n3.1How Cel ls Ar e Studied\n3.2Comparing P rokar yotic and Eukar yotic Cel ls\n3.3Eukar yotic Cel ls\n3.4The Cel l Membr ane\n3.5Passive Transpor t\n3.6Activ e Transpor t\nClose y our e yes and pictur e a brick w all. What is the basic building block o f that\nwall? It is a single brick, o f course . Like a brick w all, your body is c omposed o f basic building\nblock s, and the building block s of your body ar e cells.\nYour body has man y kinds o f cells, each specializ ed for a specific purpose . Jus t as a home is made\nfrom a v ariety o f building mat erials , the human body is c onstruct ed fr om man y cell types . For\nexample , epithelial c ells pr otect the sur face of the body and c over the or gans and body ca vities\nwithin. Bone c ells help t o suppor t and pr otect the body . Cel ls of the immune s ystem fight in vading\nbact eria. Additional ly, red blood c ells carr y oxygen thr oughout the body . Each o f these c ell types\nplays a vital r ole during the gr owth, de velopment, and da y-to-day maint enanc e of the body . In\nspite of their enormous v ariety , however, all cells shar e certain fundamental char acteristics.\n3.1How Cells Ar e Studied\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the r oles o f cells in or ganisms\n\u2022Compar e and c ontr ast light micr oscopy and electr on micr oscopy\n\u2022Summariz e the c ell theor y\nA cell is the smal lest unit o f a living thing . A living thing , like you, is cal led an or ganism. Thus , cells\nare the basic building block s of all organisms .FIGURE 3.1(a) Nasal sinus c ells (vie wed with a light micr oscope), (b) onion c ells (vie wed with a light micr oscope),\nand (c) Vibrio tasmaniensis bact erial c ells (vie wed using a scanning electr on micr oscope) ar e from v ery diff erent\norganisms , yet al l shar e certain char acteristics o f basic c ell structur e. (credit a: modification o f work b y Ed Uthman,\nMD; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Umber to Sal vagnin; cr edit c: modification o f work b y Anthon y D'Ono frio; scale -\nbar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2153, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9093b529-93eb-4c28-a7ff-4f7753b8c41a": {"__data__": {"id_": "9093b529-93eb-4c28-a7ff-4f7753b8c41a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "70", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "68404789-5124-47d4-af12-eb9b21f3e3f5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "70", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d4fc28645b55d097a4319a8f275d71897bcb315757b7abb59d2acd90a6b42cab", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "466ecd03-42b6-469a-8204-efc8aa0c6f9c", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "f09a04700dc64410af19065b60a0fd830038f4f9d1c53b6371293151f93ea9da", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In mul ticellular or ganisms , several cells of one par ticular kind int erconnect with each other and\nperform shar ed functions t o form tis sues (f or example , muscle tis sue, connectiv e tis sue, and\nnervous tis sue), se veral tis sues c ombine t o form an or gan (f or example , stomach, hear t, or br ain),\nand se veral or gans mak e up an or gan s ystem (such as the dig estive system, cir culat ory system, or\nnervous s ystem). Se veral systems functioning t ogether f orm an or ganism (such as an elephant, f or\nexample).\nTher e are man y types o f cells, and al l are grouped int o one o f two broad cat egories: pr okaryotic\nand euk aryotic. Animal c ells, plant c ells, fung al cells, and pr otist cells ar e clas sified as euk aryotic,\nwher eas bact eria and ar chaea c ells ar e clas sified as pr okaryotic. Bef ore discus sing the crit eria f or\ndetermining whether a c ell is pr okaryotic or euk aryotic, let us firs t examine ho w biologis ts study\ncells.\nMicroscopy\nCells vary in siz e. With f ew exceptions , individual c ells ar e too smal l to be seen with the nak ed e ye,\nso scientis ts use micr oscopes t o study them. A micr oscope is an ins trument that magnifies an\nobject. Mos t imag es o f cells ar e tak en with a micr oscope and ar e cal led micr ographs .\nLight Micr oscopes\nTo giv e you a sense o f the siz e of a c ell, a typical human r ed blood c ell is about eight mil lionths o f a\nmeter or eight micr omet ers (abbr eviated as \u00b5m) in diamet er; the head o f a pin is about tw o\nthousandths o f a met er (mil limet ers, or mm) in diamet er. That means that appr oximat ely 250 r ed\nblood c ells could fit on the head o f a pin.\nThe op tics o f the lenses o f a light micr oscope chang es the orientation o f the imag e. A specimen\nthat is right -side up and facing right on the micr oscope slide wil l appear upside -down and facing\nleft when vie wed thr ough a micr oscope, and vic e versa . Similarl y, if the slide is mo ved left while\nlooking thr ough the micr oscope, it wil l appear t o mo ve right, and if mo ved do wn, it wil l seem t o\nmove up . This oc curs because micr oscopes use tw o sets o f lenses t o magnif y the imag e. Due t o\nthe manner in which light tr avels thr ough the lenses , this s ystem o f lenses pr oduc es an in verted\nimag e (binoculars and a dis secting micr oscope w ork in a similar manner , but include an additional\nmagnification s ystem that mak es the final imag e appear t o be upright).\nMos t student micr oscopes ar e clas sified as light micr oscopes ( Figure 3.2 a). Visible light both\npasses thr ough and is bent b y the lens s ystem t o enable the user t o see the specimen. Light\nmicr oscopes ar e adv antag eous f or vie wing living or ganisms , but sinc e individual c ells ar e gener ally\ntranspar ent, their c omponents ar e not dis tinguishable unles s the y are colored with special s tains .\nStaining , however, usual ly kil ls the c ells.\nLight micr oscopes c ommonl y used in the under graduat e college labor atory magnif y up t o\nappr oximat ely 400 times . Two par amet ers that ar e impor tant in micr oscopy are magnification and\nresol ving po wer. Magnification is the degr ee o f enlar gement o f an object.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3210, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "466ecd03-42b6-469a-8204-efc8aa0c6f9c": {"__data__": {"id_": "466ecd03-42b6-469a-8204-efc8aa0c6f9c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "70", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "68404789-5124-47d4-af12-eb9b21f3e3f5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "70", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d4fc28645b55d097a4319a8f275d71897bcb315757b7abb59d2acd90a6b42cab", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "9093b529-93eb-4c28-a7ff-4f7753b8c41a", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "70", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b7490b25bffbe1282b96dc45cc2ad380a6eea14f6a05791eaa9969fded59a91c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Visible light both\npasses thr ough and is bent b y the lens s ystem t o enable the user t o see the specimen. Light\nmicr oscopes ar e adv antag eous f or vie wing living or ganisms , but sinc e individual c ells ar e gener ally\ntranspar ent, their c omponents ar e not dis tinguishable unles s the y are colored with special s tains .\nStaining , however, usual ly kil ls the c ells.\nLight micr oscopes c ommonl y used in the under graduat e college labor atory magnif y up t o\nappr oximat ely 400 times . Two par amet ers that ar e impor tant in micr oscopy are magnification and\nresol ving po wer. Magnification is the degr ee o f enlar gement o f an object. R esol ving po wer is the\nability o f a micr oscope t o allow the e ye to dis tinguish tw o adjac ent s tructur es as separ ate; the\nhigher the r esolution, the closer those tw o objects can be , and the bet ter the clarity and detail o f\nthe imag e. When oil immersion lenses ar e used, magnification is usual ly incr eased t o 1,000 times\nfor the s tudy o f smal ler c ells, like mos t prokaryotic c ells. Because light ent ering a specimen fr om\nbelo w is f ocused ont o the e ye of an obser ver, the specimen can be vie wed using light micr oscopy.\nFor this r eason, f or light t o pas s thr ough a specimen, the sample mus t be thin or tr ansluc ent.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nFor another perspectiv e on c ell size, try the HowBig (http://opens tax.org/l/cell_sizes2) interactiv e.\nA sec ond type o f micr oscope used in labor atories is the dis secting micr oscope ( Figure 3.2 b).\nThese micr oscopes ha ve a lo wer magnification (20 t o 80 times the object siz e) than light\n56 3 \u2022 C ell Structure and F unction\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2551, "end_char_idx": 4257, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "60a838ae-d2b5-4816-931d-0722ac568812": {"__data__": {"id_": "60a838ae-d2b5-4816-931d-0722ac568812", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "71", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7d0d6263-c947-42b7-9b1d-b1360841f99d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "71", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8784f81f3c7ce6e7767ad484ad1ccc66232703e013ac5a10541350bb2ee6360b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "micr oscopes and can pr ovide a thr ee-dimensional vie w of the specimen. Thick objects can be e xamined with man y\ncomponents in f ocus at the same time . These micr oscopes ar e designed t o giv e a magnified and clear vie w of tissue\nstructur e as w ell as the anat omy of the whole or ganism. Lik e light micr oscopes , mos t modern dis secting\nmicr oscopes ar e also binocular , meaning that the y ha ve tw o separ ate lens s ystems , one f or each e ye. The lens\nsystems ar e separ ated b y a c ertain dis tanc e, and ther efore provide a sense o f dep th in the vie w of their subject t o\nmak e manipulations b y hand easier . Dis secting micr oscopes also ha ve op tics that c orrect the imag e so that it\nappears as if being seen b y the nak ed e ye and not as an in verted imag e. The light il luminating a sample under a\ndissecting micr oscope typical ly comes fr om abo ve the sample , but ma y also be dir ected fr om belo w.\nFIGURE 3.2(a) Mos t light micr oscopes used in a c ollege biolog y lab can magnif y cells up t o appr oximat ely 400 times . (b) Dis secting\nmicr oscopes ha ve a lo wer magnification than light micr oscopes and ar e used t o examine lar ger objects , such as tis sues .\nElectron Micr oscopes\nIn contr ast to light micr oscopes , electr on micr oscopes use a beam o f electr ons ins tead o f a beam o f light. Not onl y\ndoes this al low for higher magnification and, thus , mor e detail ( Figure 3.3 ), it also pr ovides higher r esol ving po wer.\nPrepar ation o f a specimen f or vie wing under an electr on micr oscope wil l kill it; ther efore, live cells cannot be vie wed\nusing this type o f micr oscopy. In addition, the electr on beam mo ves bes t in a v acuum, making it impos sible t o vie w\nliving mat erials .\nIn a scanning electr on micr oscope, a beam o f electr ons mo ves back and f orth acr oss a c ell\u2019s sur face, rendering the\ndetails o f cell sur face char acteristics b y reflection. Cel ls and other s tructur es ar e usual ly coated with a metal lik e\ngold. In a tr ansmis sion electr on micr oscope, the electr on beam is tr ansmit ted thr ough the c ell and pr ovides details\nof a c ell\u2019s int ernal s tructur es. As y ou might imagine , electr on micr oscopes ar e significantl y mor e bulky and\nexpensiv e than ar e light micr oscopes .3.1 \u2022 Ho w Cells Ar e Studied 57", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2331, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "00b79044-470c-4447-9fa3-c7d567fb887d": {"__data__": {"id_": "00b79044-470c-4447-9fa3-c7d567fb887d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "72", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fea0e1f6-14c6-49a4-bdcd-1af50545dcda", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "72", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "179c21a22187db5bd3c0bfaff90c1a666847a5571987974f62cdc839c8b9c437", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 3.3(a)Salmonel labact eria ar e vie wed with a light micr oscope. (b) This scanning electr on micr ograph sho wsSalmonel labact eria\n(in red) in vading human c ells. (credit a: modification o f work b y CDC, Armed F orces Ins titut e of Patholog y, Charles N. F armer; cr edit b:\nmodification o f work b y Rocky Mountain L abor atories , NIAID , NIH; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nCAREER C ONNE CTION\nCytotechnologis t\nHave you e ver hear d of a medical t est cal led a P ap smear ( Figure 3.4 )? In this t est, a doct or tak es a smal l sample o f\ncells from the ut erine c ervix o f a patient and sends it t o a medical lab wher e a cyt otechnologis t stains the c ells and\nexamines them f or an y chang es that c ould indicat e cervical canc er or a micr obial inf ection.\nCytotechnologis ts (cyto- = c ell) are professionals who s tudy c ells thr ough micr oscopic e xaminations and other\nlabor atory tests. The y are trained t o det ermine which c ellular chang es ar e within normal limits or ar e abnormal .\nTheir f ocus is not limit ed to cervical c ells; the y study c ellular specimens that c ome fr om al l organs. When the y notic e\nabnormalities , the y consul t a pathologis t, who is a medical doct or who can mak e a clinical diagnosis .\nCytotechnologis ts pla y vital r oles in sa ving people \u2019s lives. When abnormalities ar e disc overed earl y, a patient \u2019s\ntreatment can begin sooner , which usual ly incr eases the chanc es o f suc cessful tr eatment.\n58 3 \u2022 C ell Structure and F unction\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1558, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "cb20b183-175d-4d4c-9217-e3504d3a4540": {"__data__": {"id_": "cb20b183-175d-4d4c-9217-e3504d3a4540", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "73", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c4d43d5e-e68f-4576-8ac8-beb19f359556", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "73", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "55444be0de300bdfc718ea5d81f9c9ffbd63b398d494903afb24b8384b34f7b1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 3.4These ut erine c ervix c ells, vie wed thr ough a light micr oscope, were ob tained fr om a P ap smear . Normal c ells ar e on the left.\nThe c ells on the right ar e inf ected with human papil loma virus . (credit: modification o f work b y Ed Uthman; scale -bar data fr om Mat t\nRussell)\nCell Theor y\nThe micr oscopes w e use t oday are far mor e comple x than those used in the 1600s b y Ant ony van L eeuw enhoek, a\nDutch shopk eeper who had gr eat skil l in cr afting lenses . Despit e the limitations o f his no w-ancient lenses , van\nLeeuw enhoek obser ved the mo vements o f protists (a type o f single -celled or ganism) and sperm, which he\ncollectiv ely termed \u201c animalcules .\u201d\nIn a 1665 publication cal ledMicr ographia , experimental scientis t Rober t Hook e coined the t erm \u201c cell\u201d (from the\nLatin cella, meaning \u201c smal l room \u201d) for the bo x-like structur es he obser ved when vie wing c ork tis sue thr ough a lens .\nIn the 1670s , van L eeuw enhoek disc overed bact eria and pr otozoa. Later adv ances in lenses and micr oscope\nconstruction enabled other scientis ts to see diff erent c omponents inside c ells.\nBy the lat e 1830s , botanis t Mat thias Schleiden and z oologis t Theodor Sch wann w ere studying tis sues and pr oposed\ntheunified c ell theor y, which s tates that al l living things ar e composed o f one or mor e cells, that the c ell is the\nbasic unit o f life, and that al l new cells arise fr om e xisting c ells. These principles s till stand t oday.\n3.2Comparing P rokaryotic and Euk aryotic C ells\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Name e xamples o f prokaryotic and euk aryotic or ganisms\n\u2022Compar e and c ontr ast prokaryotic c ells and euk aryotic c ells\n\u2022Describe the r elativ e siz es o f diff erent kinds o f cells\nCells fal l into one o f two broad cat egories: pr okaryotic and euk aryotic. The pr edominantl y single -celled or ganisms o f\nthe domains Bact eria and Ar chaea ar e clas sified as pr okaryotes (pro- = bef ore; -karyon- = nucleus). Animal c ells,\nplant c ells, fungi, and pr otists ar e euk aryotes (eu- = true).\nComponents o f Prokaryotic C ells\nAll cells shar e four c ommon c omponents: 1) a plasma membr ane, an out er covering that separ ates the c ell\u2019s int erior\nfrom its surr ounding en vironment; 2) cyt oplasm, c onsis ting o f a jel ly-like region within the c ell in which other\ncellular c omponents ar e found; 3) DNA , the g enetic mat erial o f the c ell; and 4) ribosomes , par ticles that s ynthesiz e\nproteins . Ho wever, prokaryotes diff er fr om euk aryotic c ells in se veral w ays.\nAprokar yotic c ellis a simple , single -celled (unic ellular) or ganism that lack s a nucleus , or an y other membr ane-\nbound or ganel le. We wil l shor tly come t o see that this is significantl y diff erent in euk aryotes. Prokaryotic DNA is\nfound in the c entr al par t of the c ell: a dark ened r egion cal led the nucleoid ( Figure 3.5 ).3.2 \u2022 C omparing P rokaryotic and Euk aryotic C ells 59", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3017, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5ad5ad0d-1c5c-47c9-ab37-4c52ae189dd5": {"__data__": {"id_": "5ad5ad0d-1c5c-47c9-ab37-4c52ae189dd5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "74", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9dacd49d-9a2c-4c69-8302-aa982a4913ec", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "74", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dfa38f6810395ce290dee390c22629374824903ee1cfd0e44ec03b94e898ccae", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 3.5This fig ure sho ws the g ener alized s tructur e of a pr okaryotic c ell.\nUnlik e Ar chaea and euk aryotes, bact eria ha ve a c ell wall made o f pep tidogl ycan, c omprised o f sug ars and amino\nacids , and man y ha ve a pol ysaccharide capsule ( Figure 3.5 ). The c ell wall acts as an e xtra layer of protection, helps\nthe c ell maintain its shape , and pr events deh ydration. The capsule enables the c ell to attach t o sur faces in its\nenvironment. Some pr okaryotes ha ve flag ella, pili, or fimbriae . Flag ella ar e used f or loc omotion, while mos t pili ar e\nused t o exchang e genetic mat erial during a type o f reproduction cal led c onjug ation.\nEukaryotic C ells\nIn natur e, the r elationship betw een f orm and function is appar ent at al l levels, including the le vel of the c ell, and this\nwill bec ome clear as w e explor e euk aryotic c ells. The principle \u201c form f ollows function \u201d is f ound in man y contexts.\nFor example , birds and fish ha ve streamlined bodies that al low them t o mo ve quickl y thr ough the medium in which\nthey live, be it air or w ater. It means that, in g ener al, one can deduc e the function o f a s tructur e by looking at its\nform, because the tw o are mat ched.\nAeukar yotic c ellis a c ell that has a membr ane-bound nucleus and other membr ane-bound c ompar tments or sacs ,\ncalledorganel les, which ha ve specializ ed functions . The w ord euk aryotic means \u201c true k ernel \u201d or \u201c true nucleus ,\u201d\nalluding t o the pr esenc e of the membr ane-bound nucleus in these c ells. The w ord \u201corganel le\u201d means \u201clit tle or gan,\u201d\nand, as alr eady mentioned, or ganel les ha ve specializ ed c ellular functions , jus t as the or gans o f your body ha ve\nspecializ ed functions .\nCell Siz e\nAt 0.1\u20135.0 \u00b5m in diamet er, prokaryotic c ells ar e significantl y smal ler than euk aryotic c ells, which ha ve diamet ers\nranging fr om 10\u2013100 \u00b5m ( Figure 3.6 ). The smal l size of prokaryotes al lows ions and or ganic molecules that ent er\nthem t o quickl y spr ead t o other par ts of the c ell. Similarl y, any wastes pr oduc ed within a pr okaryotic c ell can quickl y\nmove out. Ho wever, larger euk aryotic c ells ha ve evolved diff erent s tructur al adap tations t o enhanc e cellular\ntranspor t. Indeed, the lar ge siz e of these c ells would not be pos sible without these adap tations . In g ener al, cell size\nis limit ed because v olume incr eases much mor e quickl y than does c ell sur face area. As a c ell bec omes lar ger, it\nbecomes mor e and mor e difficul t for the c ell to ac quire sufficient mat erials t o suppor t the pr ocesses inside the c ell,\nbecause the r elativ e siz e of the sur face area acr oss which mat erials mus t be tr anspor ted declines .60 3 \u2022 C ell Structure and F unction\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2799, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5fb7ed61-3142-4a12-b006-6a3cd78a8674": {"__data__": {"id_": "5fb7ed61-3142-4a12-b006-6a3cd78a8674", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "75", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e233d23d-c3a5-451e-a5c1-26862f1c63d0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "75", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6c45cc81c2cc6fb5e9ac9b6871e3facf74699d39ee0a6188d5040be0846710ed", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 3.6This fig ure sho ws the r elativ e siz es o f diff erent kinds o f cells and c ellular c omponents . An adul t human is sho wn f or\ncomparison.\n3.3Eukaryotic C ells\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the s tructur e of euk aryotic plant and animal c ells\n\u2022Stat e the r ole o f the plasma membr ane\n\u2022Summariz e the functions o f the major c ell organel les\n\u2022Describe the cyt oskeleton and e xtracellular matrix\nAt this point, it should be clear that euk aryotic c ells ha ve a mor e comple x structur e than do pr okaryotic c ells.\nOrganel les al low for various functions t o oc cur in the c ell at the same time . Bef ore discus sing the functions o f\norganel les within a euk aryotic c ell, let us firs t examine tw o impor tant c omponents o f the c ell: the plasma membr ane\nand the cyt oplasm.3.3 \u2022 Euk aryotic C ells 61", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 885, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a01f5402-32cc-4cbc-93af-ff1bd55b9fa4": {"__data__": {"id_": "a01f5402-32cc-4cbc-93af-ff1bd55b9fa4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "76", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "15d56a3a-7150-4abc-b0da-8e8defaacacf", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "76", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "25c7f1627683094f2ce1d2243dc3cc0d17deba1ad671310f13f4e8dee0388390", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 3.7This fig ure sho ws (a) a typical animal c ell and (b) a typical plant c ell.\nWhat s tructur es does a plant c ell have that an animal c ell does not ha ve? What s tructur es does an animal c ell have\nthat a plant c ell does not ha ve?\n62 3 \u2022 C ell Structure and F unction\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 337, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "022ef31a-2a21-4d07-bd36-80c09036b733": {"__data__": {"id_": "022ef31a-2a21-4d07-bd36-80c09036b733", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "77", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "682cdd0c-f2af-4d38-8afb-80ffccef80f7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "77", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f9cc3a54086e2afa1eccdf949a77e6c91106b37efbffe7b1a22cfd5d2ac23933", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The Plasma Membr ane\nLike prokaryotes, euk aryotic c ells ha ve aplasma membr ane (Figure 3.8 ) made up o f a phospholipid bila yer with\nembedded pr oteins that separ ates the int ernal c ontents o f the c ell from its surr ounding en vironment. A\nphospholipid is a lipid molecule c omposed o f two fat ty acid chains , a gl ycerol backbone , and a phosphat e group.\nThe plasma membr ane r egulates the pas sage of some subs tanc es, such as or ganic molecules , ions , and w ater,\npreventing the pas sage of some t o maintain int ernal c onditions , while activ ely bringing in or r emo ving others . Other\ncompounds mo ve pas sively acr oss the membr ane.\nFIGURE 3.8The plasma membr ane is a phospholipid bila yer with embedded pr oteins . Ther e are other c omponents , such as choles terol\nand carboh ydrates, which can be f ound in the membr ane in addition t o phospholipids and pr otein.\nThe plasma membr anes o f cells that specializ e in absorp tion ar e folded int o fing erlik e projections cal led micr ovilli\n(sing ular = micr ovillus). This f olding incr eases the sur face area o f the plasma membr ane. Such c ells ar e typical ly\nfound lining the smal l intestine, the or gan that absorbs nutrients fr om dig ested food. This is an e xcellent e xample o f\nform mat ching the function o f a s tructur e.\nPeople with c eliac disease ha ve an immune r esponse t o glut en, which is a pr otein f ound in wheat, barle y, and r ye.\nThe immune r esponse damag es micr ovilli, and thus , afflict ed individuals cannot absorb nutrients . This leads t o\nmalnutrition, cr amping , and diarrhea . Patients suff ering fr om c eliac disease mus t follow a glut en-fr ee diet.\nThe C ytoplasm\nThe cytoplasm comprises the c ontents o f a c ell betw een the plasma membr ane and the nuclear en velope (a\nstructur e to be discus sed shor tly). It is made up o f organel les suspended in the g el-likecytosol , the cyt oskeleton,\nand v arious chemicals ( Figure 3.7 ). Ev en though the cyt oplasm c onsis ts of 70 t o 80 per cent w ater, it has a semi-\nsolid c onsis tency , which c omes fr om the pr oteins within it. Ho wever, proteins ar e not the onl y organic molecules\nfound in the cyt oplasm. Gluc ose and other simple sug ars, pol ysaccharides , amino acids , nucleic acids , fatty acids ,\nand deriv atives o f glycerol ar e found ther e too. Ions o f sodium, potas sium, calcium, and man y other elements ar e\nalso dis solved in the cyt oplasm. Man y metabolic r eactions , including pr otein s ynthesis , tak e plac e in the cyt oplasm.\nThe C ytoskeleton\nIf you w ere to remo ve all the or ganel les fr om a c ell, would the plasma membr ane and the cyt oplasm be the onl y\ncomponents left? No . Within the cyt oplasm, ther e would s till be ions and or ganic molecules , plus a netw ork o f\nprotein fibers that helps t o maintain the shape o f the c ell, secur es certain or ganel les in specific positions , allows\ncytoplasm and v esicles t o mo ve within the c ell, and enables unic ellular or ganisms t o mo ve independentl y.\nCollectiv ely, this netw ork o f protein fibers is kno wn as the cytoskelet on. Ther e are thr ee types o f fibers within the\ncytoskeleton: micr ofilaments , also kno wn as actin filaments , intermediat e filaments , and micr otubules ( Figure 3.9 ).3.3 \u2022 Euk aryotic C ells 63", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3315, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f64cf34e-dd35-4407-9c14-07381dfc4eb6": {"__data__": {"id_": "f64cf34e-dd35-4407-9c14-07381dfc4eb6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "78", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "771855e0-967a-4520-9817-113b6d382f91", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "78", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "26a4efa2b0c351e06548f68de8bc388762c81088d423b810a94157580ca55063", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 3.9Micr ofilaments , intermediat e filaments , and micr otubules c ompose a c ell\u2019s cyt oskeleton.\nMicr ofilaments ar e the thinnes t of the cyt oskeletal fibers and function in mo ving c ellular c omponents , for example ,\nduring c ell division. The y also maintain the s tructur e of micr ovilli, the e xtensiv e folding o f the plasma membr ane\nfound in c ells dedicat ed to absorp tion. These c omponents ar e also c ommon in muscle c ells and ar e responsible f or\nmuscle c ell contr action. Int ermediat e filaments ar e of intermediat e diamet er and ha ve structur al functions , such as\nmaintaining the shape o f the c ell and anchoring or ganel les. Keratin, the c ompound that s trengthens hair and nails ,\nforms one type o f intermediat e filament. Micr otubules ar e the thick est of the cyt oskeletal fibers . These ar e hol low\ntubes that can dis solve and r eform quickl y. Micr otubules g uide or ganel le mo vement and ar e the s tructur es that pul l\nchromosomes t o their poles during c ell division. The y are also the s tructur al components o f flag ella and cilia . In cilia\nand flag ella, the micr otubules ar e organiz ed as a cir cle o f nine double micr otubules on the outside and tw o\nmicr otubules in the c enter.\nThe c entr osome is a r egion near the nucleus o f animal c ells that functions as a micr otubule -organizing c enter. It\ncontains a pair o f centrioles , two structur es that lie perpendicular t o each other . Each c entriole is a cylinder o f nine\ntriplets o f micr otubules .\nThe c entr osome r eplicat es itself bef ore a c ell divides , and the c entrioles pla y a r ole in pul ling the duplicat ed\nchromosomes t o opposit e ends o f the dividing c ell. Ho wever, the e xact function o f the c entrioles in c ell division is\nnot clear , sinc e cells that ha ve the c entrioles r emo ved can s till divide , and plant c ells, which lack c entrioles , are\ncapable o f cell division.\nFlagella and Cilia\nFlag ella(sing ular = flag ellum) ar e long , hair -like structur es that e xtend fr om the plasma membr ane and ar e used t o\nmove an entir e cell, (for example , sperm, Euglena ). When pr esent, the c ell has jus t one flag ellum or a f ew flag ella.\nWhen cilia (sing ular = cilium) ar e present, ho wever, the y are man y in number and e xtend along the entir e sur face of\nthe plasma membr ane. The y are shor t, hair -like structur es that ar e used t o mo ve entir e cells (such as par amecium)\nor mo ve subs tanc es along the out er sur face of the c ell (for example , the cilia o f cells lining the fal lopian tubes that\nmove the o vum t oward the ut erus , or cilia lining the c ells of the r espir atory tract that mo ve par ticulat e mat ter toward\nthe thr oat that mucus has tr apped).64 3 \u2022 C ell Structure and F unction\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2825, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0b6ed3b0-3172-45ee-8365-ff7490c2d5d6": {"__data__": {"id_": "0b6ed3b0-3172-45ee-8365-ff7490c2d5d6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "79", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6f1ec088-d7e4-4224-b0c7-266d010514d4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "79", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b7ab1cd3d2cfff86a4f50606fb21bc55142ec77aed55db6d9981a61fc3c100a3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "6e79798e-bad2-4e37-b886-8f81588839af", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "fd04a73fd1ffbe1843913a5cc97bc602b68be7a58e57c91e442beb6584079424", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The Endomembr ane S ystem\nThe endomembr ane s ystem(endo = within) is a gr oup o f membr anes and or ganel les ( Figure 3.13 ) in euk aryotic\ncells that w ork t ogether t o modif y, pack age, and tr anspor t lipids and pr oteins . It includes the nuclear en velope ,\nlysosomes , and v esicles , the endoplasmic r eticulum and Golgi appar atus , which w e wil l cover shor tly. Although not\ntechnical lywithin the c ell, the plasma membr ane is included in the endomembr ane s ystem because , as y ou wil l see ,\nit int eracts with the other endomembr anous or ganel les.\nThe Nucleus\nTypical ly, the nucleus is the mos t prominent or ganel le in a c ell (Figure 3.7 ). The nucleus (plur al = nuclei) houses the\ncell\u2019s DNA in the f orm o f chr omatin and dir ects the s ynthesis o f ribosomes and pr oteins . Let us look at it in mor e\ndetail ( Figure 3.10 ).\nFIGURE 3.10 The out ermos t boundar y of the nucleus is the nuclear en velope . Notic e that the nuclear en velope c onsis ts of two\nphospholipid bila yers (membr anes)\u2014an out er membr ane and an inner membr ane\u2014in c ontr ast to the plasma membr ane ( Figure 3.8 ), which\nconsis ts of onl y one phospholipid bila yer. (credit: modification o f work b y NIGMS, NIH)\nThe nuclear en velope is a double -membr ane s tructur e that c onstitut es the out ermos t por tion o f the nucleus\n(Figure 3.10 ). Both the inner and out er membr anes o f the nuclear en velope ar e phospholipid bila yers.\nThe nuclear en velope is punctuat ed with por es that c ontr ol the pas sage of ions , molecules , and RNA betw een the\nnucleoplasm and the cyt oplasm.\nTo unders tand chroma tin, it is help ful to firs t consider chr omosomes . Achromosome is a s tructur e within the\nnucleus that is made up o f DNA , the her editar y mat erial , and pr oteins . This c ombination o f DNA and pr oteins is\ncalled chr omatin. In euk aryotes, chr omosomes ar e linear s tructur es. Every species has a specific number o f\nchromosomes in the nucleus o f its body c ells. For example , in humans , the chr omosome number is 46, wher eas in\nfruit flies , the chr omosome number is eight.\nChromosomes ar e onl y visible and dis tinguishable fr om one another when the c ell is g etting r eady t o divide . When\nthe c ell is in the gr owth and maint enanc e phases o f its lif e cy cle, the chr omosomes r esemble an un wound, jumbled\nbunch o f thr eads .\nWe alr eady kno w that the nucleus dir ects the s ynthesis o f ribosomes , but ho w does it do this? Some chr omosomes\nhave sections o f DNA that enc ode ribosomal RNA . A darkl y staining ar ea within the nucleus , cal led the nucleolus\n(plur al = nucleoli), ag gregates the ribosomal RNA with as sociat ed pr oteins t o as semble the ribosomal subunits that\nare then tr anspor ted thr ough the nuclear por es int o the cyt oplasm.\nThe Endoplasmic R eticulum\nThe endoplasmic r eticulum (ER) (Figure 3.13 ) is a series o f interconnect ed membr anous tubules that c ollectiv ely\nmodif y proteins and s ynthesiz e lipids . Ho wever, these tw o functions ar e per formed in separ ate areas o f the\nendoplasmic r eticulum: the r ough endoplasmic r eticulum and the smooth endoplasmic r eticulum, r espectiv ely.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3189, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6e79798e-bad2-4e37-b886-8f81588839af": {"__data__": {"id_": "6e79798e-bad2-4e37-b886-8f81588839af", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "79", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6f1ec088-d7e4-4224-b0c7-266d010514d4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "79", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b7ab1cd3d2cfff86a4f50606fb21bc55142ec77aed55db6d9981a61fc3c100a3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "0b6ed3b0-3172-45ee-8365-ff7490c2d5d6", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "79", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fb2fa0f14b5622b28fb069196ee48cd7f3b1d6ee3511548ade21c1f37da1f0eb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "A darkl y staining ar ea within the nucleus , cal led the nucleolus\n(plur al = nucleoli), ag gregates the ribosomal RNA with as sociat ed pr oteins t o as semble the ribosomal subunits that\nare then tr anspor ted thr ough the nuclear por es int o the cyt oplasm.\nThe Endoplasmic R eticulum\nThe endoplasmic r eticulum (ER) (Figure 3.13 ) is a series o f interconnect ed membr anous tubules that c ollectiv ely\nmodif y proteins and s ynthesiz e lipids . Ho wever, these tw o functions ar e per formed in separ ate areas o f the\nendoplasmic r eticulum: the r ough endoplasmic r eticulum and the smooth endoplasmic r eticulum, r espectiv ely.\nThe hol low por tion o f the ER tubules is cal led the lumen or cis ternal spac e. The membr ane o f the ER, which is a\nphospholipid bila yer embedded with pr oteins , is c ontinuous with the nuclear en velope .3.3 \u2022 Euk aryotic C ells 65", "start_char_idx": 2551, "end_char_idx": 3428, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "15041d32-c2ca-403f-8e7b-507237bbcf77": {"__data__": {"id_": "15041d32-c2ca-403f-8e7b-507237bbcf77", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "80", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "afa995eb-b1dd-4841-9572-7bb5eee86130", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "80", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c4746e45624bfe94be255290bb5b30e1dfc40b61d5eb6360f7eeaedcdff76442", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "f335f4a9-d6fc-449a-902e-6e139c49c6f2", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "62c9c7cf700a683e6a1d32715bf5d9c7a6c09f67d0eff49e25dcf273f21a80cf", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The rough endoplasmic r eticulum (RER) is so named because the ribosomes at tached t o its cyt oplasmic sur face\ngive it a s tudded appear ance when vie wed thr ough an electr on micr oscope.\nThe ribosomes s ynthesiz e proteins while at tached t o the ER, r esul ting in tr ansfer of their ne wly synthesiz ed pr oteins\ninto the lumen o f the RER wher e the y under go modifications such as f olding or addition o f sug ars. The RER also\nmak es phospholipids f or cell membr anes .\nIf the phospholipids or modified pr oteins ar e not des tined t o stay in the RER, the y wil l be pack aged within v esicles\nand tr anspor ted fr om the RER b y budding fr om the membr ane ( Figure 3.13 ). Sinc e the RER is eng aged in modif ying\nproteins that wil l be secr eted fr om the c ell, it is abundant in c ells that secr ete proteins , such as the liv er.\nThe smoo th endoplasmic r eticulum (SER) is continuous with the RER but has f ew or no ribosomes on its\ncytoplasmic sur face (see Figure 3.7 ). The SER\u2019 s functions include s ynthesis o f carboh ydrates, lipids (including\nphospholipids), and s teroid hormones; det oxification o f medications and poisons; alc ohol metabolism; and s torage\nof calcium ions .\nThe Golgi Appar atus\nWe ha ve alr eady mentioned that v esicles can bud fr om the ER, but wher e do the v esicles g o? Bef ore reaching their\nfinal des tination, the lipids or pr oteins within the tr anspor t vesicles need t o be sor ted, pack aged, and tag ged so that\nthey wind up in the right plac e. The sor ting, tag ging , pack aging , and dis tribution o f lipids and pr oteins tak e plac e in\ntheGolgi appar atus(also cal led the Golgi body), a series o f flat tened membr anous sacs ( Figure 3.11 ).\nFIGURE 3.11 The Golgi appar atus in this tr ansmis sion electr on micr ograph o f a whit e blood c ell is visible as a s tack o f semicir cular\nflattened rings in the lo wer por tion o f this imag e. Several vesicles can be seen near the Golgi appar atus . (credit: modification o f work b y\nLouisa Ho ward; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nThe Golgi appar atus has a r eceiving fac e near the endoplasmic r eticulum and a r eleasing fac e on the side a way from\nthe ER, t oward the c ell membr ane. The tr anspor t vesicles that f orm fr om the ER tr avel to the r eceiving fac e, fuse\nwith it, and emp ty their c ontents int o the lumen o f the Golgi appar atus . As the pr oteins and lipids tr avel thr ough the\nGolgi, the y under go fur ther modifications . The mos t frequent modification is the addition o f shor t chains o f sug ar\nmolecules . The ne wly modified pr oteins and lipids ar e then tag ged with smal l molecular gr oups t o enable them t o\nbe routed to their pr oper des tinations .\nFinal ly, the modified and tag ged pr oteins ar e pack aged int o vesicles that bud fr om the opposit e fac e of the Golgi.\nWhile some o f these v esicles , transpor t vesicles , deposit their c ontents int o other par ts of the c ell wher e the y wil l be\nused, others , secr etory vesicles , fuse with the plasma membr ane and r elease their c ontents outside the c ell.\nThe amount o f Golgi in diff erent c ell types ag ain il lustrates that f orm f ollows function within c ells.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3207, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f335f4a9-d6fc-449a-902e-6e139c49c6f2": {"__data__": {"id_": "f335f4a9-d6fc-449a-902e-6e139c49c6f2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "80", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "afa995eb-b1dd-4841-9572-7bb5eee86130", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "80", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c4746e45624bfe94be255290bb5b30e1dfc40b61d5eb6360f7eeaedcdff76442", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "15041d32-c2ca-403f-8e7b-507237bbcf77", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "80", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3b03a2d60e0e62599c00eeaa000683477e8ea2318d6bbd3f4df55dd5a764fa36", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The ne wly modified pr oteins and lipids ar e then tag ged with smal l molecular gr oups t o enable them t o\nbe routed to their pr oper des tinations .\nFinal ly, the modified and tag ged pr oteins ar e pack aged int o vesicles that bud fr om the opposit e fac e of the Golgi.\nWhile some o f these v esicles , transpor t vesicles , deposit their c ontents int o other par ts of the c ell wher e the y wil l be\nused, others , secr etory vesicles , fuse with the plasma membr ane and r elease their c ontents outside the c ell.\nThe amount o f Golgi in diff erent c ell types ag ain il lustrates that f orm f ollows function within c ells. Cel ls that eng age\nin a gr eat deal o f secr etory activity (such as c ells of the saliv ary glands that secr ete dig estive enzymes or c ells of the\nimmune s ystem that secr ete antibodies) ha ve an abundant number o f Golgi.\nIn plant c ells, the Golgi has an additional r ole o f synthesizing pol ysaccharides , some o f which ar e inc orpor ated int o\nthe c ell wall and some o f which ar e used in other par ts of the c ell.\nLysosomes\nIn animal c ells, the lysosomes are the c ell\u2019s \u201cgarbag e disposal .\u201d Dig estive enzymes within the l ysosomes aid the\nbreakdown o f proteins , pol ysaccharides , lipids , nucleic acids , and e ven w orn-out or ganel les. In single -celled66 3 \u2022 C ell Structure and F unction\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2572, "end_char_idx": 3957, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fdcf3212-a296-4d21-9fee-5bff17a4e517": {"__data__": {"id_": "fdcf3212-a296-4d21-9fee-5bff17a4e517", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "81", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f3eec3ef-9d45-4ca3-9d2a-2442e7181d54", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "81", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e3ecef40c7ef3237aa38858995a5dc9745d20d43ccde40495303919d5c2c4519", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "eukaryotes, lysosomes ar e impor tant f or dig estion o f the f ood the y ing est and the r ecycling o f organel les. These\nenzymes ar e activ e at a much lo wer pH (mor e acidic) than those locat ed in the cyt oplasm. Man y reactions that tak e\nplac e in the cyt oplasm c ould not oc cur at a lo w pH, thus the adv antag e of compar tmentalizing the euk aryotic c ell\ninto organel les is appar ent.\nLysosomes also use their h ydrolytic enzymes t o des troy disease -causing or ganisms that might ent er the c ell. A g ood\nexample o f this oc curs in a gr oup o f whit e blood c ells cal led macr ophag es, which ar e par t of your body \u2019s immune\nsystem. In a pr ocess kno wn as phag ocyt osis , a section o f the plasma membr ane o f the macr ophag e invaginat es\n(folds in) and eng ulfs a pathog en. The in vaginat ed section, with the pathog en inside , then pinches itself o ff from the\nplasma membr ane and bec omes a v esicle . The v esicle fuses with a l ysosome . The l ysosome \u2019s hydrolytic enzymes\nthen des troy the pathog en (Figure 3.12 ).\nFIGURE 3.12 A macr ophag e has phag ocytiz ed a pot ential ly pathog enic bact erium int o a v esicle , which then fuses with a l ysosome within\nthe c ell so that the pathog en can be des troyed. Other or ganel les ar e present in the c ell, but f or simplicity , are not sho wn.\nVesicles and V acuoles\nVesicles and vacuoles are membr ane-bound sacs that function in s torage and tr anspor t. Vacuoles ar e some what\nlarger than v esicles , and the membr ane o f a v acuole does not fuse with the membr anes o f other c ellular\ncomponents . Vesicles can fuse with other membr anes within the c ell system. Additional ly, enzymes within plant\nvacuoles can br eak do wn macr omolecules .3.3 \u2022 Euk aryotic C ells 67", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1764, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "207b3854-52fa-4c37-bcee-56db517ecf30": {"__data__": {"id_": "207b3854-52fa-4c37-bcee-56db517ecf30", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "82", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "97d10d83-7e27-43b0-a249-491bfa4f8f5e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "82", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "30165c54298103785e18596676adc4541eecac86f1056893006051442aa939e6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 3.13 The endomembr ane s ystem w orks to modif y, pack age, and tr anspor t lipids and pr oteins . (credit: modification o f work b y\nMagnus Mansk e)\nWhy does the cisface of the Golgi not fac e the plasma membr ane?\nRibosomes\nRibosomes are the c ellular s tructur es responsible f or pr otein s ynthesis . When vie wed thr ough an electr on\nmicr oscope, free ribosomes appear as either clus ters or single tin y dots floating fr eely in the cyt oplasm. Ribosomes\nmay be at tached t o either the cyt oplasmic side o f the plasma membr ane or the cyt oplasmic side o f the endoplasmic\nreticulum ( Figure 3.7 ). Electr on micr oscopy has sho wn that ribosomes c onsis t of large and smal l subunits .\nRibosomes ar e enzyme c omple xes that ar e responsible f or pr otein s ynthesis .\nBecause pr otein s ynthesis is es sential f or al l cells, ribosomes ar e found in pr actical ly every cell, although the y are\nsmal ler in pr okaryotic c ells. The y are par ticularl y abundant in immatur e red blood c ells for the s ynthesis o f\nhemoglobin, which functions in the tr anspor t of oxygen thr oughout the body .\nMitochondria\nMitochondria (sing ular = mit ochondrion) ar e often cal led the \u201c powerhouses\u201d or \u201c ener gy fact ories\u201d o f a c ell because\nthey are responsible f or making adenosine triphosphat e (ATP), the c ell\u2019s main ener gy-carr ying molecule . The\nformation o f ATP fr om the br eakdown o f gluc ose is kno wn as c ellular r espir ation. Mit ochondria ar e oval-shaped,\ndouble -membr ane or ganel les ( Figure 3.14 ) that ha ve their o wn ribosomes and DNA . Each membr ane is a\nphospholipid bila yer embedded with pr oteins . The inner la yer has f olds cal led cris tae, which incr ease the sur face\narea o f the inner membr ane. The ar ea surr ounded b y the f olds is cal led the mit ochondrial matrix. The cris tae and\nthe matrix ha ve diff erent r oles in c ellular r espir ation.\nIn keeping with our theme o f form f ollowing function, it is impor tant t o point out that muscle c ells ha ve a v ery high\nconcentr ation o f mit ochondria because muscle c ells need a lot o f ener gy to contr act.\n68 3 \u2022 C ell Structure and F unction\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2215, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "80370164-2f44-4c57-a282-5ddef8d86321": {"__data__": {"id_": "80370164-2f44-4c57-a282-5ddef8d86321", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "83", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0559ae3f-1660-425e-9564-e8104d18d31f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "83", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ea8364b5c08c956f73304ddf1d9bd9278d22cbfa35bc4417a3d3a4cafe18420f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 3.14 This tr ansmis sion electr on micr ograph sho ws a mit ochondrion as vie wed with an electr on micr oscope. Notic e the inner and\nouter membr anes , the cris tae, and the mit ochondrial matrix. (cr edit: modification o f work b y Mat thew Brit ton; scale -bar data fr om Mat t\nRussell)\nPeroxisomes\nPeroxisomes are smal l, round or ganel les enclosed b y single membr anes . The y carr y out o xidation r eactions that\nbreak do wn fat ty acids and amino acids . The y also det oxify man y poisons that ma y ent er the body . Alc ohol is\ndetoxified b y per oxisomes in liv er cells. A b yproduct o f these o xidation r eactions is h ydrogen per oxide , H2O2, which\nis contained within the per oxisomes t o prevent the chemical fr om causing damag e to cellular c omponents outside\nof the or ganel le. Hydrogen per oxide is saf ely broken do wn b y per oxisomal enzymes int o water and o xygen.\nAnimal C ells v ersus Plant C ells\nDespit e their fundamental similarities , ther e are some s triking diff erences betw een animal and plant c ells (see Table\n3.1). Animal c ells ha ve centrioles , centr osomes (discus sed under the cyt oskeleton), and l ysosomes , wher eas plant\ncells do not. Plant c ells ha ve a c ell wall, chlor oplas ts, plasmodesmata , and plas tids used f or storage, and a lar ge\ncentr al vacuole , wher eas animal c ells do not.\nThe C ell W all\nInFigure 3.7 b, the diagr am o f a plant c ell, you see a s tructur e external t o the plasma membr ane cal led the c ell wall.\nThe cell wallis a rigid c overing that pr otects the c ell, provides s tructur al suppor t, and giv es shape t o the c ell. Fungal\nand pr otist cells also ha ve cell walls.\nWhile the chief c omponent o f prokaryotic c ell walls is pep tidogl ycan, the major or ganic molecule in the plant c ell\nwall is c ellulose , a pol ysaccharide made up o f long , straight chains o f gluc ose units . When nutritional inf ormation\nrefers t o dietar y fiber , it is r eferring t o the c ellulose c ontent o f food.\nChlor oplas ts\nLike mit ochondria , chlor oplas ts also ha ve their o wn DNA and ribosomes .Chlor oplas tsfunction in phot osynthesis\nand can be f ound in euk aryotic c ells such as plants and alg ae. In phot osynthesis , carbon dio xide , water, and light\nener gy are used t o mak e gluc ose and o xygen. This is the major diff erence betw een plants and animals: Plants\n(aut otrophs) ar e able t o mak e their o wn f ood, lik e gluc ose, wher eas animals (het erotrophs) mus t rely on other\norganisms f or their or ganic c ompounds or f ood sour ce.\nLike mit ochondria , chlor oplas ts ha ve out er and inner membr anes , but within the spac e enclosed b y a chlor oplas t\u2019s\ninner membr ane is a set o f interconnect ed and s tack ed, fluid-fil led membr ane sacs cal led th ylak oids ( Figure 3.15 ).\nEach s tack o f thylak oids is cal led a gr anum (plur al = gr ana). The fluid enclosed b y the inner membr ane and\nsurr ounding the gr ana is cal led the s troma .3.3 \u2022 Euk aryotic C ells 69", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3003, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2ee11059-2ac3-4462-852f-5877644c007f": {"__data__": {"id_": "2ee11059-2ac3-4462-852f-5877644c007f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "84", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "64b27bb5-c4c8-406a-b84a-0752c5a92fa6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "84", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8cde39be43507dcd81f4aec59b6d015dc850a2313eb1438feb9cb857a0457cc3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "0ea702c3-dec5-4fd0-bbec-adb22dfeffac", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "8b8970991d1965d67bb5b19442abe5498b3d52b43b0632986ef06da30a31fe05", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 3.15 This simplified diagr am o f a chlor oplas t sho ws the out er membr ane, inner membr ane, thylak oids , grana, and s troma .\nThe chlor oplas ts contain a gr een pigment cal led chlor ophyll, which cap tures the ener gy of sunlight f or\nphot osynthesis . Like plant c ells, phot osynthetic pr otists also ha ve chlor oplas ts. Some bact eria also per form\nphot osynthesis , but the y do not ha ve chlor oplas ts. Their phot osynthetic pigments ar e locat ed in the th ylak oid\nmembr ane within the c ell itself .\nEVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nEndos ymbiosis\nWe ha ve mentioned that both mit ochondria and chlor oplas ts contain DNA and ribosomes . Have you w onder ed wh y?\nStrong e videnc e points t o endos ymbiosis as the e xplanation.\nSymbiosis is a r elationship in which or ganisms fr om tw o separ ate species liv e in close as sociation and typical ly\nexhibit specific adap tations t o each other . Endos ymbiosis ( endo -= within) is a r elationship in which one or ganism\nlives inside the other . Endos ymbiotic r elationships abound in natur e. Micr obes that pr oduc e vitamin K liv e inside the\nhuman g ut. This r elationship is beneficial f or us because w e are unable t o synthesiz e vitamin K . It is also beneficial\nfor the micr obes because the y are protected fr om other or ganisms and ar e provided a s table habitat and abundant\nfood b y living within the lar ge int estine.\nScientis ts ha ve long notic ed that bact eria, mit ochondria , and chlor oplas ts ar e similar in siz e and ha ve other similar\nfeatur es. In the 1950s and 1960s , scientis ts disc overed that mit ochondria and chlor oplas ts ha ve their o wn DNA and\nribosomes , jus t as bact eria do . In 1967, L ynn Mar gulis used micr obial e videnc e in her pr oposal o f endos ymbiotic\ntheor y, which indicat ed that these or ganel les originat ed fr om separ ate organisms . Although Mar gulis\u2019 s work w as\nmet with r esistanc e, this basic c omponent o f this onc e-revolutionar y hypothesis is no w widel y accepted. Scientis ts\nbelie ve that hos t cells and bact eria f ormed a mutual ly beneficial endos ymbiotic r elationship when the hos t cells\ningested aer obic bact eria and cy anobact eria but did not des troy them. Thr ough e volution, these ing ested bact eria\nbecame mor e specializ ed in their functions , with the aer obic bact eria bec oming mit ochondria and the\nphot osynthetic bact eria bec oming chlor oplas ts.\nThe C entral Vacuole\nPreviousl y, we mentioned v acuoles as es sential c omponents o f plant c ells. If y ou look at Figure 3.7 , you wil l see that\nplant c ells each ha ve a lar ge, centr al vacuole that oc cupies mos t of the c ell. The centr al vacuole plays a k ey role in\nregulating the c ell\u2019s concentr ation o f water in changing en vironmental c onditions . In plant c ells, the liquid inside the\ncentr al vacuole pr ovides tur gor pr essure, which is the outw ard pressure caused b y the fluid inside the c ell. Have you\never notic ed that if y ou forget to water a plant f or a f ew da ys, it wil ts? That is because as the w ater concentr ation in\nthe soil bec omes lo wer than the w ater concentr ation in the plant, w ater mo ves out o f the c entr al vacuoles and\ncytoplasm and int o the soil . As the c entr al vacuole shrink s, it lea ves the c ell wall unsuppor ted.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3310, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0ea702c3-dec5-4fd0-bbec-adb22dfeffac": {"__data__": {"id_": "0ea702c3-dec5-4fd0-bbec-adb22dfeffac", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "84", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "64b27bb5-c4c8-406a-b84a-0752c5a92fa6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "84", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8cde39be43507dcd81f4aec59b6d015dc850a2313eb1438feb9cb857a0457cc3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "2ee11059-2ac3-4462-852f-5877644c007f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "84", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b8c2f8a83ccac91b75a361fa262d2fefe823285fa30004ff5c453338d1c5a6f1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The centr al vacuole plays a k ey role in\nregulating the c ell\u2019s concentr ation o f water in changing en vironmental c onditions . In plant c ells, the liquid inside the\ncentr al vacuole pr ovides tur gor pr essure, which is the outw ard pressure caused b y the fluid inside the c ell. Have you\never notic ed that if y ou forget to water a plant f or a f ew da ys, it wil ts? That is because as the w ater concentr ation in\nthe soil bec omes lo wer than the w ater concentr ation in the plant, w ater mo ves out o f the c entr al vacuoles and\ncytoplasm and int o the soil . As the c entr al vacuole shrink s, it lea ves the c ell wall unsuppor ted. This los s of suppor t\nto the c ell walls of a plant r esul ts in the wil ted appear ance. Additional ly, this fluid has a v ery bit ter tas te, which\ndisc ourages consump tion b y insects and animals . The c entr al vacuole also functions t o store proteins in de veloping\n70 3 \u2022 C ell Structure and F unction\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2662, "end_char_idx": 3655, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5ec799df-e376-4d20-82f5-329b9335df5f": {"__data__": {"id_": "5ec799df-e376-4d20-82f5-329b9335df5f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "85", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "03f547e5-2fce-4828-bf10-17e63e6eacfd", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "85", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7ef7ef4acaab2b00cf556c90ec11d954310513d60630e16dde180de7b7869292", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "seed c ells.\nExtracellular Matrix o f Animal C ells\nMos t animal c ells release mat erials int o the e xtracellular spac e. The primar y components o f these mat erials ar e\nglycoproteins and the pr otein c ollagen. Col lectiv ely, these mat erials ar e cal led the extracellular ma trix (Figure\n3.16 ). Not onl y does the e xtracellular matrix hold the c ells together t o form a tis sue, but it also al lows the c ells\nwithin the tis sue t o communicat e with each other .\nFIGURE 3.16 The e xtracellular matrix c onsis ts of a netw ork o f subs tanc es secr eted b y cells.\nBlood clot ting pr ovides an e xample o f the r ole o f the e xtracellular matrix in c ell communication. When the c ells\nlining a blood v essel ar e damag ed, the y displa y a pr otein r eceptor cal led tis sue fact or. When tis sue fact or binds with\nanother fact or in the e xtracellular matrix, it causes plat elets t o adher e to the w all of the damag ed blood v essel,\nstimulat es adjac ent smooth muscle c ells in the blood v essel t o contr act (thus c onstricting the blood v essel), and\ninitiat es a series o f steps that s timulat e the plat elets t o produc e clot ting fact ors.\nIntercellular Junc tions\nCells can also c ommunicat e with each other b y dir ect c ontact, r eferred to as int ercellular junctions . Ther e are some\ndifferences in the w ays that plant and animal c ells do this .Plasmodesma ta(sing ular = plasmodesma) ar e junctions\nbetw een plant c ells, wher eas animal c ell contacts include tight and g ap junctions , and desmosomes .\nIn gener al, long s tretches o f the plasma membr anes o f neighboring plant c ells cannot t ouch one another because\nthey are separ ated b y the c ell walls surr ounding each c ell. Plasmodesmata ar e numer ous channels that pas s\nbetw een the c ell walls of adjac ent plant c ells, connecting their cyt oplasm and enabling signal molecules and\nnutrients t o be tr anspor ted fr om c ell to cell (Figure 3.17 a).3.3 \u2022 Euk aryotic C ells 71", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1984, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d04b42fa-a760-40e5-bb71-adf20abbf7ed": {"__data__": {"id_": "d04b42fa-a760-40e5-bb71-adf20abbf7ed", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "86", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f7a5a011-3c03-4f97-8d89-f30906fbc102", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "86", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e67be7296117e4de7c30b6cd0fab29d823fe22a132fd4735eecd535caa83fb81", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 3.17 Ther e are four kinds o f connections betw een c ells. (a) A plasmodesma is a channel betw een the c ell walls of two adjac ent\nplant c ells. (b) Tight junctions join adjac ent animal c ells. (c) Desmosomes join tw o animal c ells together . (d) Gap junctions act as channels\nbetw een animal c ells. (credit b , c, d: modification o f work b y Mariana Ruiz Vil lareal)\nAtight junction is a w atertight seal betw een tw o adjac ent animal c ells (Figure 3.17 b). Proteins hold the c ells tightl y\nagains t each other . This tight adhesion pr events mat erials fr om leaking betw een the c ells. Tight junctions ar e\ntypical ly found in the epithelial tis sue that lines int ernal or gans and ca vities , and c omposes mos t of the skin. F or\nexample , the tight junctions o f the epithelial c ells lining the urinar y bladder pr event urine fr om leaking int o the\nextracellular spac e.\nAlso f ound onl y in animal c ells ar edesmosomes , which act lik e spot w elds betw een adjac ent epithelial c ells (Figure\n3.17 c). The y keep c ells together in a sheet -like formation in or gans and tis sues that s tretch, lik e the skin, hear t, and\nmuscles .\nGap junctions in animal c ells ar e lik e plasmodesmata in plant c ells in that the y are channels betw een adjac ent c ells\nthat al low for the tr anspor t of ions , nutrients , and other subs tanc es that enable c ells to communicat e (Figure 3.17 d).\nStructur ally, however, gap junctions and plasmodesmata diff er.72 3 \u2022 C ell Structure and F unction\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1551, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b07d0aa2-0b35-4d53-bb6c-f60a926cdd40": {"__data__": {"id_": "b07d0aa2-0b35-4d53-bb6c-f60a926cdd40", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "87", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "dd8969d1-f5a1-431d-b1fd-96903e89fddd", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "87", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "02b6e6c9fc4b75d89de45d3d8c8a7a0ba217c6791b51c010b9b05029d3896b23", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Components o f Prokaryotic and Euk aryotic Cel ls and Their F unctions\nCell\nComponentFunctionPresent in\nProkaryotes?Present\nin\nAnimal\nCells?Present\nin Plant\nCells?\nPlasma\nmembr aneSepar ates cell from e xternal en vironment; c ontr ols\npassage of organic molecules , ions , water, oxygen,\nand w astes int o and out o f the c ellYes Yes Yes\nCytoplasmProvides s tructur e to cell; sit e of man y metabolic\nreactions; medium in which or ganel les ar e foundYes Yes Yes\nNucleoid Location o f DNA Yes No No\nNucleusCell organel le that houses DNA and dir ects s ynthesis\nof ribosomes and pr oteinsNo Yes Yes\nRibosomes Protein s ynthesis Yes Yes Yes\nMitochondria ATP pr oduction/c ellular r espir ation No Yes Yes\nPeroxisomesOxidiz es and br eaks do wn fat ty acids and amino\nacids , and det oxifies poisonsNo Yes Yes\nVesicles and\nvacuolesStorage and tr anspor t; dig estive function in plant c ells No Yes Yes\nCentr osomeUnspecified r ole in c ell division in animal c ells;\norganizing c enter of micr otubules in animal c ellsNo Yes No\nLysosomesDigestion o f macr omolecules; r ecycling o f worn-out\norganel lesNo Yes No\nCell wallProtection, s tructur al suppor t and maint enanc e of cell\nshapeYes, primaril y\npeptidogl ycan\nin bact eria but\nnot Ar chaeaNoYes,\nprimaril y\ncellulose\nChlor oplas ts Phot osynthesis No No Yes\nEndoplasmic\nreticulumModifies pr oteins and s ynthesiz es lipids No Yes Yes\nGolgi\nappar atusModifies , sor ts, tags , pack ages, and dis tribut es lipids\nand pr oteinsNo Yes Yes\nTABLE 3.13.3 \u2022 Euk aryotic C ells 73", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1533, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c8612f82-27b4-45d7-a981-91b7de335923": {"__data__": {"id_": "c8612f82-27b4-45d7-a981-91b7de335923", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "88", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e2f0dda6-1e4d-4a26-98f9-e73725de6f26", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "88", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "796aa884f5f85a451b149b5ea268c92f502473290a43153c784ee7702c1320e2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Cell\nComponentFunctionPresent in\nProkaryotes?Present\nin\nAnimal\nCells?Present\nin Plant\nCells?\nCytoskeletonMaintains c ell\u2019s shape , secur es or ganel les in specific\npositions , allows cyt oplasm and v esicles t o mo ve\nwithin the c ell, and enables unic ellular or ganisms t o\nmove independentl yYes Yes Yes\nFlag ella Cellular loc omotion Some SomeNo,\nexcept\nfor some\nplant\nsperm.\nCiliaCellular loc omotion, mo vement o f par ticles along\nextracellular sur face of plasma membr ane, and\nfiltrationNo Some No\nTABLE 3.1\nThis table pr ovides the c omponents o f prokaryotic and euk aryotic c ells and their r espectiv e functions .\n3.4The C ell Membr ane\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Unders tand the fluid mosaic model o f membr anes\n\u2022Describe the functions o f phospholipids , proteins , and carboh ydrates in membr anes\nA cell\u2019s plasma membr ane defines the boundar y of the c ell and det ermines the natur e of its c ontact with the\nenvironment. Cel ls exclude some subs tanc es, tak e in others , and e xcrete still others , all in c ontr olled quantities .\nPlasma membr anes enclose the bor ders o f cells, but r ather than being a s tatic bag , the y are dynamic and c onstantl y\nin flux. The plasma membr ane mus t be sufficientl y fle xible t o allow certain c ells, such as r ed blood c ells and whit e\nblood c ells, to chang e shape as the y pas s thr ough narr ow capil laries . These ar e the mor e ob vious functions o f a\nplasma membr ane. In addition, the sur face of the plasma membr ane carries mark ers that al low cells to recogniz e\none another , which is vital as tis sues and or gans f orm during earl y de velopment, and which lat er pla ys a r ole in the\n\u201cself\u201d versus \u201c non-self \u201d dis tinction o f the immune r esponse .\nThe plasma membr ane also carries r eceptors, which ar e attachment sit es for specific subs tanc es that int eract with\nthe c ell. Each r eceptor is s tructur ed to bind with a specific subs tanc e. For example , sur face receptors o f the\nmembr ane cr eate chang es in the int erior , such as chang es in enzymes o f metabolic path ways. These metabolic\npath ways might be vital f or pr oviding the c ell with ener gy, making specific subs tanc es for the c ell, or br eaking do wn\ncellular w aste or t oxins f or disposal . Receptors on the plasma membr ane\u2019s exterior sur face int eract with hormones\nor neur otransmit ters, and al low their mes sages to be tr ansmit ted int o the c ell. Some r ecognition sit es ar e used b y\nviruses as at tachment points . Although the y are highl y specific, pathog ens lik e viruses ma y evolve to exploit\nreceptors t o gain entr y to a c ell by mimicking the specific subs tanc e that the r eceptor is meant t o bind. This\nspecificity helps t o explain wh y human immunodeficiency virus (HIV ) or an y of the fiv e types o f hepatitis viruses\ninvade onl y specific c ells.\nFluid Mosaic Model\nIn 1972, S. J . Sing er and Gar th L. Nic olson pr oposed a ne w model o f the plasma membr ane that, c ompar ed to\nearlier unders tanding , bet ter explained both micr oscopic obser vations and the function o f the plasma membr ane.\nThis w as cal led the fluid mosaic model . The model has e volved some what o ver time , but s till bes t accounts f or the74 3 \u2022 C ell Structure and F unction\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3353, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fa5a316d-132d-4cfe-93e4-1e93996ae48f": {"__data__": {"id_": "fa5a316d-132d-4cfe-93e4-1e93996ae48f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "89", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e036d71a-4442-4217-9fb8-cf643d561a77", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "89", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dbc9a3fe67d0ff482431d7fa56d278e217319caeec46f5ad6a36a983ff06523a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "74fc1217-e7e5-4aa4-a978-0656a93a8fcb", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "b3626b659c148a02349866fe63359ffd1624908fb2d44af427b62f09dbc3b92b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "structur e and functions o f the plasma membr ane as w e no w unders tand them. The fluid mosaic model describes\nthe s tructur e of the plasma membr ane as a mosaic o f components \u2014including phospholipids , choles terol, proteins ,\nand carboh ydrates\u2014in which the c omponents ar e able t o flo w and chang e position, while maintaining the basic\nintegrity o f the membr ane. Both phospholipid molecules and embedded pr oteins ar e able t o diffuse r apidl y and\nlaterally in the membr ane. The fluidity o f the plasma membr ane is nec essary for the activities o f certain enzymes\nand tr anspor t molecules within the membr ane. Plasma membr anes r ange from 5\u201310 nm thick. As a c omparison,\nhuman r ed blood c ells, visible via light micr oscopy, are appr oximat ely 8 \u00b5m thick, or appr oximat ely 1,000 times\nthick er than a plasma membr ane. (Figure 3.18 )\nFIGURE 3.18 The fluid mosaic model o f the plasma membr ane s tructur e describes the plasma membr ane as a fluid c ombination o f\nphospholipids , choles terol, proteins , and carboh ydrates.\nThe plasma membr ane is made up primaril y of a bila yer of phospholipids with embedded pr oteins , carboh ydrates,\nglycolipids , and gl ycoproteins , and, in animal c ells, choles terol. The amount o f choles terol in animal plasma\nmembr anes r egulates the fluidity o f the membr ane and chang es based on the t emper atur e of the c ell\u2019s\nenvironment. In other w ords, choles terol acts as antifr eeze in the c ell membr ane and is mor e abundant in animals\nthat liv e in c old climat es.\nThe main fabric o f the membr ane is c omposed o f two layers o f phospholipid molecules , and the polar ends o f these\nmolecules (which look lik e a c ollection o f bal ls in an ar tist\u2019s rendition o f the model) ( Figure 3.18 ) are in c ontact with\naqueous fluid both inside and outside the c ell. Thus , both sur faces o f the plasma membr ane ar e hydrophilic. In\ncontr ast, the int erior o f the membr ane, betw een its tw o sur faces, is a h ydrophobic or nonpolar r egion because o f the\nfatty acid tails . This r egion has no at traction f or w ater or other polar molecules .\nProteins mak e up the sec ond major chemical c omponent o f plasma membr anes . Int egral pr oteins ar e embedded in\nthe plasma membr ane and ma y span al l or par t of the membr ane. Int egral pr oteins ma y ser ve as channels or pumps\nto mo ve mat erials int o or out o f the c ell. Peripher al pr oteins ar e found on the e xterior or int erior sur faces o f\nmembr anes , attached either t o int egral pr oteins or t o phospholipid molecules . Both int egral and peripher al pr oteins\nmay ser ve as enzymes , as s tructur al at tachments f or the fibers o f the cyt oskeleton, or as par t of the c ell\u2019s\nrecognition sit es.\nCarboh ydrates ar e the thir d major c omponent o f plasma membr anes . The y are always found on the e xterior sur face\nof cells and ar e bound either t o proteins (f orming gl ycoproteins) or t o lipids (f orming gl ycolipids). These\ncarboh ydrate chains ma y consis t of 2\u201360 monosac charide units and ma y be either s traight or br anched. Along with\nperipher al pr oteins , carboh ydrates form specializ ed sit es on the c ell sur face that al low cells to recogniz e each other .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3241, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "74fc1217-e7e5-4aa4-a978-0656a93a8fcb": {"__data__": {"id_": "74fc1217-e7e5-4aa4-a978-0656a93a8fcb", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "89", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e036d71a-4442-4217-9fb8-cf643d561a77", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "89", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dbc9a3fe67d0ff482431d7fa56d278e217319caeec46f5ad6a36a983ff06523a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "fa5a316d-132d-4cfe-93e4-1e93996ae48f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "89", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "703487026b8c90b13f1d87efa9f46cc4649b1b403ddd899b0b028ca4fde712dd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Carboh ydrates ar e the thir d major c omponent o f plasma membr anes . The y are always found on the e xterior sur face\nof cells and ar e bound either t o proteins (f orming gl ycoproteins) or t o lipids (f orming gl ycolipids). These\ncarboh ydrate chains ma y consis t of 2\u201360 monosac charide units and ma y be either s traight or br anched. Along with\nperipher al pr oteins , carboh ydrates form specializ ed sit es on the c ell sur face that al low cells to recogniz e each other .\nEVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nHow Viruses Inf ect Specific Or gans\nSpecific gl ycoprotein molecules e xposed on the sur face of the c ell membr anes o f hos t cells ar e exploit ed b y man y\nviruses t o inf ect specific or gans. For example , HIV is able t o penetr ate the plasma membr anes o f specific kinds o f\n3.4 \u2022 The C ell Membr ane 75", "start_char_idx": 2756, "end_char_idx": 3578, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8ed37235-65e6-4e0f-8e73-8ac6916b918a": {"__data__": {"id_": "8ed37235-65e6-4e0f-8e73-8ac6916b918a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "90", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cf36cef9-6bd7-4e6a-a79c-dd35dc5358bf", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "90", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "81352a5a26082dd2d9eb8a7b44f77d713a986e10800014bbc0ee25a104b5c064", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "whit e blood c ells cal led T -helper c ells and monocyt es, as w ell as some c ells of the c entr al ner vous s ystem. The\nhepatitis virus at tack s onl y liver cells.\nThese viruses ar e able t o invade these c ells, because the c ells ha ve binding sit es on their sur faces that the viruses\nhave exploit ed with equal ly specific gl ycoproteins in their c oats . (Figure 3.19 ). The c ell is trick ed b y the mimicr y of\nthe virus c oat molecules , and the virus is able t o ent er the c ell. Other r ecognition sit es on the virus\u2019 s sur face int eract\nwith the human immune s ystem, pr omp ting the body t o produc e antibodies . Antibodies ar e made in r esponse t o the\nantig ens (or pr oteins as sociat ed with in vasive pathog ens). These same sit es ser ve as plac es for antibodies t o attach,\nand either des troy or inhibit the activity o f the virus . Unf ortunat ely, these sit es on HIV ar e enc oded b y genes that\nchang e quickl y, making the pr oduction o f an eff ectiv e vaccine ag ains t the virus v ery difficul t. The virus population\nwithin an inf ected individual quickl y evolves thr ough mutation int o diff erent populations , or v ariants , dis tinguished\nby diff erences in these r ecognition sit es. This r apid chang e of viral sur face mark ers decr eases the eff ectiv enes s of\nthe person \u2019s immune s ystem in at tacking the virus , because the antibodies wil l not r ecogniz e the ne w variations o f\nthe sur face pat terns .\nFIGURE 3.19 HIV dock s at and binds t o the CD4 r eceptor, a gl ycoprotein on the sur face of T c ells, bef ore ent ering , or inf ecting , the c ell.\n(credit: modification o f work b y US National Ins titut es o f Heal th/National Ins titut e of Allergy and Inf ectious Diseases)\n3.5Passiv e Transpor t\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain wh y and ho w pas sive transpor t occurs\n\u2022Unders tand the pr ocesses o f osmosis and diffusion\n\u2022Define t onicity and describe its r elevance to pas sive transpor t\nPlasma membr anes mus t allow certain subs tanc es to ent er and lea ve a c ell, while pr eventing harmful mat erial fr om\nentering and es sential mat erial fr om lea ving . In other w ords, plasma membr anes ar eselectiv ely permeable\n(semipermeable)\u2014the y allow some subs tanc es thr ough but not others . If the y were to lose this selectivity , the c ell\nwould no long er be able t o sus tain itself , and it w ould be des troyed. Some c ells requir e lar ger amounts o f specific\nsubs tanc es than do other c ells; the y mus t have a w ay of obtaining these mat erials fr om the e xtracellular fluids . This76 3 \u2022 C ell Structure and F unction\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2696, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "df1fd067-2c22-4d6f-a6f1-c4057348b7f2": {"__data__": {"id_": "df1fd067-2c22-4d6f-a6f1-c4057348b7f2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "91", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8741060f-69ba-46c2-b03c-73c02a97b8d5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "91", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3c838841316e873c4de6bb09f7d384f0cbd8cf0d3bc19bb7aece89957ba35552", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "4f9ed630-6baa-4af9-8dcc-9c4085ab79b6", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "dbc22da742ad87b027fb4a4bbf75c413b185c497e85d7a379431db1716293447", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "may happen pas sively, as c ertain mat erials mo ve back and f orth, or the c ell ma y ha ve special mechanisms that\nensur e transpor t. Mos t cells expend mos t of their ener gy, in the f orm o f adenosine triphosphat e (ATP), t o create and\nmaintain an une ven dis tribution o f ions on the opposit e sides o f their membr anes . The s tructur e of the plasma\nmembr ane c ontribut es to these functions , but it also pr esents some pr oblems .\nThe mos t dir ect f orms o f membr ane tr anspor t are pas sive.Passive transpor tis a natur ally oc curring phenomenon\nand does not r equir e the c ell to expend ener gy to ac complish the mo vement. In pas sive transpor t, subs tanc es mo ve\nfrom an ar ea o f higher c oncentr ation t o an ar ea o f lower concentr ation in a pr ocess cal led diffusion. A ph ysical spac e\nin which ther e is a diff erent c oncentr ation o f a single subs tanc e is said t o ha ve aconcentr ation gr adient .\nSelec tive Permeabilit y\nPlasma membr anes ar e as ymmetric, meaning that despit e the mirr or imag e formed b y the phospholipids , the\ninterior o f the membr ane is not identical t o the e xterior o f the membr ane. Int egral pr oteins that act as channels or\npumps w ork in one dir ection. Carboh ydrates, attached t o lipids or pr oteins , are also f ound on the e xterior sur face of\nthe plasma membr ane. These carboh ydrate comple xes help the c ell bind subs tanc es that the c ell needs in the\nextracellular fluid. This adds c onsider ably to the selectiv e natur e of plasma membr anes .\nRecal l that plasma membr anes ha ve hydrophilic and h ydrophobic r egions . This char acteristic helps the mo vement\nof certain mat erials thr ough the membr ane and hinders the mo vement o f others . Lipid-soluble mat erial can easil y\nslip thr ough the h ydrophobic lipid c ore of the membr ane. Subs tanc es such as the fat -soluble vitamins A , D, E, and K\nreadil y pas s thr ough the plasma membr anes in the dig estive tract and other tis sues . Fat-soluble drugs also g ain\neasy entr y int o cells and ar e readil y transpor ted int o the body \u2019s tis sues and or gans. Molecules o f oxygen and carbon\ndioxide ha ve no char ge and pas s thr ough b y simple diffusion.\nPolar subs tanc es pr esent pr oblems f or the membr ane. While some polar molecules c onnect easil y with the outside\nof a c ell, the y cannot r eadil y pas s thr ough the lipid c ore of the plasma membr ane. Additional ly, wher eas smal l ions\ncould easil y slip thr ough the spac es in the mosaic o f the membr ane, their char ge prevents them fr om doing so . Ions\nsuch as sodium, potas sium, calcium, and chloride mus t have a special means o f penetr ating plasma membr anes .\nSimple sug ars and amino acids also need help with tr anspor t acr oss plasma membr anes .\nDiffusion\nDiffusion is a pas sive process of transpor t. A single subs tanc e tends t o mo ve from an ar ea o f high c oncentr ation t o\nan ar ea o f low concentr ation until the c oncentr ation is equal acr oss the spac e. You ar e familiar with diffusion o f\nsubs tanc es thr ough the air . For example , think about someone opening a bot tle o f per fume in a r oom fil led with\npeople . The per fume is at its highes t concentr ation in the bot tle and is at its lo west at the edg es o f the r oom.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3290, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4f9ed630-6baa-4af9-8dcc-9c4085ab79b6": {"__data__": {"id_": "4f9ed630-6baa-4af9-8dcc-9c4085ab79b6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "91", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8741060f-69ba-46c2-b03c-73c02a97b8d5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "91", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3c838841316e873c4de6bb09f7d384f0cbd8cf0d3bc19bb7aece89957ba35552", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "df1fd067-2c22-4d6f-a6f1-c4057348b7f2", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "91", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a1d7f05b46148f1b31e588c0a37f09b517c61951f82d890e85dc1016a239ccc8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Simple sug ars and amino acids also need help with tr anspor t acr oss plasma membr anes .\nDiffusion\nDiffusion is a pas sive process of transpor t. A single subs tanc e tends t o mo ve from an ar ea o f high c oncentr ation t o\nan ar ea o f low concentr ation until the c oncentr ation is equal acr oss the spac e. You ar e familiar with diffusion o f\nsubs tanc es thr ough the air . For example , think about someone opening a bot tle o f per fume in a r oom fil led with\npeople . The per fume is at its highes t concentr ation in the bot tle and is at its lo west at the edg es o f the r oom. The\nperfume v apor wil l diffuse , or spr ead a way, from the bot tle, and gr adual ly, mor e and mor e people wil l smel l the\nperfume as it spr eads . Mat erials mo ve within the c ell\u2019s cyt osol b y diffusion, and c ertain mat erials mo ve thr ough the\nplasma membr ane b y diffusion ( Figure 3.20 ). Diffusion e xpends no ener gy. Rather the diff erent c oncentr ations o f\nmaterials in diff erent ar eas ar e a f orm o f pot ential ener gy, and diffusion is the dis sipation o f that pot ential ener gy as\nmaterials mo ve do wn their c oncentr ation gr adients , from high t o low.\nFIGURE 3.20 Diffusion thr ough a permeable membr ane f ollows the c oncentr ation gr adient o f a subs tanc e, mo ving the subs tanc e from an\narea o f high c oncentr ation t o one o f low concentr ation. (cr edit: modification o f work b y Mariana Ruiz Vil larreal)3.5 \u2022 P assiv e Transpor t 77", "start_char_idx": 2696, "end_char_idx": 4173, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6916d167-d080-4c74-8fc0-9d0667aa8c34": {"__data__": {"id_": "6916d167-d080-4c74-8fc0-9d0667aa8c34", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "92", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "50e6adab-ff3a-490f-b002-1db542a256c9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "92", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2fb5855fe213fe589b8c56d388b66e8d5843dc02380f847430988c9aa2f71f4a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "f0876b35-4aa3-493b-ba56-b0052c0bcf50", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "20739f62dd401c1b8cf626bc864da6424e3bc2a6d57a6f01c048137af13fdbd0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Each separ ate subs tanc e in a medium, such as the e xtracellular fluid, has its o wn c oncentr ation gr adient,\nindependent o f the c oncentr ation gr adients o f other mat erials . Additional ly, each subs tanc e wil l diffuse ac cording t o\nthat gr adient.\nSeveral fact ors aff ect the r ate of diffusion.\n\u2022Extent o f the c oncentr ation gr adient: The gr eater the diff erence in c oncentr ation, the mor e rapid the diffusion.\nThe closer the dis tribution o f the mat erial g ets t o equilibrium, the slo wer the r ate of diffusion bec omes .\n\u2022Mas s of the molecules diffusing: Mor e mas sive molecules mo ve mor e slo wly, because it is mor e difficul t for\nthem t o mo ve betw een the molecules o f the subs tanc e the y are mo ving thr ough; ther efore, the y diffuse mor e\nslowly.\n\u2022Temper atur e: Higher t emper atur es incr ease the ener gy and ther efore the mo vement o f the molecules ,\nincreasing the r ate of diffusion.\n\u2022Solvent density: As the density o f the sol vent incr eases , the r ate of diffusion decr eases . The molecules slo w\ndown because the y ha ve a mor e difficul t time g etting thr ough the denser medium.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nFor an animation o f the diffusion pr ocess in action, vie wthis shor t video (http://opens tax.org/l/pas sive_trnspr t)on\ncell membr ane tr anspor t.\nFacilitat ed tr anspor t\nInfacilita ted tr anspor t, also cal led facilitat ed diffusion, mat erial mo ves acr oss the plasma membr ane with the\nassistanc e of transmembr ane pr oteins do wn a c oncentr ation gr adient (fr om high t o low concentr ation) without the\nexpenditur e of cellular ener gy. Ho wever, the subs tanc es that under go facilitat ed tr anspor t would other wise not\ndiffuse easil y or quickl y acr oss the plasma membr ane. The solution t o mo ving polar subs tanc es and other\nsubs tanc es acr oss the plasma membr ane r ests in the pr oteins that span its sur face. The mat erial being tr anspor ted\nis firs t attached t o protein or gl ycoprotein r eceptors on the e xterior sur face of the plasma membr ane. This al lows\nthe mat erial that is needed b y the c ell to be r emo ved fr om the e xtracellular fluid. The subs tanc es ar e then pas sed t o\nspecific int egral pr oteins that facilitat e their pas sage, because the y form channels or por es that al low certain\nsubs tanc es to pas s thr ough the membr ane. The int egral pr oteins in volved in facilitat ed tr anspor t are collectiv ely\nreferred to as tr anspor t proteins , and the y function as either channels f or the mat erial or carriers .\nOsmosis\nOsmosis is the mo vement o f free w ater molecules thr ough a semipermeable membr ane ac cording t o the w ater's\nconcentr ation gr adient acr oss the membr ane, which is in versel y propor tional t o the solut es' concentr ation. Wher eas\ndiffusion tr anspor ts mat erial acr oss membr anes and within c ells, osmosis tr anspor tsonly wateracross a membr ane\nand the membr ane limits the diffusion o f solut es in the w ater. Osmosis is a special case o f diffusion. W ater, like\nother subs tanc es, mo ves fr om an ar ea o f high c oncentr ation o f free w ater molecules t o one o f low free w ater\nmolecule c oncentr ation. Imagine a beak er with a semipermeable membr ane, separ ating the tw o sides or hal ves\n(Figure 3.21 ).", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3282, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f0876b35-4aa3-493b-ba56-b0052c0bcf50": {"__data__": {"id_": "f0876b35-4aa3-493b-ba56-b0052c0bcf50", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "92", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "50e6adab-ff3a-490f-b002-1db542a256c9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "92", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2fb5855fe213fe589b8c56d388b66e8d5843dc02380f847430988c9aa2f71f4a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "6916d167-d080-4c74-8fc0-9d0667aa8c34", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "92", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7cdca664b58d4fb9b079bd66cf6610ade02e0d268b9e7fb8d545b33695d161d8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Wher eas\ndiffusion tr anspor ts mat erial acr oss membr anes and within c ells, osmosis tr anspor tsonly wateracross a membr ane\nand the membr ane limits the diffusion o f solut es in the w ater. Osmosis is a special case o f diffusion. W ater, like\nother subs tanc es, mo ves fr om an ar ea o f high c oncentr ation o f free w ater molecules t o one o f low free w ater\nmolecule c oncentr ation. Imagine a beak er with a semipermeable membr ane, separ ating the tw o sides or hal ves\n(Figure 3.21 ). On both sides o f the membr ane, the w ater le vel is the same , but ther e are diff erent c oncentr ations on\neach side o f a dis solved subs tanc e, orsolut e, that cannot cr oss the membr ane. If the v olume o f the w ater is the\nsame , but the c oncentr ations o f solut e are diff erent, then ther e are also diff erent c oncentr ations o f water, the\nsolvent, on either side o f the membr ane.\n78 3 \u2022 C ell Structure and F unction\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2782, "end_char_idx": 3753, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "07078010-558a-42d9-bf23-e9dbc0bc75e2": {"__data__": {"id_": "07078010-558a-42d9-bf23-e9dbc0bc75e2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "93", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b2b24d13-a362-4465-8f89-d4e181e6e3df", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "93", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0abab535710f489de88433a9723c8d10fb61e58b36f73a69d11341ea12fb2ab0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 3.21 In osmosis , water al ways mo ves fr om an ar ea o f higher c oncentr ation (o f water) t o one o f lower concentr ation (o f water). In\nthis s ystem, the solut e cannot pas s thr ough the selectiv ely permeable membr ane.\nA principle o f diffusion is that the molecules mo ve around and wil l spr ead e venly thr oughout the medium if the y can.\nHowever, onl y the mat erial capable o f getting thr ough the membr ane wil l diffuse thr ough it. In this e xample , the\nsolut e cannot diffuse thr ough the membr ane, but the w ater can. W ater has a c oncentr ation gr adient in this s ystem.\nTher efore, water wil l diffuse do wn its c oncentr ation gr adient, cr ossing the membr ane t o the side wher e it is les s\nconcentr ated. This diffusion o f water thr ough the membr ane\u2014osmosis \u2014will continue until the c oncentr ation\ngradient o f water goes t o zero. Osmosis pr oceeds c onstantl y in living s ystems .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch this video (http://opens tax.org/l/dispersion) that il lustrates diffusion in hot v ersus c old solutions .\nTonicit y\nTonicity describes the amount o f solut e in a solution. The measur e of the t onicity o f a solution, or the t otal amount\nof solut es dis solved in a specific amount o f solution, is cal led its osmolarity . Thr ee terms \u2014hypot onic, isot onic, and\nhyper tonic\u2014ar e used t o relate the osmolarity o f a c ell to the osmolarity o f the e xtracellular fluid that c ontains the\ncells. In a hypotonic solution, such as tap w ater, the e xtracellular fluid has a lo wer concentr ation o f solut es than the\nfluid inside the c ell, and w ater ent ers the c ell. (In living s ystems , the point o f reference is al ways the cyt oplasm, so\nthe pr efix hypo- means that the e xtracellular fluid has a lo wer concentr ation o f solut es, or a lo wer osmolarity , than\nthe c ell cyt oplasm.) It also means that the e xtracellular fluid has a higher c oncentr ation o f water than does the c ell.\nIn this situation, w ater wil l follow its c oncentr ation gr adient and ent er the c ell. This ma y cause an animal c ell to\nburs t, or l yse.\nIn a hyper tonic solution (the pr efix hyper - refers t o the e xtracellular fluid ha ving a higher c oncentr ation o f solut es\nthan the c ell\u2019s cyt oplasm), the fluid c ontains les s water than the c ell does , such as sea water. Because the c ell has a\nlower concentr ation o f solut es, the w ater wil l lea ve the c ell. In eff ect, the solut e is dr awing the w ater out o f the c ell.\nThis ma y cause an animal c ell to shriv el, or cr enat e.\nIn an isotonic solution, the e xtracellular fluid has the same osmolarity as the c ell. If the c oncentr ation o f solut es o f\nthe c ell mat ches that o f the e xtracellular fluid, ther e wil l be no net mo vement o f water int o or out o f the c ell. Blood\ncells in h yper tonic, isot onic, and h ypot onic solutions tak e on char acteristic appear ances (Figure 3.22 ).\n3.5 \u2022 P assiv e Transpor t 79", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2954, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bddf52ca-0dc4-4502-9549-c475f736c16f": {"__data__": {"id_": "bddf52ca-0dc4-4502-9549-c475f736c16f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "94", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "da399f06-15dc-43b5-8507-6be3e8f4431f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "94", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4470e976dfe80716fc5db8b8348b77ac52227c2eade9f2a6230d96a5d8feee16", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 3.22 Osmotic pr essure chang es the shape o f red blood c ells in h yper tonic, isot onic, and h ypot onic solutions . (credit: modification\nof work b y Mariana Ruiz Vil larreal)\nA doct or injects a patient with what the doct or think s is isot onic saline solution. The patient dies , and aut opsy\nreveals that man y red blood c ells ha ve been des troyed. Do y ou think the solution the doct or inject ed w as really\nisotonic?\nSome or ganisms , such as plants , fungi, bact eria, and some pr otists, have cell walls that surr ound the plasma\nmembr ane and pr event c ell lysis. The plasma membr ane can onl y expand t o the limit o f the c ell wall, so the c ell wil l\nnot l yse. In fact, the cyt oplasm in plants is al ways slightl y hyper tonic c ompar ed to the c ellular en vironment, and\nwater wil l always ent er a c ell if w ater is a vailable . This influx o f water pr oduc es tur gor pr essure, which s tiffens the\ncell walls of the plant ( Figure 3.23 ). In non woody plants , tur gor pr essure suppor ts the plant. If the plant c ells\nbecome h yper tonic, as oc curs in dr ought or if a plant is not w atered adequat ely, water wil l lea ve the c ell. Plants lose\nturgor pr essure in this c ondition and wil t.\nFIGURE 3.23 The tur gor pr essure within a plant c ell depends on the t onicity o f the solution that it is bathed in. (cr edit: modification o f work\nby Mariana Ruiz Vil larreal)\n3.6Active Transpor t\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Unders tand ho w electr ochemical gr adients aff ect ions\n\u2022Describe endocyt osis , including phag ocyt osis , pinocyt osis , and r eceptor-mediat ed endocyt osis\n\u2022Unders tand the pr ocess of exocyt osis\nActiv e transpor tmechanisms r equir e the use o f the c ell\u2019s ener gy, usual ly in the f orm o f adenosine triphosphat e\n(ATP). If a subs tanc e mus t mo ve int o the c ell agains t its c oncentr ation gr adient, that is , if the c oncentr ation o f the\nsubs tanc e inside the c ell mus t be gr eater than its c oncentr ation in the e xtracellular fluid, the c ell mus t use ener gy to\nmove the subs tanc e. Some activ e transpor t mechanisms mo ve smal l-molecular w eight mat erial , such as ions ,\nthrough the membr ane.\n80 3 \u2022 C ell Structure and F unction\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2328, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8bbba50d-4f4e-4e09-8e92-8e2fa7e27736": {"__data__": {"id_": "8bbba50d-4f4e-4e09-8e92-8e2fa7e27736", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "95", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "afc2c019-3cf0-4258-9c36-41cf8249e808", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "95", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4637625eaad8b37b53cd632beb3b4770e3ec578aa40b898adf37bd4deca27c17", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "f0b4f669-50b8-4e88-9db7-91d9e8539175", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "724942ca851be9b2527d98ffe1df6e5027a52f40c81d8c7d3c8ef659918b3b79", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In addition t o mo ving smal l ions and molecules thr ough the membr ane, cells also need t o remo ve and tak e in lar ger\nmolecules and par ticles . Some c ells ar e even capable o f eng ulfing entir e unic ellular micr oorganisms . You might ha ve\ncorrectly hypothesiz ed that the up take and r elease o f large par ticles b y the c ell requir es ener gy. A lar ge par ticle ,\nhowever, cannot pas s thr ough the membr ane, even with ener gy supplied b y the c ell.\nElectrochemic al Gr adient\nWe ha ve discus sed simple c oncentr ation gr adients \u2014differential c oncentr ations o f a subs tanc e acr oss a spac e or a\nmembr ane\u2014but in living s ystems , gradients ar e mor e comple x. Because c ells contain pr oteins , mos t of which ar e\nnegatively char ged, and because ions mo ve int o and out o f cells, ther e is an electrical gr adient, a diff erence of\nchar ge, acr oss the plasma membr ane. The int erior o f living c ells is electrical ly neg ative with r espect t o the\nextracellular fluid in which the y are bathed; at the same time , cells ha ve higher c oncentr ations o f potas sium (K+)\nand lo wer concentr ations o f sodium (Na+) than does the e xtracellular fluid. Thus , in a living c ell, the c oncentr ation\ngradient and electrical gr adient o f Na+promot es diffusion o f the ion int o the c ell, and the electrical gr adient o f Na+\n(a positiv e ion) t ends t o driv e it in ward to the neg atively char ged int erior . The situation is mor e comple x, ho wever, for\nother elements such as potas sium. The electrical gr adient o f K+promot es diffusion o f the ion intothe c ell, but the\nconcentr ation gr adient o f K+promot es diffusion outof the c ell (Figure 3.24 ). The c ombined gr adient that aff ects an\nion is cal led its electr ochemical gr adient , and it is especial ly impor tant t o muscle and ner ve cells.\nFIGURE 3.24 Electr ochemical gr adients arise fr om the c ombined eff ects o f concentr ation gr adients and electrical gr adients . Na+ions ar e at\nhigher c oncentr ation outside the c ell, and K+ions ar e at higher c oncentr ation inside o f the c ell, and y et the inside o f the c ell has neg ative\nnet char ge compar ed to the other side o f the membr ane. This is due t o the pr esenc e of K+binding pr oteins and other neg atively char ged\nmolecules . The diff erence in electrical char ges at tracts the positiv ely char ged Na ions t oward the inside o f the c ell, the electrical gr adient,\nwhile the K ions t end t o flo w thr ough K channels t oward the outside o f the c ell due t o the c oncentr ation diff erence, the c oncentr ation\ngradient. (cr edit: modification o f work b y \u201cSynap titude \u201d/Wikimedia Commons)\nMoving A gains t a Gr adient\nTo mo ve subs tanc es ag ains t a c oncentr ation or an electr ochemical gr adient, the c ell mus t use ener gy. This ener gy is\nharvested fr om A TP that is g ener ated thr ough c ellular metabolism. Activ e transpor t mechanisms , collectiv ely cal led\npumps or carrier pr oteins , work ag ains t electr ochemical gr adients . With the e xception o f ions , smal l subs tanc es\nconstantl y pas s thr ough plasma membr anes . Activ e transpor t maintains c oncentr ations o f ions and other\nsubs tanc es needed b y living c ells in the fac e of these pas sive chang es.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3274, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f0b4f669-50b8-4e88-9db7-91d9e8539175": {"__data__": {"id_": "f0b4f669-50b8-4e88-9db7-91d9e8539175", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "95", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "afc2c019-3cf0-4258-9c36-41cf8249e808", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "95", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4637625eaad8b37b53cd632beb3b4770e3ec578aa40b898adf37bd4deca27c17", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "8bbba50d-4f4e-4e09-8e92-8e2fa7e27736", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "95", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "58cede8708aa57d69780c19f7058a54bbac331c126f4e6e24b21aac13e31caca", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "This ener gy is\nharvested fr om A TP that is g ener ated thr ough c ellular metabolism. Activ e transpor t mechanisms , collectiv ely cal led\npumps or carrier pr oteins , work ag ains t electr ochemical gr adients . With the e xception o f ions , smal l subs tanc es\nconstantl y pas s thr ough plasma membr anes . Activ e transpor t maintains c oncentr ations o f ions and other\nsubs tanc es needed b y living c ells in the fac e of these pas sive chang es. Much o f a c ell\u2019s suppl y of metabolic ener gy\nmay be spent maintaining these pr ocesses. Because activ e transpor t mechanisms depend on c ellular metabolism\nfor ener gy, the y are sensitiv e to man y metabolic poisons that int erfere with the suppl y of ATP.\nTwo mechanisms e xist for the tr anspor t of smal l-molecular w eight mat erial and macr omolecules . Primar y activ e\ntranspor t mo ves ions acr oss a membr ane and cr eates a diff erence in char ge acr oss that membr ane. The primar y\nactiv e transpor t system uses A TP to mo ve a subs tanc e, such as an ion, int o the c ell, and o ften at the same time , a3.6 \u2022 A ctive Transpor t 81", "start_char_idx": 2817, "end_char_idx": 3925, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b1489b9b-9fb5-45c4-bc85-95d6687c32fc": {"__data__": {"id_": "b1489b9b-9fb5-45c4-bc85-95d6687c32fc", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "96", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "266ad005-eb56-47bf-a52f-507357ead7d5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "96", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "67c6de99da81c32f8332078297608f84c7323cd32c35e3c8a76a1068ad865d48", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "second subs tanc e is mo ved out o f the c ell. The sodium-potas sium pump , an impor tant pump in animal c ells,\nexpends ener gy to mo ve potas sium ions int o the c ell and a diff erent number o f sodium ions out o f the c ell (Figure\n3.25 ). The action o f this pump r esul ts in a c oncentr ation and char ge diff erence acr oss the membr ane.\nFIGURE 3.25 The sodium-potas sium pump mo ve potas sium and sodium ions acr oss the plasma membr ane. (credit: modification o f work\nby Mariana Ruiz Vil larreal)\nSecondar y activ e transpor t describes the mo vement o f mat erial using the ener gy of the electr ochemical gr adient\nestablished b y primar y activ e transpor t. Using the ener gy of the electr ochemical gr adient cr eated b y the primar y\nactiv e transpor t system, other subs tanc es such as amino acids and gluc ose can be br ought int o the c ell thr ough\nmembr ane channels . ATP itself is f ormed thr ough sec ondar y activ e transpor t using a h ydrogen ion gr adient in the\nmitochondrion.\nEndoc ytosis\nEndocyt osis is a type o f activ e transpor t that mo ves par ticles , such as lar ge molecules , par ts of cells, and e ven\nwhole c ells, into a c ell. Ther e are diff erent v ariations o f endocyt osis , but al l shar e a c ommon char acteristic: The\nplasma membr ane o f the c ell invaginat es, forming a pock et ar ound the tar get par ticle . The pock et pinches o ff,\nresul ting in the par ticle being c ontained in a ne wly created v acuole that is f ormed fr om the plasma membr ane.\nFIGURE 3.26 Three v ariations o f endocyt osis ar e sho wn. (a) In one f orm o f endocyt osis , phag ocyt osis , the c ell membr ane surr ounds the\nparticle and pinches o ff to form an intr acellular v acuole . (b) In another type o f endocyt osis , pinocyt osis , the c ell membr ane surr ounds a\nsmal l volume o f fluid and pinches o ff, forming a v esicle . (c) In r eceptor-mediat ed endocyt osis , uptake of subs tanc es b y the c ell is tar geted\nto a single type o f subs tanc e that binds at the r eceptor on the e xternal c ell membr ane. (credit: modification o f work b y Mariana Ruiz\nVillarreal)\nPhag ocyt osis is the pr ocess by which lar ge par ticles , such as c ells, are tak en in b y a c ell. For example , when\nmicr oorganisms in vade the human body , a type o f whit e blood c ell cal led a neutr ophil r emo ves the in vader thr ough82 3 \u2022 C ell Structure and F unction\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2439, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fb842ad9-42dd-484d-a327-afaa89236d32": {"__data__": {"id_": "fb842ad9-42dd-484d-a327-afaa89236d32", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "97", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1dd6006a-d948-46f8-9725-a1a33350c617", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "97", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "24207d0d6813da04edc0f96f73264844eb66e277985edd17637dca748a34bed0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "this pr ocess, surr ounding and eng ulfing the micr oorganism, which is then des troyed b y the neutr ophil ( Figure 3.26 ).\nA variation o f endocyt osis is cal ledpinocyt osis . This lit erally means \u201c cell drinking \u201d and w as named at a time when\nthe as sump tion w as that the c ell was purposeful ly taking in e xtracellular fluid. In r eality , this pr ocess tak es in\nsolut es that the c ell needs fr om the e xtracellular fluid ( Figure 3.26 ).\nA tar geted v ariation o f endocyt osis emplo ys binding pr oteins in the plasma membr ane that ar e specific f or certain\nsubs tanc es (Figure 3.26 ). The par ticles bind t o the pr oteins and the plasma membr ane in vaginat es, bringing the\nsubs tanc e and the pr oteins int o the c ell. If pas sage acr oss the membr ane o f the tar get ofreceptor-media ted\nendocyt osis is ineff ectiv e, it wil l not be r emo ved fr om the tis sue fluids or blood. Ins tead, it wil l stay in those fluids\nand incr ease in c oncentr ation. Some human diseases ar e caused b y a failur e of receptor-mediat ed endocyt osis . For\nexample , the f orm o f choles terol termed lo w-density lipopr otein or LDL (also r eferred to as \u201cbad\u201d choles terol) is\nremo ved fr om the blood b y receptor-mediat ed endocyt osis . In the human g enetic disease familial\nhyper choles terolemia , the LDL r eceptors ar e def ectiv e or mis sing entir ely. People with this c ondition ha ve life-\nthreatening le vels o f choles terol in their blood, because their c ells cannot clear the chemical fr om their blood.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nSee r eceptor-mediat ed endocyt osis animation (https:/ /www .youtube .com/w atch?v=hLbjL WNA5c0) in action.\nExocytosis\nIn contr ast to these methods o f mo ving mat erial int o a c ell is the pr ocess of exocyt osis .Exocyt osis is the opposit e\nof the pr ocesses discus sed abo ve in that its purpose is t o expel mat erial fr om the c ell into the e xtracellular fluid. A\nparticle en veloped in membr ane fuses with the int erior o f the plasma membr ane. This fusion opens the\nmembr anous en velope t o the e xterior o f the c ell, and the par ticle is e xpel led int o the e xtracellular spac e (Figure\n3.27 ).\nFIGURE 3.27 In exocyt osis , a vesicle migr ates to the plasma membr ane, binds , and r eleases its c ontents t o the outside o f the c ell. (credit:\nmodification o f work b y Mariana Ruiz Vil larreal)\n3.6 \u2022 A ctive Transpor t 83", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2398, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "89d1561a-7398-46bf-9255-18b3757ede54": {"__data__": {"id_": "89d1561a-7398-46bf-9255-18b3757ede54", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "98", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fa973e5a-c8f3-4961-bc2d-581924408292", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "98", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b6b7caf7923e01c8286a68e42a2fea9f749e5cb97e5c9515d157e06412143bf8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "3a121613-88d3-41b2-971e-c19aa38cd582", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "b582595ce1e3e8d5a0e267301f8b2e61b8009c786732fd270f23407a4906a642", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nactiv e transpor tthe method o f transpor ting mat erial\nthat r equir es ener gy\ncell walla rigid c ell covering made o f cellulose in\nplants , pep tidogl ycan in bact eria, non-\npeptidogl ycan c ompounds in Ar chaea , and chitin in\nfungi that pr otects the c ell, provides s tructur al\nsuppor t, and giv es shape t o the c ell\ncentr al vacuole a lar ge plant c ell organel le that acts\nas a s torage compar tment, w ater reser voir, and sit e\nof macr omolecule degr adation\nchlor oplas ta plant c ell organel le that carries out\nphot osynthesis\nchroma tin protein-DNA c omple x that ser ves as the\nchromosomes ' building mat erial\nchromosome structur e within the nucleus that\ncomprises chr omatin that c ontains DNA , the\nhereditar y mat erial\ncilium (plur al: cilia) a shor t, hair -like structur e that\nextends fr om the plasma membr ane in lar ge\nnumbers and is used t o mo ve an entir e cell or mo ve\nsubs tanc es along the out er sur face of the c ell\nconcentr ation gr adient an ar ea o f high c oncentr ation\nacross from an ar ea o f low concentr ation\ncytoplasm the entir e region betw een the plasma\nmembr ane and the nuclear en velope , consis ting o f\norganel les suspended in the g el-like cyt osol , the\ncytoskeleton, and v arious chemicals\ncytoskelet on the netw ork o f protein fibers that\ncollectiv ely maintains the shape o f the c ell, secur es\nsome or ganel les in specific positions , allows\ncytoplasm and v esicles t o mo ve within the c ell, and\nenables unic ellular or ganisms t o mo ve\ncytosol the g el-like mat erial o f the cyt oplasm in\nwhich c ell structur es ar e suspended\ndesmosome a link age betw een adjac ent epithelial\ncells that f orms when cadherins in the plasma\nmembr ane at tach t o int ermediat e filaments\ndiffusion a pas sive process of transpor t of low-\nmolecular w eight mat erial do wn its c oncentr ation\ngradient\nelectr ochemical gr adient a gradient pr oduc ed b y the\ncombined f orces o f the electrical gr adient and the\nchemical gr adient\nendocyt osis a type o f activ e transpor t that mo ves\nsubs tanc es, including fluids and par ticles , into a c ell\nendomembr ane s ystem the gr oup o f organel les and\nmembr anes in euk aryotic c ells that w ork t ogether t o\nmodif y, pack age, and tr anspor t lipids and pr oteins\nendoplasmic r eticulum (ER) a series o f\ninterconnect ed membr anous s tructur es within\neukaryotic c ells that c ollectiv ely modif y proteins\nand s ynthesiz e lipidseukar yotic c ella cell that has a membr ane-bound\nnucleus and se veral other membr ane-bound\ncompar tments or sacs\nexocyt osis a process of pas sing mat erial out o f a c ell\nextracellular ma trix the mat erial , primaril y collagen,\nglycoproteins , and pr oteogl ycans , secr eted fr om\nanimal c ells that holds c ells together as a tis sue,\nallows cells to communicat e with each other , and\nprovides mechanical pr otection and anchoring f or\ncells in the tis sue\nfacilita ted tr anspor ta process by which mat erial\nmoves do wn a c oncentr ation gr adient (fr om high t o\nlow concentr ation) using int egral membr ane\nproteins\nflag ellum (plur al: flag ella) the long ,", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3127, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3a121613-88d3-41b2-971e-c19aa38cd582": {"__data__": {"id_": "3a121613-88d3-41b2-971e-c19aa38cd582", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "98", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fa973e5a-c8f3-4961-bc2d-581924408292", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "98", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b6b7caf7923e01c8286a68e42a2fea9f749e5cb97e5c9515d157e06412143bf8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "89d1561a-7398-46bf-9255-18b3757ede54", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "98", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f6cd9dccc64b6f65e59682b5c70665539ae58e5245a53b6bb9a1597c501bc168", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "primaril y collagen,\nglycoproteins , and pr oteogl ycans , secr eted fr om\nanimal c ells that holds c ells together as a tis sue,\nallows cells to communicat e with each other , and\nprovides mechanical pr otection and anchoring f or\ncells in the tis sue\nfacilita ted tr anspor ta process by which mat erial\nmoves do wn a c oncentr ation gr adient (fr om high t o\nlow concentr ation) using int egral membr ane\nproteins\nflag ellum (plur al: flag ella) the long , hair -like structur e\nthat e xtends fr om the plasma membr ane and is\nused t o mo ve the c ell\nfluid mosaic model a model o f the s tructur e of the\nplasma membr ane as a mosaic o f components ,\nincluding phospholipids , choles terol, proteins , and\nglycolipids , resul ting in a fluid r ather than s tatic\nchar acter\ngap junction a channel betw een tw o adjac ent animal\ncells that al lows ions , nutrients , and other lo w-\nmolecular w eight subs tanc es to pas s betw een the\ncells, enabling the c ells to communicat e\nGolgi appar atus a euk aryotic or ganel le made up o f a\nseries o f stack ed membr anes that sor ts, tags , and\npack ages lipids and pr oteins f or dis tribution\nhyper tonic describes a solution in which e xtracellular\nfluid has higher osmolarity than the fluid inside the\ncell\nhypotonic describes a solution in which e xtracellular\nfluid has lo wer osmolarity than the fluid inside the\ncell\nisotonic describes a solution in which the\nextracellular fluid has the same osmolarity as the\nfluid inside the c ell\nlysosome an or ganel le in an animal c ell that functions\nas the c ell\u2019s dig estive component; it br eaks do wn\nproteins , pol ysaccharides , lipids , nucleic acids , and\neven w orn-out or ganel les\nmicr oscope the ins trument that magnifies an object\nmitochondria (sing ular: mit ochondrion) the c ellular\norganel les r esponsible f or carr ying out c ellular\nrespir ation, r esul ting in the pr oduction o f ATP, the\ncell\u2019s main ener gy-carr ying molecule\nnuclear en velope the double -membr ane s tructur e\nthat c onstitut es the out ermos t por tion o f the\nnucleus\nnucleolus the darkl y staining body within the nucleus\nthat is r esponsible f or as sembling ribosomal84 3 \u2022 K ey Terms\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2668, "end_char_idx": 4882, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "57599a11-f183-45cc-a464-ee9b0942e0a9": {"__data__": {"id_": "57599a11-f183-45cc-a464-ee9b0942e0a9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "99", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cd301251-3e6f-4f33-8f0c-1c6abf82d07c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "99", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "744cedf51e811b3422abdd8897cefe2816816beb7656281ab07b58f10098623b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "c73661c8-2a09-4add-9823-2cab3b3e5f93", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "fc90803829d44023be341d8ee16924b15e1473a990f484d732413e27e3771b18", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "subunits\nnucleus the c ell organel le that houses the c ell\u2019s DNA\nand dir ects the s ynthesis o f ribosomes and pr oteins\norganel lea membr ane-bound c ompar tment or sac\nwithin a c ell\nosmolarity the t otal amount o f subs tanc es dis solved\nin a specific amount o f solution\nosmosis the tr anspor t of water thr ough a\nsemipermeable membr ane fr om an ar ea o f high\nwater concentr ation t o an ar ea o f low water\nconcentr ation acr oss a membr ane\npassive transpor ta method o f transpor ting mat erial\nthat does not r equir e ener gy\nperoxisome a smal l, round or ganel le that c ontains\nhydrogen per oxide , oxidiz es fat ty acids and amino\nacids , and det oxifies man y poisons\nphag ocyt osis a process that tak es par ticulat e mat ter\nlike macr omolecules , cells, or c ell fragments that\nthe c ell needs fr om the e xtracellular fluid; a\nvariation o f endocyt osis\npinocyt osis a process that tak es solut es that the c ell\nneeds fr om the e xtracellular fluid; a v ariation o f\nendocyt osis\nplasma membr ane a phospholipid bila yer with\nembedded (int egral) or at tached (peripher al)\nproteins that separ ates the int ernal c ontents o f the\ncell from its surr ounding en vironment\nplasmodesma (plur al: plasmodesmata) a channel\nthat pas ses betw een the c ell walls of adjac ent plant\ncells, connects their cyt oplasm, and al lows\nmaterials t o be tr anspor ted fr om c ell to cell\nprokar yotic c ella unic ellular or ganism that lack s a\nnucleus or an y other membr ane-bound or ganel le\nreceptor-media ted endocyt osis a variant o f\nendocyt osis that in volves the use o f specific bindingproteins in the plasma membr ane f or specific\nmolecules or par ticles\nribosome a cellular s tructur e that carries out pr otein\nsynthesis\nrough endoplasmic r eticulum (RER) the r egion o f\nthe endoplasmic r eticulum that is s tudded with\nribosomes and eng ages in pr otein modification\nselectiv ely permeable the char acteristic o f a\nmembr ane that al lows some subs tanc es thr ough\nbut not others (also kno wn as semipermeable)\nsmoo th endoplasmic r eticulum (SER) the r egion o f\nthe endoplasmic r eticulum that has f ew or no\nribosomes on its cyt oplasmic sur face and\nsynthesiz es carboh ydrates, lipids , and s teroid\nhormones; det oxifies chemicals lik e pes ticides ,\npreser vatives, medications , and en vironmental\npollutants , and s tores calcium ions\nsolut ea subs tanc e dis solved in another t o form a\nsolution\ntight junction a firm seal betw een tw o adjac ent\nanimal c ells cr eated b y protein adher ence\ntonicity the amount o f solut e in a solution.\nunified c ell theor ythe biological c oncept that s tates\nthat al l organisms ar e composed o f one or mor e\ncells, the c ell is the basic unit o f life, and ne w cells\narise fr om e xisting c ells\nvacuole a membr ane-bound sac, some what lar ger\nthan a v esicle , that functions in c ellular s torage and\ntranspor t\nvesicle a smal l, membr ane-bound sac that functions\nin cellular s torage and tr anspor t; its membr ane is\ncapable o f fusing with the plasma membr ane and\nthe membr anes o f the endoplasmic r eticulum and\nGolgi appar atus\nChap ter Summar y\n3.1How Cells Ar e Studied\nA cell is the smal lest unit o f life.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3198, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c73661c8-2a09-4add-9823-2cab3b3e5f93": {"__data__": {"id_": "c73661c8-2a09-4add-9823-2cab3b3e5f93", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "99", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cd301251-3e6f-4f33-8f0c-1c6abf82d07c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "99", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "744cedf51e811b3422abdd8897cefe2816816beb7656281ab07b58f10098623b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "57599a11-f183-45cc-a464-ee9b0942e0a9", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "99", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6ac2b6933bc24dfbf1243fead1678849742ebb7f63230684e8f854c34f632fdf", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "unified c ell theor ythe biological c oncept that s tates\nthat al l organisms ar e composed o f one or mor e\ncells, the c ell is the basic unit o f life, and ne w cells\narise fr om e xisting c ells\nvacuole a membr ane-bound sac, some what lar ger\nthan a v esicle , that functions in c ellular s torage and\ntranspor t\nvesicle a smal l, membr ane-bound sac that functions\nin cellular s torage and tr anspor t; its membr ane is\ncapable o f fusing with the plasma membr ane and\nthe membr anes o f the endoplasmic r eticulum and\nGolgi appar atus\nChap ter Summar y\n3.1How Cells Ar e Studied\nA cell is the smal lest unit o f life. Mos t cells ar e so smal l\nthat the y cannot be vie wed with the nak ed e ye.\nTher efore, scientis ts mus t use micr oscopes t o study\ncells. Electr on micr oscopes pr ovide higher\nmagnification, higher r esolution, and mor e detail than\nlight micr oscopes . The unified c ell theor y states that al l\norganisms ar e composed o f one or mor e cells, the c ell\nis the basic unit o f life, and ne w cells arise fr om\nexisting c ells.\n3.2Comparing P rokaryotic and Euk aryotic\nCells\nProkaryotes ar e predominantl y single -celled or ganisms\nof the domains Bact eria and Ar chaea . All prokaryoteshave plasma membr anes , cyt oplasm, ribosomes , a c ell\nwall, DNA , and lack membr ane-bound or ganel les.\nMan y also ha ve pol ysaccharide capsules . Prokaryotic\ncells range in diamet er fr om 0.1\u20135.0 \u00b5m.\nLike a pr okaryotic c ell, a euk aryotic c ell has a plasma\nmembr ane, cyt oplasm, and ribosomes , but a\neukaryotic c ell is typical ly lar ger than a pr okaryotic c ell,\nhas a true nucleus (meaning its DNA is surr ounded b y a\nmembr ane), and has other membr ane-bound\norganel les that al low for compar tmentalization o f\nfunctions . Euk aryotic c ells tend t o be 10 t o 100 times\nthe siz e of prokaryotic c ells.\n3.3Eukaryotic C ells\nLike a pr okaryotic c ell, a euk aryotic c ell has a plasma\nmembr ane, cyt oplasm, and ribosomes , but a3 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y85", "start_char_idx": 2575, "end_char_idx": 4564, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3a38c625-2a62-4252-93f6-fec8a2ab0650": {"__data__": {"id_": "3a38c625-2a62-4252-93f6-fec8a2ab0650", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "100", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "52a32acc-0cf3-4124-a9ca-671574897a55", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "100", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6126ef6b93febf2413765e162faa4b225fd3a94cb4e1aa5e84cf4b6cabfb46b9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "ec792842-c9c4-4763-8014-41d22178dd6e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "6b7d95caa49c37439235cd60f14c29a934f851d1236057f3e2ca746b0061b767", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "eukaryotic c ell is typical ly lar ger than a pr okaryotic c ell,\nhas a true nucleus (meaning its DNA is surr ounded b y a\nmembr ane), and has other membr ane-bound\norganel les that al low for compar tmentalization o f\nfunctions . The plasma membr ane is a phospholipid\nbilayer embedded with pr oteins . The nucleolus within\nthe nucleus is the sit e for ribosome as sembl y.\nRibosomes ar e found in the cyt oplasm or ar e attached\nto the cyt oplasmic side o f the plasma membr ane or\nendoplasmic r eticulum. The y per form pr otein\nsynthesis . Mit ochondria per form c ellular r espir ation\nand pr oduc e ATP. Peroxisomes br eak do wn fat ty acids ,\namino acids , and some t oxins . Vesicles and v acuoles\nare storage and tr anspor t compar tments . In plant c ells,\nvacuoles also help br eak do wn macr omolecules .\nAnimal c ells also ha ve a c entr osome and l ysosomes .\nThe c entr osome has tw o bodies , the c entrioles , with an\nunkno wn r ole in c ell division. L ysosomes ar e the\ndigestive organel les o f animal c ells.\nPlant c ells ha ve a c ell wall, chlor oplas ts, and a c entr al\nvacuole . The plant c ell wall, whose primar y component\nis cellulose , protects the c ell, provides s tructur al\nsuppor t, and giv es shape t o the c ell. Phot osynthesis\ntakes plac e in chlor oplas ts. The c entr al vacuole\nexpands , enlar ging the c ell without the need t o\nproduc e mor e cyt oplasm.\nThe endomembr ane s ystem includes the nuclear\nenvelope , the endoplasmic r eticulum, Golgi appar atus ,\nlysosomes , vesicles , as w ell as the plasma membr ane.\nThese c ellular c omponents w ork t ogether t o modif y,\npack age, tag , and tr anspor t membr ane lipids and\nproteins .\nThe cyt oskeleton has thr ee diff erent types o f protein\nelements . Micr ofilaments pr ovide rigidity and shape t o\nthe c ell, and facilitat e cellular mo vements .\nIntermediat e filaments bear t ension and anchor the\nnucleus and other or ganel les in plac e. Micr otubules\nhelp the c ell resist compr ession, ser ve as tr acks for\nmot or pr oteins that mo ve vesicles thr ough the c ell, and\npull replicat ed chr omosomes t o opposit e ends o f a\ndividing c ell. The y are also the s tructur al elements o f\ncentrioles , flag ella, and cilia .\nAnimal c ells communicat e thr ough their e xtracellular\nmatric es and ar e connect ed to each other b y tight\njunctions , desmosomes , and g ap junctions . Plant c ells\nare connect ed and c ommunicat e with each other b y\nplasmodesmata .\n3.4The C ell Membr ane\nThe modern unders tanding o f the plasma membr ane is\nreferred to as the fluid mosaic model . The plasmamembr ane is c omposed o f a bila yer of phospholipids ,\nwith their h ydrophobic, fat ty acid tails in c ontact with\neach other . The landscape o f the membr ane is s tudded\nwith pr oteins , some o f which span the membr ane.\nSome o f these pr oteins ser ve to transpor t mat erials\ninto or out o f the c ell. Carboh ydrates ar e attached t o\nsome o f the pr oteins and lipids on the outw ard-facing\nsurface of the membr ane. These f orm c omple xes that\nfunction t o identif y the c ell to other c ells.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3099, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ec792842-c9c4-4763-8014-41d22178dd6e": {"__data__": {"id_": "ec792842-c9c4-4763-8014-41d22178dd6e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "100", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "52a32acc-0cf3-4124-a9ca-671574897a55", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "100", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6126ef6b93febf2413765e162faa4b225fd3a94cb4e1aa5e84cf4b6cabfb46b9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "3a38c625-2a62-4252-93f6-fec8a2ab0650", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "100", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c8bed1fd4cbcba5e60956acd82f9c4dea99aaf24aee07ea086b102d1a19fb4ff", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The plasmamembr ane is c omposed o f a bila yer of phospholipids ,\nwith their h ydrophobic, fat ty acid tails in c ontact with\neach other . The landscape o f the membr ane is s tudded\nwith pr oteins , some o f which span the membr ane.\nSome o f these pr oteins ser ve to transpor t mat erials\ninto or out o f the c ell. Carboh ydrates ar e attached t o\nsome o f the pr oteins and lipids on the outw ard-facing\nsurface of the membr ane. These f orm c omple xes that\nfunction t o identif y the c ell to other c ells. The fluid\nnatur e of the membr ane o wes itself t o the\nconfig uration o f the fat ty acid tails , the pr esenc e of\ncholes terol embedded in the membr ane (in animal\ncells), and the mosaic natur e of the pr oteins and\nprotein-carboh ydrate comple xes, which ar e not firml y\nfixed in plac e. Plasma membr anes enclose the bor ders\nof cells, but r ather than being a s tatic bag , the y are\ndynamic and c onstantl y in flux.\n3.5Passiv e Transpor t\nThe pas sive forms o f transpor t, diffusion and osmosis ,\nmove mat erial o f smal l molecular w eight. Subs tanc es\ndiffuse fr om ar eas o f high c oncentr ation t o areas o f low\nconcentr ation, and this pr ocess continues until the\nsubs tanc e is e venly dis tribut ed in a s ystem. In\nsolutions o f mor e than one subs tanc e, each type o f\nmolecule diffuses ac cording t o its o wn c oncentr ation\ngradient. Man y fact ors can aff ect the r ate of diffusion,\nincluding c oncentr ation gr adient, the siz es o f the\nparticles that ar e diffusing , and the t emper atur e of the\nsystem.\nIn living s ystems , diffusion o f subs tanc es int o and out\nof cells is mediat ed b y the plasma membr ane. Some\nmaterials diffuse r eadil y thr ough the membr ane, but\nothers ar e hinder ed, and their pas sage is onl y made\npossible b y protein channels and carriers . The\nchemis try of living things oc curs in aqueous solutions ,\nand balancing the c oncentr ations o f those solutions is\nan ong oing pr oblem. In living s ystems , diffusion o f\nsome subs tanc es w ould be slo w or difficul t without\nmembr ane pr oteins .\n3.6Active Transpor t\nThe c ombined gr adient that aff ects an ion includes its\nconcentr ation gr adient and its electrical gr adient.\nLiving c ells need c ertain subs tanc es in c oncentr ations\ngreater than the y exist in the e xtracellular spac e.\nMoving subs tanc es up their electr ochemical gr adients\nrequir es ener gy from the c ell. Activ e transpor t uses\nener gy stored in A TP to fuel the tr anspor t. Activ e\ntranspor t of smal l molecular -size mat erial uses int egral\nproteins in the c ell membr ane t o mo ve the\nmaterial \u2014these pr oteins ar e analog ous t o pumps .\nSome pumps , which carr y out primar y activ e transpor t,86 3 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2585, "end_char_idx": 5365, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "26082830-b42f-446a-a85f-935dab997ede": {"__data__": {"id_": "26082830-b42f-446a-a85f-935dab997ede", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "101", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7530676a-0f9a-41b0-a4fc-0c4f0a7f9a50", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "101", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "43d9809942ca75a7cc8e71db0a1c4957ff36e30e8c87f801f65fccfc3881220a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "c4ec5819-94fe-440c-86d0-dc5220d81664", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "1a9216f824037e2bf8fd4d19ada410a3c7bc15e64d3f0a864c3ea4daac873066", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "couple dir ectly with A TP to driv e their action. In\nsecondar y transpor t, ener gy from primar y transpor t\ncan be used t o mo ve another subs tanc e int o the c ell\nand up its c oncentr ation gr adient.\nEndocyt osis methods r equir e the dir ect use o f ATP to\nfuel the tr anspor t of large par ticles such as\nmacr omolecules; par ts of cells or whole c ells can be\nengulfed b y other c ells in a pr ocess cal led\nphag ocyt osis . In phag ocyt osis , a por tion o f the\nmembr ane in vaginat es and flo ws around the par ticle ,\neventual ly pinching o ff and lea ving the par ticle whol lyenclosed b y an en velope o f plasma membr ane.\nVacuoles ar e broken do wn b y the c ell, with the\nparticles used as f ood or dispat ched in some other\nway. Pinocyt osis is a similar pr ocess on a smal ler scale .\nThe c ell expels w aste and other par ticles thr ough the\nreverse pr ocess, exocyt osis . Wastes ar e mo ved outside\nthe c ell, pushing a membr anous v esicle t o the plasma\nmembr ane, allowing the v esicle t o fuse with the\nmembr ane and inc orpor ating itself int o the membr ane\nstructur e, releasing its c ontents t o the e xterior o f the\ncell.\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 3.7 What s tructur es does a plant c ell have\nthat an animal c ell does not ha ve? What s tructur es\ndoes an animal c ell have that a plant c ell does not\nhave?\n2.Figure 3.13 Why does the cisface of the Golgi not\nface the plasma membr ane?3.Figure 3.22 A doct or injects a patient with what he\nthink s is isot onic saline solution. The patient dies ,\nand aut opsy reveals that man y red blood c ells ha ve\nbeen des troyed. Do y ou think the solution the\ndoct or inject ed w as really isot onic?\nReview Ques tions\n4.When vie wing a specimen thr ough a light\nmicr oscope, scientis ts use _________ t o\ndistinguish the individual c omponents o f cells.\na.a beam o f electr ons\nb.radioactiv e isot opes\nc.special s tains\nd.high t emper atur es\n5.The ___________ is the basic unit o f life.\na.organism\nb.cell\nc.tissue\nd.organ\n6.Which o f these do al l prokaryotes and euk aryotes\nshar e?\na.nuclear en velope\nb.cell walls\nc.organel les\nd.plasma membr ane\n7.A typical pr okaryotic c ell __________________\ncompar ed to a euk aryotic c ell.\na.is smal ler in siz e by a fact or of 100\nb.is similar in siz e\nc.is smal ler in siz e by a fact or of one mil lion\nd.is lar ger in siz e by a fact or of 108.Which o f the f ollowing is f ound both in euk aryotic\nand pr okaryotic c ells?\na.nucleus\nb.mitochondrion\nc.vacuole\nd.ribosome\n9.Which o f the f ollowing is not a c omponent o f the\nendomembr ane s ystem?\na.mitochondrion\nb.Golgi appar atus\nc.endoplasmic r eticulum\nd.lysosome\n10.Which plasma membr ane c omponent can be\neither f ound on its sur face or embedded in the\nmembr ane s tructur e?\na.protein\nb.choles terol\nc.carboh ydrate\nd.phospholipid\n11.The tails o f the phospholipids o f the plasma\nmembr ane ar e composed o f _____ and ar e\n_______?", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2936, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c4ec5819-94fe-440c-86d0-dc5220d81664": {"__data__": {"id_": "c4ec5819-94fe-440c-86d0-dc5220d81664", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "101", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7530676a-0f9a-41b0-a4fc-0c4f0a7f9a50", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "101", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "43d9809942ca75a7cc8e71db0a1c4957ff36e30e8c87f801f65fccfc3881220a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "26082830-b42f-446a-a85f-935dab997ede", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "101", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "61ab06c9c604edbda61b6a556c6bb99140f12b23778ba08017c8b22a87644d04", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "a.nucleus\nb.mitochondrion\nc.vacuole\nd.ribosome\n9.Which o f the f ollowing is not a c omponent o f the\nendomembr ane s ystem?\na.mitochondrion\nb.Golgi appar atus\nc.endoplasmic r eticulum\nd.lysosome\n10.Which plasma membr ane c omponent can be\neither f ound on its sur face or embedded in the\nmembr ane s tructur e?\na.protein\nb.choles terol\nc.carboh ydrate\nd.phospholipid\n11.The tails o f the phospholipids o f the plasma\nmembr ane ar e composed o f _____ and ar e\n_______?\na.phosphat e groups; h ydrophobic\nb.fatty acid gr oups; h ydrophilic\nc.phosphat e groups; h ydrophilic\nd.fatty acid gr oups; h ydrophobic3 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions 87", "start_char_idx": 2467, "end_char_idx": 3111, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2b75e469-60bd-4d41-a8e7-249a380dbfa9": {"__data__": {"id_": "2b75e469-60bd-4d41-a8e7-249a380dbfa9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "102", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2f2679c6-f31c-4553-843f-dea2fb98f47a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "102", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7e6f50df2c5f0a02576e3849250eb2329ae78d4a76ad0eb379f124a92bd4a1d1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "12.Water mo ves via osmosis _________.\na.throughout the cyt oplasm\nb.from an ar ea with a high c oncentr ation o f\nother solut es to a lo wer one\nc.from an ar ea with a lo w concentr ation o f\nsolut es to an ar ea with a higher one\nd.from an ar ea with a lo w concentr ation o f\nwater to one o f higher c oncentr ation13.The principal f orce driving mo vement in diffusion\nis __________.\na.temper atur e\nb.particle siz e\nc.concentr ation gr adient\nd.membr ane sur face area\n14.Activ e transpor t mus t function c ontinuousl y\nbecause __________.\na.plasma membr anes w ear out\nb.cells mus t be in c onstant motion\nc.facilitat ed tr anspor t opposes activ e transpor t\nd.diffusion is c onstantl y mo ving the solut es in\nthe other dir ection\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n15.What ar e the adv antag es and disadv antag es o f\nlight, tr ansmis sion, and scanning electr on\nmicr oscopes?\n16.Describe the s tructur es that ar e char acteristic o f a\nprokaryote cell.\n17.In the c ontext of cell biolog y, what do w e mean b y\nform f ollows function? What ar e at leas t two\nexamples o f this c oncept?18.Why is it adv antag eous f or the c ell membr ane t o\nbe fluid in natur e?\n19.Why does osmosis oc cur?\n20.Wher e does the c ell get ener gy for activ e transpor t\nprocesses?88 3 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1341, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4903a2da-0d18-42e6-b9f3-2cd29e6a76bf": {"__data__": {"id_": "4903a2da-0d18-42e6-b9f3-2cd29e6a76bf", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "103", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7489b515-5cd8-451a-8075-2fb7952dcdef", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "103", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e039d689d575d370cf2c73ef69e30a37e093f7fff9618bc93ff5cc5c94a04f75", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 4\nHow Cel ls Ob tain Ener gy\n4.1Ener gy and Metabolism\n4.2Glycolysis\n4.3Citric Acid Cy cle and Oxida tive Phosphor ylation\n4.4Fermenta tion\n4.5Connections t o Other Metabolic P athways\nVirtually every task per formed b y living or ganisms r equir es ener gy. Ener gy is\nneeded t o per form hea vy labor and e xercise, but humans also use ener gy while thinking , and e ven\nduring sleep . In fact, the living c ells of every organism c onstantl y use ener gy. Nutrients and other\nmolecules ar e impor ted int o the c ell, metaboliz ed (br oken do wn) and pos sibly synthesiz ed int o\nnew molecules , modified if needed, tr anspor ted ar ound the c ell, and pos sibly dis tribut ed to the\nentir e organism. F or example , the lar ge proteins that mak e up muscles ar e buil t from smal ler\nmolecules impor ted fr om dietar y amino acids . Comple x carboh ydrates ar e broken do wn int o\nsimple sug ars that the c ell uses f or ener gy. Jus t as ener gy is r equir ed to both build and demolish a\nbuilding , ener gy is r equir ed for the s ynthesis and br eakdown o f molecules as w ell as the tr anspor t\nof molecules int o and out o f cells. In addition, pr ocesses such as ing esting and br eaking do wn\npathog enic bact eria and viruses , expor ting w astes and t oxins , and mo vement o f the c ell requir e\nener gy. From wher e, and in what f orm, does this ener gy come? Ho w do living c ells ob tain ener gy,\nand ho w do the y use it? This chap ter wil l discus s diff erent f orms o f ener gy and the ph ysical la ws\nthat g overn ener gy transfer. This chap ter wil l also describe ho w cells use ener gy and r eplenish it,FIGURE 4.1A hummingbir d needs ener gy to maintain pr olong ed flight. The bir d ob tains its ener gy from taking in f ood\nand tr ansforming the ener gy contained in f ood molecules int o forms o f ener gy to po wer its flight thr ough a series o f\nbiochemical r eactions . (credit: modification o f work b y Cor y Zank er)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1992, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4e378952-5891-4075-8363-40bbc6726272": {"__data__": {"id_": "4e378952-5891-4075-8363-40bbc6726272", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "104", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b9be5c42-0e34-45e7-9ee4-7cdbdba01871", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "104", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "14b38d384ad7a678a60fcccc1fe79d95104540510c9bdb63544df655a8049140", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "and ho w chemical r eactions in the c ell are per formed with gr eat efficiency .\n4.1Ener gy and Me tabolism\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain what metabolic path ways are\n\u2022Stat e the firs t and sec ond la ws of thermodynamics\n\u2022Explain the diff erence betw een kinetic and pot ential ener gy\n\u2022Describe ender gonic and e xergonic r eactions\n\u2022Discus s ho w enzymes function as molecular catal ysts\nScientis ts use the t erm bioener getics to describe the c oncept of ener gy flo w (Figure 4.2 ) thr ough\nliving s ystems , such as c ells. Cel lular pr ocesses such as the building and br eaking do wn o f\ncomple x molecules oc cur thr ough s tepwise chemical r eactions . Some o f these chemical r eactions\nare spontaneous and r elease ener gy, wher eas others r equir e ener gy to proceed. Jus t as living\nthings mus t continual ly consume f ood t o replenish their ener gy supplies , cells mus t continual ly\nobtain mor e ener gy to replenish that used b y the man y ener gy-requiring chemical r eactions that\nconstantl y tak e plac e. Together , all of the chemical r eactions that tak e plac e inside c ells, including\nthose that c onsume or g ener ate ener gy, are referred to as the c ell\u2019smetabolism .\nFIGURE 4.2Ultimat ely, mos t life forms g et their ener gy from the sun. Plants use phot osynthesis t o cap ture sunlight,\nand herbiv ores eat the plants t o ob tain ener gy. Carniv ores eat the herbiv ores, and e ventual dec omposition o f plant\nand animal mat erial c ontribut es to the nutrient pool .\nMetabolic P athways\nConsider the metabolism o f sug ar. This is a clas sic e xample o f one o f the man y cellular pr ocesses\nthat use and pr oduc e ener gy. Living things c onsume sug ars as a major ener gy sour ce, because\nsugar molecules ha ve a gr eat deal o f ener gy stored within their bonds . For the mos t par t,\nphot osynthesizing or ganisms lik e plants pr oduc e these sug ars. During phot osynthesis , plants use\nener gy (original ly from sunlight) t o convert carbon dio xide g as (C O2) into sug ar molecules (lik e90 4 \u2022 Ho w Cells Ob tain Ener gy\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2158, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "94f02c7d-b8fc-4835-9d56-083abd8a0779": {"__data__": {"id_": "94f02c7d-b8fc-4835-9d56-083abd8a0779", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "105", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d2e6a4cc-1743-402d-82db-4a50beeb0571", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "105", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dc95bfbdec93b34b731f5a48d203b89f9502483e9a654d1d12e24234ef964739", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "fb7a001f-4d49-44cd-ba04-1014366e6f46", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "99f0c4a630cac1908c04fa14c357deb6cf8cfd40f28bc8a1b67d2fe373f4ff25", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "gluc ose: C 6H12O6). The y consume carbon dio xide and pr oduc e oxygen as a w aste product. This r eaction is\nsummariz ed as:\nBecause this pr ocess involves synthesizing an ener gy-storing molecule , it requir es ener gy input t o proceed. During\nthe light r eactions o f phot osynthesis , ener gy is pr ovided b y a molecule cal led adenosine triphosphat e (ATP), which\nis the primar y ener gy curr ency o f all cells. Jus t as the dol lar is used as curr ency t o buy g oods , cells use molecules o f\nATP as ener gy curr ency t o per form immediat e work. In c ontr ast, ener gy-storage molecules such as gluc ose ar e\nconsumed onl y to be br oken do wn t o use their ener gy. The r eaction that har vests the ener gy of a sug ar molecule in\ncells requiring o xygen to sur vive can be summariz ed b y the r everse r eaction t o phot osynthesis . In this r eaction,\noxygen is c onsumed and carbon dio xide is r eleased as a w aste product. The r eaction is summariz ed as:\nBoth o f these r eactions in volve man y steps.\nThe pr ocesses o f making and br eaking do wn sug ar molecules il lustrate tw o examples o f metabolic path ways. A\nmetabolic path way is a series o f chemical r eactions that tak es a s tarting molecule and modifies it, s tep-by-step,\nthrough a series o f metabolic int ermediat es, eventual ly yielding a final pr oduct. In the e xample o f sug ar metabolism,\nthe firs t metabolic path way synthesiz ed sug ar fr om smal ler molecules , and the other path way broke sug ar do wn\ninto smal ler molecules . These tw o opposit e processes\u2014the firs t requiring ener gy and the sec ond pr oducing\nener gy\u2014are referred to as anabolic path ways (building pol ymers) and catabolic path ways (br eaking do wn pol ymers\ninto their monomers), r espectiv ely. Consequentl y, metabolism is c omposed o f synthesis (anabolism) and\ndegr adation (catabolism) ( Figure 4.3 ).\nIt is impor tant t o kno w that the chemical r eactions o f metabolic path ways do not tak e plac e on their o wn. Each\nreaction s tep is facilitat ed, or catal yzed, b y a pr otein cal led an enzyme . Enzymes ar e impor tant f or catal yzing al l\ntypes o f biological r eactions \u2014those that r equir e ener gy as w ell as those that r elease ener gy.\nFIGURE 4.3Catabolic path ways are those that g ener ate ener gy by breaking do wn lar ger molecules . Anabolic path ways are those that\nrequir e ener gy to synthesiz e lar ger molecules . Both types o f path ways are requir ed for maintaining the c ell\u2019s ener gy balanc e.\nEner gy\nThermodynamics refers t o the s tudy o f ener gy and ener gy transfer in volving ph ysical mat ter. The mat ter relevant t o\na par ticular case o f ener gy transfer is cal led a s ystem, and e verything outside o f that mat ter is cal led the\nsurr oundings . For ins tanc e, when heating a pot o f water on the s tove, the s ystem includes the s tove, the pot, and the\nwater. Ener gy is tr ansferred within the s ystem (betw een the s tove, pot, and w ater). Ther e are tw o types o f systems:\nopen and closed. In an open s ystem, ener gy can be e xchang ed with its surr oundings . The s tovetop s ystem is open\nbecause heat can be los t to the air . A closed s ystem cannot e xchang e ener gy with its surr oundings .\nBiological or ganisms ar e open s ystems .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3278, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fb7a001f-4d49-44cd-ba04-1014366e6f46": {"__data__": {"id_": "fb7a001f-4d49-44cd-ba04-1014366e6f46", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "105", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d2e6a4cc-1743-402d-82db-4a50beeb0571", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "105", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dc95bfbdec93b34b731f5a48d203b89f9502483e9a654d1d12e24234ef964739", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "94f02c7d-b8fc-4835-9d56-083abd8a0779", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "105", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fd7ad540a552d9a5a08e258e1a69a756830965c354f32ef981f17cb00cfe7934", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "For ins tanc e, when heating a pot o f water on the s tove, the s ystem includes the s tove, the pot, and the\nwater. Ener gy is tr ansferred within the s ystem (betw een the s tove, pot, and w ater). Ther e are tw o types o f systems:\nopen and closed. In an open s ystem, ener gy can be e xchang ed with its surr oundings . The s tovetop s ystem is open\nbecause heat can be los t to the air . A closed s ystem cannot e xchang e ener gy with its surr oundings .\nBiological or ganisms ar e open s ystems . Ener gy is e xchang ed betw een them and their surr oundings as the y use\nener gy from the sun t o per form phot osynthesis or c onsume ener gy-storing molecules and r elease ener gy to the\nenvironment b y doing w ork and r eleasing heat. Lik e all things in the ph ysical w orld, ener gy is subject t o ph ysical\nlaws. The la ws of thermodynamics g overn the tr ansfer of ener gy in and among al l systems in the univ erse .\nIn gener al, ener gy is defined as the ability t o do w ork, or t o create some kind o f chang e. Ener gy exists in diff erent\nforms . For example , electrical ener gy, light ener gy, and heat ener gy are all diff erent types o f ener gy. To appr eciat e4.1 \u2022 Ener gy and Me tabolism 91", "start_char_idx": 2775, "end_char_idx": 3991, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e5541850-4c88-4636-b1b1-a1c5faa6bb70": {"__data__": {"id_": "e5541850-4c88-4636-b1b1-a1c5faa6bb70", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "106", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e1d401ba-19ad-4c8b-8dfd-1b2dbe7047e5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "106", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5b4690cc8621819d009bd5270169f55478b0b4be398e24a3108a7f8b799c0e8b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "the w ay ener gy flo ws int o and out o f biological s ystems , it is impor tant t o unders tand tw o of the ph ysical la ws that\ngovern ener gy.\nThermodynamics\nThe firs t law of thermodynamics s tates that the t otal amount o f ener gy in the univ erse is c onstant and c onser ved. In\nother w ords, ther e has al ways been, and al ways wil l be, exactl y the same amount o f ener gy in the univ erse . Ener gy\nexists in man y diff erent f orms . According t o the firs t law of thermodynamics , ener gy ma y be tr ansferred fr om plac e\nto plac e or tr ansformed int o diff erent f orms , but it cannot be cr eated or des troyed. The tr ansfers and\ntransformations o f ener gy tak e plac e around us al l the time . Light bulbs tr ansform electrical ener gy int o light and\nheat ener gy. Gas s toves tr ansform chemical ener gy from natur al gas int o heat ener gy. Plants per form one o f the\nmos t biological ly useful ener gy transformations on ear th: that o f converting the ener gy of sunlight t o chemical\nener gy stored within or ganic molecules ( Figure 4.2 ). Some e xamples o f ener gy transformations ar e sho wn in Figure\n4.4.\nThe chal leng e for al l living or ganisms is t o ob tain ener gy from their surr oundings in f orms that the y can tr ansfer or\ntransform int o usable ener gy to do w ork. Living c ells ha ve evolved to meet this chal leng e. Chemical ener gy stored\nwithin or ganic molecules such as sug ars and fats is tr ansferred and tr ansformed thr ough a series o f cellular\nchemical r eactions int o ener gy within molecules o f ATP. Ener gy in A TP molecules is easil y accessible t o do w ork.\nExamples o f the types o f work that c ells need t o do include building c omple x molecules , transpor ting mat erials ,\npowering the motion o f cilia or flag ella, and c ontr acting muscle fibers t o create mo vement.\nFIGURE 4.4Shown ar e some e xamples o f ener gy transferred and tr ansformed fr om one s ystem t o another and fr om one f orm t o another .92 4 \u2022 Ho w Cells Ob tain Ener gy\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2057, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "58d10c68-b9a4-4344-87ff-0a15070e0e48": {"__data__": {"id_": "58d10c68-b9a4-4344-87ff-0a15070e0e48", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "107", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e0e409eb-272d-4de0-9a68-5a1012b411ef", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "107", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b5657a780d86a0d40a8bb4fd966d93ab78c411c07b2c80e5c1fe0fa1b10cb2e2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "a2e39ac8-0e4c-4efe-b175-6fcf414838f2", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "2ab61e84e5d6abfa2bb841084a55f41effbeabdf7e3d3b7577556a813f34ae58", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The f ood w e consume pr ovides our c ells with the ener gy requir ed to carr y out bodil y functions , jus t as light ener gy provides plants with the\nmeans t o create the chemical ener gy the y need. (cr edit \"ic e cream \": modification o f work b y D. Shar on P ruitt; credit \"kids \": modification o f\nwork b y Max fr om P rovidenc e; cr edit \"leaf \": modification o f work b y Cor y Zank er)\nA living c ell\u2019s primar y task s of obtaining , transforming , and using ener gy to do w ork ma y seem simple . Ho wever, the\nsecond la w of thermodynamics e xplains wh y these task s are har der than the y appear . All ener gy transfers and\ntransformations ar e ne ver complet ely efficient. In e very ener gy transfer, some amount o f ener gy is los t in a f orm that\nis unusable . In mos t cases , this f orm is heat ener gy. Thermodynamical ly,heat ener gyis defined as the ener gy\ntransferred fr om one s ystem t o another that is not w ork. F or example , when a light bulb is turned on, some o f the\nener gy being c onverted fr om electrical ener gy int o light ener gy is los t as heat ener gy. Likewise , some ener gy is los t\nas heat ener gy during c ellular metabolic r eactions .\nAn impor tant c oncept in ph ysical s ystems is that o f order and disor der. The mor e ener gy that is los t by a s ystem t o\nits surr oundings , the les s ordered and mor e random the s ystem is . Scientis ts refer to the measur e of randomnes s or\ndisor der within a s ystem as entr opy. High entr opy means high disor der and lo w ener gy. Molecules and chemical\nreactions ha ve varying entr opy as w ell. For example , entr opy incr eases as molecules at a high c oncentr ation in one\nplac e diffuse and spr ead out. The sec ond la w of thermodynamics sa ys that ener gy wil l always be los t as heat in\nener gy transfers or tr ansformations .\nLiving things ar e highl y ordered, r equiring c onstant ener gy input t o be maintained in a s tate of low entr opy.\nPotential and Kine tic Ener gy\nWhen an object is in motion, ther e is ener gy associat ed with that object. Think o f a wr ecking bal l. Even a slo w-\nmoving wr ecking bal l can do a gr eat deal o f damag e to other objects . Ener gy associat ed with objects in motion is\ncalledkinetic ener gy(Figure 4.5 ). A speeding bul let, a w alking person, and the r apid mo vement o f molecules in the\nair (which pr oduc es heat) al l have kinetic ener gy.\nNow what if that same motionles s wr ecking bal l is lift ed tw o stories abo ve ground with a cr ane? If the suspended\nwrecking bal l is unmo ving , is ther e ener gy associat ed with it? The ans wer is y es. The ener gy that w as requir ed to lift\nthe wr ecking bal l did not disappear , but is no w stored in the wr ecking bal l by vir tue o f its position and the f orce of\ngravity acting on it. This type o f ener gy is cal ledpotential ener gy(Figure 4.5 ). If the bal l were to fal l, the pot ential\nener gy would be tr ansformed int o kinetic ener gy until al l of the pot ential ener gy was e xhaus ted when the bal l rested\non the gr ound. W recking bal ls also s wing lik e a pendulum; thr ough the s wing , ther e is a c onstant chang e of pot ential\nener gy (highes t at the t op o f the s wing ) to kinetic ener gy (highes t at the bot tom o f the s wing ). Other e xamples o f\npotential ener gy include the ener gy of water held behind a dam or a person about t o sky dive out o f an airplane .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3412, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a2e39ac8-0e4c-4efe-b175-6fcf414838f2": {"__data__": {"id_": "a2e39ac8-0e4c-4efe-b175-6fcf414838f2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "107", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e0e409eb-272d-4de0-9a68-5a1012b411ef", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "107", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b5657a780d86a0d40a8bb4fd966d93ab78c411c07b2c80e5c1fe0fa1b10cb2e2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "58d10c68-b9a4-4344-87ff-0a15070e0e48", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "107", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3d7ec341ff608b9bccf69c8fcba93b1c97c6935ecd16166f49a6802a3641042a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "This type o f ener gy is cal ledpotential ener gy(Figure 4.5 ). If the bal l were to fal l, the pot ential\nener gy would be tr ansformed int o kinetic ener gy until al l of the pot ential ener gy was e xhaus ted when the bal l rested\non the gr ound. W recking bal ls also s wing lik e a pendulum; thr ough the s wing , ther e is a c onstant chang e of pot ential\nener gy (highes t at the t op o f the s wing ) to kinetic ener gy (highes t at the bot tom o f the s wing ). Other e xamples o f\npotential ener gy include the ener gy of water held behind a dam or a person about t o sky dive out o f an airplane .\nFIGURE 4.5Still water has pot ential ener gy; mo ving w ater, such as in a w aterfall or a r apidl y flo wing riv er, has kinetic ener gy. (credit \" dam \":\nmodification o f work b y \"Pascal\"/Flickr; cr edit \" waterfall\": modification o f work b y Frank Gual tieri)\nPotential ener gy is not onl y associat ed with the location o f mat ter, but also with the s tructur e of mat ter. Even a\nspring on the gr ound has pot ential ener gy if it is c ompr essed; so does a rubber band that is pul led taut. On a\nmolecular le vel, the bonds that hold the at oms o f molecules t ogether e xist in a par ticular s tructur e that has\npotential ener gy. Remember that anabolic c ellular path ways requir e ener gy to synthesiz e comple x molecules fr om\nsimpler ones and catabolic path ways release ener gy when c omple x molecules ar e broken do wn. The fact that4.1 \u2022 Ener gy and Me tabolism 93", "start_char_idx": 2803, "end_char_idx": 4297, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fc27ae52-74a6-4936-af2a-267eb83d5371": {"__data__": {"id_": "fc27ae52-74a6-4936-af2a-267eb83d5371", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "108", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5a2e3398-1319-4a07-b68f-efdfc0e3007e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "108", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9dce3bcf413e95922fa938918760f0bb283503268fd3fbaf0ee7cc3594ca3af7", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "ener gy can be r eleased b y the br eakdown o f certain chemical bonds implies that those bonds ha ve pot ential ener gy.\nIn fact, ther e is pot ential ener gy stored within the bonds o f all the f ood molecules w e eat, which is e ventual ly\nharnes sed f or use . This is because these bonds can r elease ener gy when br oken. The type o f pot ential ener gy that\nexists within chemical bonds , and is r eleased when those bonds ar e broken, is cal led chemical ener gy. Chemical\nener gy is r esponsible f or pr oviding living c ells with ener gy from f ood. The r elease o f ener gy oc curs when the\nmolecular bonds within f ood molecules ar e broken.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nVisit the site(http://opens tax.org/l/simple _pendulu2) and select \u201cP endulum \u201d from the \u201c Work and Ener gy\u201d menu t o\nsee the shifting kinetic and pot ential ener gy of a pendulum in motion.\nFree and A ctivation Ener gy\nAfter learning that chemical r eactions r elease ener gy when ener gy-storing bonds ar e broken, an impor tant ne xt\nques tion is the f ollowing: Ho w is the ener gy associat ed with these chemical r eactions quantified and e xpressed?\nHow can the ener gy released fr om one r eaction be c ompar ed to that o f another r eaction? A measur ement o f free\nener gy is used t o quantif y these ener gy transfers. Recal l that ac cording t o the sec ond la w of thermodynamics , all\nener gy transfers in volve the los s of some amount o f ener gy in an unusable f orm such as heat. F ree ener gy\nspecifical ly refers t o the ener gy associat ed with a chemical r eaction that is a vailable aft er the los ses ar e ac count ed\nfor. In other w ords, free ener gy is usable ener gy, or ener gy that is a vailable t o do w ork.\nIf ener gy is r eleased during a chemical r eaction, then the chang e in fr ee ener gy, signified as \u2206G (del ta G) wil l be a\nnegative number . A neg ative chang e in fr ee ener gy also means that the pr oducts o f the r eaction ha ve les s free\nener gy than the r eactants , because the y release some fr ee ener gy during the r eaction. R eactions that ha ve a\nnegative chang e in fr ee ener gy and c onsequentl y release fr ee ener gy are cal ledexergonic r eactions . Think:\nexergonic means ener gy isexiting the s ystem. These r eactions ar e also r eferred to as spontaneous r eactions , and\ntheir pr oducts ha ve les s stored ener gy than the r eactants . An impor tant dis tinction mus t be dr awn betw een the\nterm spontaneous and the idea o f a chemical r eaction oc curring immediat ely. Contr ary to the e veryday use o f the\nterm, a spontaneous r eaction is not one that suddenl y or quickl y oc curs . The rus ting o f iron is an e xample o f a\nspontaneous r eaction that oc curs slo wly, little b y little, over time .\nIf a chemical r eaction absorbs ener gy rather than r eleases ener gy on balanc e, then the \u2206G f or that r eaction wil l be a\npositiv e value . In this case , the pr oducts ha ve mor e free ener gy than the r eactants . Thus , the pr oducts o f these\nreactions can be thought o f as ener gy-storing molecules . These chemical r eactions ar e cal ledender gonic r eactions\nand the y are non-spontaneous . An ender gonic r eaction wil l not tak e plac e on its o wn without the addition o f free\nener gy.\n94 4 \u2022 Ho w Cells Ob tain Ener gy\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3316, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a09a15cb-484e-41cb-82fe-096d4533c7f5": {"__data__": {"id_": "a09a15cb-484e-41cb-82fe-096d4533c7f5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "109", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7abec87f-ffa0-4002-ac71-79d44123554c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "109", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f0059e9569e239c846d33c7aef1d454ba35a597b7fbd96db30bcb984af36f067", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 4.6Shown ar e some e xamples o f ender gonic pr ocesses (ones that r equir e ener gy) and e xergonic pr ocesses (ones that r elease\nener gy). (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Natalie Ma ynor; cr edit b: modification o f work b y USD A; cr edit c: modification o f work b y Cor y\nZank er; cr edit d: modification o f work b y Harr y Malsch)\nLook at each o f the pr ocesses sho wn and decide if it is ender gonic or e xergonic.\nTher e is another impor tant c oncept that mus t be c onsider ed regarding ender gonic and e xergonic r eactions .\nExergonic r eactions r equir e a smal l amount o f ener gy input t o get going , bef ore the y can pr oceed with their ener gy-\nreleasing s teps. These r eactions ha ve a net r elease o f ener gy, but s till requir e some ener gy input in the beginning .\nThis smal l amount o f ener gy input nec essary for al l chemical r eactions t o oc cur is cal led the activ ation ener gy.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch an animation (http://opens tax.org/l/ener gy_reactio2) of the mo ve from fr ee ener gy to transition s tate of the\nreaction.\nEnzymes\nA subs tanc e that helps a chemical r eaction t o oc cur is cal led a catal yst, and the molecules that catal yze biochemical\nreactions ar e cal ledenzymes . Mos t enzymes ar e proteins and per form the critical task o f lowering the activ ation\nener gies o f chemical r eactions inside the c ell. Mos t of the r eactions critical t o a living c ell happen t oo slo wly at\nnormal t emper atur es to be o f any use t o the c ell. Without enzymes t o speed up these r eactions , life could not\n4.1 \u2022 Ener gy and Me tabolism 95", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1635, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "88eb0fc2-8eb9-4a98-a5e2-a501061b5d59": {"__data__": {"id_": "88eb0fc2-8eb9-4a98-a5e2-a501061b5d59", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "110", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "76b8b13a-4e21-4d5a-8ec4-3bbc9e230ba8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "110", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f325238b062a4c2e8b21186b8cbbb7bfd2b76503f9ed21e22f5520207abf8ebd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "persis t. Enzymes do this b y binding t o the r eactant molecules and holding them in such a w ay as t o mak e the\nchemical bond-br eaking and -f orming pr ocesses tak e plac e mor e easil y. It is impor tant t o remember that enzymes\ndo not chang e whether a r eaction is e xergonic (spontaneous) or ender gonic. This is because the y do not chang e the\nfree ener gy of the r eactants or pr oducts . The y onl y reduc e the activ ation ener gy requir ed for the r eaction t o go\nforward (Figure 4.7 ). In addition, an enzyme itself is unchang ed b y the r eaction it catal yzes. Onc e one r eaction has\nbeen catal yzed, the enzyme is able t o par ticipat e in other r eactions .\nFIGURE 4.7Enzymes lo wer the activ ation ener gy of the r eaction but do not chang e the fr ee ener gy of the r eaction.\nThe chemical r eactants t o which an enzyme binds ar e cal led the enzyme \u2019ssubs trates. Ther e ma y be one or mor e\nsubs trates, depending on the par ticular chemical r eaction. In some r eactions , a single r eactant subs trate is br oken\ndown int o mul tiple pr oducts . In others , two subs trates ma y come t ogether t o create one lar ger molecule . Two\nreactants might also ent er a r eaction and both bec ome modified, but the y lea ve the r eaction as tw o products . The\nlocation within the enzyme wher e the subs trate binds is cal led the enzyme \u2019sactiv e sit e. The activ e sit e is wher e the\n\u201caction \u201d happens . Sinc e enzymes ar e proteins , ther e is a unique c ombination o f amino acid side chains within the\nactiv e sit e. Each side chain is char acterized b y diff erent pr oper ties. The y can be lar ge or smal l, weakl y acidic or\nbasic, h ydrophilic or h ydrophobic, positiv ely or neg atively char ged, or neutr al. The unique c ombination o f side\nchains cr eates a v ery specific chemical en vironment within the activ e sit e. This specific en vironment is suit ed to\nbind t o one specific chemical subs trate (or subs trates).\nActiv e sit es ar e subject t o influenc es o f the local en vironment. Incr easing the en vironmental t emper atur e gener ally\nincreases r eaction r ates, enzyme -catal yzed or other wise . Ho wever, temper atur es outside o f an op timal r ange\nreduc e the r ate at which an enzyme catal yzes a r eaction. Hot t emper atur es wil l eventual ly cause enzymes t o\ndenatur e, an irr eversible chang e in the thr ee-dimensional shape and ther efore the function o f the enzyme . Enzymes\nare also suit ed to function bes t within a c ertain pH and sal t concentr ation r ange, and, as with t emper atur e, extreme\npH, and sal t concentr ations can cause enzymes t o denatur e.\nFor man y years , scientis ts thought that enzyme -subs trate binding t ook plac e in a simple \u201clock and k ey\u201d fashion.\nThis model as serted that the enzyme and subs trate fit t ogether per fectly in one ins tantaneous s tep. Ho wever,\ncurr ent r esear ch suppor ts a model cal led induc ed fit ( Figure 4.8 ). The induc ed-fit model e xpands on the lock -and-\nkey model b y describing a mor e dynamic binding betw een enzyme and subs trate. As the enzyme and subs trate\ncome t ogether , their int eraction causes a mild shift in the enzyme \u2019s structur e that f orms an ideal binding\narrangement betw een enzyme and subs trate.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nView an animation (http://opens tax.org/l/he xokinase2) of induc ed fit.\n96 4 \u2022 Ho w Cells Ob tain Ener gy\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3420, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "dcfff253-a237-4640-a060-218417f79252": {"__data__": {"id_": "dcfff253-a237-4640-a060-218417f79252", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "111", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "caeada78-891b-47cc-b493-26295aca0dd1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "111", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d2ca2faf2676d656e15e0406e75b92572d32131291a72a80378c52d026c084df", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "822f00ef-9fdd-46bb-8fd7-dcdcc5ed0515", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "5c60174dd72e8b14695906fe4610145ea571554881083d0c38d7865666dabff8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "When an enzyme binds its subs trate, an enzyme -subs trate comple x is f ormed. This c omple x lowers the activ ation\nener gy of the r eaction and pr omot es its r apid pr ogression in one o f mul tiple pos sible w ays. On a basic le vel,\nenzymes pr omot e chemical r eactions that in volve mor e than one subs trate by bringing the subs trates together in an\noptimal orientation f or reaction. Another w ay in which enzymes pr omot e the r eaction o f their subs trates is b y\ncreating an op timal en vironment within the activ e sit e for the r eaction t o oc cur. The chemical pr oper ties that emer ge\nfrom the par ticular arr angement o f amino acid R gr oups within an activ e sit e create the per fect en vironment f or an\nenzyme \u2019s specific subs trates to react.\nThe enzyme -subs trate comple x can also lo wer activ ation ener gy by compr omising the bond s tructur e so that it is\neasier t o break. Final ly, enzymes can also lo wer activ ation ener gies b y taking par t in the chemical r eaction itself . In\nthese cases , it is impor tant t o remember that the enzyme wil l always return t o its original s tate by the c ompletion o f\nthe r eaction. One o f the hal lmark pr oper ties o f enzymes is that the y remain ul timat ely unchang ed b y the r eactions\nthey catal yze. Aft er an enzyme has catal yzed a r eaction, it r eleases its pr oduct(s) and can catal yze a ne w reaction.\nFIGURE 4.8The induc ed-fit model is an adjus tment t o the lock -and-k ey model and e xplains ho w enzymes and subs trates under go dynamic\nmodifications during the tr ansition s tate to incr ease the affinity o f the subs trate for the activ e sit e.\nIt would seem ideal t o ha ve a sc enario in which al l of an or ganism 's enzymes e xisted in abundant suppl y and\nfunctioned op timal ly under al l cellular c onditions , in al l cells, at al l times . Ho wever, a variety o f mechanisms ensur es\nthat this does not happen. Cel lular needs and c onditions c onstantl y vary from c ell to cell, and chang e within\nindividual c ells over time . The r equir ed enzymes o f stomach c ells diff er fr om those o f fat s torage cells, skin c ells,\nblood c ells, and ner ve cells. Furthermor e, a dig estive organ c ell works much har der t o process and br eak do wn\nnutrients during the time that closel y follows a meal c ompar ed with man y hours aft er a meal . As these c ellular\ndemands and c onditions v ary, so mus t the amounts and functionality o f diff erent enzymes .\nSinc e the r ates o f biochemical r eactions ar e contr olled b y activ ation ener gy, and enzymes lo wer and det ermine\nactiv ation ener gies f or chemical r eactions , the r elativ e amounts and functioning o f the v ariety o f enzymes within a\ncell ultimat ely det ermine which r eactions wil l proceed and at what r ates. This det ermination is tightl y contr olled in\ncells. In c ertain c ellular en vironments , enzyme activity is par tly contr olled b y en vironmental fact ors lik e pH,\ntemper atur e, sal t concentr ation, and, in some cases , cofactors or c oenzymes .\nEnzymes can also be r egulated in w ays that either pr omot e or r educ e enzyme activity . Ther e are man y kinds o f\nmolecules that inhibit or pr omot e enzyme function, and v arious mechanisms b y which the y do so . In some cases o f\nenzyme inhibition, an inhibit or molecule is similar enough t o a subs trate that it can bind t o the activ e sit e and simpl y\nblock the subs trate from binding .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3455, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "822f00ef-9fdd-46bb-8fd7-dcdcc5ed0515": {"__data__": {"id_": "822f00ef-9fdd-46bb-8fd7-dcdcc5ed0515", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "111", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "caeada78-891b-47cc-b493-26295aca0dd1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "111", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d2ca2faf2676d656e15e0406e75b92572d32131291a72a80378c52d026c084df", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "dcfff253-a237-4640-a060-218417f79252", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "111", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cf677a1e1d324d2bedfb1fa8cd97145eb05430510cb4f14079533f06642f673b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "This det ermination is tightl y contr olled in\ncells. In c ertain c ellular en vironments , enzyme activity is par tly contr olled b y en vironmental fact ors lik e pH,\ntemper atur e, sal t concentr ation, and, in some cases , cofactors or c oenzymes .\nEnzymes can also be r egulated in w ays that either pr omot e or r educ e enzyme activity . Ther e are man y kinds o f\nmolecules that inhibit or pr omot e enzyme function, and v arious mechanisms b y which the y do so . In some cases o f\nenzyme inhibition, an inhibit or molecule is similar enough t o a subs trate that it can bind t o the activ e sit e and simpl y\nblock the subs trate from binding . When this happens , the enzyme is inhibit ed thr ough competitiv e inhibition ,\nbecause an inhibit or molecule c ompet es with the subs trate for binding t o the activ e sit e.\nOn the other hand, in nonc ompetitiv e inhibition , an inhibit or molecule binds t o the enzyme in a location other than\nthe activ e sit e, cal led an al losteric sit e, but s till manag es to prevent subs trate binding t o the activ e sit e. Some\ninhibit or molecules bind t o enzymes in a location wher e their binding induc es a c onformational chang e that r educ es\nthe enzyme activity as it no long er eff ectiv ely catal yzes the c onversion o f the subs trate to product. This type o f\ninhibition is cal ledallosteric inhibition (Figure 4.9 ). Mos t allosterical ly regulated enzymes ar e made up o f mor e\nthan one pol ypep tide, meaning that the y ha ve mor e than one pr otein subunit. When an al losteric inhibit or binds t o a\nregion on an enzyme , all activ e sit es on the pr otein subunits ar e chang ed slightl y such that the y bind their\nsubs trates with les s efficiency . Ther e are allosteric activ ators as w ell as inhibit ors. Allosteric activ ators bind t o\nlocations on an enzyme a way from the activ e sit e, inducing a c onformational chang e that incr eases the affinity o f the4.1 \u2022 Ener gy and Me tabolism 97", "start_char_idx": 2801, "end_char_idx": 4773, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c0334c71-6469-4be6-9c34-943c500057de": {"__data__": {"id_": "c0334c71-6469-4be6-9c34-943c500057de", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "112", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4ac75952-7c53-4d49-a05c-3a742a72dc94", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "112", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3f704ce611d358580bcbfb245e60a21ecccf867bc4e229f8006d14ec626c6e0a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "enzyme \u2019s activ e sit e(s) f or its subs trate(s) ( Figure 4.9 ).\nFIGURE 4.9Allosteric inhibition w orks by indir ectly inducing a c onformational chang e to the activ e sit e such that the subs trate no long er\nfits. In c ontr ast, in al losteric activ ation, the activ ator molecule modifies the shape o f the activ e sit e to allow a bet ter fit o f the subs trate.\nCAREER C ONNE CTION\nPharmac eutic al Drug De veloper\nFIGURE 4.10 Have you e ver w onder ed ho w pharmac eutical drugs ar e de veloped? (cr edit: Debor ah Aus tin)\nEnzymes ar e key components o f metabolic path ways. Unders tanding ho w enzymes w ork and ho w the y can be\nregulated ar e key principles behind the de velopment o f man y of the pharmac eutical drugs on the mark et today.\nBiologis ts w orking in this field c ollabor ate with other scientis ts to design drugs ( Figure 4.10 ).\nConsider s tatins f or example \u2014statins is the name giv en to one clas s of drugs that can r educ e choles terol le vels.\nThese c ompounds ar e inhibit ors o f the enzyme HMG -CoA r eductase , which is the enzyme that s ynthesiz es\ncholes terol from lipids in the body . By inhibiting this enzyme , the le vel of choles terol synthesiz ed in the body can be\nreduc ed. Similarl y, acetaminophen, popularl y mark eted under the br and name T ylenol , is an inhibit or of the enzyme\ncycloo xygenase . While it is used t o provide r elief fr om f ever and inflammation (pain), its mechanism o f action is s till\nnot c omplet ely unders tood.\nHow ar e drugs disc overed? One o f the big gest chal leng es in drug disc overy is identif ying a drug tar get. A drug tar get\nis a molecule that is lit erally the tar get of the drug . In the case o f statins , HMG -CoA r eductase is the drug tar get.\nDrug tar gets ar e identified thr ough pains taking r esear ch in the labor atory. Identif ying the tar get alone is not enough;\n98 4 \u2022 Ho w Cells Ob tain Ener gy\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1949, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7218dfa7-1cf7-4f5c-9ed4-0519309bcd76": {"__data__": {"id_": "7218dfa7-1cf7-4f5c-9ed4-0519309bcd76", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "113", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0c8431b5-8578-409c-808a-949103068e74", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "113", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fd97208b4413c8d155c554f663a7182b1f901035ff902e4b52bb173fdeeef84c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "53b22e2d-ec5c-4118-996c-c8c191e78a39", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "236b4e9b582c8fcd908d4036b2b5177c861d01f459a9806b7d59c486894b880e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "scientis ts also need t o kno w ho w the tar get acts inside the c ell and which r eactions g o awry in the case o f disease .\nOnc e the tar get and the path way are identified, then the actual pr ocess of drug design begins . In this s tage,\nchemis ts and biologis ts w ork t ogether t o design and s ynthesiz e molecules that can block or activ ate a par ticular\nreaction. Ho wever, this is onl y the beginning: If and when a drug pr ototype is suc cessful in per forming its function,\nthen it is subject ed to man y tests from in vitr o experiments t o clinical trials bef ore it can g et appr oval from the U .S.\nFood and Drug Adminis tration t o be on the mark et.\nMan y enzymes do not w ork op timal ly, or e ven at al l, unles s bound t o other specific non-pr otein helper molecules .\nThey ma y bond either t empor arily thr ough ionic or h ydrogen bonds , or permanentl y thr ough s tronger covalent\nbonds . Binding t o these molecules pr omot es op timal shape and function o f their r espectiv e enzymes . Two examples\nof these types o f helper molecules ar e cofactors and c oenzymes . Cofactors ar e inor ganic ions such as ions o f iron\nand magnesium. Coenzymes ar e organic helper molecules , those with a basic at omic s tructur e made up o f carbon\nand h ydrogen. Lik e enzymes , these molecules par ticipat e in r eactions without being chang ed themsel ves and ar e\nultimat ely recycled and r eused. Vitamins ar e the sour ce of coenzymes . Some vitamins ar e the pr ecursors o f\ncoenzymes and others act dir ectly as c oenzymes . Vitamin C is a dir ect c oenzyme f or mul tiple enzymes that tak e par t\nin building the impor tant c onnectiv e tis sue, collagen. Ther efore, enzyme function is , in par t, regulated b y the\nabundanc e of various c ofactors and c oenzymes , which ma y be supplied b y an or ganism \u2019s diet or , in some cases ,\nproduc ed b y the or ganism.\nFeedback Inhibition in Me tabolic P athways\nMolecules can r egulate enzyme function in man y ways. The major ques tion r emains , however: What ar e these\nmolecules and wher e do the y come fr om? Some ar e cofactors and c oenzymes , as y ou ha ve learned. What other\nmolecules in the c ell provide enzymatic r egulation such as al losteric modulation, and c ompetitiv e and non-\ncompetitiv e inhibition? P erhaps the mos t relevant sour ces o f regulatory molecules , with r espect t o enzymatic\ncellular metabolism, ar e the pr oducts o f the c ellular metabolic r eactions themsel ves. In a mos t efficient and eleg ant\nway, cells ha ve evolved to use the pr oducts o f their o wn r eactions f or feedback inhibition o f enzyme activity .\nFeedback inhibition involves the use o f a reaction pr oduct t o regulate its o wn fur ther pr oduction ( Figure 4.11 ). The\ncell responds t o an abundanc e of the pr oducts b y slo wing do wn pr oduction during anabolic or catabolic r eactions .\nSuch r eaction pr oducts ma y inhibit the enzymes that catal yzed their pr oduction thr ough the mechanisms described\nabove.\nFIGURE 4.11 Metabolic path ways are a series o f reactions catal yzed b y mul tiple enzymes . Feedback inhibition, wher e the end pr oduct o f\nthe path way inhibits an ups tream pr ocess, is an impor tant r egulatory mechanism in c ells.\nThe pr oduction o f both amino acids and nucleotides is c ontr olled thr ough f eedback inhibition. Additional ly, ATP is an\nallosteric r egulator of some o f the enzymes in volved in the catabolic br eakdown o f sug ar, the pr ocess that cr eates\nATP.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3495, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "53b22e2d-ec5c-4118-996c-c8c191e78a39": {"__data__": {"id_": "53b22e2d-ec5c-4118-996c-c8c191e78a39", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "113", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0c8431b5-8578-409c-808a-949103068e74", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "113", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fd97208b4413c8d155c554f663a7182b1f901035ff902e4b52bb173fdeeef84c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "7218dfa7-1cf7-4f5c-9ed4-0519309bcd76", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "113", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a35c9661b0c1d41fd8f23d176e2dbd6bd59e295723b6f33b1cce8c73fad420d7", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Such r eaction pr oducts ma y inhibit the enzymes that catal yzed their pr oduction thr ough the mechanisms described\nabove.\nFIGURE 4.11 Metabolic path ways are a series o f reactions catal yzed b y mul tiple enzymes . Feedback inhibition, wher e the end pr oduct o f\nthe path way inhibits an ups tream pr ocess, is an impor tant r egulatory mechanism in c ells.\nThe pr oduction o f both amino acids and nucleotides is c ontr olled thr ough f eedback inhibition. Additional ly, ATP is an\nallosteric r egulator of some o f the enzymes in volved in the catabolic br eakdown o f sug ar, the pr ocess that cr eates\nATP. In this w ay, when A TP is in abundant suppl y, the c ell can pr event the pr oduction o f ATP. On the other hand, ADP\nserves as a positiv e allosteric r egulator (an al losteric activ ator) f or some o f the same enzymes that ar e inhibit ed b y\nATP. Thus , when r elativ e levels o f ADP ar e high c ompar ed to ATP, the c ell is trig gered to produc e mor e ATP thr ough\nsugar catabolism.4.1 \u2022 Ener gy and Me tabolism 99", "start_char_idx": 2880, "end_char_idx": 3919, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0acbb45a-ce16-4092-af06-74d9e0c63018": {"__data__": {"id_": "0acbb45a-ce16-4092-af06-74d9e0c63018", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "114", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4fefcb5d-02a4-4c96-9be4-e5d0fd425068", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "114", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "29c774cf21bc275daa89a687a6812ddbcf3ce1e1615458757b7943cceab3f1d1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "d3916300-673f-42b3-bffe-d7daee08fe31", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "b26349ed7d704df68fe93b4b75cfe9389941c57ae95d3ff7188c869c56568d4d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "4.2Glycolysis\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain ho w ATP is used b y the c ell as an ener gy sour ce\n\u2022Describe the o verall resul t in t erms o f molecules pr oduc ed o f the br eakdown o f gluc ose b y glycolysis\nEven e xergonic, ener gy-releasing r eactions r equir e a smal l amount o f activ ation ener gy to proceed. Ho wever,\nconsider ender gonic r eactions , which r equir e much mor e ener gy input because their pr oducts ha ve mor e free\nener gy than their r eactants . Within the c ell, wher e does ener gy to po wer such r eactions c ome fr om? The ans wer lies\nwith an ener gy-suppl ying molecule cal led adenosine triphosphat e, orATP. ATP is a smal l, relativ ely simple\nmolecule , but within its bonds c ontains the pot ential f or a quick burs t of ener gy that can be harnes sed t o per form\ncellular w ork. This molecule can be thought o f as the primar y ener gy curr ency o f cells in the same w ay that mone y is\nthe curr ency that people e xchang e for things the y need. A TP is used t o po wer the majority o f ener gy-requiring\ncellular r eactions .\nATP in Living S ystems\nA living c ell cannot s tore significant amounts o f free ener gy. Excess free ener gy would r esul t in an incr ease o f heat in\nthe c ell, which w ould denatur e enzymes and other pr oteins , and thus des troy the c ell. Rather , a c ell mus t be able t o\nstore ener gy saf ely and r elease it f or use onl y as needed. Living c ells ac complish this using A TP, which can be used\nto fill any ener gy need o f the c ell. Ho w? It functions as a r echar geable bat tery.\nWhen A TP is br oken do wn, usual ly by the r emo val of its t erminal phosphat e group, ener gy is r eleased. This ener gy is\nused t o do w ork b y the c ell, usual ly by the binding o f the r eleased phosphat e to another molecule , thus activ ating it.\nFor example , in the mechanical w ork o f muscle c ontr action, A TP supplies ener gy to mo ve the c ontr actile muscle\nproteins .\nATP S tructure and F unction\nAt the hear t of ATP is a molecule o f adenosine monophosphat e (AMP), which is c omposed o f an adenine molecule\nbonded t o both a ribose molecule and a single phosphat e group ( Figure 4.12 ). Ribose is a fiv e-carbon sug ar found in\nRNA and AMP is one o f the nucleotides in RNA . The addition o f a sec ond phosphat e group t o this c ore molecule\nresul ts in adenosine diphosphat e (ADP); the addition o f a thir d phosphat e group f orms adenosine triphosphat e\n(ATP).\nFIGURE 4.12 The s tructur e of ATP sho ws the basic c omponents o f a tw o-ring adenine , five-carbon ribose , and thr ee phosphat e groups .\nThe addition o f a phosphat e group t o a molecule r equir es a high amount o f ener gy and r esul ts in a high-ener gy\nbond. Phosphat e groups ar e neg atively char ged and thus r epel one another when the y are arr anged in series , as\nthey are in ADP and A TP. This r epulsion mak es the ADP and A TP molecules inher ently uns table . The r elease o f one\nor tw o phosphat e groups fr om A TP, a pr ocess cal led h ydrolysis, releases ener gy.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3100, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d3916300-673f-42b3-bffe-d7daee08fe31": {"__data__": {"id_": "d3916300-673f-42b3-bffe-d7daee08fe31", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "114", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4fefcb5d-02a4-4c96-9be4-e5d0fd425068", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "114", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "29c774cf21bc275daa89a687a6812ddbcf3ce1e1615458757b7943cceab3f1d1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "0acbb45a-ce16-4092-af06-74d9e0c63018", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "114", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8c036547ab7233744e81d256e2cce45a8201560faa88bcc9c33965b79860bd26", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 4.12 The s tructur e of ATP sho ws the basic c omponents o f a tw o-ring adenine , five-carbon ribose , and thr ee phosphat e groups .\nThe addition o f a phosphat e group t o a molecule r equir es a high amount o f ener gy and r esul ts in a high-ener gy\nbond. Phosphat e groups ar e neg atively char ged and thus r epel one another when the y are arr anged in series , as\nthey are in ADP and A TP. This r epulsion mak es the ADP and A TP molecules inher ently uns table . The r elease o f one\nor tw o phosphat e groups fr om A TP, a pr ocess cal led h ydrolysis, releases ener gy.\nGlycolysis\nYou ha ve read that nearl y all of the ener gy used b y living things c omes t o them in the bonds o f the sug ar, gluc ose.underlineend underline underlineend underline100 4 \u2022 Ho w Cells Ob tain Ener gy\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2512, "end_char_idx": 3349, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e03b371d-d4d9-4905-8bc6-72cff10ead24": {"__data__": {"id_": "e03b371d-d4d9-4905-8bc6-72cff10ead24", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "115", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "91cb6122-11a4-4fef-a4a0-0e5a9e18aa06", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "115", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "77b42bc9b6943c69c536eb06e1ccd104f10ee4ff896c2b04f357f09c32b87b1b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Glycolysisis the firs t step in the br eakdown o f gluc ose t o extract ener gy for cell metabolism. Man y living or ganisms\ncarr y out gl ycolysis as par t of their metabolism. Gl ycolysis tak es plac e in the cyt oplasm o f mos t prokaryotic and al l\neukaryotic c ells.\nGlycolysis begins with the six -carbon, ring-shaped s tructur e of a single gluc ose molecule and ends with tw o\nmolecules o f a thr ee-carbon sug ar cal led p yruv ate. Glycolysis c onsis ts of two dis tinct phases . In the firs t par t of the\nglycolysis path way, ener gy is used t o mak e adjus tments so that the six -carbon sug ar molecule can be split e venly\ninto tw o thr ee-carbon p yruv ate molecules . In the sec ond par t of glycolysis, ATP and nic otinamide -adenine\ndinucleotide (NADH) ar e produc ed (Figure 4.13 ).\nIf the c ell cannot cataboliz e the p yruv ate molecules fur ther, it wil l har vest onl y tw o ATP molecules fr om one\nmolecule o f gluc ose. For example , matur e mammalian r ed blood c ells ar e onl y capable o f glycolysis, which is their\nsole sour ce of ATP. If gl ycolysis is int errup ted, these c ells would e ventual ly die .\nFIGURE 4.13 In gl ycolysis, a gluc ose molecule is c onverted int o tw o pyruv ate molecules .\n4.3Citric A cid C ycle and Oxidativ e Phosphor ylation\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the location o f the citric acid cy cle and o xidativ e phosphor ylation in the c ell\n\u2022Describe the o verall out come o f the citric acid cy cle and o xidativ e phosphor ylation in t erms o f the\nproducts o f each\n\u2022Describe the r elationships o f glycolysis, the citric acid cy cle, and o xidativ e phosphor ylation in t erms o f\ntheir inputs and outputs .\nThe Citric A cid C ycle\nIn euk aryotic c ells, the p yruv ate molecules pr oduc ed at the end o f glycolysis ar e transpor ted int o mit ochondria ,\nwhich ar e sit es o f cellular r espir ation. If o xygen is a vailable , aer obic r espir ation wil l go forward. In mit ochondria ,\npyruv ate wil l be tr ansformed int o a tw o-carbon ac etyl gr oup (b y remo ving a molecule o f carbon dio xide) that wil l be4.3 \u2022 Citric A cid C ycle and Oxidativ e Phosphor ylation 101", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2200, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "27ba9025-d265-4d6a-b453-13b8b8f94519": {"__data__": {"id_": "27ba9025-d265-4d6a-b453-13b8b8f94519", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "116", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "44ba8df9-bd2d-4311-b30a-3e633fabcf93", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "116", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9b97df86415aff5a6019771555c9370942271d22002324016e216c6e4d740a91", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "91ca1531-7756-468d-805e-81f8dacf4784", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "8ef998ca6a6a8fa9ed428c4c5860be6910bbb333efa7abe2f1eb6112abb497bf", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "pick ed up b y a carrier c ompound cal led c oenzyme A (CoA), which is made fr om vitamin B 5. The r esul ting c ompound\nis cal ledacetyl CoA . (Figure 4.14 ). Ac etyl CoA can be used in a v ariety o f ways by the c ell, but its major function is t o\ndeliv er the ac etyl gr oup deriv ed fr om p yruv ate to the ne xt path way in gluc ose catabolism.\nFIGURE 4.14 Pyruv ate is c onverted int o ac etyl-CoA bef ore ent ering the citric acid cy cle.\nLike the c onversion o f pyruv ate to ac etyl CoA , the citric acid cy clein euk aryotic c ells tak es plac e in the matrix o f the\nmitochondria . Unlik e glycolysis, the citric acid cy cle is a closed loop: The las t par t of the path way regener ates the\ncompound used in the firs t step. The eight s teps o f the cy cle ar e a series o f chemical r eactions that pr oduc es tw o\ncarbon dio xide molecules , one A TP molecule (or an equiv alent), and r educ ed forms (NADH and F ADH 2) of NAD+and\nFAD+, impor tant c oenzymes in the c ell. Part of this is c onsider ed an aer obic path way (oxygen-r equiring ) because the\nNADH and F ADH 2produc ed mus t transfer their electr ons t o the ne xt path way in the s ystem, which wil l use o xygen.\nIf oxygen is not pr esent, this tr ansfer does not oc cur.\nTwo carbon at oms c ome int o the citric acid cy cle fr om each ac etyl gr oup. Two carbon dio xide molecules ar e\nreleased on each turn o f the cy cle; ho wever, these do not c ontain the same carbon at oms c ontribut ed b y the ac etyl\ngroup on that turn o f the path way. The tw o ac etyl-carbon at oms wil l eventual ly be r eleased on lat er turns o f the\ncycle; in this w ay, all six carbon at oms fr om the original gluc ose molecule wil l be e ventual ly released as carbon\ndioxide . It tak es tw o turns o f the cy cle t o process the equiv alent o f one gluc ose molecule . Each turn o f the cy cle\nforms thr ee high-ener gy NADH molecules and one high-ener gy FADH 2molecule . These high-ener gy carriers wil l\nconnect with the las t por tion o f aer obic r espir ation t o produc e ATP molecules . One A TP (or an equiv alent) is also\nmade in each cy cle. Several of the int ermediat e compounds in the citric acid cy cle can be used in s ynthesizing non-\nessential amino acids; ther efore, the cy cle is both anabolic and catabolic.\nOxidativ e Phosphor ylation\nYou ha ve jus t read about tw o path ways in gluc ose catabolism\u2014gl ycolysis and the citric acid cy cle\u2014that g ener ate\nATP. Mos t of the A TP g ener ated during the aer obic catabolism o f gluc ose, however, is not g ener ated dir ectly from\nthese path ways. Rather , it deriv es fr om a pr ocess that begins with pas sing electr ons thr ough a series o f chemical\nreactions t o a final electr on ac ceptor, oxygen. These r eactions tak e plac e in specializ ed pr otein c omple xes locat ed in\nthe inner membr ane o f the mit ochondria o f euk aryotic or ganisms and on the inner par t of the c ell membr ane o f\nprokaryotic or ganisms . The ener gy of the electr ons is har vested and used t o gener ate an electr ochemical gr adient\nacross the inner mit ochondrial membr ane. The pot ential ener gy of this gr adient is used t o gener ate ATP.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3173, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "91ca1531-7756-468d-805e-81f8dacf4784": {"__data__": {"id_": "91ca1531-7756-468d-805e-81f8dacf4784", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "116", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "44ba8df9-bd2d-4311-b30a-3e633fabcf93", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "116", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9b97df86415aff5a6019771555c9370942271d22002324016e216c6e4d740a91", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "27ba9025-d265-4d6a-b453-13b8b8f94519", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "116", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2b880c5e499352a18c8010ccc6a70f73cce5e4d0bfd8a7ce3856cceb938d107f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Rather , it deriv es fr om a pr ocess that begins with pas sing electr ons thr ough a series o f chemical\nreactions t o a final electr on ac ceptor, oxygen. These r eactions tak e plac e in specializ ed pr otein c omple xes locat ed in\nthe inner membr ane o f the mit ochondria o f euk aryotic or ganisms and on the inner par t of the c ell membr ane o f\nprokaryotic or ganisms . The ener gy of the electr ons is har vested and used t o gener ate an electr ochemical gr adient\nacross the inner mit ochondrial membr ane. The pot ential ener gy of this gr adient is used t o gener ate ATP. The entir ety\nof this pr ocess is cal ledoxida tive phosphor ylation .\nThe electr on tr anspor t chain ( Figure 4.15 a) is the las t component o f aer obic r espir ation and is the onl y par t of\nmetabolism that uses atmospheric o xygen. Oxy gen c ontinuousl y diffuses int o plants f or this purpose . In animals ,\noxygen ent ers the body thr ough the r espir atory system. Electr on tr anspor t is a series o f chemical r eactions that\nresembles a buck et brig ade in that electr ons ar e pas sed r apidl y from one c omponent t o the ne xt, to the endpoint o f\nthe chain wher e oxygen is the final electr on ac ceptor and w ater is pr oduc ed. Ther e are four c omple xes composed o f\nproteins , labeled I thr ough IV in Figure 4.15 c, and the ag gregation o f these f our c omple xes, together with\nassociat ed mobile , accessory electr on carriers , is cal led the electr on tr anspor t chain . The electr on tr anspor t chain\nis pr esent in mul tiple c opies in the inner mit ochondrial membr ane o f euk aryotes and in the plasma membr ane o f\nprokaryotes. In each tr ansfer of an electr on thr ough the electr on tr anspor t chain, the electr on loses ener gy, but with\nsome tr ansfers, the ener gy is s tored as pot ential ener gy by using it t o pump h ydrogen ions acr oss the inner102 4 \u2022 Ho w Cells Ob tain Ener gy\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2586, "end_char_idx": 4535, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8e93f621-b358-4b70-961c-c775047148e8": {"__data__": {"id_": "8e93f621-b358-4b70-961c-c775047148e8", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "117", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "86e07c44-747d-4afa-a619-4ba00e9837ae", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "117", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8d3634b5ceac6671f6b0c32dd6830bed34959fc8c06c94bf35ad99b6068b8db5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "mitochondrial membr ane int o the int ermembr ane spac e, creating an electr ochemical gr adient.\nVISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 4.15 (a) The electr on tr anspor t chain is a set o f molecules that suppor ts a series o f oxidation-r eduction r eactions . (b) A TP s ynthase\nis a c omple x, molecular machine that uses an H+gradient t o regener ate ATP fr om ADP . (c) Chemiosmosis r elies on the pot ential ener gy\nprovided b y the H+gradient acr oss the membr ane.\nCyanide inhibits cyt ochr ome c o xidase , a c omponent o f the electr on tr anspor t chain. If cy anide poisoning oc curs ,\nwould y ou e xpect the pH o f the int ermembr ane spac e to incr ease or decr ease? What aff ect w ould cy anide ha ve on\nATP s ynthesis?\nElectr ons fr om NADH and F ADH 2are pas sed t o protein c omple xes in the electr on tr anspor t chain. As the y are\npassed fr om one c omple x to another (ther e are a t otal o f four), the electr ons lose ener gy, and some o f that ener gy is\nused t o pump h ydrogen ions fr om the mit ochondrial matrix int o the int ermembr ane spac e. In the f ourth pr otein\ncomple x, the electr ons ar e ac cepted b y oxygen, the t erminal ac ceptor. The o xygen with its e xtra electr ons then\ncombines with tw o hydrogen ions , fur ther enhancing the electr ochemical gr adient, t o form w ater. If ther e were no\noxygen pr esent in the mit ochondrion, the electr ons c ould not be r emo ved fr om the s ystem, and the entir e electr on\ntranspor t chain w ould back up and s top. The mit ochondria w ould be unable t o gener ate ne w ATP in this w ay, and the\ncell would ul timat ely die fr om lack o f ener gy. This is the r eason w e mus t breathe t o draw in ne w oxygen.\n4.3 \u2022 Citric A cid C ycle and Oxidativ e Phosphor ylation 103", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1755, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "afea7f6b-1a88-4c74-85cf-d89bad6c0827": {"__data__": {"id_": "afea7f6b-1a88-4c74-85cf-d89bad6c0827", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "118", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "16d97e1a-b7b2-400c-89de-921b0216783b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "118", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8220c326f8f3bc3db7d773de00e86d9483e7925e8a095792e93c887d0ff05086", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "f028cce3-8012-44ae-898f-93061d1b5238", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "a91698ee3da7434da292d887a46119c7fc4148657f348b724879fe77d84801d1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In the electr on tr anspor t chain, the fr ee ener gy from the series o f reactions jus t described is used t o pump h ydrogen\nions acr oss the membr ane. The une ven dis tribution o f H+ions acr oss the membr ane es tablishes an electr ochemical\ngradient, o wing t o the H+ions\u2019 positiv e char ge and their higher c oncentr ation on one side o f the membr ane.\nHydrogen ions diffuse thr ough the inner membr ane thr ough an int egral membr ane pr otein cal ledATP s ynthase\n(Figure 4.15 b). This c omple x protein acts as a tin y gener ator, turned b y the f orce of the h ydrogen ions diffusing\nthrough it, do wn their electr ochemical gr adient fr om the int ermembr ane spac e, wher e ther e are man y mutual ly\nrepel ling h ydrogen ions t o the matrix, wher e ther e are few. The turning o f the par ts of this molecular machine\nregener ate ATP fr om ADP . This flo w of hydrogen ions acr oss the membr ane thr ough A TP s ynthase is cal led\nchemiosmosis .\nChemiosmosis ( Figure 4.15 c) is used t o gener ate 90 per cent o f the A TP made during aer obic gluc ose catabolism.\nThe r esul t of the r eactions is the pr oduction o f ATP fr om the ener gy of the electr ons r emo ved fr om h ydrogen at oms .\nThese at oms w ere original ly par t of a gluc ose molecule . At the end o f the electr on tr anspor t system, the electr ons\nare used t o reduc e an o xygen molecule t o oxygen ions . The e xtra electr ons on the o xygen ions at tract h ydrogen ions\n(protons) fr om the surr ounding medium, and w ater is f ormed. The electr on tr anspor t chain and the pr oduction o f\nATP thr ough chemiosmosis ar e collectiv ely cal led o xidativ e phosphor ylation.\nATP Yield\nThe number o f ATP molecules g ener ated fr om the catabolism o f gluc ose v aries . For example , the number o f\nhydrogen ions that the electr on tr anspor t chain c omple xes can pump thr ough the membr ane v aries betw een\nspecies . Another sour ce of varianc e stems fr om the shut tle o f electr ons acr oss the mit ochondrial membr ane. The\nNADH g ener ated fr om gl ycolysis cannot easil y ent er mit ochondria . Thus , electr ons ar e pick ed up on the inside o f the\nmitochondria b y either NAD+or FAD+. Fewer ATP molecules ar e gener ated when F AD+acts as a carrier . NAD+is\nused as the electr on tr anspor ter in the liv er and F AD+in the br ain, so A TP yield depends on the tis sue being\nconsider ed.\nAnother fact or that aff ects the yield o f ATP molecules g ener ated fr om gluc ose is that int ermediat e compounds in\nthese path ways are used f or other purposes . Gluc ose catabolism c onnects with the path ways that build or br eak\ndown al l other biochemical c ompounds in c ells, and the r esul t is some what mes sier than the ideal situations\ndescribed thus far . For example , sug ars other than gluc ose ar e fed int o the gl ycolytic path way for ener gy extraction.\nOther molecules that w ould other wise be used t o har vest ener gy in gl ycolysis or the citric acid cy cle ma y be\nremo ved to form nucleic acids , amino acids , lipids , or other c ompounds . Overall, in living s ystems , these path ways\nof gluc ose catabolism e xtract about 34 per cent o f the ener gy contained in gluc ose.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3199, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f028cce3-8012-44ae-898f-93061d1b5238": {"__data__": {"id_": "f028cce3-8012-44ae-898f-93061d1b5238", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "118", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "16d97e1a-b7b2-400c-89de-921b0216783b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "118", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8220c326f8f3bc3db7d773de00e86d9483e7925e8a095792e93c887d0ff05086", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "afea7f6b-1a88-4c74-85cf-d89bad6c0827", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "118", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fd8534dabed78d2088b785814c4eacfb000061ed9e12d59786cc58fbad2cfbfa", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Gluc ose catabolism c onnects with the path ways that build or br eak\ndown al l other biochemical c ompounds in c ells, and the r esul t is some what mes sier than the ideal situations\ndescribed thus far . For example , sug ars other than gluc ose ar e fed int o the gl ycolytic path way for ener gy extraction.\nOther molecules that w ould other wise be used t o har vest ener gy in gl ycolysis or the citric acid cy cle ma y be\nremo ved to form nucleic acids , amino acids , lipids , or other c ompounds . Overall, in living s ystems , these path ways\nof gluc ose catabolism e xtract about 34 per cent o f the ener gy contained in gluc ose.\nCAREER C ONNE CTION\nMitochondrial Disease Ph ysician\nWhat happens when the critical r eactions o f cellular r espir ation do not pr oceed c orrectly? Mit ochondrial diseases\nare genetic disor ders o f metabolism. Mit ochondrial disor ders can arise fr om mutations in nuclear or mit ochondrial\nDNA , and the y resul t in the pr oduction o f les s ener gy than is normal in body c ells. Symp toms o f mit ochondrial\ndiseases can include muscle w eaknes s, lack o f coordination, s troke-like episodes , and los s of vision and hearing .\nMos t affected people ar e diagnosed in childhood, al though ther e are some adul t-onset diseases . Identif ying and\ntreating mit ochondrial disor ders is a specializ ed medical field. The educational pr epar ation f or this pr ofession\nrequir es a c ollege education, f ollowed b y medical school with a specialization in medical g enetics . Medical\ngeneticis ts can be boar d certified b y the American Boar d of Medical Genetics and g o on t o bec ome as sociat ed with\nprofessional or ganizations de voted to the s tudy o f mit ochondrial disease , such as the Mit ochondrial Medicine\nSociety and the Society f or Inherit ed Metabolic Disease .\n104 4 \u2022 Ho w Cells Ob tain Ener gy\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2558, "end_char_idx": 4454, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ebd5ff83-9e3d-493c-8bfd-198b5ee26519": {"__data__": {"id_": "ebd5ff83-9e3d-493c-8bfd-198b5ee26519", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "119", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "bdbe6a63-2992-4a44-b338-83dba078d50b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "119", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4378884dbf48b1ba33824dd48c900006faaa2c8535e6415138fcd433854551f4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "4.4Fermentation\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Discus s the fundamental diff erence betw een anaer obic c ellular r espir ation and f ermentation\n\u2022Describe the type o f fermentation that r eadil y oc curs in animal c ells and the c onditions that initiat e that\nfermentation\nIn aer obic r espir ation, the final electr on ac ceptor is an o xygen molecule , O2. If aer obic r espir ation oc curs , then A TP\nwill be pr oduc ed using the ener gy of the high-ener gy electr ons carried b y NADH or F ADH 2to the electr on tr anspor t\nchain. If aer obic r espir ation does not oc cur, NADH mus t be r eoxidiz ed to NAD+for reuse as an electr on carrier f or\nglycolysis t o continue . Ho w is this done? In some living s ystems the electr on tr anspor t chain (ET C) use an or ganic\nmolecule as the final electr on ac ceptor. Processes that use an or ganic molecule t o regener ate NAD+from NADH ar e\ncollectiv ely referred to as fermenta tion . In c ontr ast, in some living s ystems , the electr on tr anspor t chain (ET C) uses\nan inor ganic molecule (other than o xygen) as a final electr on ac ceptor to regener ate NAD+which is cal led anaer obic\n(do not r equir e oxygen) t o achie ve NAD+regener ation. Both pr ocesses al low or ganisms t o convert ener gy for their\nuse in the absenc e of oxygen.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch this video (http://opens tax.org/l/fermentation2) to see f ermentation in action.\nLactic A cid F ermentation\nThe f ermentation method used b y animals and some bact eria lik e those in y ogurt is lactic acid f ermentation ( Figure\n4.16 ). This oc curs r outinel y in mammalian r ed blood c ells and in sk eletal muscle that has insufficient o xygen suppl y\nto allow aer obic r espir ation t o continue (that is , in muscles used t o the point o f fatig ue). In muscles , lactic acid\nproduc ed b y fermentation mus t be r emo ved b y the blood cir culation and br ought t o the liv er for fur ther metabolism.\nThe chemical r eaction o f lactic acid f ermentation is the f ollowing:\nThe enzyme that catal yzes this r eaction is lactat e deh ydrogenase . The r eaction can pr oceed in either dir ection, but\nthe left -to-right r eaction is inhibit ed b y acidic c onditions . This lactic acid build-up causes muscle s tiffnes s and\nfatig ue. Onc e the lactic acid has been r emo ved fr om the muscle and is cir culat ed to the liv er, it can be c onverted\nback t o pyruvic acid and fur ther cataboliz ed for ener gy.\n4.4 \u2022 F ermentation 105", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2508, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "79efd182-f25e-4c19-b739-a6a5ac5d9c20": {"__data__": {"id_": "79efd182-f25e-4c19-b739-a6a5ac5d9c20", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "120", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0e973eda-5953-4855-b8f2-aa5f18d143b2", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "120", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c4157fd6c3e8e018e381a66a5c7a1690dbbed4097ac154add99617f36f988b83", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 4.16 Lactic acid f ermentation is c ommon in muscles that ha ve bec ome e xhaus ted b y use .\nTremet ol, a metabolic poison f ound in whit e snak e root plant, pr events the metabolism o f lactat e. When c ows eat\nthis plant, T remet ol is c oncentr ated in the milk. Humans who c onsume the milk bec ome il l. Symp toms o f this\ndisease , which include v omiting , abdominal pain, and tr emors , bec ome w orse aft er exercise. Wh y do y ou think this\nis the case?\nAlcohol F ermentation\nAnother familiar f ermentation pr ocess is alc ohol f ermentation ( Figure 4.17 ), which pr oduc es ethanol , an alc ohol .\nThe alc ohol f ermentation r eaction is the f ollowing:\nFIGURE 4.17 The r eaction r esul ting in alc ohol f ermentation is sho wn.\nIn the firs t reaction, a carbo xyl gr oup is r emo ved fr om p yruvic acid, r eleasing carbon dio xide as a g as. The los s of\ncarbon dio xide r educ es the molecule b y one carbon at om, making ac etaldeh yde. The sec ond r eaction r emo ves an\nelectr on fr om NADH, f orming NAD+and pr oducing ethanol fr om the ac etaldeh yde, which ac cepts the electr on. The\nfermentation o f pyruvic acid b y yeast produc es the ethanol f ound in alc oholic be verages (Figure 4.18 ). If the carbon\ndioxide pr oduc ed b y the r eaction is not v ented fr om the f ermentation chamber , for example in beer and sparkling\n106 4 \u2022 Ho w Cells Ob tain Ener gy\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1448, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0ab7e690-ff61-4ef7-84c1-7dadb6a9d107": {"__data__": {"id_": "0ab7e690-ff61-4ef7-84c1-7dadb6a9d107", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "121", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0186323b-61d8-4708-ad1f-523d673ac1e1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "121", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cd2a78444bfb18750946e41ecd1dbeb1b2ed8daeec27fce467b5c67791bf76fd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "wines , it remains dis solved in the medium until the pr essure is r eleased. Ethanol abo ve 12 per cent is t oxic t o yeast,\nso natur al le vels o f alc ohol in wine oc cur at a maximum o f 12 per cent.\nFIGURE 4.18 Fermentation o f grape juic e to mak e wine pr oduc es C O2as a b yproduct. F ermentation tank s ha ve valves so that pr essure\ninside the tank s can be r eleased.\nAnaer obic C ellular R espir ation\nCertain pr okaryotes, including some species o f bact eria and Ar chaea , use anaer obic r espir ation. F or example , the\ngroup o f Archaea cal led methanog ens r educ es carbon dio xide t o methane t o oxidiz e NADH. These micr oorganisms\nare found in soil and in the dig estive tracts o f ruminants , such as c ows and sheep . Similarl y, sulfat e-reducing\nbact eria and Ar chaea , mos t of which ar e anaer obic ( Figure 4.19 ), reduc e sulfat e to hydrogen sulfide t o regener ate\nNAD+from NADH.\nFIGURE 4.19 The gr een c olor seen in these c oastal w aters is fr om an erup tion o f hydrogen sulfide . Anaer obic, sulfat e-reducing bact eria\nrelease h ydrogen sulfide g as as the y dec ompose alg ae in the w ater. (credit: NASA imag e courtesy Jeff Schmal tz, MODIS L and R apid\nResponse T eam at NASA GSF C)\nOther f ermentation methods oc cur in bact eria. Man y prokaryotes ar e facul tativ ely anaer obic. This means that the y\ncan s witch betw een aer obic r espir ation and f ermentation, depending on the a vailability o f oxygen. Cer tain\nprokaryotes, likeClos tridia bact eria, are oblig ate anaer obes . Oblig ate anaer obes liv e and gr ow in the absenc e of\nmolecular o xygen. Oxy gen is a poison t o these micr oorganisms and kil ls them upon e xposur e. It should be not ed4.4 \u2022 F ermentation 107", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1730, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "623e86df-6f2f-4d50-9646-3e642d254876": {"__data__": {"id_": "623e86df-6f2f-4d50-9646-3e642d254876", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "122", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "27b34149-df54-44d1-a6ef-4d67a0f6c065", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "122", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1f7759f1c463624966a0f5347d092db405f9ea1f6ac764be007e2cff56efe032", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "e7eccca8-6e79-4f32-a251-7708c6aa5225", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "133046be1e84b8702b5ac80ccc8acb44928f97a60c4855fe25c5584765f95465", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "that al l forms o f fermentation, e xcept lactic acid f ermentation, pr oduc e gas. The pr oduction o f par ticular types o f\ngas is used as an indicat or of the f ermentation o f specific carboh ydrates, which pla ys a r ole in the labor atory\nidentification o f the bact eria. The v arious methods o f fermentation ar e used b y diff erent or ganisms t o ensur e an\nadequat e suppl y of NAD+for the sixth s tep in gl ycolysis. Without these path ways, that s tep w ould not oc cur, and no\nATP w ould be har vested fr om the br eakdown o f gluc ose.\n4.5Connec tions t o Other Me tabolic P athways\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Discus s the w ay in which carboh ydrate metabolic path ways, glycolysis, and the citric acid cy cle\ninterrelate with pr otein and lipid metabolic path ways\n\u2022Explain wh y metabolic path ways are not c onsider ed closed s ystems\nYou ha ve learned about the catabolism o f gluc ose, which pr ovides ener gy to living c ells. But living things c onsume\nmor e than jus t gluc ose f or food. Ho w does a turk ey sandwich, which c ontains pr otein, pr ovide ener gy to your c ells?\nThis happens because al l of the catabolic path ways for carboh ydrates, proteins , and lipids e ventual ly connect int o\nglycolysis and the citric acid cy cle path ways (Figure 4.20 ). Metabolic path ways should be thought o f as por ous\u2014that\nis, subs tanc es ent er fr om other path ways, and other subs tanc es lea ve for other path ways. These path ways are not\nclosed s ystems . Man y of the pr oducts in a par ticular path way are reactants in other path ways.\nConnec tions o f Other Sugar s to Gluc ose Me tabolism\nGlycogen, a pol ymer o f gluc ose, is a shor t-term ener gy storage molecule in animals . When ther e is adequat e ATP\npresent, e xcess gluc ose is c onverted int o glycogen for storage. Glycogen is made and s tored in the liv er and muscle .\nGlycogen wil l be tak en out o f storage if blood sug ar le vels dr op. The pr esenc e of glycogen in muscle c ells as a sour ce\nof gluc ose al lows ATP to be pr oduc ed for a long er time during e xercise.\nSucr ose is a disac charide made fr om gluc ose and fruct ose bonded t ogether . Sucr ose is br oken do wn in the smal l\nintestine, and the gluc ose and fruct ose ar e absorbed separ ately. Fruct ose is one o f the thr ee dietar y\nmonosac charides , along with gluc ose and g alact ose (which is par t of milk sug ar, the disac charide lact ose), that ar e\nabsorbed dir ectly int o the bloods tream during dig estion. The catabolism o f both fruct ose and g alact ose pr oduc es\nthe same number o f ATP molecules as gluc ose.\nConnec tions o f Proteins t o Gluc ose Me tabolism\nProteins ar e broken do wn b y a v ariety o f enzymes in c ells. Mos t of the time , amino acids ar e recycled int o ne w\nproteins . If ther e are excess amino acids , however, or if the body is in a s tate of famine , some amino acids wil l be\nshunt ed int o path ways of gluc ose catabolism. Each amino acid mus t have its amino gr oup r emo ved prior t o entr y\ninto these path ways. The amino gr oup is c onverted int o ammonia . In mammals , the liv er synthesiz es ur ea fr om tw o\nammonia molecules and a carbon dio xide molecule .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3237, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e7eccca8-6e79-4f32-a251-7708c6aa5225": {"__data__": {"id_": "e7eccca8-6e79-4f32-a251-7708c6aa5225", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "122", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "27b34149-df54-44d1-a6ef-4d67a0f6c065", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "122", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1f7759f1c463624966a0f5347d092db405f9ea1f6ac764be007e2cff56efe032", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "623e86df-6f2f-4d50-9646-3e642d254876", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "122", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "21318249f94ea70c94f00d638c73e4a0e9129f9133e3889c7b17406e354cc91e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Connec tions o f Proteins t o Gluc ose Me tabolism\nProteins ar e broken do wn b y a v ariety o f enzymes in c ells. Mos t of the time , amino acids ar e recycled int o ne w\nproteins . If ther e are excess amino acids , however, or if the body is in a s tate of famine , some amino acids wil l be\nshunt ed int o path ways of gluc ose catabolism. Each amino acid mus t have its amino gr oup r emo ved prior t o entr y\ninto these path ways. The amino gr oup is c onverted int o ammonia . In mammals , the liv er synthesiz es ur ea fr om tw o\nammonia molecules and a carbon dio xide molecule . Thus , urea is the principal w aste product in mammals fr om the\nnitrogen originating in amino acids , and it lea ves the body in urine .\nConnec tions o f Lipids t o Gluc ose Me tabolism\nThe lipids that ar e connect ed to the gluc ose path ways are choles terol and trigl ycerides . Choles terol is a lipid that\ncontribut es to cell membr ane fle xibility and is a pr ecursor o f steroid hormones . The s ynthesis o f choles terol starts\nwith ac etyl CoA and pr oceeds in onl y one dir ection. The pr ocess cannot be r eversed, and A TP is not pr oduc ed.\nTriglycerides ar e a f orm o f long-t erm ener gy storage in animals . Triglycerides s tore about twic e as much ener gy as\ncarboh ydrates. Triglycerides ar e made o f glycerol and thr ee fat ty acids . Animals can mak e mos t of the fat ty acids\nthey need. T riglycerides can be both made and br oken do wn thr ough par ts of the gluc ose catabolism path ways.\nGlycerol can be phosphor ylated and pr oceeds thr ough gl ycolysis. Fatty acids ar e broken int o tw o-carbon units that\nenter the citric acid cy cle.108 4 \u2022 Ho w Cells Ob tain Ener gy\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2648, "end_char_idx": 4374, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7535bdde-9ca3-4a0a-9415-4941b3a0e6d8": {"__data__": {"id_": "7535bdde-9ca3-4a0a-9415-4941b3a0e6d8", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "123", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b4cff1f8-0db4-48b4-a913-0c5981025833", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "123", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2e47ce09c32e70ab5e0b46fb140659dac264dca9aec48e74459e1e7124b3cc73", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 4.20 Glycogen fr om the liv er and muscles , together with fats , can f eed int o the catabolic path ways for carboh ydrates.\nEVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nPathways of Pho tosynthesis and C ellular Me tabolism\nPhot osynthesis and c ellular metabolism c onsis t of several very comple x path ways. It is g ener ally thought that the\nfirst cells ar ose in an aqueous en vironment \u2014a \u201c soup \u201d of nutrients . If these c ells reproduc ed suc cessfully and their\nnumbers climbed s teadil y, it follows that the c ells would begin t o deplet e the nutrients fr om the medium in which\nthey lived, as the y shift ed the nutrients int o their o wn c ells. This h ypothetical situation w ould ha ve resul ted in\nnatur al selection fa voring those or ganisms that c ould e xist by using the nutrients that r emained in their en vironment\nand b y manipulating these nutrients int o mat erials that the y could use t o sur vive. Additional ly, selection w ould fa vor\nthose or ganisms that c ould e xtract maximal v alue fr om the a vailable nutrients .\nAn earl y form o f phot osynthesis de veloped that harnes sed the sun \u2019s ener gy using c ompounds other than w ater as a\nsour ce of hydrogen at oms , but this path way did not pr oduc e free o xygen. It is thought that gl ycolysis de veloped\nprior t o this time and c ould tak e adv antag e of simple sug ars being pr oduc ed, but these r eactions w ere not able t o\nfully extract the ener gy stored in the carboh ydrates. A lat er form o f phot osynthesis used w ater as a sour ce of\nhydrogen ions and g ener ated fr ee o xygen. Ov er time , the atmospher e became o xygenat ed. Living things adap ted to\nexploit this ne w atmospher e and al lowed respir ation as w e kno w it t o evolve. When the ful l process of\nphot osynthesis as w e kno w it de veloped and the atmospher e became o xygenat ed, c ells were final ly able t o use the\noxygen e xpel led b y phot osynthesis t o extract mor e ener gy from the sug ar molecules using the citric acid cy cle.\n4.5 \u2022 C onnec tions t o Other Me tabolic P athways 109", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2052, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "279e75bf-b68b-40e2-9614-cff2bd2bcb8e": {"__data__": {"id_": "279e75bf-b68b-40e2-9614-cff2bd2bcb8e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "124", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "09f790a0-d621-4137-a745-af045b3dbd0a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "124", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "770e5aac6534c12e6eae663872c5924e108a3109816df0d2f6b15ceadb0897c7", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "87dc7995-3234-4c5a-8639-2c36e1a186fd", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "0473a7c02b433028e558f57cd599beb5d50fe8b32a688a13ea0f80419a55d928", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nacetyl CoA the c ombination o f an ac etyl gr oup\nderiv ed fr om p yruvic acid and c oenzyme A which is\nmade fr om pant othenic acid (a B-gr oup vitamin)\nactiv ation ener gythe amount o f initial ener gy\nnecessary for reactions t o oc cur\nactiv e sit ea specific r egion on the enzyme wher e the\nsubs trate binds\nallosteric inhibition the mechanism f or inhibiting\nenzyme action in which a r egulatory molecule binds\nto a sec ond sit e (not the activ e sit e) and initiat es a\nconformation chang e in the activ e sit e, preventing\nbinding with the subs trate\nanabolic describes the path way that r equir es a net\nener gy input t o synthesiz e comple x molecules fr om\nsimpler ones\nanaer obic c ellular r espir ation the use o f an electr on\nacceptor other than o xygen to complet e metabolism\nusing electr on tr anspor t-based chemiosmosis\nATP (also , adenosine triphosphat e) the c ell\u2019s ener gy\ncurr ency\nATP s ynthase a membr ane-embedded pr otein\ncomple x that r egener ates A TP fr om ADP with ener gy\nfrom pr otons diffusing thr ough it\nbioener getics the c oncept of ener gy flo w thr ough\nliving s ystems\ncatabolic describes the path way in which c omple x\nmolecules ar e broken do wn int o simpler ones ,\nyielding ener gy as an additional pr oduct o f the\nreaction\nchemiosmosis the mo vement o f hydrogen ions do wn\ntheir electr ochemical gr adient acr oss a membr ane\nthrough A TP s ynthase t o gener ate ATP\ncitric acid cy cle a series o f enzyme -catal yzed\nchemical r eactions o f centr al impor tanc e in al l living\ncells that har vests the ener gy in carbon-carbon\nbonds o f sug ar molecules t o gener ate ATP; the citric\nacid cy cle is an aer obic metabolic path way because\nit requir es o xygen in lat er reactions t o proceed\ncompetitiv e inhibition a gener al mechanism o f\nenzyme activity r egulation in which a molecule\nother than the enzyme \u2019s subs trate is able t o bind\nthe activ e sit e and pr event the subs trate itself fr om\nbinding , thus inhibiting the o verall rate of reaction\nfor the enzyme\nelectr on tr anspor t chain a series o f four lar ge, mul ti-\nprotein c omple xes embedded in the inner\nmitochondrial membr ane that ac cepts electr ons\nfrom donor c ompounds and har vests ener gy from aseries o f chemical r eactions t o gener ate a h ydrogen\nion gr adient acr oss the membr ane\nender gonic describes a chemical r eaction that r esul ts\nin pr oducts that s tore mor e chemical pot ential\nener gy than the r eactants\nenzyme a molecule that catal yzes a biochemical\nreaction\nexergonic describes a chemical r eaction that r esul ts\nin pr oducts with les s chemical pot ential ener gy than\nthe r eactants , plus the r elease o f free ener gy\nfeedback inhibition a mechanism o f enzyme activity\nregulation in which the pr oduct o f a reaction or the\nfinal pr oduct o f a series o f sequential r eactions\ninhibits an enzyme f or an earlier s tep in the r eaction\nseries\nfermenta tion the s teps that f ollow the par tial\noxidation o f gluc ose via gl ycolysis t o regener ate\nNAD+; occurs in the absenc e of oxygen and uses an\norganic c ompound as the final electr on ac ceptor\nglycolysis the pr ocess of breaking gluc ose int o tw o\nthree-carbon molecules with the pr oduction o f ATP\nand NADH\nheat ener gythe ener gy transferred fr om one s ystem\nto another that is not w ork\nkinetic ener gythe type o f ener gy associat ed with\nobjects in motion\nmetabolism all the chemical r eactions that tak e\nplac e inside c ells,", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3466, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "87dc7995-3234-4c5a-8639-2c36e1a186fd": {"__data__": {"id_": "87dc7995-3234-4c5a-8639-2c36e1a186fd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "124", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "09f790a0-d621-4137-a745-af045b3dbd0a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "124", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "770e5aac6534c12e6eae663872c5924e108a3109816df0d2f6b15ceadb0897c7", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "279e75bf-b68b-40e2-9614-cff2bd2bcb8e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "124", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1a1aa289ddba5406889d6eb76d81e39fb59686342aa0bf48e0b1a1b5eb8a75b5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "occurs in the absenc e of oxygen and uses an\norganic c ompound as the final electr on ac ceptor\nglycolysis the pr ocess of breaking gluc ose int o tw o\nthree-carbon molecules with the pr oduction o f ATP\nand NADH\nheat ener gythe ener gy transferred fr om one s ystem\nto another that is not w ork\nkinetic ener gythe type o f ener gy associat ed with\nobjects in motion\nmetabolism all the chemical r eactions that tak e\nplac e inside c ells, including those that use ener gy\nand those that r elease ener gy\nnonc ompetitiv e inhibition a gener al mechanism o f\nenzyme activity r egulation in which a r egulatory\nmolecule binds t o a sit e other than the activ e sit e\nand pr events the activ e sit e from binding the\nsubs trate; thus , the inhibit or molecule does not\ncompet e with the subs trate for the activ e sit e;\nallosteric inhibition is a f orm o f nonc ompetitiv e\ninhibition\noxida tive phosphor ylation the pr oduction o f ATP b y\nthe tr ansfer of electr ons do wn the electr on\ntranspor t chain t o create a pr oton gr adient that is\nused b y ATP s ynthase t o add phosphat e groups t o\nADP molecules\npotential ener gythe type o f ener gy that r efers t o the\npotential t o do w ork\nsubs tratea molecule on which the enzyme acts\nthermodynamics the scienc e of the r elationships\nbetw een heat, ener gy, and w ork110 4 \u2022 K ey Terms\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 3028, "end_char_idx": 4400, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "046be15c-a352-488a-a7d1-cfd38970f7d4": {"__data__": {"id_": "046be15c-a352-488a-a7d1-cfd38970f7d4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "125", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "830d864c-e126-47bb-82d4-485963d10ffa", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "125", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7c35567e31b7094c73ce3450e9bd09867559dda2feaa100077152bd6758132fb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "3db43855-60c7-487c-b68a-1a9c2252ecd5", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "9c438da65e0d34aa49228e474318d95d32846d8f021dc4bc8f41a2ee7e70d5f3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Chap ter Summar y\n4.1Ener gy and Me tabolism\nCells per form the functions o f life thr ough v arious\nchemical r eactions . A c ell\u2019s metabolism r efers t o the\ncombination o f chemical r eactions that tak e plac e\nwithin it. Catabolic r eactions br eak do wn c omple x\nchemicals int o simpler ones and ar e as sociat ed with\nener gy release . Anabolic pr ocesses build c omple x\nmolecules out o f simpler ones and r equir e ener gy.\nIn studying ener gy, the t erm s ystem r efers t o the\nmatter and en vironment in volved in ener gy transfers.\nEntr opy is a measur e of the disor der o f a s ystem. The\nphysical la ws that describe the tr ansfer of ener gy are\nthe la ws of thermodynamics . The firs t law states that\nthe t otal amount o f ener gy in the univ erse is c onstant.\nThe sec ond la w of thermodynamics s tates that e very\nener gy transfer in volves some los s of ener gy in an\nunusable f orm, such as heat ener gy. Ener gy comes in\ndifferent f orms: kinetic, pot ential , and fr ee. The chang e\nin free ener gy of a reaction can be neg ative (releases\nener gy, exergonic) or positiv e (consumes ener gy,\nender gonic). Al l reactions r equir e an initial input o f\nener gy to proceed, cal led the activ ation ener gy.\nEnzymes ar e chemical catal ysts that speed up\nchemical r eactions b y lowering their activ ation ener gy.\nEnzymes ha ve an activ e sit e with a unique chemical\nenvironment that fits par ticular chemical r eactants f or\nthat enzyme , cal led subs trates. Enzymes and\nsubs trates ar e thought t o bind ac cording t o an\ninduc ed-fit model . Enzyme action is r egulated to\nconser ve resour ces and r espond op timal ly to the\nenvironment.\n4.2Glycolysis\nATP functions as the ener gy curr ency f or cells. It al lows\ncells to store ener gy briefl y and tr anspor t it within itself\nto suppor t ender gonic chemical r eactions . The\nstructur e of ATP is that o f an RNA nucleotide with thr ee\nphosphat e groups at tached. As A TP is used f or ener gy,\na phosphat e group is detached, and ADP is pr oduc ed.\nEner gy deriv ed fr om gluc ose catabolism is used t o\nrechar ge ADP int o ATP.\nGlycolysis is the firs t path way used in the br eakdown o f\ngluc ose t o extract ener gy. Because it is used b y nearl y\nall organisms on ear th, it mus t have evolved earl y in the\nhistory of life. Glycolysis c onsis ts of two par ts: The firs t\npart prepar es the six -carbon ring o f gluc ose f or\nsepar ation int o tw o thr ee-carbon sug ars. Ener gy from\nATP is in vested int o the molecule during this s tep to\nener gize the separ ation. The sec ond half o f glycolysis\nextracts A TP and high-ener gy electr ons fr om h ydrogenatoms and at taches them t o NAD+. Two ATP molecules\nare invested in the firs t half and f our A TP molecules ar e\nformed during the sec ond half . This pr oduc es a net\ngain o f two ATP molecules per molecule o f gluc ose f or\nthe c ell.\n4.3Citric A cid C ycle and Oxidativ e\nPhosphor ylation\nThe citric acid cy cle is a series o f chemical r eactions\nthat r emo ves high-ener gy electr ons and uses them in\nthe electr on tr anspor t chain t o gener ate ATP. One\nmolecule o f ATP (or an equiv alent) is pr oduc ed per\neach turn o f the cy cle.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3189, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3db43855-60c7-487c-b68a-1a9c2252ecd5": {"__data__": {"id_": "3db43855-60c7-487c-b68a-1a9c2252ecd5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "125", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "830d864c-e126-47bb-82d4-485963d10ffa", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "125", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7c35567e31b7094c73ce3450e9bd09867559dda2feaa100077152bd6758132fb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "046be15c-a352-488a-a7d1-cfd38970f7d4", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "125", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8e18cc485d41a35c1cab3802a296b3b732db245ab5caab41883bf1d176770bbe", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The sec ond half o f glycolysis\nextracts A TP and high-ener gy electr ons fr om h ydrogenatoms and at taches them t o NAD+. Two ATP molecules\nare invested in the firs t half and f our A TP molecules ar e\nformed during the sec ond half . This pr oduc es a net\ngain o f two ATP molecules per molecule o f gluc ose f or\nthe c ell.\n4.3Citric A cid C ycle and Oxidativ e\nPhosphor ylation\nThe citric acid cy cle is a series o f chemical r eactions\nthat r emo ves high-ener gy electr ons and uses them in\nthe electr on tr anspor t chain t o gener ate ATP. One\nmolecule o f ATP (or an equiv alent) is pr oduc ed per\neach turn o f the cy cle.\nThe electr on tr anspor t chain is the por tion o f aer obic\nrespir ation that uses fr ee o xygen as the final electr on\nacceptor for electr ons r emo ved fr om the int ermediat e\ncompounds in gluc ose catabolism. The electr ons ar e\npassed thr ough a series o f chemical r eactions , with a\nsmal l amount o f free ener gy used at thr ee points t o\ntranspor t hydrogen ions acr oss the membr ane. This\ncontribut es to the gr adient used in chemiosmosis . As\nthe electr ons ar e pas sed fr om NADH or F ADH 2down\nthe electr on tr anspor t chain, the y lose ener gy. The\nproducts o f the electr on tr anspor t chain ar e water and\nATP. A number o f intermediat e compounds can be\ndiverted int o the anabolism o f other biochemical\nmolecules , such as nucleic acids , non-es sential amino\nacids , sug ars, and lipids . These same molecules ,\nexcept nucleic acids , can ser ve as ener gy sour ces for\nthe gluc ose path way.\n4.4Fermentation\nIf NADH cannot be metaboliz ed thr ough aer obic\nrespir ation, another electr on ac ceptor is used. Mos t\norganisms wil l use some f orm o f fermentation t o\naccomplish the r egener ation o f NAD+, ensuring the\ncontinuation o f glycolysis. The r egener ation o f NAD+in\nfermentation is not ac companied b y ATP pr oduction;\nther efore, the pot ential f or NADH t o produc e ATP using\nan electr on tr anspor t chain is not utiliz ed.\n4.5Connec tions t o Other Me tabolic\nPathways\nThe br eakdown and s ynthesis o f carboh ydrates,\nproteins , and lipids c onnect with the path ways of\ngluc ose catabolism. The carboh ydrates that can also\nfeed int o gluc ose catabolism include g alact ose,\nfruct ose, and gl ycogen. These c onnect with gl ycolysis.\nThe amino acids fr om pr oteins c onnect with gluc ose\ncatabolism thr ough p yruv ate, acetyl CoA , and\ncomponents o f the citric acid cy cle. Choles terol4 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y111", "start_char_idx": 2556, "end_char_idx": 5052, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "af84717f-5c10-4b7c-91f7-2dd81f197d68": {"__data__": {"id_": "af84717f-5c10-4b7c-91f7-2dd81f197d68", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "126", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "831b8ae0-b2eb-4620-909c-5308f2bd1997", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "126", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b541920a45dc3cc75b3bf29dca5cb4d25c8094a9ded661b95ab34a763f758446", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "synthesis s tarts with ac etyl CoA , and the c omponents\nof trigl ycerides ar e pick ed up b y acetyl CoA and ent erthe citric acid cy cle.\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 4.6 Look at each o f the pr ocesses sho wn and\ndecide if it is ender gonic or e xergonic.\n2.Figure 4.15 Cyanide inhibits cyt ochr ome c o xidase ,\na component o f the electr on tr anspor t chain. If\ncyanide poisoning oc curs , would y ou e xpect the pH\nof the int ermembr ane spac e to incr ease or\ndecr ease? What aff ect w ould cy anide ha ve on A TP\nsynthesis?3.Figure 4.16 Tremet ol, a metabolic poison f ound in\nwhit e snak e root plant, pr events the metabolism o f\nlactat e. When c ows eat this plant, T remet ol is\nconcentr ated in the milk. Humans who c onsume\nthe milk bec ome il l. Symp toms o f this disease ,\nwhich include v omiting , abdominal pain, and\ntremors , bec ome w orse aft er exercise. Wh y do y ou\nthink this is the case?\nReview Ques tions\n4.Which o f the f ollowing is not an e xample o f an\nener gy transformation?\na.Heating up dinner in a micr owave\nb.Solar panels at w ork\nc.Formation o f static electricity\nd.None o f the abo ve\n5.Which o f the f ollowing is not true about enzymes?\na.They are consumed b y the r eactions the y\ncatal yze.\nb.They are usual ly made o f amino acids .\nc.They lower the activ ation ener gy of chemical\nreactions .\nd.Each one is specific t o the par ticular\nsubs trate(s) t o which it binds .\n6.Ener gy is s tored long-t erm in the bonds o f _____\nand used shor t-term t o per form w ork fr om a(n)\n_____ molecule .\na.ATP : gluc ose\nb.an anabolic molecule : catabolic molecule\nc.gluc ose : A TP\nd.a catabolic molecule : anabolic molecule\n7.The ener gy curr ency used b y cells is _____.\na.ATP\nb.ADP\nc.AMP\nd.adenosine\n8.The gluc ose that ent ers the gl ycolysis path way is\nsplit int o tw o molecules o f _________.\na.ATP\nb.phosphat e\nc.NADH\nd.pyruv ate9.What do the electr ons added t o NAD+do?\na.They bec ome par t of a fermentation path way.\nb.They go to another path way for ATP\nproduction.\nc.They ener gize the entr y of the ac etyl gr oup int o\nthe citric acid cy cle.\nd.They are converted int o NADP .\n10.Chemiosmosis in volves\na.the mo vement o f electr ons acr oss the c ell\nmembr ane\nb.the mo vement o f hydrogen at oms acr oss a\nmitochondrial membr ane\nc.the mo vement o f hydrogen ions acr oss a\nmitochondrial membr ane\nd.the mo vement o f gluc ose thr ough the c ell\nmembr ane\n11.Which o f the f ollowing f ermentation methods can\noccur in animal sk eletal muscles?\na.lactic acid f ermentation\nb.alcohol f ermentation\nc.mixed acid f ermentation\nd.propionic f ermentation\n12.The choles terol synthesiz ed b y cells uses which\ncomponent o f the gl ycolytic path way as a s tarting\npoint?\na.gluc ose\nb.acetyl CoA\nc.pyruv ate\nd.carbon dio xide112 4 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2861, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "60d0c384-08b4-4ab3-876a-91e919bb3714": {"__data__": {"id_": "60d0c384-08b4-4ab3-876a-91e919bb3714", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "127", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "be2fa0c2-b55a-47c0-8087-87231397a809", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "127", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6677f3b349e06e23535ce5dbc4e05ed205731f1f46755c71c59db609bd842528", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "13.Beta o xidation is ________.\na.the br eakdown o f sug ars\nb.the as sembl y of sug ars\nc.the br eakdown o f fatty acids\nd.the r emo val of amino gr oups fr om amino\nacids\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n14.Does ph ysical e xercise t o incr ease muscle mas s\ninvolve anabolic and/or catabolic pr ocesses? Giv e\nevidenc e for your ans wer.\n15.Explain in y our o wn t erms the diff erence betw een\na spontaneous r eaction and one that oc curs\ninstantaneousl y, and what causes this diff erence.\n16.With r egard to enzymes , wh y are vitamins and\nminer als nec essary for good heal th? Giv e\nexamples .\n17.Both pr okaryotic and euk aryotic or ganisms carr y\nout some f orm o f glycolysis. Ho w does that fact\nsuppor t or not suppor t the as sertion that\nglycolysis is one o f the oldes t metabolic\npath ways?18.We inhale o xygen when w e breathe and e xhale\ncarbon dio xide . What is the o xygen used f or and\nwher e does the carbon dio xide c ome fr om?\n19.When muscle c ells run out o f oxygen, what\nhappens t o the pot ential f or ener gy extraction\nfrom sug ars and what path ways do the c ell use?\n20.Would y ou describe metabolic path ways as\ninher ently wasteful or inher ently ec onomical , and\nwhy?4 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions 113", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1240, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "570241bb-1c94-4a0c-a2c7-8d350d673fc4": {"__data__": {"id_": "570241bb-1c94-4a0c-a2c7-8d350d673fc4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "128", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "582f6ce9-4a6b-4d82-a5d2-4da6a5787ce0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "128", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "19f66d8a8e5c9513716ecc9d2edb0ea1590fa854dab53d65f882f8f6cede3c03", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "114 4 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 71, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d883f027-d671-44c2-a3d2-9f7d1c9baecd": {"__data__": {"id_": "d883f027-d671-44c2-a3d2-9f7d1c9baecd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "129", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cc68b1ae-c0b4-47b8-8d11-aafd27e1504d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "129", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0af84634dad82234b6c439c87d75ef1db520fa153aa06c48f7e1c4e7f1a120a6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 5\nPhot osynthesis\n5.1Overview of Pho tosynthesis\n5.2The Light -Dependent R eactions o f Pho tosynthesis\n5.3The Cal vin Cy cle\nNo mat ter ho w comple x or adv anced a machine , such as the lat est cellular\nphone , the de vice cannot function without ener gy. Living things , similar t o machines , have man y\ncomple x components; the y too cannot do an ything without ener gy, which is wh y humans and al l\nother or ganisms mus t \u201ceat\u201d in some f orm or another . That ma y be c ommon kno wledg e, but ho w\nman y people r ealiz e that e very bit e of every meal ing ested depends on the pr ocess of\nphot osynthesis?\n5.1Overview of Pho tosynthesis\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Summariz e the pr ocess of phot osynthesis\n\u2022Explain the r elevance of phot osynthesis t o other living things\n\u2022Identif y the r eactants and pr oducts o f phot osynthesis\n\u2022Describe the main s tructur es in volved in phot osynthesis\nAll living or ganisms on ear th consis t of one or mor e cells. Each c ell runs on the chemical ener gy\nfound mainl y in carboh ydrate molecules (f ood), and the majority o f these molecules ar e produc ed\nby one pr ocess: phot osynthesis . Thr ough phot osynthesis , certain or ganisms c onvert solar ener gy\n(sunlight) int o chemical ener gy, which is then used t o build carboh ydrate molecules . The ener gyFIGURE 5.1This mockingbir d\u2019s diet, lik e that o f almos t all organisms , depends on phot osynthesis . (credit:\nmodification o f work b y Da ve Menk e, U.S. Fish and Wildlif e Ser vice)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1589, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "072dbe24-2c62-464c-87ce-ac73da94bb4a": {"__data__": {"id_": "072dbe24-2c62-464c-87ce-ac73da94bb4a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "130", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "631d07bd-82ae-46db-a863-2a8d1df522f8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "130", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5a83952df1fac8682eb754662e81205c3ad46406d35e38c274d4f202fe04ee22", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "used t o hold these molecules t ogether is r eleased when an or ganism br eaks do wn f ood. Cel ls then\nuse this ener gy to per form w ork, such as c ellular r espir ation.\nThe ener gy that is harnes sed fr om phot osynthesis ent ers the ec osystems o f our planet\ncontinuousl y and is tr ansferred fr om one or ganism t o another . Ther efore, directly or indir ectly, the\nprocess of phot osynthesis pr ovides mos t of the ener gy requir ed b y living things on ear th.\nPhot osynthesis also r esul ts in the r elease o f oxygen int o the atmospher e. In shor t, to eat and\nbreathe , humans depend almos t entir ely on the or ganisms that carr y out phot osynthesis .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nClick the f ollowing link (http://opens tax.org/l/phot osynthesis2) to learn mor e about\nphot osynthesis .\nSolar Dependenc e and F ood P roduc tion\nSome or ganisms can carr y out phot osynthesis , wher eas others cannot. An autotroph is an\norganism that can pr oduc e its o wn f ood. The Gr eek r oots o f the w ordautotroph mean \u201c self\u201d (auto)\n\u201cfeeder \u201d (troph). Plants ar e the bes t-kno wn aut otrophs , but others e xist, including c ertain types o f\nbact eria and alg ae (Figure 5.2 ). Oc eanic alg ae c ontribut e enormous quantities o f food and o xygen\nto global f ood chains . Plants ar e also photoaut otrophs , a type o f aut otroph that uses sunlight and\ncarbon fr om carbon dio xide t o synthesiz e chemical ener gy in the f orm o f carboh ydrates. All\norganisms carr ying out phot osynthesis r equir e sunlight.\nFIGURE 5.2(a) Plants , (b) alg ae, and (c) c ertain bact eria, cal led cy anobact eria, are phot oaut otrophs that can carr y out\nphot osynthesis . Alg ae can gr ow over enormous ar eas in w ater, at times c omplet ely covering the sur face. (credit a:\nSteve Hil lebrand, U .S. Fish and Wildlif e Ser vice; cr edit b: \" eutr ophication&h ypoxia\"/Flickr; cr edit c: NASA; scale -bar\ndata fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nHeterotrophs are organisms incapable o f phot osynthesis that mus t ther efore ob tain ener gy and\ncarbon fr om f ood b y consuming other or ganisms . The Gr eek r oots o f the w ordheterotroph mean\n\u201cother \u201d (hetero) \u201cfeeder \u201d (troph), meaning that their f ood c omes fr om other or ganisms . Even if the\nfood or ganism is another animal , this f ood tr aces its origins back t o aut otrophs and the pr ocess of\nphot osynthesis . Humans ar e het erotrophs , as ar e all animals . Het erotrophs depend on\nautotrophs , either dir ectly or indir ectly. Deer and w olves ar e het erotrophs . A deer ob tains ener gy\nby eating plants . A w olf eating a deer ob tains ener gy that original ly came fr om the plants eat en b y\nthat deer . The ener gy in the plant came fr om phot osynthesis , and ther efore it is the onl y aut otroph\nin this e xample ( Figure 5.3 ). Using this r easoning , all food eat en b y humans also link s back t o\nautotrophs that carr y out phot osynthesis .\n116 5 \u2022 Pho tosynthesis\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2957, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8283ea37-9fd2-4eda-a6f0-62427cc8043f": {"__data__": {"id_": "8283ea37-9fd2-4eda-a6f0-62427cc8043f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "131", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "24113f64-c534-45f0-b4ff-5f6ecfe28e0e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "131", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4e61e23ca15646b8caf27eefb2cd0aa50b4ca405980f4b2bb8f611c43742a845", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 5.3The ener gy stored in carboh ydrate molecules fr om phot osynthesis pas ses thr ough the f ood chain. The pr edat or that eats these\ndeer is g etting ener gy that originat ed in the phot osynthetic v egetation that the deer c onsumed. (cr edit: St eve VanRiper , U.S. Fish and\nWildlif e Ser vice)\nMain S tructures and Summar y of Pho tosynthesis\nPhot osynthesis r equir es sunlight, carbon dio xide , and w ater as s tarting r eactants ( Figure 5.5 ). Aft er the pr ocess is\ncomplet e, phot osynthesis r eleases o xygen and pr oduc es carboh ydrate molecules , mos t commonl y gluc ose. These\nsugar molecules c ontain the ener gy that living things need t o sur vive.EVERYDAY CONNE CTION\nPho tosynthesis a t the Gr ocery Store\nFIGURE 5.4Phot osynthesis is the origin o f the pr oducts that c omprise the main elements o f the human diet. (cr edit: As socia\u00e7\u00e3o\nBrasileir a de Supermer cados)\nMajor gr ocery stores in the Unit ed Stat es ar e organiz ed int o depar tments , such as dair y, meats , produc e, bread,\ncereals , and so f orth. Each aisle c ontains hundr eds, if not thousands , of diff erent pr oducts f or cus tomers t o buy\nand c onsume ( Figure 5.4 ).\nAlthough ther e is a lar ge variety , each it em link s back t o phot osynthesis . Meats and dair y products link t o\nphot osynthesis because the animals w ere fed plant -based f oods . The br eads , cereals , and pas tas c ome lar gely\nfrom gr ains , which ar e the seeds o f phot osynthetic plants . What about des serts and drink s? Al l of these pr oducts\ncontain sug ar\u2014the basic carboh ydrate molecule pr oduc ed dir ectly from phot osynthesis . The phot osynthesis\nconnection applies t o every meal and e very food a person c onsumes .5.1 \u2022 Ov erview of Pho tosynthesis 117", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1757, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1b408d95-cfb1-4e0f-addd-1e8a84de3256": {"__data__": {"id_": "1b408d95-cfb1-4e0f-addd-1e8a84de3256", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "132", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "83703791-a2d4-4a5c-8a11-5d345b7dd008", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "132", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8ef2ba4c82b43152a50f94cbedf28c3c012f13b6a09975a1d8261ab833832b4f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 5.5Phot osynthesis uses solar ener gy, carbon dio xide , and w ater to release o xygen and t o produc e ener gy-storing sug ar molecules .\nThe c omple x reactions o f phot osynthesis can be summariz ed b y the chemical equation sho wn in Figure 5.6 .\nFIGURE 5.6The pr ocess of phot osynthesis can be r epresent ed b y an equation, wher ein carbon dio xide and w ater pr oduc e sug ar and\noxygen using ener gy from sunlight.\nAlthough the equation look s simple , the man y steps that tak e plac e during phot osynthesis ar e actual ly quit e\ncomple x, as in the w ay that the r eaction summarizing c ellular r espir ation r epresent ed man y individual r eactions .\nBefore learning the details o f how phot oaut otrophs turn sunlight int o food, it is impor tant t o bec ome familiar with\nthe ph ysical s tructur es in volved.\nIn plants , phot osynthesis tak es plac e primaril y in lea ves, which c onsis t of man y layers o f cells and ha ve\ndifferentiat ed top and bot tom sides . The pr ocess of phot osynthesis oc curs not on the sur face layers o f the leaf , but\nrather in a middle la yer cal led the mesoph yll(Figure 5.7 ). The g as e xchang e of carbon dio xide and o xygen oc curs\nthrough smal l, regulated openings cal ledstoma ta.\nIn al l aut otrophic euk aryotes, phot osynthesis tak es plac e inside an or ganel le cal led a chlor oplas t. In plants ,\nchlor oplas t-containing c ells exist in the mesoph yll. Chlor oplas ts ha ve a double (inner and out er) membr ane. Within\nthe chlor oplas t is a thir d membr ane that f orms s tack ed, disc-shaped s tructur es cal ledthylak oids . Embedded in the\nthylak oid membr ane ar e molecules o fchlor ophyll, apigment (a molecule that absorbs light) thr ough which the\nentir e process of phot osynthesis begins . Chlor ophyll is r esponsible f or the gr een c olor o f plants . The th ylak oid118 5 \u2022 Pho tosynthesis\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1916, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9869d594-7fde-44bf-8aca-685aca2a12be": {"__data__": {"id_": "9869d594-7fde-44bf-8aca-685aca2a12be", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "133", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "20d9abd6-2c93-4c25-b4b9-4a29baa7371c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "133", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ce8a5940c13ed07d60d62f7b1c17904427f9db7076ad2a1aeef8d749975fee3a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "membr ane encloses an int ernal spac e cal led the th ylak oid spac e. Other types o f pigments ar e also in volved in\nphot osynthesis , but chlor ophyll is b y far the mos t impor tant. As sho wn in Figure 5.7 , a stack o f thylak oids is cal led a\ngranum , and the spac e surr ounding the gr anum is cal ledstroma (not t o be c onfused with s tomata , the openings on\nthe lea ves).\nVISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 5.7Not al l cells of a leaf carr y out phot osynthesis . Cel ls within the middle la yer of a leaf ha ve chlor oplas ts, which c ontain the\nphot osynthetic appar atus . (credit \"leaf \": modification o f work b y Cor y Zank er)\nOn a hot, dr y da y, plants close their s tomata t o conser ve water. What impact wil l this ha ve on phot osynthesis?\nThe T wo Parts of Pho tosynthesis\nPhot osynthesis tak es plac e in tw o stages: the light -dependent r eactions and the Cal vin cy cle. In the light -\ndependent r eactions , which tak e plac e at the th ylak oid membr ane, chlor ophyll absorbs ener gy from sunlight and\nthen c onverts it int o chemical ener gy with the use o f water. The light -dependent r eactions r elease o xygen fr om the\nhydrolysis o f water as a b yproduct. In the Cal vin cy cle, which tak es plac e in the s troma , the chemical ener gy deriv ed\nfrom the light -dependent r eactions driv es both the cap ture of carbon in carbon dio xide molecules and the\nsubsequent as sembl y of sug ar molecules . The tw o reactions use carrier molecules t o transpor t the ener gy from one\nto the other . The carriers that mo ve ener gy from the light -dependent r eactions t o the Cal vin cy cle r eactions can be\nthought o f as \u201c full\u201d because the y bring ener gy. Aft er the ener gy is r eleased, the \u201c emp ty\u201d ener gy carriers r eturn t o\nthe light -dependent r eactions t o ob tain mor e ener gy. The tw o-stage, two-location phot osynthesis pr ocess was\ndisc overed b y Joan Mar y Anderson, whose c ontinuing w ork o ver the subsequent decades pr ovided much o f our\nunders tanding o f the pr ocess, the membr anes , and the chemicals in volved.\n5.1 \u2022 Ov erview of Pho tosynthesis 119", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2111, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "408ea440-7443-4da5-a5ee-b102fdb776b5": {"__data__": {"id_": "408ea440-7443-4da5-a5ee-b102fdb776b5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "134", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b8492c09-bb4a-4449-820c-9e894403e5dc", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "134", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b968f8d16f2417d9c15a3812ef0bc7042fa526b73ecae4e2b443c106513e94b4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "5.2The Light -Dependent R eactions o f Pho tosynthesis\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain ho w plants absorb ener gy from sunlight\n\u2022Describe ho w the w avelength o f light aff ects its ener gy and c olor\n\u2022Describe ho w and wher e phot osynthesis tak es plac e within a plant\nHow can light be used t o mak e food? It is eas y to think o f light as something that e xists and al lows living or ganisms ,\nsuch as humans , to see , but light is a f orm o f ener gy. Like all ener gy, light can tr avel, chang e form, and be harnes sed\nto do w ork. In the case o f phot osynthesis , light ener gy is tr ansformed int o chemical ener gy, which aut otrophs use t o\nbuild carboh ydrate molecules . Ho wever, aut otrophs onl y use a specific c omponent o f sunlight ( Figure 5.8 ).\nFIGURE 5.8Autotrophs can cap ture light ener gy from the sun, c onverting it int o chemical ener gy used t o build f ood molecules . (credit:\nmodification o f work b y Gerr y Atwell, U.S. Fish and Wildlif e Ser vice)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch the process of phot osynthesis (http://opens tax.org/l/light _reaction2) within a leaf in this video .\nWhat Is Light Ener gy?\nThe sun emits an enormous amount o f electr omagnetic r adiation (solar ener gy). Humans can see onl y a fr action o f\nthis ener gy, which is r eferred to as \u201c visible light. \u201d The manner in which solar ener gy travels can be described and\nmeasur ed as w aves. Scientis ts can det ermine the amount o f ener gy of a w ave by measuring its wavelength , the\ndistanc e betw een tw o consecutiv e, similar points in a series o f waves, such as fr om cr est to crest or tr ough t o trough\n(Figure 5.9 ).\n120 5 \u2022 Pho tosynthesis\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1746, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d3a94bc1-b28a-4053-a1cc-e1c6563239da": {"__data__": {"id_": "d3a94bc1-b28a-4053-a1cc-e1c6563239da", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "135", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9df69dca-8ed2-4891-a874-8f883f984bed", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "135", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "44493f0beb8d3b7664199a8272c503e69af0d3c6f89bec287b28d3bbbb64069f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 5.9The w avelength o f a single w ave is the dis tanc e betw een tw o consecutiv e points along the w ave.\nVisible light c onstitut es onl y one o f man y types o f electr omagnetic r adiation emit ted fr om the sun. The\nelectr omagnetic spectrum is the r ange of all pos sible w avelengths o f radiation ( Figure 5.10 ). Each w avelength\ncorresponds t o a diff erent amount o f ener gy carried.\nFIGURE 5.10 The sun emits ener gy in the f orm o f electr omagnetic r adiation. This r adiation e xists in diff erent w avelengths , each o f which\nhas its o wn char acteristic ener gy. Visible light is one type o f ener gy emit ted fr om the sun.\nEach type o f electr omagnetic r adiation has a char acteristic range of wavelengths . The long er the w avelength (or the\nmor e stretched out it appears), the les s ener gy is carried. Shor t, tight w aves carr y the mos t ener gy. This ma y seem\nillogical , but think o f it in t erms o f a piec e of mo ving r ope. It tak es lit tle eff ort by a person t o mo ve a r ope in long ,\nwide w aves. To mak e a r ope mo ve in shor t, tight w aves, a person w ould need t o appl y significantl y mor e ener gy.\nThe sun emits ( Figure 5.10 ) a br oad r ange of electr omagnetic r adiation, including X -rays and ul traviolet (UV ) rays.\nThe higher -ener gy waves ar e dang erous t o living things; f or example , X-rays and UV r ays can be harmful t o humans .\nAbsorp tion o f Light\nLight ener gy ent ers the pr ocess of phot osynthesis when pigments absorb the light. In plants , pigment molecules\nabsorb onl y visible light f or phot osynthesis . The visible light seen b y humans as whit e light actual ly exists in a\nrainbo w of colors . Cer tain objects , such as a prism or a dr op o f water, disperse whit e light t o reveal these c olors t o\nthe human e ye. The visible light por tion o f the electr omagnetic spectrum is per ceived b y the human e ye as a\nrainbo w of colors , with violet and blue ha ving shor ter w avelengths and, ther efore, higher ener gy. At the other end o f\nthe spectrum t oward red, the w avelengths ar e long er and ha ve lower ener gy.\nUnder standing Pigments\nDifferent kinds o f pigments e xist, and each absorbs onl y certain w avelengths (c olors) o f visible light. Pigments5.2 \u2022 The Light -Dependent R eactions o f Pho tosynthesis 121", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2321, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "806cb520-a4c2-4458-9532-9637db0b4672": {"__data__": {"id_": "806cb520-a4c2-4458-9532-9637db0b4672", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "136", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "53f96125-9a2b-4679-b408-35bd6d6eab22", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "136", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f08c6fe7cec8d457c23affa9c2364fb27983924a902070299258badd48007a43", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "reflect the c olor o f the w avelengths that the y cannot absorb .\nAll phot osynthetic or ganisms c ontain a pigment cal ledchlor ophylla, which humans see as the c ommon gr een c olor\nassociat ed with plants . Chlor ophyllaabsorbs w avelengths fr om either end o f the visible spectrum (blue and r ed),\nbut not fr om gr een. Because gr een is r eflect ed, chlor ophyll appears gr een.\nOther pigment types include chlor ophyllb(which absorbs blue and r ed-or ange light) and the car otenoids . Each\ntype o f pigment can be identified b y the specific pat tern o f wavelengths it absorbs fr om visible light, which is its\nabsorp tion spectrum .\nMan y phot osynthetic or ganisms ha ve a mixtur e of pigments; betw een them, the or ganism can absorb ener gy from a\nwider r ange of visible -light w avelengths . Not al l phot osynthetic or ganisms ha ve ful l access to sunlight. Some\norganisms gr ow under water wher e light int ensity decr eases with dep th, and c ertain w avelengths ar e absorbed b y\nthe w ater. Other or ganisms gr ow in c ompetition f or light. Plants on the r ainforest floor mus t be able t o absorb an y bit\nof light that c omes thr ough, because the tal ler tr ees block mos t of the sunlight ( Figure 5.11 ).\nFIGURE 5.11 Plants that c ommonl y grow in the shade benefit fr om ha ving a v ariety o f light -absorbing pigments . Each pigment can absorb\ndifferent w avelengths o f light, which al lows the plant t o absorb an y light that pas ses thr ough the tal ler tr ees. (credit: Jason Hol linger)\nHow Light -Dependent R eactions W ork\nThe o verall purpose o f the light -dependent r eactions is t o convert light ener gy int o chemical ener gy. This chemical\nener gy wil l be used b y the Cal vin cy cle t o fuel the as sembl y of sug ar molecules .\nThe light -dependent r eactions begin in a gr ouping o f pigment molecules and pr oteins cal led a photosystem.\nPhot osystems e xist in the membr anes o f thylak oids . A pigment molecule in the phot osystem absorbs one photon, a\nquantity or \u201c pack et\u201d of light ener gy, at a time .\nA phot on o f light ener gy travels until it r eaches a molecule o f chlor ophyll. The phot on causes an electr on in the\nchlor ophyll to bec ome \u201c excited.\u201d The ener gy giv en to the electr on al lows it t o break fr ee fr om an at om o f the\nchlor ophyll molecule . Chlor ophyll is ther efore said t o \u201cdonat e\u201d an electr on (Figure 5.12 ).\nTo replac e the electr on in the chlor ophyll, a molecule o f water is split. This split ting r eleases an electr on and r esul ts\nin the f ormation o f oxygen (O 2) and h ydrogen ions (H+) in the th ylak oid spac e. Technical ly, each br eaking o f a w ater\nmolecule r eleases a pair o f electr ons, and ther efore can r eplac e tw o donat ed electr ons.122 5 \u2022 Pho tosynthesis\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2815, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "cfdb3c10-e87a-49e5-8400-0d865bc57a14": {"__data__": {"id_": "cfdb3c10-e87a-49e5-8400-0d865bc57a14", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "137", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "277fd45a-2d88-4a5f-84f5-557d4159f205", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "137", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "48bc81ea919c5cdd9860fba6836ec6f01590e749ea438242fe3a39c0f47ee11c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 5.12 Light ener gy is absorbed b y a chlor ophyll molecule and is pas sed along a path way to other chlor ophyll molecules . The ener gy\nculminat es in a molecule o f chlor ophyll found in the r eaction c enter. The ener gy \u201cexcites\u201d one o f its electr ons enough t o lea ve the molecule\nand be tr ansferred to a nearb y primar y electr on ac ceptor. A molecule o f water splits t o release an electr on, which is needed t o replac e the\none donat ed. Oxy gen and h ydrogen ions ar e also f ormed fr om the split ting o f water.\nThe r eplacing o f the electr on enables chlor ophyll to respond t o another phot on. The o xygen molecules pr oduc ed as\nbyproducts find their w ay to the surr ounding en vironment. The h ydrogen ions pla y critical r oles in the r emainder o f\nthe light -dependent r eactions .\nKeep in mind that the purpose o f the light -dependent r eactions is t o convert solar ener gy int o chemical carriers that\nwill be used in the Cal vin cy cle. In euk aryotes and some pr okaryotes, two phot osystems e xist. The firs t is cal led\nphot osystem II, which w as named f or the or der o f its disc overy rather than f or the or der o f the function.\nAfter the phot on hits , phot osystem II tr ansfers the fr ee electr on to the firs t in a series o f proteins inside the\nthylak oid membr ane cal led the electr on tr anspor t chain. As the electr on pas ses along these pr oteins , ener gy from\nthe electr on fuels membr ane pumps that activ ely mo ve hydrogen ions ag ains t their c oncentr ation gr adient fr om the\nstroma int o the th ylak oid spac e. This is quit e analog ous t o the pr ocess that oc curs in the mit ochondrion in which an\nelectr on tr anspor t chain pumps h ydrogen ions fr om the mit ochondrial s troma acr oss the inner membr ane and int o\nthe int ermembr ane spac e, creating an electr ochemical gr adient. Aft er the ener gy is used, the electr on is ac cepted\nby a pigment molecule in the ne xt phot osystem, which is cal led phot osystem I ( Figure 5.13 ).5.2 \u2022 The Light -Dependent R eactions o f Pho tosynthesis 123", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2074, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "774837fd-cc0b-49cc-92c5-15344f9b57fc": {"__data__": {"id_": "774837fd-cc0b-49cc-92c5-15344f9b57fc", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "138", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b93b3489-9c7b-426c-a381-67a6099e303c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "138", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "14ff719505de9e283829d7f53b760c5827639a78cfd110930ff6083200cddb2e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 5.13 From phot osystem II, the electr on tr avels along a series o f proteins . This electr on tr anspor t system uses the ener gy from the\nelectr on to pump h ydrogen ions int o the int erior o f the th ylak oid. A pigment molecule in phot osystem I ac cepts the electr on.\nGener ating an Ener gy C arrier : ATP\nIn the light -dependent r eactions , ener gy absorbed b y sunlight is s tored b y tw o types o f ener gy-carrier molecules:\nATP and NADPH. The ener gy that these molecules carr y is s tored in a bond that holds a single at om or gr oup o f\natoms t o the molecule . For ATP, it is a phosphat e group, and f or NADPH, it is a h ydrogen at om. R ecal l that NADH w as\na similar molecule that carried ener gy in the mit ochondrion fr om the citric acid cy cle t o the electr on tr anspor t chain.\nWhen these molecules r elease ener gy int o the Cal vin cy cle, the y each lose either at oms or gr oups o f atoms t o\nbecome the lo wer-ener gy molecules ADP and NADP+.\nThe buildup o f hydrogen ions in the th ylak oid spac e forms an electr ochemical gr adient because o f the diff erence in\nthe c oncentr ation o f protons (H+) and the diff erence in the char ge acr oss the membr ane that the y create. This\npotential ener gy is har vested and s tored as chemical ener gy in A TP thr ough chemiosmosis , the mo vement o f\nhydrogen ions do wn their electr ochemical gr adient thr ough the tr ansmembr ane enzyme A TP s ynthase , jus t as in the\nmitochondrion.\nThe h ydrogen ions ar e allowed to pas s thr ough the th ylak oid membr ane thr ough an embedded pr otein c omple x\ncalled A TP s ynthase . This same pr otein g ener ated A TP fr om ADP in the mit ochondrion. The ener gy gener ated b y the\nhydrogen ion s tream al lows ATP s ynthase t o attach a thir d phosphat e to ADP , which f orms a molecule o f ATP in a\nprocess cal led phot ophosphor ylation. The flo w of hydrogen ions thr ough A TP s ynthase is cal led chemiosmosis ,\nbecause the ions mo ve from an ar ea o f high t o low concentr ation thr ough a semi-permeable s tructur e.\nGener ating Ano ther Ener gy C arrier : NADPH\nThe r emaining function o f the light -dependent r eaction is t o gener ate the other ener gy-carrier molecule , NADPH. As\nthe electr on fr om the electr on tr anspor t chain arriv es at phot osystem I, it is r e-ener gized with another phot on\ncaptured b y chlor ophyll. The ener gy from this electr on driv es the f ormation o f NADPH fr om NADP+and a h ydrogen\nion (H+). No w that the solar ener gy is s tored in ener gy carriers , it can be used t o mak e a sug ar molecule .\n5.3The C alvin C ycle\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the Cal vin cy cle\n\u2022Define carbon fixation\n\u2022Explain ho w phot osynthesis w orks in the ener gy cycle o f all living or ganisms\nAfter the ener gy from the sun is c onverted and pack aged int o ATP and NADPH, the c ell has the fuel needed t o build\nfood in the f orm o f carboh ydrate molecules . The carboh ydrate molecules made wil l have a backbone o f carbon\natoms . Wher e does the carbon c ome fr om? The carbon at oms used t o build carboh ydrate molecules c omes fr om124 5 \u2022 Pho tosynthesis\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3224, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "96f50c67-8a1e-4a5c-a720-e0a2f9c40bab": {"__data__": {"id_": "96f50c67-8a1e-4a5c-a720-e0a2f9c40bab", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "139", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0d5e6f23-f9c3-40f7-ba5f-a2e0c1c8e398", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "139", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a90c040104893b9a3f7b7e72662b7bb04dca3a99bd8bf909d0fdd643f1b5b509", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "carbon dio xide , the g as that animals e xhale with each br eath. The Calvin cy cleis the t erm used f or the r eactions o f\nphot osynthesis that use the ener gy stored b y the light -dependent r eactions t o form gluc ose and other carboh ydrate\nmolecules .\nThe Int erworkings o f the C alvin C ycle\nIn plants , carbon dio xide (C O2) ent ers the leaf thr ough the s tomata and diffuses int o the mesoph yll cells and int o\nthe s troma o f the chlor oplas t\u2014the sit e of the Cal vin cy cle r eactions wher e sug ar is s ynthesiz ed. The r eactions ar e\nnamed aft er Mel vin Cal vin, the scientis t who disc overed them, and r eference the fact that the r eactions function as a\ncycle. Others cal l it the Cal vin-Benson cy cle t o include the name o f another scientis t involved in its disc overy,\nAndr ew Benson ( Figure 5.14 ).\nFIGURE 5.14 Light -dependent r eactions harnes s ener gy from the sun t o produc e ATP and NADPH. These ener gy-carr ying molecules tr avel\ninto the s troma wher e the Cal vin cy cle r eactions tak e plac e.\nThe Cal vin cy cle r eactions ( Figure 5.15 ) can be or ganiz ed int o thr ee basic s tages: fixation, r eduction, and\nregener ation. In the s troma , in addition t o CO2, two other chemicals ar e present t o initiat e the Cal vin cy cle: an\nenzyme abbr eviated RuBisC O, and the molecule ribulose bisphosphat e (RuBP). RuBP has fiv e atoms o f carbon and a\nphosphat e group on each end.\nRuBisC O catal yzes a r eaction betw een C O2and RuBP , which f orms a six -carbon c ompound that is immediat ely\nconverted int o tw o thr ee-carbon c ompounds . This pr ocess is cal ledcarbon fixa tion , because C O2is \u201cfixed\u201d fr om its\ninorganic f orm int o organic molecules .\nATP and NADPH use their s tored ener gy to convert the thr ee-carbon c ompound, 3-PGA , into another thr ee-carbon\ncompound cal led G3P . This type o f reaction is cal led a r eduction r eaction, because it in volves the g ain o f electr ons.\nA reduction is the g ain o f an electr on b y an at om or molecule . The molecules o f ADP and NAD+, resul ting fr om the\nreduction r eaction, r eturn t o the light -dependent r eactions t o be r e-ener gized.\nOne o f the G3P molecules lea ves the Cal vin cy cle t o contribut e to the f ormation o f the carboh ydrate molecule ,\nwhich is c ommonl y gluc ose (C 6H12O6). Because the carboh ydrate molecule has six carbon at oms , it tak es six turns\nof the Cal vin cy cle t o mak e one carboh ydrate molecule (one f or each carbon dio xide molecule fix ed). The r emaining\nG3P molecules r egener ate RuBP , which enables the s ystem t o prepar e for the carbon-fixation s tep. ATP is also used\nin the r egener ation o f RuBP .5.3 \u2022 The C alvin C ycle 125", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2706, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "dbf1519f-b8c3-4023-9184-eec0b46951a7": {"__data__": {"id_": "dbf1519f-b8c3-4023-9184-eec0b46951a7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "140", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b6297156-cfdc-4a17-bc94-d58394e5d023", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "140", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8f7a36d2bf1737cec934df22d17f51e7293c7c960df74e6d970a46131151cf34", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 5.15 The Cal vin cy cle has thr ee s tages. In s tage 1, the enzyme RuBisC O inc orpor ates carbon dio xide int o an or ganic molecule . In\nstage 2, the or ganic molecule is r educ ed. In s tage 3, RuBP , the molecule that s tarts the cy cle, is r egener ated so that the cy cle can c ontinue .\nIn summar y, it tak es six turns o f the Cal vin cy cle t o fix six carbon at oms fr om C O2. These six turns r equir e ener gy\ninput fr om 12 A TP molecules and 12 NADPH molecules in the r eduction s tep and 6 A TP molecules in the\nregener ation s tep.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nThe f ollowing is a link (http://opens tax.org/l/cal vin_ cycle2) to an animation o f the Cal vin cy cle. Click Stag e 1, Stag e\n2, and then Stag e 3 t o see G3P and A TP r egener ate to form RuBP .\nEVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nPhotosynthesis\nThe shar ed e volutionar y his tory of all phot osynthetic or ganisms is c onspicuous , as the basic pr ocess has chang ed\nlittle o ver er as o f time . Even betw een the giant tr opical lea ves in the r ainforest and tin y cyanobact eria, the pr ocess\nand c omponents o f phot osynthesis that use w ater as an electr on donor r emain lar gely the same . Phot osystems\nfunction t o absorb light and use electr on tr anspor t chains t o convert ener gy. The Cal vin cy cle r eactions as semble\ncarboh ydrate molecules with this ener gy.\nHowever, as with al l biochemical path ways, a variety o f conditions leads t o varied adap tations that aff ect the basic\npattern. Phot osynthesis in dr y-climat e plants ( Figure 5.16 ) has e volved with adap tations that c onser ve water. In the\nharsh dr y heat, e very drop o f water and pr ecious ener gy mus t be used t o sur vive. Two adap tations ha ve evolved in\nsuch plants . In one f orm, a mor e efficient use o f CO2allows plants t o phot osynthesiz e even when C O2is in shor t\nsuppl y, as when the s tomata ar e closed on hot da ys. The other adap tation per forms pr eliminar y reactions o f the\nCalvin cy cle at night, because opening the s tomata at this time c onser ves w ater due t o cooler t emper atur es. In\naddition, this adap tation has al lowed plants t o carr y out lo w le vels o f phot osynthesis without opening s tomata at al l,\nan e xtreme mechanism t o fac e extremel y dry periods .\n126 5 \u2022 Pho tosynthesis\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2323, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d70ea050-4532-4dca-b103-96480da067e8": {"__data__": {"id_": "d70ea050-4532-4dca-b103-96480da067e8", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "141", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0f5a26de-b209-4e0c-a62b-b77082f528ab", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "141", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ef717caee8edb0aa1cd2d935581eaadd5a2e655298cf1f18d892dbde6a55ca4e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 5.16 Living in the harsh c onditions o f the deser t has led plants lik e this cactus t o evolve variations in r eactions outside the Cal vin\ncycle. These v ariations incr ease efficiency and help c onser ve water and ener gy. (credit: Piotr W ojtkowski)\nPhotosynthesis in P rokaryotes\nThe tw o par ts of phot osynthesis \u2014the light -dependent r eactions and the Cal vin cy cle\u2014ha ve been described, as the y\ntake plac e in chlor oplas ts. Ho wever, prokaryotes, such as cy anobact eria, lack membr ane-bound or ganel les.\nProkaryotic phot osynthetic aut otrophic or ganisms ha ve inf oldings o f the plasma membr ane f or chlor ophyll\nattachment and phot osynthesis ( Figure 5.17 ). It is her e that or ganisms lik e cy anobact eria can carr y out\nphot osynthesis .\nFIGURE 5.17 A phot osynthetic pr okaryote has inf olded r egions o f the plasma membr ane that function lik e thylak oids . Although these ar e\nnot c ontained in an or ganel le, such as a chlor oplas t, all of the nec essary components ar e present t o carr y out phot osynthesis . (credit:\nscale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nThe Ener gy Flo w\nLiving things ac cess ener gy by breaking do wn carboh ydrate molecules . Ho wever, if plants mak e carboh ydrate\nmolecules , wh y would the y need t o break them do wn? Carboh ydrates ar e storage molecules f or ener gy in al l living\nthings . Although ener gy can be s tored in molecules lik e ATP, carboh ydrates ar e much mor e stable and efficient\nreser voirs f or chemical ener gy. Phot osynthetic or ganisms also carr y out the r eactions o f respir ation t o har vest the\nener gy that the y ha ve stored in carboh ydrates, for example , plants ha ve mit ochondria in addition t o chlor oplas ts.5.3 \u2022 The C alvin C ycle 127", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1751, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2a2088cc-90f3-48f4-82bc-b1ce7acb445b": {"__data__": {"id_": "2a2088cc-90f3-48f4-82bc-b1ce7acb445b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "142", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "144742cc-c618-4347-b7ba-ba41a3c91d64", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "142", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7e09835099e1aeaddf8b6a7c13f15e21753cf1bffb359740959749204e9f85c2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "You ma y ha ve notic ed that the o verall reaction f or phot osynthesis:\nis the r everse o f the o verall reaction f or cellular r espir ation:\nPhot osynthesis pr oduc es o xygen as a b yproduct, and r espir ation pr oduc es carbon dio xide as a b yproduct.\nIn natur e, ther e is no such thing as w aste. Every single at om o f mat ter is c onser ved, r ecycling indefinit ely.\nSubs tanc es chang e form or mo ve from one type o f molecule t o another , but ne ver disappear ( Figure 5.18 ).\nCO2is no mor e a f orm o f waste produc ed b y respir ation than o xygen is a w aste product o f phot osynthesis . Both ar e\nbyproducts o f reactions that mo ve on t o other r eactions . Phot osynthesis absorbs ener gy to build carboh ydrates in\nchlor oplas ts, and aer obic c ellular r espir ation r eleases ener gy by using o xygen to break do wn carboh ydrates. Both\norganel les use electr on tr anspor t chains t o gener ate the ener gy nec essary to driv e other r eactions . Phot osynthesis\nand c ellular r espir ation function in a biological cy cle, allowing or ganisms t o ac cess life-sus taining ener gy that\noriginat es mil lions o f miles a way in a s tar.\nFIGURE 5.18 In the carbon cy cle, the r eactions o f phot osynthesis and c ellular r espir ation shar e recipr ocal r eactants and pr oducts . (credit:\nmodification o f work b y Stuar t Bas sil)128 5 \u2022 Pho tosynthesis\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1413, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7aa434c5-1af8-48fd-a19c-c819e61c2af9": {"__data__": {"id_": "7aa434c5-1af8-48fd-a19c-c819e61c2af9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "143", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "107b5878-66bd-497f-986a-4d7ef4ae3acb", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "143", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "acb4fa93c33a1fbbcb3e5b52b031b53eb0b79eedb3b4c75c4b2ff255d6cb80e0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "117b8b79-ec16-4996-b114-baa79cf0d1ea", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "ab1d3686d3d2707be0b5a57de7675f279b64b616f3a1613cbc20a65454d41e1f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nabsorp tion spectrum the specific pat tern o f\nabsorp tion f or a subs tanc e that absorbs\nelectr omagnetic r adiation\nautotroph an or ganism capable o f producing its o wn\nfood\nCalvin cy cle the r eactions o f phot osynthesis that use\nthe ener gy stored b y the light -dependent r eactions\nto form gluc ose and other carboh ydrate molecules\ncarbon fixa tion the pr ocess of converting inor ganic\nCO2gas int o organic c ompounds\nchlor ophyllthe gr een pigment that cap tures the light\nener gy that driv es the r eactions o f phot osynthesis\nchlor ophyllathe f orm o f chlor ophyll that absorbs\nviolet -blue and r ed light\nchlor ophyllbthe f orm o f chlor ophyll that absorbs\nblue and r ed-or ange light\nchlor oplas tthe or ganel le wher e phot osynthesis\ntakes plac e\nelectr omagnetic spectrum the r ange of all pos sible\nfrequencies o f radiation\ngranum a stack o f thylak oids locat ed inside a\nchlor oplas t\nheterotroph an or ganism that c onsumes other\norganisms f or food\nlight -dependent r eaction the firs t stage of\nphot osynthesis wher e visible light is absorbed t oform tw o ener gy-carr ying molecules (A TP and\nNADPH)\nmesoph yllthe middle la yer of cells in a leaf\nphotoaut otroph an or ganism capable o f synthesizing\nits o wn f ood molecules (s toring ener gy), using the\nener gy of light\nphoton a dis tinct quantity or \u201c pack et\u201d of light ener gy\nphotosystem a group o f proteins , chlor ophyll, and\nother pigments that ar e used in the light -dependent\nreactions o f phot osynthesis t o absorb light ener gy\nand c onvert it int o chemical ener gy\npigment a molecule that is capable o f absorbing light\nener gy\nstoma the opening that r egulates g as e xchang e and\nwater regulation betw een lea ves and the\nenvironment; plur al: s tomata\nstroma the fluid-fil led spac e surr ounding the gr ana\ninside a chlor oplas t wher e the Cal vin cy cle r eactions\nof phot osynthesis tak e plac e\nthylak oid a disc-shaped membr anous s tructur e\ninside a chlor oplas t wher e the light -dependent\nreactions o f phot osynthesis tak e plac e using\nchlor ophyll embedded in the membr anes\nwavelength the dis tanc e betw een c onsecutiv e points\nof a w ave\nChap ter Summar y\n5.1Overview of Pho tosynthesis\nThe pr ocess of phot osynthesis tr ansformed lif e on\nearth. B y harnes sing ener gy from the sun,\nphot osynthesis al lowed living things t o ac cess\nenormous amounts o f ener gy. Because o f\nphot osynthesis , living things g ained ac cess to sufficient\nener gy, allowing them t o evolve ne w structur es and\nachie ve the biodiv ersity that is e vident t oday.\nOnly certain or ganisms , cal led aut otrophs , can per form\nphot osynthesis; the y requir e the pr esenc e of\nchlor ophyll, a specializ ed pigment that can absorb light\nand c onvert light ener gy int o chemical ener gy.\nPhot osynthesis uses carbon dio xide and w ater to\nassemble carboh ydrate molecules (usual ly gluc ose)\nand r eleases o xygen int o the air . Euk aryotic aut otrophs ,\nsuch as plants and alg ae, have organel les cal led\nchlor oplas ts in which phot osynthesis tak es plac e.\n5.2The Light -Dependent R eactions o f\nPhotosynthesis\nIn the firs t par t of phot osynthesis , the light -dependent\nreaction, pigment molecules absorb ener gy fromsunlight. The mos t common and abundant pigment is\nchlor ophylla. A phot on s trikes phot osystem II t o\ninitiat e phot osynthesis .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3369, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "117b8b79-ec16-4996-b114-baa79cf0d1ea": {"__data__": {"id_": "117b8b79-ec16-4996-b114-baa79cf0d1ea", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "143", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "107b5878-66bd-497f-986a-4d7ef4ae3acb", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "143", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "acb4fa93c33a1fbbcb3e5b52b031b53eb0b79eedb3b4c75c4b2ff255d6cb80e0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "7aa434c5-1af8-48fd-a19c-c819e61c2af9", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "143", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a0f30e2ee3f4c75371fe3ed5e1ebd1db7b37c302bc2c59ce8939e6261f3fa79f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Phot osynthesis uses carbon dio xide and w ater to\nassemble carboh ydrate molecules (usual ly gluc ose)\nand r eleases o xygen int o the air . Euk aryotic aut otrophs ,\nsuch as plants and alg ae, have organel les cal led\nchlor oplas ts in which phot osynthesis tak es plac e.\n5.2The Light -Dependent R eactions o f\nPhotosynthesis\nIn the firs t par t of phot osynthesis , the light -dependent\nreaction, pigment molecules absorb ener gy fromsunlight. The mos t common and abundant pigment is\nchlor ophylla. A phot on s trikes phot osystem II t o\ninitiat e phot osynthesis . Ener gy travels thr ough the\nelectr on tr anspor t chain, which pumps h ydrogen ions\ninto the th ylak oid spac e. This f orms an electr ochemical\ngradient. The ions flo w thr ough A TP s ynthase fr om the\nthylak oid spac e int o the s troma in a pr ocess cal led\nchemiosmosis t o form molecules o f ATP, which ar e\nused f or the f ormation o f sug ar molecules in the\nsecond s tage of phot osynthesis . Phot osystem I\nabsorbs a sec ond phot on, which r esul ts in the\nformation o f an NADPH molecule , another ener gy\ncarrier f or the Cal vin cy cle r eactions .\n5.3The C alvin C ycle\nUsing the ener gy carriers f ormed in the firs t stage of\nphot osynthesis , the Cal vin cy cle r eactions fix C O2from\nthe en vironment t o build carboh ydrate molecules . An\nenzyme , RuBisC O, catal yzes the fixation r eaction, b y\ncombining C O2with RuBP . The r esul ting six -carbon\ncompound is br oken do wn int o tw o thr ee-carbon\ncompounds , and the ener gy in A TP and NADPH is used\nto convert these molecules int o G3P . One o f the thr ee-\ncarbon molecules o f G3P lea ves the cy cle t o bec ome a5 \u2022 K ey Terms 129", "start_char_idx": 2799, "end_char_idx": 4481, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f906fa20-d227-445c-8afe-c606587d5a09": {"__data__": {"id_": "f906fa20-d227-445c-8afe-c606587d5a09", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "144", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9da1ed58-7ff1-4d85-bf6f-84c04c27260a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "144", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7ba14c202f094f4961ce380b1c6914b6311e4d41dd086478f0794e8c4ed944ad", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "part of a carboh ydrate molecule . The r emaining G3P\nmolecules s tay in the cy cle t o be f ormed back int o\nRuBP , which is r eady t o react with mor e CO2.\nPhot osynthesis f orms a balanc ed ener gy cycle with theprocess of cellular r espir ation. Plants ar e capable o f\nboth phot osynthesis and c ellular r espir ation, sinc e the y\ncontain both chlor oplas ts and mit ochondria .\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 5.7 On a hot, dr y da y, plants close their\nstomata t o conser ve water. What impact wil l this\nhave on phot osynthesis?\nReview Ques tions\n2.What tw o products r esul t from phot osynthesis?\na.water and carbon dio xide\nb.water and o xygen\nc.gluc ose and o xygen\nd.gluc ose and carbon dio xide\n3.Which s tatement about th ylak oids in euk aryotes is\nnotcorrect?\na.Thylak oids ar e as sembled int o stack s.\nb.Thylak oids e xist as a maz e of folded\nmembr anes .\nc.The spac e surr ounding th ylak oids is cal led\nstroma .\nd.Thylak oids c ontain chlor ophyll.\n4.From wher e does a het erotroph dir ectly ob tain its\nener gy?\na.the sun\nb.the sun and eating other or ganisms\nc.eating other or ganisms\nd.simple chemicals in the en vironment\n5.What is the ener gy of a phot on firs t used t o do in\nphot osynthesis?\na.split a w ater molecule\nb.ener gize an electr on\nc.produc e ATP\nd.synthesiz e gluc ose\n6.Which molecule absorbs the ener gy of a phot on in\nphot osynthesis?\na.ATP\nb.gluc ose\nc.chlor ophyll\nd.water7.Plants pr oduc e oxygen when the y phot osynthesiz e.\nWher e does the o xygen c ome fr om?\na.split ting w ater molecules\nb.ATP s ynthesis\nc.the electr on tr anspor t chain\nd.chlor ophyll\n8.Which c olor(s) o f light does chlor ophyllareflect?\na.red and blue\nb.green\nc.red\nd.blue\n9.Wher e in plant c ells does the Cal vin cy cle tak e\nplac e?\na.thylak oid membr ane\nb.thylak oid spac e\nc.stroma\nd.granum\n10.Which s tatement c orrectly describes carbon\nfixation?\na.the c onversion o f CO2to an or ganic\ncompound\nb.the use o f RuBisC O to form 3-PGA\nc.the pr oduction o f carboh ydrate molecules\nfrom G3P\nd.the f ormation o f RuBP fr om G3P molecules\ne.the use o f ATP and NADPH t o reduc e CO2\n11.What is the molecule that lea ves the Cal vin cy cle\nto be c onverted int o gluc ose?\na.ADP\nb.G3P\nc.RuBP\nd.3-PGA\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n12.What is the o verall purpose o f the light r eactions\nin phot osynthesis?13.Why are carniv ores, such as lions , dependent on\nphot osynthesis t o sur vive?130 5 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2502, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "08334b40-bbbd-4c32-8858-d4de602a6983": {"__data__": {"id_": "08334b40-bbbd-4c32-8858-d4de602a6983", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "145", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e850462d-d5e8-427b-b7f4-fb011178a904", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "145", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "50d72a5ec9a6504d53d37a0e65b8a04573a2a633fce39b614953bb0d4d9220d2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "14.Describe the path way of ener gy in light -dependent\nreactions .\n15.Which par t of the Cal vin cy cle w ould be aff ected if\na cell could not pr oduc e the enzyme RuBisC O?16.Explain the r ecipr ocal natur e of the net chemical\nreactions f or phot osynthesis and r espir ation.5 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions 131", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 317, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ebb10711-d737-47ba-bf33-1e017300e15b": {"__data__": {"id_": "ebb10711-d737-47ba-bf33-1e017300e15b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "146", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d5073214-588f-47b0-844c-5600a47080a9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "146", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ef92a5ff6581b288866add884585ed777d3c8493ace8638a2e2f18ccdc28de26", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "132 5 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 71, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "019882d5-d7d2-456d-9604-01e4fd671816": {"__data__": {"id_": "019882d5-d7d2-456d-9604-01e4fd671816", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "147", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9623c2ac-9a38-4265-acef-04264515a2ef", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "147", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ce9b6308922b5e148eff0673f5f8613d905fc4e0ab70b2873444247decdb158b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 6\nReproduction a t the Cel lular L evel\n6.1The Genome\n6.2The Cel l Cycle\n6.3Canc er and the Cel l Cycle\n6.4Prokar yotic Cel l Division\nThe individual se xual ly reproducing or ganism\u2014including humans \u2014begins lif e as\na fertilized eg g, or zy gote. Trillions o f cell divisions subsequentl y oc cur in a c ontr olled manner t o\nproduc e a c omple x, mul ticellular human. In other w ords, that original single c ell was the anc estor\nof every other c ell in the body . Onc e a human individual is ful ly grown, c ell reproduction is s till\nnecessary to repair or r egener ate tis sues . For example , new blood and skin c ells ar e constantl y\nbeing pr oduc ed. Al l mul ticellular or ganisms use c ell division f or gr owth, and in mos t cases , the\nmaint enanc e and r epair o f cells and tis sues . Single -celled or ganisms use c ell division as their\nmethod o f reproduction.\n6.1The Genome\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the pr okaryotic and euk aryotic g enome\n\u2022Distinguish betw een chr omosomes , genes , and tr aits\nThe c ontinuity o f life from one c ell to another has its f oundation in the r eproduction o f cells by way\nof the c ell cycle. The c ell cycle is an or derly sequenc e of events in the lif e of a c ell from the division\nof a single par ent c ell to produc e tw o ne w daught er cells, to the subsequent division o f those\ndaught er cells. The mechanisms in volved in the c ell cycle ar e highl y conser ved acr oss euk aryotes.\nOrganisms as div erse as pr otists, plants , and animals emplo y similar s teps.\nGenomic DNA\nBefore discus sing the s teps a c ell under takes to replicat e, a deeper unders tanding o f the s tructur e\nand function o f a c ell\u2019s genetic inf ormation is nec essary. A c ell\u2019s complet e complement o f DNA is\ncalled its genome . In pr okaryotes, the g enome is c omposed o f a single , double -stranded DNAFIGURE 6.1A sea ur chin begins lif e as a single c ell that (a) divides t o form tw o cells, visible b y scanning electr on\nmicr oscopy. Aft er four r ounds o f cell division, (b) ther e are 16 c ells, as seen in this SEM imag e. Aft er man y rounds o f\ncell division, the individual de velops int o a c omple x, mul ticellular or ganism, as seen in this (c) matur e sea ur chin.\n(credit a: modification o f work b y Ev elyn Spieg el, Louisa Ho ward; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Ev elyn Spieg el,\nLouisa Ho ward; cr edit c: modification o f work b y Mar co Busdr aghi; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2566, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4c42925e-80a0-4bf0-8b4e-ca78f22580e9": {"__data__": {"id_": "4c42925e-80a0-4bf0-8b4e-ca78f22580e9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "148", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "46d51fad-eb75-4827-9a39-a5218f76b06a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "148", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9c7484fcab6d323de6521390ebde052f7e135499f4ab81f36cdacc07157f1062", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "molecule in the f orm o f a loop or cir cle. The r egion in the c ell containing this g enetic mat erial is\ncalled a nucleoid. Some pr okaryotes also ha ve smal ler loops o f DNA cal led plasmids that ar e not\nessential f or normal gr owth.\nIn euk aryotes, the g enome c omprises se veral double -stranded, linear DNA molecules ( Figure 6.2 )\nbound with pr oteins t o form c omple xes cal led chr omosomes . Each species o f euk aryote has a\nchar acteristic number o f chr omosomes in the nuclei o f its c ells. Human body c ells (somatic c ells)\nhave 46 chr omosomes . A somatic c ell contains tw o mat ched sets o f chr omosomes , a\nconfig uration kno wn as diploid . The let ternis used t o represent a single set o f chr omosomes;\nther efore a diploid or ganism is designat ed 2 n. Human c ells that c ontain one set o f 23\nchromosomes ar e cal ledgamet es, or se x cells; these eg gs and sperm ar e designat edn, or\nhaploid .\nFIGURE 6.2Ther e are 23 pairs o f homolog ous chr omosomes in a f emale human somatic c ell. These chr omosomes\nare vie wed within the nucleus (t op), r emo ved fr om a c ell in mit osis (right), and arr anged ac cording t o length (left) in an\narrangement cal led a k aryotype . In this imag e, the chr omosomes w ere exposed t o fluor escent s tains t o dis tinguish\nthem. (cr edit: \u201c718 Bot \u201d/Wikimedia Commons , National Human Genome R esear ch)\nThe mat ched pairs o f chr omosomes in a diploid or ganism ar e cal ledhomolog ous chr omosomes .\nHomolog ous chr omosomes ar e the same length and ha ve specific nucleotide segments cal led\ngenes in exactl y the same location, or locus . Genes , the functional units o f chr omosomes ,\ndetermine specific char acteristics b y coding f or specific pr oteins . Traits ar e the diff erent f orms o f a\nchar acteristic. F or example , the shape o f earlobes is a char acteristic with tr aits o f free or at tached.\nEach c opy of the homolog ous pair o f chr omosomes originat es fr om a diff erent par ent; ther efore,\nthe c opies o f each o f the g enes themsel ves ma y not be identical . The v ariation o f individuals\nwithin a species is caused b y the specific c ombination o f the g enes inherit ed fr om both par ents .\nFor example , ther e are thr ee pos sible g ene sequenc es on the human chr omosome that c odes f or\nblood type: sequenc e A, sequenc e B, and sequenc e O. Because al l diploid human c ells ha ve tw o\ncopies o f the chr omosome that det ermines blood type , the blood type (the tr ait) is det ermined b y\nwhich tw o versions o f the mark er gene ar e inherit ed. It is pos sible t o ha ve tw o copies o f the same\ngene sequenc e, one on each homolog ous chr omosome (f or example , AA, BB , or OO), or tw o\ndifferent sequenc es, such as AB .\nMinor v ariations in tr aits such as those f or blood type , eye color, and height c ontribut e to the\nnatur al variation f ound within a species . The se x chr omosomes , X and Y , are the single e xception\nto the rule o f homolog ous chr omosomes; other than a smal l amount o f homolog y that is nec essary\nto reliabl y produc e gamet es, the g enes f ound on the X and Y chr omosomes ar e not the same .134 6 \u2022 R eproduc tion at the C ellular L evel\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3234, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "da504082-30f6-4170-bc44-323e34e1fca4": {"__data__": {"id_": "da504082-30f6-4170-bc44-323e34e1fca4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "149", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "55ac985b-99db-49f6-a595-2c8e197be149", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "149", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0bf9e418f1ae3cec12b17b4fc950f5d3d732a397b5c8ec4cc5ae3d5e4ca1daf5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "6.2The C ell Cycle\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the thr ee s tages o f interphase\n\u2022Discus s the beha vior o f chr omosomes during mit osis and ho w the cyt oplasmic c ontent divides during\ncytokinesis\n\u2022Define the quiesc ent G 0phase\n\u2022Explain ho w the thr ee int ernal c ontr ol checkpoints oc cur at the end o f G1, at the G 2\u2013M tr ansition, and\nduring metaphase\nThe cell cycleis an or dered series o f events in volving c ell growth and c ell division that pr oduc es tw o ne w daught er\ncells. Cel ls on the path t o cell division pr oceed thr ough a series o f precisel y timed and car efully regulated s tages o f\ngrowth, DNA r eplication, and division that pr oduc e tw o genetical ly identical c ells. The c ell cycle has tw o major\nphases: int erphase and the mit otic phase ( Figure 6.3 ). During interphase , the c ell grows and DNA is r eplicat ed.\nDuring the mitoticphase , the r eplicat ed DNA and cyt oplasmic c ontents ar e separ ated and the c ell divides . Watch\nthis video about the c ell cycle: http://opens tax.org/l/bioc ellcyc(http://opens taxcollege.org/l/bioc ellcyc)\nFIGURE 6.3A cell mo ves thr ough a series o f phases in an or derly manner . During int erphase , G1involves cell growth and pr otein s ynthesis ,\nthe S phase in volves DNA r eplication and the r eplication o f the c entr osome , and G 2involves fur ther gr owth and pr otein s ynthesis . The\nmitotic phase f ollows int erphase . Mit osis is nuclear division during which duplicat ed chr omosomes ar e segr egated and dis tribut ed int o\ndaught er nuclei. Usual ly the c ell wil l divide aft er mit osis in a pr ocess cal led cyt okinesis in which the cyt oplasm is divided and tw o daught er\ncells ar e formed.\nInterphase\nDuring int erphase , the c ell under goes normal pr ocesses while also pr eparing f or cell division. F or a c ell to mo ve from\ninterphase t o the mit otic phase , man y int ernal and e xternal c onditions mus t be met. The thr ee s tages o f interphase\nare cal led G 1, S, and G 2.\nG1Phase\nThe firs t stage of interphase is cal led the G1phase , or firs t gap, because lit tle chang e is visible . Ho wever, during the\nG1stage, the c ell is quit e activ e at the biochemical le vel. The c ell is ac cumulating the building block s of\nchromosomal DNA and the as sociat ed pr oteins , as w ell as ac cumulating enough ener gy reser ves to complet e the\ntask o f replicating each chr omosome in the nucleus .6.2 \u2022 The C ell Cycle 135", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2502, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "63dfcda9-a698-4737-a766-76065ac45b60": {"__data__": {"id_": "63dfcda9-a698-4737-a766-76065ac45b60", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "150", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f622284e-c847-4404-915a-c96a87123ba4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "150", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "95ecc294fb1b89be97a7ca90ae868dd49d8f2e5231ea750016c04c9097b0c063", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "S Phase\nThroughout int erphase , nuclear DNA r emains in a semi-c ondensed chr omatin c onfig uration. In the S phase\n(synthesis phase), DNA r eplication r esul ts in the f ormation o f two identical c opies o f each chr omosome \u2014sis ter\nchromatids \u2014that ar e firml y attached at the c entr omer e region. A t this s tage, each chr omosome is made o f two sis ter\nchromatids and is a duplicat ed chr omosome . The c entr osome is duplicat ed during the S phase . The tw o\ncentr osomes wil l giv e rise t o the mitoticspindle , the appar atus that or ches trates the mo vement o f chr omosomes\nduring mit osis . The c entr osome c onsis ts of a pair o f rod-lik ecentrioles at right angles t o each other . Centrioles help\norganiz e cell division. Centrioles ar e not pr esent in the c entr osomes o f man y euk aryotic species , such as plants and\nmos t fungi.\nG2Phase\nIn the G2phase , or sec ond g ap, the c ell replenishes its ener gy stores and s ynthesiz es the pr oteins nec essary for\nchromosome manipulation. Some c ell organel les ar e duplicat ed, and the cyt oskeleton is dismantled t o provide\nresour ces for the mit otic spindle . Ther e ma y be additional c ell growth during G 2. The final pr epar ations f or the\nmitotic phase mus t be c omplet ed bef ore the c ell is able t o ent er the firs t stage of mit osis .\nThe Mit otic Phase\nTo mak e tw o daught er cells, the c ontents o f the nucleus and the cyt oplasm mus t be divided. The mit otic phase is a\nmultistep pr ocess during which the duplicat ed chr omosomes ar e aligned, separ ated, and mo ved to opposit e poles\nof the c ell, and then the c ell is divided int o tw o ne w identical daught er cells. The firs t por tion o f the mit otic phase ,\nmitosis , is c omposed o f five stages, which ac complish nuclear division. The sec ond por tion o f the mit otic phase ,\ncalled cyt okinesis , is the ph ysical separ ation o f the cyt oplasmic c omponents int o tw o daught er cells.\nMitosis\nMitosis is divided int o a series o f phases \u2014prophase , prometaphase , metaphase , anaphase , and t elophase \u2014that\nresul t in the division o f the c ell nucleus ( Figure 6.4 ).136 6 \u2022 R eproduc tion at the C ellular L evel\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2220, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "08e3fcdc-ac3b-46e9-ba7f-45df36108686": {"__data__": {"id_": "08e3fcdc-ac3b-46e9-ba7f-45df36108686", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "151", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f0ee211f-6a4a-43f6-af19-19b8f1554f7c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "151", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "07043050414881d70213b49155319d92470dda570f831eaed9ac2762ff244891", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 6.4Animal c ell mit osis is divided int o fiv e stages\u2014prophase , prometaphase , metaphase , anaphase , and t elophase \u2014visualiz ed her e\nby light micr oscopy with fluor escence. Mit osis is usual ly accompanied b y cyt okinesis , sho wn her e by a tr ansmis sion electr on micr oscope.\n(credit \" diagr ams \": modification o f work b y Mariana Ruiz Vil lareal; cr edit \"mit osis micr ographs \": modification o f work b y Roy van Heesbeen;\ncredit \" cytokinesis micr ograph\": modification o f work b y the W adsworth Cent er, NY Stat e Depar tment o f Heal th; donat ed to the Wikimedia\nfoundation; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nWhich o f the f ollowing is the c orrect or der o f events in mit osis?\na.Sister chr omatids line up at the metaphase plat e. The kinet ochor e bec omes at tached t o the mit otic spindle . The\nnucleus r e-forms and the c ell divides . The sis ter chr omatids separ ate.\nb.The kinet ochor e bec omes at tached t o the mit otic spindle . The sis ter chr omatids separ ate. Sis ter chr omatids\nline up at the metaphase plat e. The nucleus r e-forms and the c ell divides .\nc.The kinet ochor e bec omes at tached t o metaphase plat e. Sis ter chr omatids line up at the metaphase plat e. The\nkinet ochor e breaks do wn and the sis ter chr omatids separ ate. The nucleus r e-forms and the c ell divides .\nd.The kinet ochor e bec omes at tached t o the mit otic spindle . Sis ter chr omatids line up at the metaphase plat e. The\nkinet ochor e breaks apar t and the sis ter chr omatids separ ate. The nucleus r e-forms and the c ell divides .\nDuring prophase , the \u201c first phase ,\u201d several events mus t occur t o provide ac cess to the chr omosomes in the nucleus .\nThe nuclear en velope s tarts to break int o smal l vesicles , and the Golgi appar atus and endoplasmic r eticulum\nfragment and disperse t o the peripher y of the c ell. The nucleolus disappears . The c entr osomes begin t o mo ve to\nopposit e poles o f the c ell. The micr otubules that f orm the basis o f the mit otic spindle e xtend betw een the\ncentr osomes , pushing them far ther apar t as the micr otubule fibers lengthen. The sis ter chr omatids begin t o coil\nmor e tightl y and bec ome visible under a light micr oscope.\nDuring prometaphase , man y processes that w ere beg un in pr ophase c ontinue t o adv ance and culminat e in the\nformation o f a c onnection betw een the chr omosomes and cyt oskeleton. The r emnants o f the nuclear en velope\ndisappear . The mit otic spindle c ontinues t o de velop as mor e micr otubules as semble and s tretch acr oss the length o f\n6.2 \u2022 The C ell Cycle 137", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2633, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0bc763b2-7d44-4550-bc73-781d20756118": {"__data__": {"id_": "0bc763b2-7d44-4550-bc73-781d20756118", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "152", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5aa1303a-2d74-4f34-b0cd-151e992ef36a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "152", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "988eb0c16316f65e758c22e1530fa78c83eaf7791120d177355182b0c1f5ffbc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "6af0071d-1a32-4e04-80bc-34d5862e2e23", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "dd13fc1462de375fdfe7d307eb7e23c9b5d5c2d4671e09d7fcb8a7fdf2cb74c0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "the f ormer nuclear ar ea. Chr omosomes bec ome mor e condensed and visual ly discr ete. Each sis ter chr omatid\nattaches t o spindle micr otubules at the c entr omer e via a pr otein c omple x cal led the kinet ochor e.\nDuring metaphase , all of the chr omosomes ar e aligned in a plane cal led the metaphase pla te, or the equat orial\nplane , midw ay betw een the tw o poles o f the c ell. The sis ter chr omatids ar e still tightl y attached t o each other . At\nthis time , the chr omosomes ar e maximal ly condensed.\nDuring anaphase , the sis ter chr omatids at the equat orial plane ar e split apar t at the c entr omer e. Each chr omatid,\nnow cal led a chr omosome , is pul led r apidl y toward the c entr osome t o which its micr otubule w as at tached. The c ell\nbecomes visibl y elong ated as the non-kinet ochor e micr otubules slide ag ains t each other at the metaphase plat e\nwher e the y overlap .\nDuring telophase , all of the e vents that set up the duplicat ed chr omosomes f or mit osis during the firs t thr ee phases\nare reversed. The chr omosomes r each the opposit e poles and begin t o dec ondense (unr avel). The mit otic spindles\nare broken do wn int o monomers that wil l be used t o as semble cyt oskeleton c omponents f or each daught er cell.\nNuclear en velopes f orm ar ound chr omosomes .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nThis pag e of mo vies (http://opens tax.org/l/divisn_ne wtcell)illustrates diff erent aspects o f mit osis . Watch the mo vie\nentitled \u201cDIC micr oscopy of cell division in a ne wt lung c ell\u201d and identif y the phases o f mit osis .\nCytokinesis\nCytokinesis is the sec ond par t of the mit otic phase during which c ell division is c omplet ed b y the ph ysical\nsepar ation o f the cyt oplasmic c omponents int o tw o daught er cells. Although the s tages o f mit osis ar e similar f or\nmos t euk aryotes, the pr ocess of cyt okinesis is quit e diff erent f or euk aryotes that ha ve cell walls, such as plant c ells.\nIn cells such as animal c ells that lack c ell walls, cyt okinesis begins f ollowing the onset o f anaphase . A c ontr actile\nring c omposed o f actin filaments f orms jus t inside the plasma membr ane at the f ormer metaphase plat e. The actin\nfilaments pul l the equat or of the c ell inward, forming a fis sure. This fis sure, or \u201c crack,\u201d is cal led the clea vage furr ow.\nThe furr ow deepens as the actin ring c ontr acts , and e ventual ly the membr ane and c ell are clea ved in tw o (Figure\n6.5).\nIn plant c ells, a clea vage furr ow is not pos sible because o f the rigid c ell walls surr ounding the plasma membr ane. A\nnew cell wall mus t form betw een the daught er cells. During int erphase , the Golgi appar atus ac cumulat es enzymes ,\nstructur al pr oteins , and gluc ose molecules prior t o breaking up int o vesicles and dispersing thr oughout the dividing\ncell. During t elophase , these Golgi v esicles mo ve on micr otubules t o collect at the metaphase plat e. Ther e, the\nvesicles fuse fr om the c enter toward the c ell walls; this s tructur e is cal led a cell pla te. As mor e vesicles fuse , the\ncell plat e enlar ges until it mer ges with the c ell wall at the peripher y of the c ell. Enzymes use the gluc ose that has\naccumulat ed betw een the membr ane la yers t o build a ne w cell wall of cellulose .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3288, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6af0071d-1a32-4e04-80bc-34d5862e2e23": {"__data__": {"id_": "6af0071d-1a32-4e04-80bc-34d5862e2e23", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "152", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5aa1303a-2d74-4f34-b0cd-151e992ef36a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "152", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "988eb0c16316f65e758c22e1530fa78c83eaf7791120d177355182b0c1f5ffbc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "0bc763b2-7d44-4550-bc73-781d20756118", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "152", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "86562c13eda4e54bcfcfc4aedcb9ff7bffea37a76cfcfff0c5654eb046b5160b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "During int erphase , the Golgi appar atus ac cumulat es enzymes ,\nstructur al pr oteins , and gluc ose molecules prior t o breaking up int o vesicles and dispersing thr oughout the dividing\ncell. During t elophase , these Golgi v esicles mo ve on micr otubules t o collect at the metaphase plat e. Ther e, the\nvesicles fuse fr om the c enter toward the c ell walls; this s tructur e is cal led a cell pla te. As mor e vesicles fuse , the\ncell plat e enlar ges until it mer ges with the c ell wall at the peripher y of the c ell. Enzymes use the gluc ose that has\naccumulat ed betw een the membr ane la yers t o build a ne w cell wall of cellulose . The Golgi membr anes bec ome the\nplasma membr ane on either side o f the ne w cell wall (Figure 6.5 ).\n138 6 \u2022 R eproduc tion at the C ellular L evel\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2640, "end_char_idx": 3472, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "99366ddb-28d1-48c5-8fd2-4244253cf4df": {"__data__": {"id_": "99366ddb-28d1-48c5-8fd2-4244253cf4df", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "153", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f0f937db-1ce1-41cb-9f58-f585804f5f3d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "153", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8fe35b31c904132eb94546d2ff8717b7af3e5ec397cc6531a2fd1dd9cacdf95b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 6.5In par t (a), a clea vage furr ow forms at the f ormer metaphase plat e in the animal c ell. The plasma membr ane is dr awn in b y a\nring o f actin fibers c ontr acting jus t inside the membr ane. The clea vage furr ow deepens until the c ells ar e pinched in tw o. In par t (b), Golgi\nvesicles c oalesc e at the f ormer metaphase plat e in a plant c ell. The v esicles fuse and f orm the c ell plat e. The c ell plat e grows from the\ncenter toward the c ell walls. New cell walls ar e made fr om the v esicle c ontents .\nG0Phase\nNot al l cells adher e to the clas sic c ell-cycle pat tern in which a ne wly formed daught er cell immediat ely ent ers\ninterphase , closel y followed b y the mit otic phase . Cel ls in the G0phase are not activ ely preparing t o divide . The c ell\nis in a quiesc ent (inactiv e) stage, having e xited the c ell cycle. Some c ells ent er G 0tempor arily until an e xternal signal\ntriggers the onset o f G1. Other c ells that ne ver or r arely divide , such as matur e car diac muscle and ner ve cells,\nremain in G 0permanentl y (Figure 6.6 ).\nFIGURE 6.6Cells that ar e not activ ely preparing t o divide ent er an al ternat e phase cal led G 0. In some cases , this is a t empor ary condition\nuntil trig gered to ent er G 1. In other cases , the c ell wil l remain in G 0permanentl y.\nControl of the C ell Cycle\nThe length o f the c ell cycle is highl y variable e ven within the c ells of an individual or ganism. In humans , the\nfrequency o f cell turno ver ranges fr om a f ew hours in earl y embr yonic de velopment t o an a verage of two to fiv e da ys6.2 \u2022 The C ell Cycle 139", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1623, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0314b21c-b95d-40f3-a9fe-0e271136e05b": {"__data__": {"id_": "0314b21c-b95d-40f3-a9fe-0e271136e05b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "154", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b6c122ab-2d96-4326-8634-7508182c474b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "154", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "45c5fddbb738648fb26a5e5d889b27ffc00d1968b29aeec6a10e504304d522ab", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "for epithelial c ells, or t o an entir e human lif etime spent in G 0by specializ ed c ells such as c ortical neur ons or car diac\nmuscle c ells. Ther e is also v ariation in the time that a c ell spends in each phase o f the c ell cycle. When fas t-dividing\nmammalian c ells ar e grown in cul ture (outside the body under op timal gr owing c onditions), the length o f the cy cle is\nappr oximat ely 24 hours . In r apidl y dividing human c ells with a 24-hour c ell cycle, the G 1phase las ts appr oximat ely\n11 hours . The timing o f events in the c ell cycle is c ontr olled b y mechanisms that ar e both int ernal and e xternal t o\nthe c ell.\nRegulation at Int ernal Checkpoints\nIt is es sential that daught er cells be e xact duplicat es o f the par ent c ell. Mis takes in the duplication or dis tribution o f\nthe chr omosomes lead t o mutations that ma y be pas sed f orward to every ne w cell produc ed fr om the abnormal c ell.\nTo prevent a c ompr omised c ell from c ontinuing t o divide , ther e are int ernal c ontr ol mechanisms that oper ate at\nthree main cell cycle checkpoints at which the c ell cycle can be s topped until c onditions ar e favorable . These\ncheckpoints oc cur near the end o f G1, at the G 2\u2013M tr ansition, and during metaphase ( Figure 6.7 ).\nFIGURE 6.7The c ell cycle is c ontr olled at thr ee checkpoints . Int egrity o f the DNA is as sessed at the G 1checkpoint. P roper chr omosome\nduplication is as sessed at the G 2checkpoint. A ttachment o f each kinet ochor e to a spindle fiber is as sessed at the M checkpoint.\nThe G 1Checkpoint\nThe G 1checkpoint det ermines whether al l conditions ar e favorable f or cell division t o proceed. The G 1checkpoint,\nalso cal led the r estriction point, is the point at which the c ell irreversibl y commits t o the c ell-division pr ocess. In\naddition t o adequat e reser ves and c ell size, ther e is a check f or damag e to the g enomic DNA at the G 1checkpoint. A\ncell that does not meet al l the r equir ements wil l not be r eleased int o the S phase .\nThe G 2Checkpoint\nThe G 2checkpoint bars the entr y to the mit otic phase if c ertain c onditions ar e not met. As in the G 1checkpoint, c ell\nsize and pr otein r eser ves ar e as sessed. Ho wever, the mos t impor tant r ole o f the G 2checkpoint is t o ensur e that al l\nof the chr omosomes ha ve been r eplicat ed and that the r eplicat ed DNA is not damag ed.\nThe M Checkpoint\nThe M checkpoint oc curs near the end o f the metaphase s tage of mit osis . The M checkpoint is also kno wn as the\nspindle checkpoint because it det ermines if al l the sis ter chr omatids ar e correctly attached t o the spindle\nmicr otubules . Because the separ ation o f the sis ter chr omatids during anaphase is an irr eversible s tep, the cy cle wil l\nnot pr oceed until the kinet ochor es o f each pair o f sis ter chr omatids ar e firml y anchor ed to spindle fibers arising fr om\nopposit e poles o f the c ell.140 6 \u2022 R eproduc tion at the C ellular L evel\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3016, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7e4c378a-cc68-431d-b26d-59453a0b0c97": {"__data__": {"id_": "7e4c378a-cc68-431d-b26d-59453a0b0c97", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "155", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "175bc041-de9f-46ca-9a16-da0df67e4d48", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "155", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ddd779672b91a3a2db5efac875b3c9fefefa4018c13aac7b864bb730877379ce", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "87239c61-ffe4-4112-92c0-a68e001470ac", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "49b1e1e2b883c45013cb2506892c33e05ea60da38f810ff99e6e71346976fb2b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "LINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch what oc curs at the G 1, G2, and M checkpoints b y visiting this animation (https:/ /www .youtube .com/\nwatch?v=f-ldP gEfAHI) of the c ell cycle.\n6.3Cancer and the C ell Cycle\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain ho w canc er is caused b y unc ontr olled c ell division\n\u2022Unders tand ho w pr oto-onc ogenes ar e normal c ell genes that, when mutat ed, bec ome onc ogenes\n\u2022Describe ho w tumor suppr essors function t o stop the c ell cycle until c ertain e vents ar e complet ed\n\u2022Explain ho w mutant tumor suppr essors cause canc er\nCanc er is a c ollectiv e name f or man y diff erent diseases caused b y a c ommon mechanism: unc ontr olled c ell division.\nDespit e the r edundancy and o verlapping le vels o f cell-cycle c ontr ol, err ors oc cur. One o f the critical pr ocesses\nmonit ored b y the c ell-cycle checkpoint sur veillanc e mechanism is the pr oper r eplication o f DNA during the S phase .\nEven when al l of the c ell-cycle c ontr ols ar e ful ly functional , a smal l per centag e of replication err ors (mutations) wil l\nbe pas sed on t o the daught er cells. If one o f these chang es to the DNA nucleotide sequenc e oc curs within a g ene, a\ngene mutation r esul ts. All canc ers begin when a g ene mutation giv es rise t o a faul ty pr otein that par ticipat es in the\nprocess of cell reproduction. The chang e in the c ell that r esul ts from the malf ormed pr otein ma y be minor . Even\nminor mis takes, however, ma y allow subsequent mis takes to oc cur mor e readil y. Over and o ver, smal l, unc orrected\nerrors ar e pas sed fr om par ent c ell to daught er cells and ac cumulat e as each g ener ation o f cells pr oduc es mor e non-\nfunctional pr oteins fr om unc orrected DNA damag e. Eventual ly, the pac e of the c ell cycle speeds up as the\neffectiv enes s of the c ontr ol and r epair mechanisms decr eases . Unc ontr olled gr owth o f the mutat ed c ells outpac es\nthe gr owth o f normal c ells in the ar ea, and a tumor can r esul t.\nProto-onc ogenes\nThe g enes that c ode f or the positiv e cell-cycle r egulators ar e cal ledproto-onc ogenes . Proto-onc ogenes ar e normal\ngenes that, when mutat ed, bec ome oncogenes \u2014genes that cause a c ell to bec ome canc erous. Consider what might\nhappen t o the c ell cycle in a c ell with a r ecently acquired onc ogene. In mos t ins tanc es, the al teration o f the DNA\nsequenc e wil l resul t in a les s functional (or non-functional) pr otein. The r esul t is detrimental t o the c ell and wil l\nlikely prevent the c ell from c ompleting the c ell cycle; ho wever, the or ganism is not harmed because the mutation\nwill not be carried f orward. If a c ell cannot r eproduc e, the mutation is not pr opag ated and the damag e is minimal .\nOccasional ly, however, a g ene mutation causes a chang e that incr eases the activity o f a positiv e regulator. For\nexample , a mutation that al lows Cdk, a pr otein in volved in c ell-cycle r egulation, t o be activ ated bef ore it should be\ncould push the c ell cycle pas t a checkpoint bef ore all of the r equir ed c onditions ar e met. If the r esul ting daught er\ncells ar e too damag ed to under take fur ther c ell divisions , the mutation w ould not be pr opag ated and no harm c omes\nto the or ganism.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3300, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "87239c61-ffe4-4112-92c0-a68e001470ac": {"__data__": {"id_": "87239c61-ffe4-4112-92c0-a68e001470ac", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "155", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "175bc041-de9f-46ca-9a16-da0df67e4d48", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "155", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ddd779672b91a3a2db5efac875b3c9fefefa4018c13aac7b864bb730877379ce", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "7e4c378a-cc68-431d-b26d-59453a0b0c97", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "155", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b38488324b3ca428fd551ace2caff01cdd07c7dcb911d2793d652def3f1d1fbe", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "If a c ell cannot r eproduc e, the mutation is not pr opag ated and the damag e is minimal .\nOccasional ly, however, a g ene mutation causes a chang e that incr eases the activity o f a positiv e regulator. For\nexample , a mutation that al lows Cdk, a pr otein in volved in c ell-cycle r egulation, t o be activ ated bef ore it should be\ncould push the c ell cycle pas t a checkpoint bef ore all of the r equir ed c onditions ar e met. If the r esul ting daught er\ncells ar e too damag ed to under take fur ther c ell divisions , the mutation w ould not be pr opag ated and no harm c omes\nto the or ganism. Ho wever, if the atypical daught er cells ar e able t o divide fur ther, the subsequent g ener ation o f cells\nwill likely accumulat e even mor e mutations , some pos sibly in additional g enes that r egulate the c ell cycle.\nThe Cdk e xample is onl y one o f man y genes that ar e consider ed pr oto-onc ogenes . In addition t o the c ell-cycle\nregulatory proteins , any protein that influenc es the cy cle can be al tered in such a w ay as t o override c ell-cycle\ncheckpoints . Onc e a pr oto-onc ogene has been al tered such that ther e is an incr ease in the r ate of the c ell cycle, it is\nthen cal led an onc ogene.\nTumor Suppr essor Genes\nLike proto-onc ogenes , man y of the neg ative cell-cycle r egulatory proteins w ere disc overed in c ells that had bec ome\ncanc erous.Tumor suppr essor g enes are genes that c ode f or the neg ative regulator pr oteins , the type o f regulator\nthat \u2014when activ ated\u2014 can pr event the c ell from under going unc ontr olled division. The c ollectiv e function o f the\nbest-unders tood tumor suppr essor g ene pr oteins , retinoblas toma pr otein (RB1), p53, and p21, is t o put up a\nroadblock t o cell-cycle pr ogress until c ertain e vents ar e complet ed. A c ell that carries a mutat ed form o f a neg ative\nregulator might not be able t o hal t the c ell cycle if ther e is a pr oblem.\n6.3 \u2022 C ancer and the C ell Cycle 141", "start_char_idx": 2694, "end_char_idx": 4674, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "96a44e70-eda7-41bc-8200-254909642ca3": {"__data__": {"id_": "96a44e70-eda7-41bc-8200-254909642ca3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "156", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a9909a0a-6a1f-4f7f-a197-4c9dcf26f2a9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "156", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b154dc8b3c2636c97e26dae09859105df3337022314a875e8edf22ca351f7166", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Mutat ed p53 g enes ha ve been identified in mor e than half o f all human tumor c ells. This disc overy is not surprising\nin light o f the mul tiple r oles that the p53 pr otein pla ys at the G 1checkpoint. The p53 pr otein activ ates other g enes\nwhose pr oducts hal t the c ell cycle (al lowing time f or DNA r epair), activ ates g enes whose pr oducts par ticipat e in DNA\nrepair , or activ ates g enes that initiat e cell death when DNA damag e cannot be r epair ed. A damag ed p53 g ene can\nresul t in the c ell beha ving as if ther e are no mutations ( Figure 6.8 ). This al lows cells to divide , propag ating the\nmutation in daught er cells and al lowing the ac cumulation o f new mutations . In addition, the damag ed v ersion o f\np53 f ound in canc er cells cannot trig ger cell death.\nFIGURE 6.8(a) The r ole o f p53 is t o monit or DNA . If damag e is det ected, p53 trig gers r epair mechanisms . If r epairs ar e unsuc cessful, p53\nsignals apop tosis . (b) A c ell with an abnormal p53 pr otein cannot r epair damag ed DNA and cannot signal apop tosis . Cel ls with abnormal\np53 can bec ome canc erous. (credit: modification o f work b y Thierr y Sous si)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nGo t othis w ebsit e(http://opens tax.org/l/canc er2) to watch an animation o f how canc er resul ts from err ors in the\ncell cycle.\nSinc e canc er is defined b y unc ontr olled c ell growth, canc er tr eatments aim t o int errup t the c ell cycle. One o f the firs t\ntreatments in volved folic acid, a subs tanc e disc overed b y Lucy Wil ls while she w as resear ching pr egnancy anemia\n(blood disor der). Se veral scientis ts sho wed that inhibiting f olic acid up take by tumor c ells resul ted in r educ ed\ngrowth. Jane C. W right identified the drug no w kno wn as methotr exate as an eff ectiv e treatment f or br east and skin\ncanc ers. The same drug w as applied t o other canc ers, such as plac ental , uterine , and lung canc ers. Methotr exate is\nknown as the firs t chemother apy drug , and W right's additional w ork t o es tablish dosag e protocols and\nsequenc es\u2014both t o maximiz e the eff ect and manag e side eff ects \u2014laid the f oundation f or contempor ary\nchemother apy treatments .\n6.4Prokaryotic C ell Division\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the pr ocess of binar y fis sion in pr okaryotes\n\u2022Explain ho w FtsZ and tubulin pr oteins ar e examples o f homolog y\n142 6 \u2022 R eproduc tion at the C ellular L evel\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2507, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ca5f6d2c-e613-4bf0-a4f9-e8a456e0e16a": {"__data__": {"id_": "ca5f6d2c-e613-4bf0-a4f9-e8a456e0e16a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "157", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "91e2e8cb-ae80-4400-b3d4-4ef68113ae56", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "157", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0c266b87fe899122508fccfec4b364a70cefbad0c596c04a89e14f05de3b55cb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Prokaryotes such as bact eria pr opag ate by binar y fis sion. F or unic ellular or ganisms , cell division is the onl y method\nto produc e ne w individuals . In both pr okaryotic and euk aryotic c ells, the out come o f cell reproduction is a pair o f\ndaught er cells that ar e genetical ly identical t o the par ent c ell. In unic ellular or ganisms , daught er cells ar e\nindividuals .\nTo achie ve the out come o f identical daught er cells, some s teps ar e es sential . The g enomic DNA mus t be r eplicat ed\nand then al locat ed int o the daught er cells; the cyt oplasmic c ontents mus t also be divided t o giv e both ne w cells the\nmachiner y to sus tain lif e. In bact erial c ells, the g enome c onsis ts of a single , circular DNA chr omosome; ther efore,\nthe pr ocess of cell division is simplified. Mit osis is unnec essary because ther e is no nucleus or mul tiple\nchromosomes . This type o f cell division is cal led binar y fis sion.\nBinar y Fission\nThe c ell division pr ocess of prokaryotes, cal ledbinar y fis sion , is a les s complicat ed and much quick er pr ocess than\ncell division in euk aryotes. Because o f the speed o f bact erial c ell division, populations o f bact eria can gr ow very\nrapidl y. The single , circular DNA chr omosome o f bact eria is not enclosed in a nucleus , but ins tead oc cupies a\nspecific location, the nucleoid, within the c ell. As in euk aryotes, the DNA o f the nucleoid is as sociat ed with pr oteins\nthat aid in pack aging the molecule int o a c ompact siz e. The packing pr oteins o f bact eria ar e, however, related to\nsome o f the pr oteins in volved in the chr omosome c ompaction o f euk aryotes.\nThe s tarting point o f replication, the origin , is close t o the binding sit e of the chr omosome t o the plasma membr ane\n(Figure 6.9 ). Replication o f the DNA is bidir ectional \u2014mo ving a way from the origin on both s trands o f the DNA loop\nsimul taneousl y. As the ne w double s trands ar e formed, each origin point mo ves a way from the c ell-wall attachment\ntoward opposit e ends o f the c ell. As the c ell elong ates, the gr owing membr ane aids in the tr anspor t of the\nchromosomes . Aft er the chr omosomes ha ve clear ed the midpoint o f the elong ated c ell, cyt oplasmic separ ation\nbegins . Aseptum is formed betw een the nucleoids fr om the peripher y toward the c enter of the c ell. When the ne w\ncell walls ar e in plac e, the daught er cells separ ate.6.4 \u2022 P rokaryotic C ell Division 143", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2477, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e2a19e93-343b-4d3d-9fbb-3b47a98be26f": {"__data__": {"id_": "e2a19e93-343b-4d3d-9fbb-3b47a98be26f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "158", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e2aa0bab-909c-45aa-bea2-8d89f3d967ca", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "158", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2087b7428a75a489b5f21a7138a2c9477d968e1b4a16724db3c19a2b9fb746c0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 6.9The binar y fis sion o f a bact erium is outlined in fiv e steps. (credit: modification o f work b y \u201cMcs trother \u201d/Wikimedia Commons)\nEVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nMitotic Spindle Appar atus\nThe pr ecise timing and f ormation o f the mit otic spindle is critical t o the suc cess of euk aryotic c ell division.\nProkaryotic c ells, on the other hand, do not under go mit osis and ther efore ha ve no need f or a mit otic spindle .\nHowever, the F tsZ pr otein that pla ys such a vital r ole in pr okaryotic cyt okinesis is s tructur ally and functional ly very\nsimilar t o tubulin, the building block o f the micr otubules that mak e up the mit otic spindle fibers that ar e nec essary\nfor euk aryotes. The f ormation o f a ring c omposed o f repeating units o f a pr otein cal ledFtsZdirects the par tition\nbetw een the nucleoids in pr okaryotes. Formation o f the F tsZ ring trig gers the ac cumulation o f other pr oteins that\nwork t ogether t o recruit ne w membr ane and c ell-wall mat erials t o the sit e. FtsZ pr oteins can f orm filaments , rings ,\nand other thr ee-dimensional s tructur es resembling the w ay tubulin f orms micr otubules , centrioles , and v arious\ncytoskeleton c omponents . In addition, both F tsZ and tubulin emplo y the same ener gy sour ce, GTP (guanosine\n144 6 \u2022 R eproduc tion at the C ellular L evel\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1371, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3514f114-b1d4-4fc0-8a73-64f21e54869d": {"__data__": {"id_": "3514f114-b1d4-4fc0-8a73-64f21e54869d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "159", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "164bb019-5e83-4af6-a796-bc13013dd5f5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "159", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a49fd12323385a1b035d809ed3f973cb36a4b5541b39a66d8bc51a9ae7a9c059", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "triphosphat e), to rapidl y assemble and disas semble c omple x structur es.\nFtsZ and tubulin ar e an e xample o f homolog y, structur es deriv ed fr om the same e volutionar y origins . In this\nexample , FtsZ is pr esumed t o be similar t o the anc estor pr otein t o both the modern F tsZ and tubulin. While both\nproteins ar e found in e xtant or ganisms , tubulin function has e volved and div ersified tr emendousl y sinc e the\nevolution fr om its F tsZ-like prokaryotic origin. A sur vey of cell-division machiner y in pr esent -day unic ellular\neukaryotes reveals crucial int ermediar y steps t o the c omple x mit otic machiner y of mul ticellular euk aryotes (Table\n6.1).\nMitotic Spindle Ev olution\nStructure of gene tic\nmaterialDivision o f nuclear mat erialSepar ation o f\ndaught er\ncells\nProkaryotesTher e is no nucleus .\nThe single , circular\nchromosome e xists in\na region o f cyt oplasm\ncalled the nucleoid.Occurs thr ough binar y fis sion. As the chr omosome is\nreplicat ed, the tw o copies mo ve to opposit e ends o f\nthe c ell by an unkno wn mechanism.FtsZ pr oteins\nassemble int o\na ring that\npinches the\ncell in tw o.\nSome\nprotistsLinear chr omosomes\nexist in the nucleus .Chromosomes at tach t o the nuclear en velope , which\nremains intact. The mit otic spindle pas ses thr ough\nthe en velope and elong ates the c ell. No c entrioles\nexist.Micr ofilaments\nform a\nclea vage\nfurrow that\npinches the\ncell in tw o.\nOther\nprotistsLinear chr omosomes\nexist in the nucleus .A mit otic spindle f orms fr om the c entrioles and\npasses thr ough the nuclear membr ane, which\nremains intact. Chr omosomes at tach t o the mit otic\nspindle . The mit otic spindle separ ates the\nchromosomes and elong ates the c ell.Micr ofilaments\nform a\nclea vage\nfurrow that\npinches the\ncell in tw o.\nAnimal\ncellsLinear chr omosomes\nexist in the nucleus .A mit otic spindle f orms fr om the c entrioles . The\nnuclear en velope dis solves. Chr omosomes at tach t o\nthe mit otic spindle , which separ ates them and\nelong ates the c ell.Micr ofilaments\nform a\nclea vage\nfurrow that\npinches the\ncell in tw o.\nTABLE 6.1The mit otic spindle fibers o f euk aryotes ar e composed o f micr otubules . Micr otubules ar e pol ymers o f the pr otein tubulin. The\nFtsZ pr otein activ e in pr okaryote cell division is v ery similar t o tubulin in the s tructur es it can f orm and its ener gy sour ce. Single -celled\neukaryotes (such as y east) displa y pos sible int ermediar y steps betw een F tsZ activity during binar y fis sion in pr okaryotes and the mit otic\nspindle in mul ticellular euk aryotes, during which the nucleus br eaks do wn and is r eformed.6.4 \u2022 P rokaryotic C ell Division 145", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2677, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "cbdda59a-757d-4dab-8cc4-60d52c691e37": {"__data__": {"id_": "cbdda59a-757d-4dab-8cc4-60d52c691e37", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "160", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "678972d9-7d0a-4334-9bec-8f44b26d465e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "160", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5e576ac1d5be13a4abafa464eed21c86f4348b1e96c39fe5357d1280d623c3f2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "ae3ae29b-b460-4104-8e8d-101bb67c9cbf", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "66fc21a894c5a8a00d27b01827e966609e18290456339448f2d4163d875b10be", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nanaphase the s tage of mit osis during which sis ter\nchromatids ar e separ ated fr om each other\nbinar y fis sion the pr ocess of prokaryotic c ell division\ncell cycle the or dered sequenc e of events that a c ell\npasses thr ough betw een one c ell division and the\nnext\ncell cycle checkpoints mechanisms that monit or the\nprepar ednes s of a euk aryotic c ell to adv ance\nthrough the v arious c ell cycle s tages\ncell pla tea structur e formed during plant -cell\ncytokinesis b y Golgi v esicles fusing at the\nmetaphase plat e; wil l ultimat ely lead t o formation o f\na cell wall to separ ate the tw o daught er cells\ncentriole a pair ed rod-lik e structur e construct ed o f\nmicr otubules at the c enter of each animal c ell\ncentr osome\nclea vage furr owa constriction f ormed b y the actin\nring during animal -cell cyt okinesis that leads t o\ncytoplasmic division\ncytokinesis the division o f the cyt oplasm f ollowing\nmitosis t o form tw o daught er cells\ndiploid describes a c ell, nucleus , or or ganism\ncontaining tw o sets o f chr omosomes (2 n)\nFtsZ a tubulin-lik e protein c omponent o f the\nprokaryotic cyt oskeleton that is impor tant in\nprokaryotic cyt okinesis (name origin: Filamenting\ntemper atur e-sensitiv e mutant Z)\nG0phase a cell-cycle phase dis tinct fr om the G 1\nphase o f interphase; a c ell in G 0is not pr eparing t o\ndivide\nG1phase (also , firs t gap) a c ell-cycle phase; firs t\nphase o f interphase c entered on c ell growth during\nmitosis\nG2phase (also , sec ond g ap) a c ell-cycle phase; thir d\nphase o f interphase wher e the c ell under goes the\nfinal pr epar ations f or mit osis\ngamet ea haploid r eproductiv e cell or se x cell (sperm\nor eg g)\ngene the ph ysical and functional unit o f her edity; a\nsequenc e of DNA that c odes f or a specific pep tide or\nRNA molecule\ngenome the entir e genetic c omplement (DNA) o f an\norganism\nhaploid describes a c ell, nucleus , or or ganism\ncontaining one set o f chr omosomes ( n)\nhomolog ous chr omosomes chromosomes o f the\nsame length with g enes in the same location;\ndiploid or ganisms ha ve pairs o f homolog ous\nchromosomes , and the members o f each pair c ome\nfrom diff erent par entsinterphase the period o f the c ell cycle leading up t o\nmitosis; includes G 1, S, and G 2phases; the int erim\nbetw een tw o consecutiv e cell divisions\nkinet ochor ea protein s tructur e in the c entr omer e of\neach sis ter chr omatid that at tracts and binds\nspindle micr otubules during pr ometaphase\nlocus the position o f a g ene on a chr omosome\nmetaphase the s tage of mit osis during which\nchromosomes ar e lined up at the metaphase plat e\nmetaphase pla tethe equat orial plane midw ay\nbetw een tw o poles o f a c ell wher e the\nchromosomes align during metaphase\nmitosis the period o f the c ell cycle at which the\nduplicat ed chr omosomes ar e separ ated int o\nidentical nuclei; includes pr ophase , prometaphase ,\nmetaphase , anaphase , and t elophase\nmitotic phase the period o f the c ell cycle when\nduplicat ed chr omosomes ar e dis tribut ed int o tw o\nnuclei and the cyt oplasmic c ontents ar e divided;", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3101, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ae3ae29b-b460-4104-8e8d-101bb67c9cbf": {"__data__": {"id_": "ae3ae29b-b460-4104-8e8d-101bb67c9cbf", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "160", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "678972d9-7d0a-4334-9bec-8f44b26d465e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "160", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5e576ac1d5be13a4abafa464eed21c86f4348b1e96c39fe5357d1280d623c3f2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "cbdda59a-757d-4dab-8cc4-60d52c691e37", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "160", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "691e717350c79b953953ad697a5fa6d3ba6a3873b499f59876a5094343589b83", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "includes pr ophase , prometaphase ,\nmetaphase , anaphase , and t elophase\nmitotic phase the period o f the c ell cycle when\nduplicat ed chr omosomes ar e dis tribut ed int o tw o\nnuclei and the cyt oplasmic c ontents ar e divided;\nincludes mit osis and cyt okinesis\nmitotic spindle the micr otubule appar atus that\norches trates the mo vement o f chr omosomes during\nmitosis\noncogene a mutat ed v ersion o f a pr oto-onc ogene,\nwhich al lows for unc ontr olled pr ogression o f the c ell\ncycle, or unc ontr olled c ell reproduction\norigin the r egion o f the pr okaryotic chr omosome at\nwhich r eplication begins\nprometaphase the s tage of mit osis during which\nmitotic spindle fibers at tach t o kinet ochor es\nprophase the s tage of mit osis during which\nchromosomes c ondense and the mit otic spindle\nbegins t o form\nproto-onc ogene a normal g ene that c ontr ols c ell\ndivision b y regulating the c ell cycle that bec omes an\noncogene if it is mutat ed\nquiesc ent describes a c ell that is per forming normal\ncell functions and has not initiat ed pr epar ations f or\ncell division\nS phase the sec ond, or s ynthesis phase , of\ninterphase during which DNA r eplication oc curs\nseptum a wall formed betw een bact erial daught er\ncells as a pr ecursor t o cell separ ation\ntelophase the s tage of mit osis during which\nchromosomes arriv e at opposit e poles , dec ondense ,\nand ar e surr ounded b y ne w nuclear en velopes\ntumor suppr essor g ene a gene that c odes f or\nregulator pr oteins that pr event the c ell from\nunder going unc ontr olled division146 6 \u2022 K ey Terms\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2871, "end_char_idx": 4479, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "cb37cc41-f06d-4d19-add8-4b0569e37c01": {"__data__": {"id_": "cb37cc41-f06d-4d19-add8-4b0569e37c01", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "161", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "352a40fd-af93-4a8f-8b34-fb925f996266", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "161", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "389a24b101e3e0269cfbe18cc54b98eda8ce9a1a6281f8c6e2ea251aae266715", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "900a4962-2d26-4f08-b1c4-645fdb9f97e4", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "232523faa547c25d0126f3d82df49e582991d5ee822557057446ab1b384f857b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Chap ter Summar y\n6.1The Genome\nProkaryotes ha ve a single loop chr omosome , wher eas\neukaryotes ha ve mul tiple , linear chr omosomes\nsurr ounded b y a nuclear membr ane. Human somatic\ncells ha ve 46 chr omosomes c onsis ting o f two sets o f\n22 homolog ous chr omosomes and a pair o f\nnonhomolog ous se x chr omosomes . This is the 2 n,or\ndiploid, s tate. Human g amet es ha ve 23 chr omosomes\nor one c omplet e set o f chr omosomes . This is the n,or\nhaploid, s tate. Genes ar e segments o f DNA that c ode\nfor a specific pr otein or RNA molecule . An or ganism \u2019s\ntraits ar e det ermined in lar ge par t by the g enes\ninherit ed fr om each par ent, but also b y the\nenvironment that the y experienc e. Genes ar e\nexpressed as char acteristics o f the or ganism and each\nchar acteristic ma y ha ve diff erent v ariants cal led tr aits\nthat ar e caused b y diff erences in the DNA sequenc e for\na gene.\n6.2The C ell Cycle\nThe c ell cycle is an or derly sequenc e of events . Cel ls on\nthe path t o cell division pr oceed thr ough a series o f\nprecisel y timed and car efully regulated s tages. In\neukaryotes, the c ell cycle c onsis ts of a long\nprepar atory period, cal led int erphase . Int erphase is\ndivided int o G1, S, and G 2phases . Mit osis c onsis ts of\nfive stages: pr ophase , prometaphase , metaphase ,\nanaphase , and t elophase . Mit osis is usual ly\naccompanied b y cyt okinesis , during which the\ncytoplasmic c omponents o f the daught er cells ar e\nsepar ated either b y an actin ring (animal c ells) or b y\ncell plat e formation (plant c ells).\nEach s tep o f the c ell cycle is monit ored b y int ernalcontr ols cal led checkpoints . Ther e are thr ee major\ncheckpoints in the c ell cycle: one near the end o f G1, a\nsecond at the G 2\u2013M tr ansition, and the thir d during\nmetaphase .\n6.3Cancer and the C ell Cycle\nCanc er is the r esul t of uncheck ed c ell division caused\nby a br eakdown o f the mechanisms r egulating the c ell\ncycle. The los s of contr ol begins with a chang e in the\nDNA sequenc e of a g ene that c odes f or one o f the\nregulatory molecules . Faulty ins tructions lead t o a\nprotein that does not function as it should. An y\ndisrup tion o f the monit oring s ystem can al low other\nmistakes to be pas sed on t o the daught er cells. Each\nsuccessive cell division wil l giv e rise t o daught er cells\nwith e ven mor e ac cumulat ed damag e. Eventual ly, all\ncheckpoints bec ome nonfunctional , and r apidl y\nreproducing c ells cr owd out normal c ells, resul ting in\ntumor ous gr owth.\n6.4Prokaryotic C ell Division\nIn both pr okaryotic and euk aryotic c ell division, the\ngenomic DNA is r eplicat ed and each c opy is al locat ed\ninto a daught er cell. The cyt oplasmic c ontents ar e also\ndivided e venly to the ne w cells. Ho wever, ther e are\nman y diff erences betw een pr okaryotic and euk aryotic\ncell division. Bact eria ha ve a single , circular DNA\nchromosome and no nucleus . Ther efore, mit osis is not\nnecessary in bact erial c ell division. Bact erial\ncytokinesis is dir ected b y a ring c omposed o f a pr otein\ncalled F tsZ.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3084, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "900a4962-2d26-4f08-b1c4-645fdb9f97e4": {"__data__": {"id_": "900a4962-2d26-4f08-b1c4-645fdb9f97e4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "161", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "352a40fd-af93-4a8f-8b34-fb925f996266", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "161", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "389a24b101e3e0269cfbe18cc54b98eda8ce9a1a6281f8c6e2ea251aae266715", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "cb37cc41-f06d-4d19-add8-4b0569e37c01", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "161", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "26669764112440d873c786494eba208b907a06758493dc26ad0785d6013539ca", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "6.4Prokaryotic C ell Division\nIn both pr okaryotic and euk aryotic c ell division, the\ngenomic DNA is r eplicat ed and each c opy is al locat ed\ninto a daught er cell. The cyt oplasmic c ontents ar e also\ndivided e venly to the ne w cells. Ho wever, ther e are\nman y diff erences betw een pr okaryotic and euk aryotic\ncell division. Bact eria ha ve a single , circular DNA\nchromosome and no nucleus . Ther efore, mit osis is not\nnecessary in bact erial c ell division. Bact erial\ncytokinesis is dir ected b y a ring c omposed o f a pr otein\ncalled F tsZ. Ingr owth o f membr ane and c ell-wall\nmaterial fr om the peripher y of the c ells resul ts in a\nseptum that e ventual ly forms the separ ate cell walls of\nthe daught er cells.6 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y147", "start_char_idx": 2530, "end_char_idx": 3285, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7b4b0124-aa1e-42a0-8086-a42ccdc0c29a": {"__data__": {"id_": "7b4b0124-aa1e-42a0-8086-a42ccdc0c29a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "162", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "de6ce429-83ed-41d6-8350-c070293f48a9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "162", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4f994f1212e58fa7d0e9f637e39cb74049b74bc34dc4e6ff1e8024a3210ad7f9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Visual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 6.4 Which o f the f ollowing is the c orrect\norder o f events in mit osis?\na.Sister chr omatids line up at the metaphase\nplate. The kinet ochor e bec omes at tached t o\nthe mit otic spindle . The nucleus r e-forms and\nthe c ell divides . The sis ter chr omatids\nsepar ate.\nb.The kinet ochor e bec omes at tached t o the\nmitotic spindle . The sis ter chr omatids\nsepar ate. Sis ter chr omatids line up at the\nmetaphase plat e. The nucleus r e-forms and the\ncell divides .\nc.The kinet ochor e bec omes at tached t o\nmetaphase plat e. Sis ter chr omatids line up at\nthe metaphase plat e. The kinet ochor e breaks\ndown and the sis ter chr omatids separ ate. The\nnucleus r e-forms and the c ell divides .\nd.The kinet ochor e bec omes at tached t o the\nmitotic spindle . Sis ter chr omatids line up at the\nmetaphase plat e. The kinet ochor e breaks apar t\nand the sis ter chr omatids separ ate. The\nnucleus r e-forms and the c ell divides .\nReview Ques tions\n2.A diploid c ell has ________ the number o f\nchromosomes as a haploid c ell.\na.one-fourth\nb.one-half\nc.twic e\nd.four times\n3.An or ganism \u2019s traits ar e det ermined b y the specific\ncombination o f inherit ed ________.\na.cells\nb.genes\nc.proteins\nd.chromatids\n4.Chromosomes ar e duplicat ed during what por tion\nof the c ell cycle?\na.G1phase\nb.S phase\nc.prophase\nd.prometaphase\n5.Separ ation o f the sis ter chr omatids is a\nchar acteristic o f which s tage of mit osis?\na.prometaphase\nb.metaphase\nc.anaphase\nd.telophase6.The individual chr omosomes bec ome visible with a\nlight micr oscope during which s tage of mit osis?\na.prophase\nb.prometaphase\nc.metaphase\nd.anaphase\n7.What is nec essary for a c ell to pas s the G 2\ncheckpoint?\na.cell has r eached a sufficient siz e\nb.an adequat e stockpile o f nucleotides\nc.accurate and c omplet e DNA r eplication\nd.proper at tachment o f mit otic spindle fibers t o\nkinet ochor es\n8.________ ar e chang es to the nucleotides in a\nsegment o f DNA that c odes f or a pr otein.\na.Proto-onc ogenes\nb.Tumor suppr essor g enes\nc.Gene mutations\nd.Neg ative regulators148 6 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2170, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7b227686-36f0-464a-a1d7-7e7329ab68af": {"__data__": {"id_": "7b227686-36f0-464a-a1d7-7e7329ab68af", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "163", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "819c8fdd-6b02-49d0-a254-94b2ac3e9e47", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "163", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "584e8022897a123519762e9e0e52d3bf04487cd28011cbb94fe4e6ee4c32e072", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "9.A gene that c odes f or a positiv e cell cycle r egulator\nis cal led a(n) ________.\na.kinase inhibit or\nb.tumor suppr essor g ene\nc.proto-onc ogene\nd.oncogene\n10.Which euk aryotic c ell-cycle e vent is mis sing in\nbinar y fis sion?\na.cell growth\nb.DNA duplication\nc.mitosis\nd.cytokinesis11.FtsZ pr oteins dir ect the f ormation o f a ________\nthat wil l eventual ly form the ne w cell walls of the\ndaught er cells.\na.contr actile ring\nb.cell plat e\nc.cytoskeleton\nd.septum\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n12.Compar e and c ontr ast a human somatic c ell to a\nhuman g amet e.\n13.Describe the similarities and diff erences betw een\nthe cyt okinesis mechanisms f ound in animal c ells\nversus those in plant c ells.14.Outline the s teps that lead t o a c ell bec oming\ncanc erous.\n15.Explain the diff erence betw een a pr oto-onc ogene\nand a tumor suppr essor g ene.\n16.Name the c ommon c omponents o f euk aryotic c ell\ndivision and binar y fis sion.6 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions 149", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 984, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "47c4ebe1-dd0c-42f0-a6de-228066e60037": {"__data__": {"id_": "47c4ebe1-dd0c-42f0-a6de-228066e60037", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "164", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fe508a24-93d9-4d5f-acc3-7511d16b7e01", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "164", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "514afbd443d47fc7870d73731c67270256052fce58be6b167e0d60060e479c3b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "150 6 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 71, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d9beb4ef-9f93-4aee-bc40-b1a3636cd989": {"__data__": {"id_": "d9beb4ef-9f93-4aee-bc40-b1a3636cd989", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "165", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "097a8a9a-f89a-421d-a2bc-376d76808bd6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "165", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "16363f9bbef4ee668d99f50358c2e7999683dfc0c82eafce4c108acce1e2383a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 7\nThe Cel lular Basis o f Inheritanc e\n7.1Sexual R eproduction\n7.2Meiosis\n7.3Varia tions in Meiosis\nThe ability t o reproduc ein kind is a basic char acteristic o f all living things .In\nkind means that the o ffspring o f any organism closel y resembles its par ent or par ents .\nHippopotamuses giv e bir th to hippopotamus cal ves; Mont erey pine tr ees pr oduc e seeds fr om\nwhich Mont erey pine seedlings emer ge; and adul t flaming os la y eg gs that hat ch int o flaming o\nchick s.In kind does not g ener ally mean exactl y the same . While man y single -celled or ganisms\nand a f ew mul ticellular or ganisms can pr oduc e genetical ly identical clones o f themsel ves thr ough\nmitotic c ell division, man y single -celled or ganisms and mos t mul ticellular or ganisms r eproduc e\nregularl y using another method.\nNote that, in g enetics , \"par ent\" is o ften used t o describe the individual or ganism(s) that c ontribut e\ngenetic mat erial t o an o ffspring , usual ly in the f orm o f gamet e cells. The c oncept of a g enetic\nparent is dis tinct fr om social and leg al concepts of par enthood, and ma y diff er fr om those whom\npeople c onsider their par ents . Even within the animal king dom, char acteristics that ma y often be\nassociat ed with se xual r eproduction, such as par ental car e or se xual beha vior, are not univ ersal .\nSexual r eproduction is the pr oduction o f haploid c ells and the fusion o f a haploid c ell from each\ngenetic par ent t o form a single , unique diploid c ell. In mul ticellular or ganisms , the ne w diploid c ell\nwill then under go mit otic c ell divisions t o de velop int o an adul t organism. A type o f cell division\ncalled meiosis leads t o the haploid c ells that ar e par t of the se xual r eproductiv e cy cle. Sexual\nreproduction, specifical ly meiosis and f ertilization, intr oduc es variation int o offspring that ma y\naccount f or the e volutionar y suc cess of sexual r eproduction. The v ast majority o f euk aryotic\norganisms can or mus t emplo y some f orm o f meiosis and f ertilization t o reproduc e.FIGURE 7.1Each o f us, like these other lar ge mul ticellular or ganisms , begins lif e as a f ertilized eg g. Aft er tril lions o f\ncell divisions , each o f us de velops int o a c omple x, mul ticellular or ganism. (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Frank\nWouters; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Ken Cole , USGS; cr edit c: modification o f work b y Mar tin P ettitt)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2491, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fa73b75d-4796-4e03-bfaf-76b3b2a90483": {"__data__": {"id_": "fa73b75d-4796-4e03-bfaf-76b3b2a90483", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "166", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5c4757ca-3343-4b82-9858-eaf0732f5862", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "166", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a529eab5556d69bcf7fee0699109444d2120ffcd649c438048a5f03ab5c86188", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "4708e92e-8f76-4765-8b23-9e5f9616d483", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "8638af87d46d50ad032c889d193e41370c50234d50fb69efd641ac3653ad30a7", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "7.1Sexual R eproduc tion\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain that v ariation among o ffspring is a pot ential e volutionar y adv antag e resul ting fr om\nsexual r eproduction\n\u2022Describe the thr ee diff erent lif e-cycle s trategies among se xual mul ticellular or ganisms and\ntheir c ommonalities\nSexual r eproduction w as an earl y evolutionar y inno vation aft er the appear ance of euk aryotic c ells.\nThe fact that mos t euk aryotes reproduc e se xual ly is e videnc e of its e volutionar y suc cess. In man y\nanimals , it is the onl y mode o f reproduction. And y et, scientis ts recogniz e some r eal disadv antag es\nto se xual r eproduction. On the sur face, offspring that ar e genetical ly identical t o the par ent ma y\nappear t o be mor e adv antag eous . If the par ent or ganism is suc cessfully oc cupying a habitat,\noffspring with the same tr aits w ould be similarl y suc cessful. Ther e is also the ob vious benefit t o an\norganism that can pr oduc e offspring b y ase xual budding , fragmentation, or ase xual eg gs. These\nmethods o f reproduction do not r equir e another or ganism o f the opposit e se x. Ther e is no need t o\nexpend ener gy finding or at tracting a mat e. That ener gy can be spent on pr oducing mor e offspring .\nIndeed, some or ganisms that lead a solitar y lifestyle ha ve retained the ability t o reproduc e\nasexual ly. In addition, ase xual populations onl y ha ve female individuals , so e very individual is\ncapable o f reproduction. In c ontr ast, the males in se xual populations (half the population) ar e not\nproducing o ffspring themsel ves. Because o f this , an ase xual population can gr ow twic e as fas t as a\nsexual population in theor y. This means that in c ompetition, the ase xual population w ould ha ve\nthe adv antag e. All of these adv antag es to ase xual r eproduction, which ar e also disadv antag es to\nsexual r eproduction, should mean that the number o f species with ase xual r eproduction should be\nmor e common.\nHowever, mul ticellular or ganisms that e xclusiv ely depend on ase xual r eproduction ar e\nexceedingl y rare. Wh y is se xual r eproduction so c ommon? This is one o f the impor tant ques tions\nin biolog y and has been the f ocus o f much r esear ch fr om the lat ter half o f the tw entieth c entur y\nuntil no w. A lik ely explanation is that the v ariation that se xual r eproduction cr eates among\noffspring is v ery impor tant t o the sur vival and r eproduction o f those o ffspring . The onl y sour ce of\nvariation in ase xual or ganisms is mutation. This is the ul timat e sour ce of variation in se xual\norganisms . In addition, those diff erent mutations ar e continual ly reshuffled fr om one g ener ation\nto the ne xt when diff erent par ents c ombine their unique g enomes , and the g enes ar e mix ed int o\ndifferent c ombinations b y the pr ocess ofmeiosis . Meiosis is the division o f the c ontents o f the\nnucleus that divides the chr omosomes among g amet es. Variation is intr oduc ed during meiosis , as\nwell as when the g amet es combine in f ertilization.\nEVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nThe R ed Queen Hypo thesis\nTher e is no ques tion that se xual r eproduction pr ovides e volutionar y adv antag es to organisms that\nemplo y this mechanism t o produc e offspring .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3313, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4708e92e-8f76-4765-8b23-9e5f9616d483": {"__data__": {"id_": "4708e92e-8f76-4765-8b23-9e5f9616d483", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "166", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5c4757ca-3343-4b82-9858-eaf0732f5862", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "166", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a529eab5556d69bcf7fee0699109444d2120ffcd649c438048a5f03ab5c86188", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "fa73b75d-4796-4e03-bfaf-76b3b2a90483", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "166", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dfcd956ddb510d873672e70f96dc303fd21ac8c10170fdd33af12553463b0fc5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In addition, those diff erent mutations ar e continual ly reshuffled fr om one g ener ation\nto the ne xt when diff erent par ents c ombine their unique g enomes , and the g enes ar e mix ed int o\ndifferent c ombinations b y the pr ocess ofmeiosis . Meiosis is the division o f the c ontents o f the\nnucleus that divides the chr omosomes among g amet es. Variation is intr oduc ed during meiosis , as\nwell as when the g amet es combine in f ertilization.\nEVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nThe R ed Queen Hypo thesis\nTher e is no ques tion that se xual r eproduction pr ovides e volutionar y adv antag es to organisms that\nemplo y this mechanism t o produc e offspring . The pr oblematic ques tion is wh y, even in the fac e of\nfairly stable c onditions , sexual r eproduction persis ts when it is mor e difficul t and pr oduc es fewer\noffspring f or individual or ganisms? V ariation is the out come o f sexual r eproduction, but wh y are\nongoing v ariations nec essary? Ent er the R ed Queen h ypothesis , firs t proposed b y Leigh V an V alen\nin 1973.1The c oncept was named in r eference to the R ed Queen 's race in L ewis Carr oll's book,\nThrough the L ooking-Glas s,in which the R ed Queen sa ys one mus t run at ful l speed jus t to stay\nwher e one is .\nAll species c oevolve with other or ganisms . For example , predat ors c oevolve with their pr ey, and\n1Leigh V an V alen, \u201c A ne w evolutionar y law,\u201d Ev olutionar y Theor y 1 (1973): 1\u201330.152 7 \u2022 The C ellular Basis o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2656, "end_char_idx": 4173, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7f362e3f-9680-4f6b-9ee0-a12c42dd1130": {"__data__": {"id_": "7f362e3f-9680-4f6b-9ee0-a12c42dd1130", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "167", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d87fb039-b831-4c87-8a30-7c751f108062", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "167", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8acfa5c90710afebbfd9cec227ef73203185696f54190890b3bac3e2cd01e0e0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "parasites coevolve with their hos ts. A remark able e xample o f coevolution betw een pr edat ors and their pr ey is the\nunique c oadap tation o f night fl ying bats and their moth pr ey. Bats find their pr ey by emit ting high-pit ched click s, but\nmoths ha ve evolved simple ears t o hear these click s so the y can a void the bats . The moths ha ve also adap ted\nbeha viors , such as fl ying a way from the bat when the y firs t hear it, or dr opping suddenl y to the gr ound when the bat\nis upon them. Bats ha ve evolved \u201c quiet \u201d click s in an at temp t to evade the moth \u2019s hearing . Some moths ha ve evolved\nthe ability t o respond t o the bats\u2019 click s with their o wn click s as a s trategy to confuse the bats echolocation abilities .\nEach tin y adv antag e gained b y favorable v ariation giv es a species an edg e over close c ompetit ors, predat ors,\nparasites, or e ven pr ey. The onl y method that wil l allow a c oevolving species t o keep its o wn shar e of the r esour ces\nis also t o continual ly impr ove its ability t o sur vive and pr oduc e offspring . As one species g ains an adv antag e, other\nspecies mus t also de velop an adv antag e or the y wil l be out compet ed. No single species pr ogresses t oo far ahead\nbecause g enetic v ariation among pr ogeny of sexual r eproduction pr ovides al l species with a mechanism t o produc e\nadap ted individuals . Species whose individuals cannot k eep up bec ome e xtinct. The R ed Queen \u2019s cat chphr ase w as,\n\u201cIt tak es al l the running y ou can do t o stay in the same plac e.\u201d This is an ap t descrip tion o f coevolution betw een\ncompeting species .\nLife Cycles o f Sexually R eproducing Or ganisms\nFertilization and meiosis al ternat e in se xual life cy cles . What happens betw een these tw o events depends on the\norganism. The pr ocess of meiosis r educ es the r esul ting g amet e\u2019s chr omosome number b y half . Fertilization, the\njoining o f two haploid g amet es, restores the diploid c ondition. Ther e are thr ee main cat egories o f life cy cles in\nmulticellular or ganisms: diploid-dominant , in which the mul ticellular diploid s tage is the mos t obvious lif e stage\n(and ther e is no mul ticellular haploid s tage), as with mos t animals including humans; haploid-dominant , in which\nthe mul ticellular haploid s tage is the mos t obvious lif e stage (and ther e is no mul ticellular diploid s tage), as with al l\nfungi and some alg ae; and alterna tion o f gener ations , in which the tw o stages, haploid and diploid, ar e appar ent t o\none degr ee or another depending on the gr oup, as with plants and some alg ae.\nNearl y all animals emplo y a diploid-dominant lif e-cycle s trategy in which the onl y haploid c ells pr oduc ed b y the\norganism ar e the g amet es. The g amet es ar e produc ed fr om diploid germ c ells, a special c ell line that onl y produc es\ngamet es. Onc e the haploid g amet es ar e formed, the y lose the ability t o divide ag ain. Ther e is no mul ticellular\nhaploid lif e stage. Fertilization oc curs with the fusion o f two gamet es, usual ly from diff erent individuals , restoring\nthe diploid s tate (Figure 7.2 a).7.1 \u2022 Se xual R eproduc tion 153", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3173, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b04b042c-0416-49b1-8208-b9ae3c84bf7e": {"__data__": {"id_": "b04b042c-0416-49b1-8208-b9ae3c84bf7e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "168", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "db5000ec-5a16-4453-a19c-f8b5b4adf496", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "168", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9266ecc52e075c16b2246ce0bbe7fd7b01831deced804441d7b38c9c4e7f27c0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 7.2(a) In animals , sexual ly reproducing adul ts form haploid g amet es fr om diploid g erm c ells. (b) F ungi, such as black br ead mold\n(Rhiz opus nigricans ), ha ve haploid-dominant lif e cy cles . (c) Plants ha ve a lif e cy cle that al ternat es betw een a mul ticellular haploid or ganism\nand a mul ticellular diploid or ganism. (cr edit c \u201c fern\u201d: modification o f work b y Cor y Zank er; cr edit c \u201c gamet ophyte\u201d: modification o f work b y\n\u201cVlmas tra\u201d/Wikimedia Commons)\nIf a mutation oc curs so that a fung us is no long er able t o produc e a minus mating type , wil l it s till be able t o\nreproduc e?\n154 7 \u2022 The C ellular Basis o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 721, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e2f92b94-ffda-49c4-9e6c-7f07ec50e655": {"__data__": {"id_": "e2f92b94-ffda-49c4-9e6c-7f07ec50e655", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "169", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "078adec7-b99d-44af-a1ed-404f3d87d925", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "169", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "34e3e10797f156cdb491a7b3a0304558ff550c6870448d3930aa708f168bfed4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "3d5a1d01-22ba-4234-848f-f6a587dcf95f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "9d69f0856d492434f87b1ceba18970b7c03956809a7d16b073a05deff58f62bc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Mos t fungi and alg ae emplo y a lif e-cycle s trategy in which the mul ticellular \u201cbody \u201d of the or ganism is haploid.\nDuring se xual r eproduction, specializ ed haploid c ells from tw o individuals join t o form a diploid zy gote. The zy gote\nimmediat ely under goes meiosis t o form f our haploid c ells cal led spor es (Figure 7.2 b).\nThe thir d life-cycle type , emplo yed b y some alg ae and al l plants , is cal led al ternation o f gener ations . These species\nhave both haploid and diploid mul ticellular or ganisms as par t of their lif e cy cle. The haploid mul ticellular plants ar e\ncalledgamet ophytesbecause the y produc e gamet es. Meiosis is not in volved in the pr oduction o f gamet es in this\ncase , as the or ganism that pr oduc es g amet es is alr eady haploid. F ertilization betw een the g amet es forms a diploid\nzygote. The zy gote wil l under go man y rounds o f mit osis and giv e rise t o a diploid mul ticellular plant cal led a\nspor ophyte. Specializ ed c ells of the spor ophyte wil l under go meiosis and pr oduc e haploid spor es. The spor es wil l\ndevelop int o the g amet ophytes (Figure 7.2 c).\n7.2Meiosis\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the beha vior o f chr omosomes during meiosis\n\u2022Describe c ellular e vents during meiosis\n\u2022Explain the diff erences betw een meiosis and mit osis\n\u2022Explain the mechanisms within meiosis that g ener ate genetic v ariation among the pr oducts o f meiosis\nSexual r eproduction r equir esfertiliza tion , a union o f two cells from tw o individual or ganisms . If those tw o cells\neach c ontain one set o f chr omosomes , then the r esul ting c ell contains tw o sets o f chr omosomes . The number o f\nsets o f chr omosomes in a c ell is cal led its ploidy le vel. Haploid c ells contain one set o f chr omosomes . Cel ls\ncontaining tw o sets o f chr omosomes ar e cal led diploid. If the r eproductiv e cy cle is t o continue , the diploid c ell mus t\nsomeho w reduc e its number o f chr omosome sets bef ore fertilization can oc cur ag ain, or ther e wil l be a c ontinual\ndoubling in the number o f chr omosome sets in e very gener ation. So , in addition t o fertilization, se xual r eproduction\nincludes a nuclear division, kno wn as meiosis , that r educ es the number o f chr omosome sets .\nMos t animals and plants ar e diploid, c ontaining tw o sets o f chr omosomes; in each soma tic c ell(the\nnonr eproductiv e cells of a mul ticellular or ganism), the nucleus c ontains tw o copies o f each chr omosome that ar e\nreferred to as homolog ous chr omosomes . Somatic c ells ar e sometimes r eferred to as \u201cbody \u201d cells. Homolog ous\nchromosomes ar e mat ched pairs c ontaining g enes f or the same tr aits in identical locations along their length.\nDiploid or ganisms inherit one c opy of each homolog ous chr omosome fr om each par ent; al l together , the y are\nconsider ed a ful l set o f chr omosomes . In animals , haploid c ells containing a single c opy of each homolog ous\nchromosome ar e found onl y within g amet es. Gamet es fuse with another haploid g amet e to produc e a diploid c ell.\nThe nuclear division that f orms haploid c ells, which is cal led meiosis , is r elated to mit osis .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3230, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3d5a1d01-22ba-4234-848f-f6a587dcf95f": {"__data__": {"id_": "3d5a1d01-22ba-4234-848f-f6a587dcf95f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "169", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "078adec7-b99d-44af-a1ed-404f3d87d925", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "169", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "34e3e10797f156cdb491a7b3a0304558ff550c6870448d3930aa708f168bfed4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "e2f92b94-ffda-49c4-9e6c-7f07ec50e655", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "169", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6b8c0c01673f73ff098fe78faf42f1c02b213f399134447804194da8729aca75", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Somatic c ells ar e sometimes r eferred to as \u201cbody \u201d cells. Homolog ous\nchromosomes ar e mat ched pairs c ontaining g enes f or the same tr aits in identical locations along their length.\nDiploid or ganisms inherit one c opy of each homolog ous chr omosome fr om each par ent; al l together , the y are\nconsider ed a ful l set o f chr omosomes . In animals , haploid c ells containing a single c opy of each homolog ous\nchromosome ar e found onl y within g amet es. Gamet es fuse with another haploid g amet e to produc e a diploid c ell.\nThe nuclear division that f orms haploid c ells, which is cal led meiosis , is r elated to mit osis . As y ou ha ve learned,\nmitosis is par t of a c ell reproduction cy cle that r esul ts in identical daught er nuclei that ar e also g enetical ly identical\nto the original par ent nucleus . In mit osis , both the par ent and the daught er nuclei c ontain the same number o f\nchromosome sets \u2014diploid f or mos t plants and animals . Meiosis emplo ys man y of the same mechanisms as mit osis .\nHowever, the s tarting nucleus is al ways diploid and the nuclei that r esul t at the end o f a meiotic c ell division ar e\nhaploid. T o achie ve the r eduction in chr omosome number , meiosis c onsis ts of one r ound o f chr omosome duplication\nand tw o rounds o f nuclear division. Because the e vents that oc cur during each o f the division s tages ar e analog ous\nto the e vents o f mit osis , the same s tage names ar e as signed. Ho wever, because ther e are tw o rounds o f division, the\nstages ar e designat ed with a \u201cI\u201d or \u201cII. \u201d Thus ,meiosis I is the firs t round o f meiotic division and c onsis ts of\nprophase I, pr ometaphase I, and so on. Meiosis I r educ es the number o f chr omosome sets fr om tw o to one . The\ngenetic inf ormation is also mix ed during this division t o create unique r ecombinant chr omosomes .Meiosis II , in\nwhich the sec ond r ound o f meiotic division tak es plac e in a w ay that is similar t o mit osis , includes pr ophase II,\nprometaphase II, and so on.\nInterphase\nMeiosis is pr eceded b y an int erphase c onsis ting o f the G 1, S, and G 2phases , which ar e nearl y identical t o the phases\npreceding mit osis . The G 1phase is the firs t phase o f interphase and is f ocused on c ell growth. In the S phase , the\nDNA o f the chr omosomes is r eplicat ed. Final ly, in the G 2phase , the c ell under goes the final pr epar ations f or\nmeiosis .7.2 \u2022 Meiosis 155", "start_char_idx": 2589, "end_char_idx": 5034, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d534dd16-7c65-4b5b-8296-e6d5a444d2b6": {"__data__": {"id_": "d534dd16-7c65-4b5b-8296-e6d5a444d2b6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "170", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "beb8078a-e17b-4d7b-9fb1-b5640d8517d3", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "170", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ee3656988265c9caaada436f4d3f5b9032d6cc27ec688bdb3c08fae60323bfba", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "During DNA duplication o f the S phase , each chr omosome bec omes c omposed o f two identical c opies (cal led sis ter\nchromatids) that ar e held t ogether at the c entr omer e until the y are pul led apar t during meiosis II. In an animal c ell,\nthe c entr osomes that or ganiz e the micr otubules o f the meiotic spindle also r eplicat e. This pr epar es the c ell for the\nfirst meiotic phase .\nMeiosis I\nEarly in pr ophase I, the chr omosomes can be seen clearl y micr oscopical ly. As the nuclear en velope begins t o break\ndown, the pr oteins as sociat ed with homolog ous chr omosomes bring the pair close t o each other . The tight pairing o f\nthe homolog ous chr omosomes is cal ledsynapsis . In s ynapsis , the g enes on the chr omatids o f the homolog ous\nchromosomes ar e precisel y aligned with each other . An e xchang e of chr omosome segments betw een non-sis ter\nhomolog ous chr omatids oc curs and is cal ledcrossing o ver. This pr ocess is r evealed visual ly aft er the e xchang e as\nchiasma ta(sing ular = chiasma ) (Figure 7.3 ).\nAs pr ophase I pr ogresses, the close as sociation betw een homolog ous chr omosomes begins t o break do wn, and the\nchromosomes c ontinue t o condense , although the homolog ous chr omosomes r emain at tached t o each other at\nchiasmata . The number o f chiasmata v aries with the species and the length o f the chr omosome . At the end o f\nprophase I, the pairs ar e held t ogether onl y at chiasmata ( Figure 7.3 ) and ar e cal ledtetrads because the f our sis ter\nchromatids o f each pair o f homolog ous chr omosomes ar e no w visible .\nThe cr ossover events ar e the firs t sour ce of genetic v ariation pr oduc ed b y meiosis . A single cr ossover event betw een\nhomolog ous non-sis ter chr omatids leads t o a r ecipr ocal e xchang e of equiv alent DNA betw een a mat ernal\nchromosome and a pat ernal chr omosome . No w, when that sis ter chr omatid is mo ved int o a g amet e, it wil l carr y\nsome DNA fr om one par ent o f the individual and some DNA fr om the other par ent. The recombinant sister\nchromatid has a c ombination o f mat ernal and pat ernal g enes that did not e xist bef ore the cr ossover.\nFIGURE 7.3In this il lustration o f the eff ects o f crossing o ver, the blue chr omosome came fr om the individual \u2019s father and the r ed\nchromosome came fr om the individual \u2019s mother . Crossover oc curs betw een non-sis ter chr omatids o f homolog ous chr omosomes . The r esul t\nis an e xchang e of genetic mat erial betw een homolog ous chr omosomes . The chr omosomes that ha ve a mixtur e of mat ernal and pat ernal\nsequenc e are cal led r ecombinant and the chr omosomes that ar e complet ely pat ernal or mat ernal ar e cal led non-r ecombinant.\nThe k ey event in pr ometaphase I is the at tachment o f the spindle fiber micr otubules t o the kinet ochor e proteins at156 7 \u2022 The C ellular Basis o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2924, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c944234a-81b8-464b-b0b5-5a9879ee326a": {"__data__": {"id_": "c944234a-81b8-464b-b0b5-5a9879ee326a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "171", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "147f00a7-2616-4c67-9636-b8ec7b74ed23", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "171", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f94023cf32da27d3482a82186b2138615e262913b0d5d87902b8cb86cc7c3164", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "the c entr omer es. The micr otubules as sembled fr om c entr osomes at opposit e poles o f the c ell grow toward the\nmiddle o f the c ell. At the end o f prometaphase I, each t etrad is at tached t o micr otubules fr om both poles , with one\nhomolog ous chr omosome at tached at one pole and the other homolog ous chr omosome at tached t o the other pole .\nThe homolog ous chr omosomes ar e still held t ogether at chiasmata . In addition, the nuclear membr ane has br oken\ndown entir ely.\nDuring metaphase I, the homolog ous chr omosomes ar e arr anged in the c enter of the c ell with the kinet ochor es\nfacing opposit e poles . The orientation o f each pair o f homolog ous chr omosomes at the c enter of the c ell is r andom.\nThis r andomnes s, cal led independent as sortment, is the ph ysical basis f or the g ener ation o f the sec ond f orm o f\ngenetic v ariation in o ffspring . Consider that the homolog ous chr omosomes o f a se xual ly reproducing or ganism ar e\noriginal ly inherit ed as tw o separ ate sets , one fr om each par ent. Using humans as an e xample , one set o f 23\nchromosomes is pr esent in the eg g donat ed b y the mother . The father pr ovides the other set o f 23 chr omosomes in\nthe sperm that f ertilizes the eg g. In metaphase I, these pairs line up at the midw ay point betw een the tw o poles o f\nthe c ell. Because ther e is an equal chanc e that a micr otubule fiber wil l enc ount er a mat ernal ly or pat ernal ly\ninherit ed chr omosome , the arr angement o f the t etrads at the metaphase plat e is r andom. An y mat ernal ly inherit ed\nchromosome ma y fac e either pole . Any pat ernal ly inherit ed chr omosome ma y also fac e either pole . The orientation\nof each t etrad is independent o f the orientation o f the other 22 t etrads.\nIn each c ell that under goes meiosis , the arr angement o f the t etrads is diff erent. The number o f variations depends\non the number o f chr omosomes making up a set. Ther e are tw o pos sibilities f or orientation (f or each t etrad); thus ,\nthe pos sible number o f alignments equals 2nwher enis the number o f chr omosomes per set. Humans ha ve 23\nchromosome pairs , which r esul ts in o ver eight mil lion (223) pos sibilities . This number does not include the v ariability\npreviousl y created in the sis ter chr omatids b y crossover. Giv en these tw o mechanisms , it is highl y unlik ely that an y\ntwo haploid c ells resul ting fr om meiosis wil l have the same g enetic c omposition ( Figure 7.4 ).\nTo summariz e the g enetic c onsequenc es o f meiosis I: the mat ernal and pat ernal g enes ar e recombined b y crossover\nevents oc curring on each homolog ous pair during pr ophase I; in addition, the r andom as sortment o f tetrads at\nmetaphase pr oduc es a unique c ombination o f mat ernal and pat ernal chr omosomes that wil l mak e their w ay int o the\ngamet es.\nFIGURE 7.4To demons trate random, independent as sortment at metaphase I, c onsider a c ell with n= 2. In this case , ther e are tw o\npossible arr angements at the equat orial plane in metaphase I, as sho wn in the upper c ell of each panel . These tw o pos sible orientations\nlead t o the pr oduction o f genetical ly diff erent g amet es. With mor e chr omosomes , the number o f pos sible arr angements incr eases\ndramatical ly.\nIn anaphase I, the spindle fibers pul l the link ed chr omosomes apar t. The sis ter chr omatids r emain tightl y bound7.2 \u2022 Meiosis 157", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3429, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "394fe45a-06a6-4554-b990-def1f0bae253": {"__data__": {"id_": "394fe45a-06a6-4554-b990-def1f0bae253", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "172", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "766564c0-366e-4eb1-89e6-0828ee426075", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "172", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "09ad752a48d6c27b12e018212b89f4137f6043978e368cfbcdb32692500b279e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "together at the c entr omer e. It is the chiasma c onnections that ar e broken in anaphase I as the fibers at tached t o the\nfused kinet ochor es pul l the homolog ous chr omosomes apar t (Figure 7.5 ).\nIn telophase I, the separ ated chr omosomes arriv e at opposit e poles . The r emainder o f the typical t elophase e vents\nmay or ma y not oc cur depending on the species . In some or ganisms , the chr omosomes dec ondense and nuclear\nenvelopes f orm ar ound the chr omatids in t elophase I.\nCytokinesis , the ph ysical separ ation o f the cyt oplasmic c omponents int o tw o daught er cells, occurs without\nreformation o f the nuclei in other or ganisms . In nearl y all species , cyt okinesis separ ates the c ell contents b y either a\nclea vage furr ow (in animals and some fungi), or a c ell plat e that wil l ultimat ely lead t o formation o f cell walls that\nsepar ate the tw o daught er cells (in plants). A t each pole , ther e is jus t one member o f each pair o f the homolog ous\nchromosomes , so onl y one ful l set o f the chr omosomes is pr esent. This is wh y the c ells ar e consider ed\nhaploid\u2014ther e is onl y one chr omosome set, e ven though ther e are duplicat e copies o f the set because each\nhomolog s till consis ts of two sis ter chr omatids that ar e still attached t o each other . Ho wever, although the sis ter\nchromatids w ere onc e duplicat es o f the same chr omosome , the y are no long er identical at this s tage because o f\ncrossovers.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nReview the pr ocess of meiosis , obser ving ho w chr omosomes align and migr ate, atthis sit e(http://opens tax.org/l/\nanimal _meiosis2) .\nMeiosis II\nIn meiosis II, the c onnect ed sis ter chr omatids r emaining in the haploid c ells from meiosis I wil l be split t o form f our\nhaploid c ells. In some species , cells ent er a brief int erphase , orinterkinesis , that lack s an S phase , bef ore ent ering\nmeiosis II. Chr omosomes ar e not duplicat ed during int erkinesis . The tw o cells pr oduc ed in meiosis I g o thr ough the\nevents o f meiosis II in s ynchr ony. Overall, meiosis II r esembles the mit otic division o f a haploid c ell.\nIn pr ophase II, if the chr omosomes dec ondensed in t elophase I, the y condense ag ain. If nuclear en velopes w ere\nformed, the y fragment int o vesicles . The c entr osomes duplicat ed during int erkinesis mo ve away from each other\ntoward opposit e poles , and ne w spindles ar e formed. In pr ometaphase II, the nuclear en velopes ar e complet ely\nbroken do wn, and the spindle is ful ly formed. Each sis ter chr omatid f orms an individual kinet ochor e that at taches t o\nmicr otubules fr om opposit e poles . In metaphase II, the sis ter chr omatids ar e maximal ly condensed and aligned at\nthe c enter of the c ell. In anaphase II, the sis ter chr omatids ar e pul led apar t by the spindle fibers and mo ve toward\nopposit e poles .\n158 7 \u2022 The C ellular Basis o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2958, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7941f0f0-a09d-456e-a62e-4c7626ff2bde": {"__data__": {"id_": "7941f0f0-a09d-456e-a62e-4c7626ff2bde", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "173", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e1169dd5-af4e-4c98-a24f-bdaa7b2998e5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "173", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3bc40f385760f3b5ef6f470be857a3d13ab24bc78fe6289864ea2ccc5a03b180", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 7.5In pr ometaphase I, micr otubules at tach t o the fused kinet ochor es o f homolog ous chr omosomes . In anaphase I, the\nhomolog ous chr omosomes ar e separ ated. In pr ometaphase II, micr otubules at tach t o individual kinet ochor es o f sis ter chr omatids . In\nanaphase II, the sis ter chr omatids ar e separ ated.\nIn telophase II, the chr omosomes arriv e at opposit e poles and begin t o dec ondense . Nuclear en velopes f orm\naround the chr omosomes . Cyt okinesis separ ates the tw o cells int o four g enetical ly unique haploid c ells. At this\npoint, the nuclei in the ne wly produc ed c ells ar e both haploid and ha ve onl y one c opy of the single set o f\nchromosomes . The c ells pr oduc ed ar e genetical ly unique because o f the r andom as sortment o f pat ernal and\nmaternal homologs and because o f the r ecombination o f mat ernal and pat ernal segments o f chr omosomes \u2014with\ntheir sets o f genes \u2014that oc curs during cr ossover.\nComparing Meiosis and Mit osis\nMitosis and meiosis , which ar e both f orms o f division o f the nucleus in euk aryotic c ells, shar e some similarities , but\nalso e xhibit dis tinct diff erences that lead t o their v ery diff erent out comes . Mit osis is a single nuclear division that\nresul ts in tw o nuclei, usual ly par titioned int o tw o ne w cells. The nuclei r esul ting fr om a mit otic division ar e\ngenetical ly identical t o the original . The y ha ve the same number o f sets o f chr omosomes: one in the case o f haploid\ncells, and tw o in the case o f diploid c ells. On the other hand, meiosis is tw o nuclear divisions that r esul t in f our\nnuclei, usual ly par titioned int o four ne w cells. The nuclei r esul ting fr om meiosis ar e ne ver genetical ly identical , and\nthey contain one chr omosome set onl y\u2014this is half the number o f the original c ell, which w as diploid ( Figure 7.6 ).\nThe diff erences in the out comes o f meiosis and mit osis oc cur because o f diff erences in the beha vior o f the\nchromosomes during each pr ocess. Mos t of these diff erences in the pr ocesses oc cur in meiosis I, which is a v ery\ndifferent nuclear division than mit osis . In meiosis I, the homolog ous chr omosome pairs bec ome as sociat ed with\neach other , are bound t ogether , experienc e chiasmata and cr ossover betw een sis ter chr omatids , and line up along\nthe metaphase plat e in t etrads with spindle fibers fr om opposit e spindle poles at tached t o each kinet ochor e of a\nhomolog in a t etrad. Al l of these e vents oc cur onl y in meiosis I, ne ver in mit osis .\nHomolog ous chr omosomes mo ve to opposit e poles during meiosis I so the number o f sets o f chr omosomes in each\nnucleus -to-be is r educ ed fr om tw o to one . For this r eason, meiosis I is r eferred to as a reduction division . Ther e is\nno such r eduction in ploidy le vel in mit osis .\nMeiosis II is much mor e analog ous t o a mit otic division. In this case , duplicat ed chr omosomes (onl y one set o f\nthem) line up at the c enter of the c ell with divided kinet ochor es at tached t o spindle fibers fr om opposit e poles .\nDuring anaphase II, as in mit otic anaphase , the kinet ochor es divide and one sis ter chr omatid is pul led t o one pole7.2 \u2022 Meiosis 159", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3235, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "304baa48-244d-4c2f-81ae-a15a0cb2d4f2": {"__data__": {"id_": "304baa48-244d-4c2f-81ae-a15a0cb2d4f2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "174", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "293ae6fb-a0c3-456d-bbac-ae0d89e2098a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "174", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c37a9811035278040c5789c4e4079dfd1f6097ee4b3814e8c819aebfa9e42579", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "and the other sis ter chr omatid is pul led t o the other pole . If it w ere not f or the fact that ther e had been cr ossovers,\nthe tw o products o f each meiosis II division w ould be identical as in mit osis; ins tead, the y are diff erent because\nther e has al ways been at leas t one cr ossover per chr omosome . Meiosis II is not a r eduction division because ,\nalthough ther e are fewer copies o f the g enome in the r esul ting c ells, ther e is s till one set o f chr omosomes , as ther e\nwas at the end o f meiosis I.\nCells pr oduc ed b y mit osis wil l function in diff erent par ts of the body as a par t of growth or r eplacing dead or\ndamag ed c ells. The y ma y even be in volved in ase xual r eproduction in some or ganisms . Cel ls pr oduc ed b y meiosis in\na diploid-dominant or ganism such as an animal wil l onl y par ticipat e in se xual r eproduction.\nFIGURE 7.6Meiosis and mit osis ar e both pr eceded b y one r ound o f DNA r eplication; ho wever, meiosis includes tw o nuclear divisions . The\nfour daught er cells resul ting fr om meiosis ar e haploid and g enetical ly dis tinct. The daught er cells resul ting fr om mit osis ar e diploid and\nidentical t o the par ent c ell.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nFor an animation c omparing mit osis and meiosis , go tothis w ebsit e(http://opens tax.org/l/ho w_cells_dvid2) .\n7.3Variations in Meiosis\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain ho w nondisjunction leads t o diff erences in chr omosome number\n\u2022Describe ho w err ors in chr omosome s tructur e oc cur thr ough in versions and tr anslocations\nInherit ed disor ders can arise when chr omosomes beha ve abnormal ly during meiosis . Chr omosome disor ders can be\ndivided int o tw o cat egories: abnormalities in chr omosome number and chr omosome s tructur al rearr angements .\nBecause e ven smal l segments o f chr omosomes can span man y genes , chr omosomal disor ders ar e char acteristical ly\ndramatic and o ften fatal .\n160 7 \u2022 The C ellular Basis o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2065, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f6fc50c0-02f0-4217-8581-9376c316ea5e": {"__data__": {"id_": "f6fc50c0-02f0-4217-8581-9376c316ea5e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "175", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4aa4be71-51fe-4d57-b10c-c1983e2a97fd", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "175", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9c82eaeb00b12e9d9bfac4077e08c6548440e01f5b05ebfcf1187f44854323a9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "cf2c799d-e940-4771-925e-2f0077e924d6", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "4ac9fad5f217ef5d0a3b919f9c12a09b85129e55ff214f32d3cfefaf4b369775", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Disor ders in Chr omosome Number\nThe isolation and micr oscopic obser vation o f chr omosomes f orms the basis o f cyt ogenetics and is the primar y\nmethod b y which clinicians det ect chr omosomal abnormalities in humans . Akaryotype is the number and\nappear ance of chr omosomes , including their length, banding pat tern, and c entr omer e position. T o ob tain a vie w of\nan individual \u2019s karyotype , cyt ologis ts phot ograph the chr omosomes and then cut and pas te each chr omosome int o a\nchar t, or karyogram(Figure 7.7 ).\nFIGURE 7.7This k aryogram sho ws the chr omosomes o f a female human immune c ell during mit osis . (credit: Andr eas Bolz er, et al)\nCAREER C ONNE CTION\nGene ticists Use Kar yograms t o Identif y Chr omosomal Aberr ations\nThe k aryotype is a method b y which tr aits char acterized b y chr omosomal abnormalities can be identified fr om a\nsingle c ell. To obser ve an individual \u2019s karyotype , a person \u2019s cells (lik e whit e blood c ells) ar e firs t collected fr om a\nblood sample or other tis sue. In the labor atory, the isolat ed c ells ar e stimulat ed to begin activ ely dividing . A\nchemical is then applied t o the c ells to arr est mit osis during metaphase . The c ells ar e then fix ed to a slide .\nThe g eneticis t then s tains chr omosomes with one o f several dy es to bet ter visualiz e the dis tinct and r eproducible\nbanding pat terns o f each chr omosome pair . Following s taining , chr omosomes ar e vie wed using bright -field\nmicr oscopy. An e xperienc ed cyt ogeneticis t can identif y each band. In addition t o the banding pat terns ,\nchromosomes ar e fur ther identified on the basis o f size and c entr omer e location. T o ob tain the clas sic depiction o f\nthe k aryotype in which homolog ous pairs o f chr omosomes ar e aligned in numerical or der fr om long est to shor test,\nthe g eneticis t obtains a digital imag e, identifies each chr omosome , and manual ly arr anges the chr omosomes int o\nthis pat tern ( Figure 7.7 ).\nAt its mos t basic, the k aryogram ma y reveal g enetic abnormalities in which an individual has t oo man y or t oo few\nchromosomes per c ell. Examples o f this ar e Do wn s yndr ome , which is identified b y a thir d copy of chr omosome 21,\nand T urner s yndr ome , which is char acterized b y the pr esenc e of onl y one X chr omosome in w omen ins tead o f two.\nGeneticis ts can also identif y lar ge deletions or inser tions o f DNA . For ins tanc e, Jac obsen s yndr ome , which in volves\ndistinctiv e facial f eatur es as w ell as hear t and bleeding def ects , is identified b y a deletion on chr omosome 11.\nFinal ly, the k aryotype can pinpoint transloca tions , which oc cur when a segment o f genetic mat erial br eaks from one\nchromosome and r eattaches t o another chr omosome or t o a diff erent par t of the same chr omosome . Translocations\nare implicat ed in c ertain canc ers, including chr onic m yelog enous leuk emia .\nBy obser ving a k aryogram, g eneticis ts can actual ly visualiz e the chr omosomal c omposition o f an individual t o\nconfirm or pr edict g enetic abnormalities in o ffspring e ven bef ore bir th.\nNondisjunc tions , Duplic ations , and Dele tions\nOf al l the chr omosomal disor ders , abnormalities in chr omosome number ar e the mos t easil y identifiable fr om a\nkaryogram.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3307, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "cf2c799d-e940-4771-925e-2f0077e924d6": {"__data__": {"id_": "cf2c799d-e940-4771-925e-2f0077e924d6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "175", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4aa4be71-51fe-4d57-b10c-c1983e2a97fd", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "175", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9c82eaeb00b12e9d9bfac4077e08c6548440e01f5b05ebfcf1187f44854323a9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "f6fc50c0-02f0-4217-8581-9376c316ea5e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "175", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7d79ee4e48fda28622837bd790ef8b07e7512e6072bbd43d8ed7c854d8f03dd5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Translocations\nare implicat ed in c ertain canc ers, including chr onic m yelog enous leuk emia .\nBy obser ving a k aryogram, g eneticis ts can actual ly visualiz e the chr omosomal c omposition o f an individual t o\nconfirm or pr edict g enetic abnormalities in o ffspring e ven bef ore bir th.\nNondisjunc tions , Duplic ations , and Dele tions\nOf al l the chr omosomal disor ders , abnormalities in chr omosome number ar e the mos t easil y identifiable fr om a\nkaryogram. Disor ders o f chr omosome number include the duplication or los s of entir e chr omosomes , as w ell as\nchang es in the number o f complet e sets o f chr omosomes . The y are caused b ynondisjunction , which oc curs when\npairs o f homolog ous chr omosomes or sis ter chr omatids fail t o separ ate during meiosis . The risk o f nondisjunction\nincreases with the ag e of the par ents .\nNondisjunction can oc cur during either meiosis I or II, with diff erent r esul ts (Figure 7.8 ). If homolog ous\nchromosomes fail t o separ ate during meiosis I, the r esul t is tw o gamet es that lack that chr omosome and tw o\ngamet es with tw o copies o f the chr omosome . If sis ter chr omatids fail t o separ ate during meiosis II, the r esul t is one\n7.3 \u2022 V ariations in Meiosis 161", "start_char_idx": 2833, "end_char_idx": 4083, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "37156695-ab54-4fff-be8d-992037ccbb5a": {"__data__": {"id_": "37156695-ab54-4fff-be8d-992037ccbb5a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "176", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "dd491f3f-2b07-456f-aaa2-84477649576d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "176", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f9dbe3cedab906c405b642090109e18aa51e2ec30b6b1bcdd4fc8d8dc61fef82", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "gamet e that lack s that chr omosome , two normal g amet es with one c opy of the chr omosome , and one g amet e with\ntwo copies o f the chr omosome .\nFIGURE 7.8Following meiosis , each g amet e has one c opy of each chr omosome . Nondisjunction oc curs when homolog ous chr omosomes\n(meiosis I) or sis ter chr omatids (meiosis II) fail t o separ ate during meiosis .\nAn individual with the appr opriat e number o f chr omosomes f or their species is cal ledeuploid ; in humans , euploidy\ncorresponds t o 22 pairs o fautosomes and one pair o f sex chr omosomes . An individual with an err or in chr omosome\nnumber is described as aneuploid , a term that includes monosom y(loss of one chr omosome) or trisom y(gain o f an\nextraneous chr omosome). Monosomic human zy gotes mis sing an y one c opy of an aut osome in variabl y fail t o\ndevelop t o bir th because the y ha ve onl y one c opy of essential g enes . Mos t aut osomal trisomies also fail t o de velop\nto bir th; ho wever, duplications o f some o f the smal ler chr omosomes (13, 15, 18, 21, or 22) can r esul t in o ffspring\nthat sur vive for se veral w eeks to man y years . Trisomic individuals suff er fr om a diff erent type o f genetic imbalanc e:\nan e xcess in g ene dose . Cel l functions ar e calibr ated to the amount o f gene pr oduct pr oduc ed b y tw o copies (doses)\nof each g ene; adding a thir d copy (dose) disrup ts this balanc e. The mos t common trisom y is that o f chr omosome 21,\nwhich leads t o Do wn s yndr ome . Individuals with this inherit ed disor der ha ve char acteristic ph ysical f eatur es and\ndevelopmental dela ys in gr owth and c ognition. The incidenc e of Do wn s yndr ome is c orrelated with mat ernal ag e,\nsuch that older w omen ar e mor e lik ely to giv e bir th to childr en with Do wn s yndr ome ( Figure 7.9 ).162 7 \u2022 The C ellular Basis o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1893, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c2f1993c-821a-49df-b1a8-9742e250a937": {"__data__": {"id_": "c2f1993c-821a-49df-b1a8-9742e250a937", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "177", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7f0621fe-9955-4534-8ec8-1eaec81fe777", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "177", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b405c074219edfd5347a5cb266218bcc5a41ef935557a82370ee7037dfd4bb14", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 7.9The incidenc e of having a f etus with trisom y 21 incr eases dr amatical ly with the ag e of the bir th par ent.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nVisualiz e the addition o f a chr omosome that leads t o Do wn s yndr ome in this video (https:/ /www .youtube .com/\nwatch?v=z e_6V WwLtOE) .\nHumans displa y dramatic delet erious eff ects with aut osomal trisomies and monosomies . Ther efore, it ma y seem\ncount erintuitiv e that human f emales and males can function, despit e carr ying diff erent numbers o f the X\nchromosome . In par t, this oc curs because o f a pr ocess cal ledX inactiv ation . Earl y in de velopment, when f emale\nmammalian embr yos c onsis t of jus t a few thousand c ells, one X chr omosome in each c ell inactiv ates b y condensing\ninto a s tructur e cal led a Barr body . The g enes on the inactiv e X chr omosome ar e not e xpressed. The par ticular X\nchromosome that is inactiv ated in each c ell is r andom, but onc e the inactiv ation oc curs , all cells desc ended fr om\nthat c ell wil l have the same inactiv e X chr omosome . By this pr ocess, females c ompensat e for their double g enetic\ndose o f X chr omosome .\nIn so -called \u201c tortoiseshel l\u201d cats , X inactiv ation is obser ved as c oat-color v arieg ation ( Figure 7.10 ). Females\nheterozygous f or an X -link ed c oat c olor g ene wil l express one o f two diff erent c oat c olors o ver diff erent r egions o f\ntheir body , corresponding t o whiche ver X chr omosome is inactiv ated in the embr yonic c ell progenitor of that r egion.\nWhen y ou see a t ortoiseshel l cat, y ou wil l kno w that it has t o be a f emale .\n7.3 \u2022 V ariations in Meiosis 163", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1640, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "665ddb53-5a61-4577-94ce-a65a988d47d5": {"__data__": {"id_": "665ddb53-5a61-4577-94ce-a65a988d47d5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "178", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5adf13cc-4add-4432-8102-222484dc6c06", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "178", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "654bc4f94a02d10d501f6efa6f1f6110ed24e92d0c8285ab9307d9f108267f08", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 7.10 Embr yonic inactiv ation o f one o f two diff erent X chr omosomes enc oding diff erent c oat c olors giv es rise t o the t ortoiseshel l\nphenotype in cats . (credit: Michael Bodeg a)\nIn an individual carr ying an abnormal number o f X chr omosomes , cellular mechanisms wil l inactiv ate all but one X in\neach c ell. As a r esul t, X-chr omosomal abnormalities ar e typical ly associat ed with mild int ellectual and ph ysical\ndisabilities , as w ell as s terility . If the X chr omosome is absent al together , the individual wil l not de velop .\nSeveral err ors in se x chr omosome number ha ve been char acterized. Individuals with thr ee X chr omosomes , cal led\ntriplo -X, are as signed f emale but e xpress de velopmental dela ys and r educ ed fertility . The XXY chr omosome\ncomplement, c orresponding t o one type o f Klinef elter syndr ome , corresponds t o male individuals with smal l testes,\nenlar ged br easts, and r educ ed body hair . The e xtra X chr omosome under goes inactiv ation t o compensat e for the\nexcess genetic dosag e. Turner s yndr ome , char acterized as an X0 chr omosome c omplement (i. e., onl y a single se x\nchromosome), c orresponds t o a f emale individual with shor t statur e, webbed skin in the neck r egion, hearing and\ncardiac impairments , and s terility .\nAn individual with mor e than the c orrect number o f chr omosome sets (tw o for diploid species) is cal ledpolyploid .\nFor ins tanc e, fertilization o f an abnormal diploid eg g with a normal haploid sperm w ould yield a triploid zy gote.\nPolyploid animals ar e extremel y rare, with onl y a f ew examples among the flatw orms , crus taceans , amphibians , fish,\nand lizar ds. Triploid animals ar e sterile because meiosis cannot pr oceed normal ly with an odd number o f\nchromosome sets . In c ontr ast, pol yploidy is v ery common in the plant king dom, and pol yploid plants t end t o be\nlarger and mor e robus t than euploids o f their species .\nChromosome S tructural Rearrangements\nCytologis ts ha ve char acterized numer ous s tructur al rearr angements in chr omosomes , including par tial duplications ,\ndeletions , inversions , and tr anslocations . Duplications and deletions o ften pr oduc e offspring that sur vive but e xhibit\nphysical and mental abnormalities . Cri-du-chat (fr om the F rench f or \u201ccry of the cat \u201d) is a s yndr ome as sociat ed with\nnervous s ystem abnormalities and identifiable ph ysical f eatur es that r esul ts from a deletion o f mos t of the smal l\narm o f chr omosome 5 ( Figure 7.11 ). Infants with this g enotype emit a char acteristic high-pit ched cr y upon which\nthe disor der\u2019s name is based.164 7 \u2022 The C ellular Basis o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2732, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "92a1b581-da6f-4ef5-90f5-d52d4ff7952e": {"__data__": {"id_": "92a1b581-da6f-4ef5-90f5-d52d4ff7952e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "179", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e9341626-08ad-4624-8d4d-206fb25e1687", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "179", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b4c0a3b71b950caf864997c6611dc33f8b0683fbc312852c5630727b5c69b0fe", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 7.11 This individual with cri-du-chat s yndr ome is sho wn at v arious ag es: (A) ag e tw o, (B) ag e four, (C) ag e nine , and (D) ag e 12.\n(credit: P aola Cerruti Mainar di)\nChromosome in versions and tr anslocations can be identified b y obser ving c ells during meiosis because homolog ous\nchromosomes with a r earr angement in one o f the pair mus t contort to maintain appr opriat e gene alignment and pair\neffectiv ely during pr ophase I.\nAchromosome in version is the detachment, 180\u00b0 r otation, and r einser tion o f par t of a chr omosome ( Figure 7.12 ).\nUnles s the y disrup t a g ene sequenc e, inversions onl y chang e the orientation o f genes and ar e lik ely to ha ve mor e\nmild eff ects than aneuploid err ors.\nEVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nThe Chr omosome 18 In version\nNot al l structur al rearr angements o f chr omosomes pr oduc e non viable , impair ed, or inf ertile individuals . In r are\ninstanc es, such a chang e can r esul t in the e volution o f a ne w species . In fact, an in version in chr omosome 18\nappears t o ha ve contribut ed to the e volution o f humans . This in version is not pr esent in our closes t genetic r elativ es,\nthe chimpanz ees.\nThe chr omosome 18 in version is belie ved to ha ve oc curr ed in earl y humans f ollowing their div ergence from a\ncommon anc estor with chimpanz ees appr oximat ely fiv e mil lion y ears ag o. Resear chers ha ve sug gested that a long\nstretch o f DNA w as duplicat ed on chr omosome 18 o f an anc estor to humans , but that during the duplication it w as\ninverted (inser ted int o the chr omosome in r everse orientation.\n7.3 \u2022 V ariations in Meiosis 165", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1639, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bc6ddeab-10e0-41e1-b39c-2b51b24783fa": {"__data__": {"id_": "bc6ddeab-10e0-41e1-b39c-2b51b24783fa", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "180", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "db81e641-cfdf-4864-9454-0414e477a32d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "180", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f78a807ddcdbaa262a4418ed54247ff1fecf473748ca1b986a57aa4dd5cefab3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "A comparison o f human and chimpanz ee g enes in the r egion o f this in version indicat es that tw o genes \u2014ROCK1 and\nUSP14 \u2014are far ther apar t on human chr omosome 18 than the y are on the c orresponding chimpanz ee chr omosome .\nThis sug gests that one o f the in version br eakpoints oc curr ed betw een these tw o genes . Int erestingl y, humans and\nchimpanz ees e xpressUSP14 at dis tinct le vels in specific c ell types , including c ortical c ells and fibr oblas ts. Perhaps\nthe chr omosome 18 in version in an anc estral human r epositioned specific g enes and r eset their e xpression le vels in\na useful w ay. Because both ROCK1 and USP14 code f or enzymes , a chang e in their e xpression c ould al ter cellular\nfunction. It is not kno wn ho w this in version c ontribut ed to hominid e volution, but it appears t o be a significant fact or\nin the div ergence of humans fr om other primat es.2\nA translocation oc curs when a segment o f a chr omosome dis sociat es and r eattaches t o a diff erent, nonhomolog ous\nchromosome . Translocations can be benign or ha ve de vastating eff ects , depending on ho w the positions o f genes\nare altered with r espect t o regulatory sequenc es. Notabl y, specific tr anslocations ha ve been as sociat ed with se veral\ncanc ers and with schiz ophr enia . Recipr ocal tr anslocations r esul t from the e xchang e of chr omosome segments\nbetw een tw o nonhomolog ous chr omosomes such that ther e is no g ain or los s of genetic inf ormation ( Figure 7.12 ).\nFIGURE 7.12 An (a) in version oc curs when a chr omosome segment br eaks from the chr omosome , reverses its orientation, and then\nreattaches in the original position. A (b) r ecipr ocal tr anslocation oc curs betw een tw o nonhomolog ous chr omosomes and does not cause\nany genetic inf ormation t o be los t or duplicat ed. (cr edit: modification o f work b y National Human Genome R esear ch Ins titut e (USA)\n2V Goidts , et al ., \u201cSegmental duplication as sociat ed with the human-specific in version o f chr omosome 18: a fur ther e xample o f the\nimpact o f segmental duplications on k aryotype and g enome e volution in primat es,\u201dHuman Genetics , 115 (2004):116\u201322.166 7 \u2022 The C ellular Basis o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2258, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "de479a5a-7f45-4fb2-ab1e-ffb6ea2bc351": {"__data__": {"id_": "de479a5a-7f45-4fb2-ab1e-ffb6ea2bc351", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "181", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e09d304f-bf8b-4938-b760-3f333b957b19", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "181", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "321b0845977386c3332b620fb0b62aa60b9ac80bde6e8aaa4e15025557bd7547", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "92513736-5a98-49a1-9307-bbf86907f59a", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "354899a0a397aab6f72d301a930f2b443bebb0a45b842a2c827306b8ecf91842", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nalterna tion o f gener ations a life-cycle type in which\nthe diploid and haploid s tages al ternat e\naneuploid an individual with an err or in chr omosome\nnumber; includes deletions and duplications o f\nchromosome segments\nautosome any of the non-se x chr omosomes\nchiasma ta (sing ular = chiasma ) the s tructur e that\nforms at the cr ossover points aft er genetic mat erial\nis exchang ed\nchromosome in version the detachment, 180\u00b0\nrotation, and r einser tion o f a chr omosome arm\ncrossing o ver (also , recombination) the e xchang e of\ngenetic mat erial betw een homolog ous\nchromosomes r esul ting in chr omosomes that\nincorpor ate genes fr om both par ents o f the\norganism f orming r eproductiv e cells\ndiploid-dominant a life-cycle type in which the\nmulticellular diploid s tage is pr evalent\neuploid an individual with the appr opriat e number o f\nchromosomes f or their species\nfertiliza tion the union o f two haploid c ells typical ly\nfrom tw o individual or ganisms\ngamet ophytea mul ticellular haploid lif e-cycle s tage\nthat pr oduc es g amet es\ngerm c ella specializ ed c ell that pr oduc es g amet es,\nsuch as eg gs or sperm\nhaploid-dominant a life-cycle type in which the\nmulticellular haploid s tage is pr evalent\ninterkinesis a period o f rest that ma y oc cur betw een\nmeiosis I and meiosis II; ther e is no r eplication o f\nDNA during int erkinesis\nkaryogram the phot ographic imag e of a k aryotype\nkaryotype the number and appear ance of an\nindividuals chr omosomes , including the siz e,\nbanding pat terns , and c entr omer e position\nlife cy cle the sequenc e of events in the de velopment\nof an or ganism and the pr oduction o f cells that\nproduc e offspring\nmeiosis a nuclear division pr ocess that r esul ts in f our\nhaploid c ellsmeiosis I the firs t round o f meiotic c ell division;\nreferred to as r eduction division because the\nresul ting c ells ar e haploid\nmeiosis II the sec ond r ound o f meiotic c ell division\nfollowing meiosis I; sis ter chr omatids ar e separ ated\nfrom each other , and the r esul t is f our unique\nhaploid c ells\nmonosom yan other wise diploid g enotype in which\none chr omosome is mis sing\nnondisjunction the failur e of synapsed homologs t o\ncomplet ely separ ate and migr ate to separ ate poles\nduring the firs t cell division o f meiosis\npolyploid an individual with an inc orrect number o f\nchromosome sets\nrecombinant describing something c omposed o f\ngenetic mat erial fr om tw o sour ces, such as a\nchromosome with both mat ernal and pat ernal\nsegments o f DNA\nreduction division a nuclear division that pr oduc es\ndaught er nuclei each ha ving one -half as man y\nchromosome sets as the par ental nucleus; meiosis I\nis a r eduction division\nsoma tic c ellall the c ells of a mul ticellular or ganism\nexcept the g amet e-forming c ells\nspor ophytea mul ticellular diploid lif e-cycle s tage\nthat pr oduc es spor es\nsynapsis the f ormation o f a close as sociation\nbetw een homolog ous chr omosomes during\nprophase I\ntetrad two duplicat ed homolog ous chr omosomes\n(four chr omatids) bound t ogether b y chiasmata\nduring pr ophase I\ntransloca tion the pr ocess by which one segment o f a\nchromosome dis sociat es and r eattaches t o a\ndifferent,", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3221, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "92513736-5a98-49a1-9307-bbf86907f59a": {"__data__": {"id_": "92513736-5a98-49a1-9307-bbf86907f59a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "181", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e09d304f-bf8b-4938-b760-3f333b957b19", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "181", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "321b0845977386c3332b620fb0b62aa60b9ac80bde6e8aaa4e15025557bd7547", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "de479a5a-7f45-4fb2-ab1e-ffb6ea2bc351", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "181", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d48cacbcc8cb55ca2bff133edc9d9af5c37641178202e18f473b713f79574f04", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "meiosis I\nis a r eduction division\nsoma tic c ellall the c ells of a mul ticellular or ganism\nexcept the g amet e-forming c ells\nspor ophytea mul ticellular diploid lif e-cycle s tage\nthat pr oduc es spor es\nsynapsis the f ormation o f a close as sociation\nbetw een homolog ous chr omosomes during\nprophase I\ntetrad two duplicat ed homolog ous chr omosomes\n(four chr omatids) bound t ogether b y chiasmata\nduring pr ophase I\ntransloca tion the pr ocess by which one segment o f a\nchromosome dis sociat es and r eattaches t o a\ndifferent, nonhomolog ous chr omosome\ntrisom yan other wise diploid g enotype in which one\nentir e chr omosome is duplicat ed\nX inactiv ation the c ondensation o f X chr omosomes\ninto Barr bodies during embr yonic de velopment in\nfemales t o compensat e for the double g enetic dose\nChap ter Summar y\n7.1Sexual R eproduc tion\nNearl y all euk aryotes under go se xual r eproduction. The\nvariation intr oduc ed int o the r eproductiv e cells by\nmeiosis appears t o be one o f the adv antag es o f sexual\nreproduction that has made it so suc cessful. Meiosis\nand f ertilization al ternat e in se xual lif e cy cles . The\nprocess of meiosis pr oduc es g enetical ly unique\nreproductiv e cells cal led g amet es, which ha ve half the\nnumber o f chr omosomes as the par ent c ell.Fertilization, the fusion o f haploid g amet es fr om tw o\nindividuals , restores the diploid c ondition. Thus ,\nsexual ly reproducing or ganisms al ternat e betw een\nhaploid and diploid s tages. Ho wever, the w ays in which\nreproductiv e cells ar e produc ed and the timing\nbetw een meiosis and f ertilization v ary greatly. Ther e\nare thr ee main cat egories o f life cy cles: diploid-\ndominant, demons trated b y mos t animals; haploid-\ndominant, demons trated b y all fungi and some alg ae;\nand al ternation o f gener ations , demons trated b y plants7 \u2022 K ey Terms 167", "start_char_idx": 2684, "end_char_idx": 4558, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6b7af1e1-349d-45af-b01c-0c8d975b5729": {"__data__": {"id_": "6b7af1e1-349d-45af-b01c-0c8d975b5729", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "182", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b2fcd087-8e37-4fce-bda1-1c1dd6527d9c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "182", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "acda07130d1d24e8d6bd51346108418b900d64c8c2ced2556acff4bffba676fd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "35e0fd8d-22a7-4baa-b11a-4790754e45b9", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "c4ec84db53da0d569fb6c09151c1be5fff515a06edafa62c8b66841efc59da94", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "and some alg ae.\n7.2Meiosis\nSexual r eproduction r equir es that diploid or ganisms\nproduc e haploid c ells that can fuse during f ertilization\nto form diploid o ffspring . The pr ocess that r esul ts in\nhaploid c ells is cal led meiosis . Meiosis is a series o f\nevents that arr ange and separ ate chr omosomes int o\ndaught er cells. During the int erphase o f meiosis , each\nchromosome is duplicat ed. In meiosis , ther e are tw o\nrounds o f nuclear division r esul ting in f our nuclei and\nusual ly four haploid daught er cells, each with half the\nnumber o f chr omosomes as the par ent c ell. During\nmeiosis , variation in the daught er nuclei is intr oduc ed\nbecause o f crossover in pr ophase I and r andom\nalignment at metaphase I. The c ells that ar e produc ed\nby meiosis ar e genetical ly unique .\nMeiosis and mit osis shar e similarities , but ha ve dis tinct\noutcomes . Mit otic divisions ar e single nuclear divisions\nthat pr oduc e daught er nuclei that ar e genetical ly\nidentical and ha ve the same number o f chr omosome\nsets as the original c ell. Meiotic divisions ar e tw o\nnuclear divisions that pr oduc e four daught er nuclei\nthat ar e genetical ly diff erent and ha ve one\nchromosome set r ather than the tw o sets the par ent\ncell had. The main diff erences betw een the pr ocessesoccur in the firs t division o f meiosis . The homolog ous\nchromosomes separ ate int o diff erent nuclei during\nmeiosis I causing a r eduction o f ploidy le vel. The\nsecond division o f meiosis is much mor e similar t o a\nmitotic division.\n7.3Variations in Meiosis\nThe number , size, shape , and banding pat tern o f\nchromosomes mak e them easil y identifiable in a\nkaryogram and al low for the as sessment o f man y\nchromosomal abnormalities . Disor ders in chr omosome\nnumber , or aneuploidies , are typical ly lethal t o the\nembr yo, although a f ew trisomic g enotypes ar e viable .\nBecause o f X inactiv ation, aberr ations in se x\nchromosomes typical ly ha ve milder eff ects on an\nindividual . Aneuploidies also include ins tanc es in which\nsegments o f a chr omosome ar e duplicat ed or delet ed.\nChromosome s tructur es also ma y be r earr anged, f or\nexample b y inversion or tr anslocation. Both o f these\naberr ations can r esul t in neg ative eff ects on\ndevelopment, or death. Because the y force\nchromosomes t o as sume c ontorted pairings during\nmeiosis I, in versions and tr anslocations ar e often\nassociat ed with r educ ed fertility because o f the\nlikelihood o f nondisjunction.\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 7.2 If a mutation oc curs so that a fung us is\nno long er able t o produc e a minus mating type , wil l\nit still be able t o reproduc e?\nReview Ques tions\n2.What is a lik ely evolutionar y adv antag e of sexual\nreproduction o ver ase xual r eproduction?\na.sexual r eproduction in volves fewer steps\nb.less chanc e of using up the r esour ces in a giv en\nenvironment\nc.sexual r eproduction r esul ts in gr eater variation\nin the o ffspring\nd.sexual r eproduction is mor e cost-effectiv e\n3.Which type o f life cy cle has both a haploid and\ndiploid mul ticellular s tage?\na.an ase xual lif e cy cle\nb.diploid-dominant\nc.haploid-dominant\nd.alternation o f gener ations4.Which e vent leads t o a diploid c ell in a lif e cy cle?\na.meiosis\nb.fertilization\nc.alternation o f gener ations\nd.mutation\n5.Meiosis pr oduc es ________ daught er cells.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3385, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "35e0fd8d-22a7-4baa-b11a-4790754e45b9": {"__data__": {"id_": "35e0fd8d-22a7-4baa-b11a-4790754e45b9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "182", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b2fcd087-8e37-4fce-bda1-1c1dd6527d9c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "182", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "acda07130d1d24e8d6bd51346108418b900d64c8c2ced2556acff4bffba676fd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "6b7af1e1-349d-45af-b01c-0c8d975b5729", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "182", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5c7f138050bc639a522f11ef258ca82886f2283a1e6b8db0ae3658fcf56763ce", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "a.sexual r eproduction in volves fewer steps\nb.less chanc e of using up the r esour ces in a giv en\nenvironment\nc.sexual r eproduction r esul ts in gr eater variation\nin the o ffspring\nd.sexual r eproduction is mor e cost-effectiv e\n3.Which type o f life cy cle has both a haploid and\ndiploid mul ticellular s tage?\na.an ase xual lif e cy cle\nb.diploid-dominant\nc.haploid-dominant\nd.alternation o f gener ations4.Which e vent leads t o a diploid c ell in a lif e cy cle?\na.meiosis\nb.fertilization\nc.alternation o f gener ations\nd.mutation\n5.Meiosis pr oduc es ________ daught er cells.\na.two haploid\nb.two diploid\nc.four haploid\nd.four diploid\n6.At which s tage of meiosis ar e sis ter chr omatids\nsepar ated fr om each other?\na.prophase I\nb.prophase II\nc.anaphase I\nd.anaphase II168 7 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2800, "end_char_idx": 3652, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, 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"hash": "677fb39f548d1b5e8ea3c162d0828ec369199b4a25bc7f362d0ae35d5d46248d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "7.The par t of meiosis that is similar t o mit osis is\n________.\na.meiosis I\nb.anaphase I\nc.meiosis II\nd.interkinesis\n8.If a muscle c ell of a typical or ganism has 32\nchromosomes , how man y chr omosomes wil l be in a\ngamet e of that same or ganism?\na.8\nb.16\nc.32\nd.64\n9.The g enotype XXY c orresponds t o:\na.Klinef elter syndr ome\nb.Turner s yndr ome\nc.Triplo -X\nd.Jacob s yndr ome10.Abnormalities in the number o f X chr omosomes\ntend t o be milder than the same abnormalities in\nautosomes because o f ________.\na.deletions\nb.nonhomolog ous r ecombination\nc.synapsis\nd.X inactiv ation\n11.Aneuploidies ar e delet erious f or the individual\nbecause o f what phenomenon?\na.nondisjunction\nb.gene dosag e\nc.meiotic err ors\nd.X inactiv ation\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n12.Explain the adv antag e that populations o f sexual ly\nreproducing or ganisms ha ve over ase xual ly\nreproducing or ganisms?\n13.Describe the tw o events that ar e common t o all\nsexual ly reproducing or ganisms and ho w the y fit\ninto the diff erent lif e cy cles o f those or ganisms .\n14.Explain ho w the r andom alignment o f homolog ous\nchromosomes during metaphase I c ontribut es to\nvariation in g amet es pr oduc ed b y meiosis .15.In what w ays is meiosis II similar t o and diff erent\nfrom mit osis o f a diploid c ell?\n16.Individuals with trisom y 21 ar e mor e lik ely to\nsurvive to adul thood than individuals with trisom y\n18. Based on what y ou kno w about aneuploidies\nfrom this module , what can y ou h ypothesiz e about\nchromosomes 21 and 18?7 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions 169", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1568, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bcb5c08b-a241-4bc4-b630-0a9acdd534b6": {"__data__": {"id_": "bcb5c08b-a241-4bc4-b630-0a9acdd534b6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "184", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2446d4f6-cc1e-44ef-afde-ea28b019390c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "184", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f48f334c0df3f4e6036df4b469c0e0a6df8b3599bf77e1d38373dc712c50cf74", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "170 7 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 71, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "246e63b0-a657-4f1d-9bc5-4d24fc89fa15": {"__data__": {"id_": "246e63b0-a657-4f1d-9bc5-4d24fc89fa15", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "185", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6c172654-6340-476d-8023-91ce454b5985", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "185", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1c06781461a16cb625ec9656294237dde3f5d7b5bcdd0032a7043360fe85762a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 8\nPatterns o f Inheritanc e\n8.1Mendel \u2019s Experiments\n8.2Laws of Inheritanc e\n8.3Extensions o f the L aws of Inheritanc e\nGenetics is the s tudy o f her edity . Johann Gr egor Mendel set the fr ame work f or\ngenetics long bef ore chr omosomes or g enes had been identified, at a time when meiosis w as not\nwell unders tood. Mendel select ed a simple biological s ystem and c onduct ed methodical ,\nquantitativ e anal yses using lar ge sample siz es. Because o f Mendel \u2019s work, the fundamental\nprinciples o f her edity w ere revealed. W e no w kno w that g enes , carried on chr omosomes , are the\nbasic functional units o f her edity with the ability t o be r eplicat ed, e xpressed, or mutat ed. T oday,\nthe pos tulat es put f orth by Mendel f orm the basis o f clas sical , or Mendelian, g enetics . Not al l traits\nare transmit ted fr om par ents t o offspring ac cording t o Mendelian g enetics , but Mendel \u2019s\nexperiments ser ve as an e xcellent s tarting point f or thinking about inheritanc e.FIGURE 8.1Experimenting with thousands o f garden peas , Mendel unc overed the fundamentals o f genetics . (credit:\nmodification o f work b y Jerr y Kirkhar t)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1199, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "12e2bbcc-3a1e-4481-a4d2-6e3652001ef7": {"__data__": {"id_": "12e2bbcc-3a1e-4481-a4d2-6e3652001ef7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "186", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ea7117d9-8655-4261-b5a5-cb3e14df350f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "186", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "92caee29aa2529f0fe21020789bdc37eab7c4023dd58fade21ba4f499b9d9ee8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "8.1Mendel\u2019 s Experiments\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain the scientific r easons f or the suc cess of Mendel \u2019s experimental w ork\n\u2022Describe the e xpect ed out comes o f monoh ybrid cr osses in volving dominant and r ecessive\nalleles\nFIGURE 8.2Johann Gr egor Mendel set the fr ame work f or the s tudy o f genetics .\nJohann Gr egor Mendel (1822\u20131884) ( Figure 8.2 ) was a lif elong learner , teacher , scientis t, and\nman o f faith. As a y oung adul t, he joined the Aug ustinian Abbe y of St. Thomas in Brno in what is\nnow the Cz ech R epublic. Suppor ted b y the monas tery, he taught ph ysics, botan y, and natur al\nscienc e courses at the sec ondar y and univ ersity le vels. In 1856, he beg an a decade -long r esear ch\npursuit in volving inheritanc e pat terns in hone ybees and plants , ultimat ely set tling on pea plants as\nhis primar ymodel s ystem(a system with c onvenient char acteristics that is used t o study a\nspecific biological phenomenon t o gain unders tanding t o be applied t o other s ystems). In 1865,\nMendel pr esent ed the r esul ts of his e xperiments with nearl y 30,000 pea plants t o the local natur al\nhistory society . He demons trated that tr aits ar e transmit ted faithful ly from par ents t o offspring in\nspecific pat terns . In 1866, he published his w ork, Experiments in Plant Hybridization,1in the\nproceedings o f the Natur al His tory Society o f Br\u00fcnn. As s tated earlier , in g enetics , \"par ent\" is o ften\nused t o describe the individual or ganism(s) that c ontribut e genetic mat erial t o an o ffspring ,\nusual ly in the f orm o f gamet e cells.\nMendel \u2019s work w ent vir tually unnotic ed b y the scientific c ommunity , which inc orrectly belie ved\nthat the pr ocess of inheritanc e involved a blending o f par ental tr aits that pr oduc ed an\nintermediat e ph ysical appear ance in o ffspring . This h ypothetical pr ocess appear ed to be c orrect\nbecause o f what w e kno w no w as c ontinuous v ariation. Continuous v aria tion is the r ange of smal l\ndifferences w e see among individuals in a char acteristic lik e human height. It does appear that\noffspring ar e a \u201cblend\u201d o f their par ents\u2019 tr aits when w e look at char acteristics that e xhibit\ncontinuous v ariation. Mendel w orked ins tead with tr aits that sho wdisc ontinuous v aria tion .\nDisc ontinuous v ariation is the v ariation seen among individuals when each individual sho ws one o f\ntwo\u2014or a v ery few\u2014easil y dis tinguishable tr aits, such as violet or whit e flo wers. Mendel \u2019s choic e\nof these kinds o f traits al lowed him t o see e xperimental ly that the tr aits w ere not blended in the\noffspring as w ould ha ve been e xpect ed at the time , but that the y were inherit ed as dis tinct tr aits.\nIn 1868, Mendel became abbot o f the monas tery and e xchang ed his scientific pursuits f or his\n1Johann Gr egor Mendel , \u201cVersuche \u00fcber Pflanz enhybriden. \u201dVerhandlung en des natur forschenden V ereines in\nBr\u00fcnn , Bd. IV f\u00fcr das Jahr , 1865 Abhandlung en (1866):3\u201347. [f or English tr anslation, see ht tp://www .mendel web.org/\nMendel .plain.html]172 8 \u2022 P atterns o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3198, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "082bb908-3454-4fd4-98a5-b3a0899352fa": {"__data__": {"id_": "082bb908-3454-4fd4-98a5-b3a0899352fa", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "187", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "de72815e-f6af-4676-95cb-788e43e2f013", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "187", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cb26237dcdd4d61d3b418ed96aacab4850b2e49a5104b653ff11f3a752a0f65d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "pastoral duties . He w as not r ecogniz ed for his e xtraordinar y scientific c ontributions during his lif etime; in fact, it w as\nnot until 1900 that his w ork w as redisc overed, r eproduc ed, and r evitaliz ed b y scientis ts on the brink o f disc overing\nthe chr omosomal basis o f her edity .\nMendel\u2019 s Crosses\nMendel \u2019s seminal w ork w as ac complished using the g arden pea ,Pisum sativum , to study inheritanc e. This species\nnatur ally self-f ertilizes, meaning that pol len enc ount ers o va within the same flo wer. Because e very pea plant has\nboth male r eproductiv e organs and f emale r eproductiv e organs, each plant pr oduc es both types o f gamet es\nrequir ed for reproduction\u2014both pol len and o va. In plants , jus t as in animals , reproductiv e organs ar e clas sified b y\nthe siz e of the g amet es pr oduc ed. The or gans pr oducing the smal ler pol len ar e cal led male r eproductiv e organs,\nwhile the or gans pr oducing the lar ger ova are cal led f emale r eproductiv e organs.\nIn garden peas , the flo wer petals r emain sealed tightl y until pol lination is c omplet ed to prevent the pol lination o f\nother plants . The r esul t is highl y inbr ed, or \u201c true -breeding ,\u201d pea plants . These ar e plants that al ways produc e\noffspring that look lik e the par ent. B y experimenting with true -breeding pea plants , Mendel a voided the appear ance\nof une xpect ed tr aits in o ffspring that might oc cur if the plants w ere not true -breeding . The g arden pea also gr ows to\nmaturity within one season, meaning that se veral gener ations c ould be e valuat ed o ver a r elativ ely shor t time .\nFinal ly, large quantities o f garden peas c ould be cul tivated simul taneousl y, allowing Mendel t o conclude that his\nresul ts did not c ome about simpl y by chanc e.\nMendel per formed hybridiza tions , which in volve mating tw o true -breeding individuals that ha ve diff erent tr aits. In\nthe pea , which is natur ally self-pol linating , this is done b y manual ly transferring pol len fr om the anther o f a matur e\npea plant o f one v ariety t o the s tigma o f a separ ate matur e pea plant o f the sec ond v ariety .\nPlants used in firs t-gener ation cr osses w ere cal led P , or par ental g ener ation, plants ( Figure 8.3 ). Mendel c ollected\nthe seeds pr oduc ed b y the P plants that r esul ted fr om each cr oss and gr ew them the f ollowing season. These\noffspring w ere cal led the F1, or the firs t filial (filial = daught er or son), g ener ation. Onc e Mendel e xamined the\nchar acteristics in the F 1gener ation o f plants , he al lowed them t o self-f ertilize natur ally. He then c ollected and gr ew\nthe seeds fr om the F 1plants t o produc e the F2, or sec ond filial , gener ation. Mendel \u2019s experiments e xtended be yond\nthe F 2gener ation t o the F 3gener ation, F 4gener ation, and so on, but it w as the r atio o f char acteristics in the P , F1,\nand F 2gener ations that w ere the mos t intrig uing and became the basis o f Mendel \u2019s pos tulat es.8.1 \u2022 Mendel\u2019 s Experiments 173", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3038, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b0466810-64f4-4b0d-881f-d81c49ac3a69": {"__data__": {"id_": "b0466810-64f4-4b0d-881f-d81c49ac3a69", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "188", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "03cd110c-216f-4c35-a8a3-29fc04a8b3c9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "188", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4a261717fd3f249ee8d265367bd97c6ee2424a4997fb9bd64dc98f1d084946e2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 8.3Mendel \u2019s process for per forming cr osses included e xamining flo wer color.\nGarden P ea Char acteristics R evealed the Basics o f Her edity\nIn his 1865 publication, Mendel r epor ted the r esul ts of his cr osses in volving se ven diff erent char acteristics, each\nwith tw o contr asting tr aits. Atraitis defined as a v ariation in the ph ysical appear ance of a heritable char acteristic.\nThe char acteristics included plant height, seed t extur e, seed c olor, flower color, pea -pod siz e, pea -pod c olor, and\nflower position. F or the char acteristic o f flower color, for example , the tw o contr asting tr aits w ere whit e versus\nviolet. T o ful ly examine each char acteristic, Mendel g ener ated lar ge numbers o f F1and F 2plants and r epor ted\nresul ts from thousands o f F2plants .\nWhat r esul ts did Mendel find in his cr osses f or flo wer color? Firs t, Mendel c onfirmed that he w as using plants that\nbred true f or whit e or violet flo wer color. Irrespectiv e of the number o f gener ations that Mendel e xamined, al l self-\ncrossed o ffspring o f par ents with whit e flo wers had whit e flo wers, and al l self-cr ossed o ffspring o f par ents with\nviolet flo wers had violet flo wers. In addition, Mendel c onfirmed that, other than flo wer color, the pea plants w ere\nphysical ly identical . This w as an impor tant check t o mak e sur e that the tw o varieties o f pea plants onl y diff ered with\nrespect t o one tr ait, flo wer color.174 8 \u2022 P atterns o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1541, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c52a4847-9ea2-4424-9615-09124c0cfdf8": {"__data__": {"id_": "c52a4847-9ea2-4424-9615-09124c0cfdf8", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "189", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7bd3e284-20eb-4d3f-819a-2a7f6e5a98f9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "189", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "116e8e82b1f6b3fc98158c0554b75cd576e624df40053d208dcea8d917d59078", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "85d49a50-580a-4bf3-ba6c-8cf84eb2ee72", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "8eb045f04a3ce75a1971ff9031673ac95e769e338d915932a558c485deb127da", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Onc e these v alidations w ere complet e, Mendel applied the pol len fr om a plant with violet flo wers t o the s tigma o f a\nplant with whit e flo wers. Aft er gathering and so wing the seeds that r esul ted fr om this cr oss, Mendel f ound that 100\npercent o f the F 1hybrid g ener ation had violet flo wers. Con ventional wisdom at that time w ould ha ve predict ed the\nhybrid flo wers t o be pale violet or f or hybrid plants t o ha ve equal numbers o f whit e and violet flo wers. In other\nwords, the c ontr asting par ental tr aits w ere expect ed to blend in the o ffspring . Ins tead, Mendel \u2019s resul ts\ndemons trated that the whit e flo wer tr ait had c omplet ely disappear ed in the F 1gener ation.\nImpor tantl y, Mendel did not s top his e xperimentation ther e. He al lowed the F 1plants t o self-f ertilize and f ound that\n705 plants in the F 2gener ation had violet flo wers and 224 had whit e flo wers. This w as a r atio o f 3.15 violet flo wers\nto one whit e flo wer, or appr oximat ely 3:1. Mendel per formed an additional e xperiment t o asc ertain diff erences in\ninheritanc e of traits carried in the pol len v ersus the o vum. When Mendel tr ansferred pol len fr om a plant with violet\nflowers t o fertilize the o va of a plant with whit e flo wers and vic e versa , he ob tained appr oximat ely the same r atio\nirrespectiv e of which g amet e contribut ed which tr ait. This is cal led a recipr ocal cr oss\u2014a pair ed cr oss in which the\nrespectiv e traits o f the male and f emale in one cr oss bec ome the r espectiv e traits o f the f emale and male in the\nother cr oss. For the other six char acteristics that Mendel e xamined, the F 1and F 2gener ations beha ved in the same\nway that the y beha ved for flo wer color. One o f the tw o traits w ould disappear c omplet ely from the F 1gener ation,\nonly to reappear in the F 2gener ation at a r atio o f roughl y 3:1 ( Figure 8.4 ).\nFIGURE 8.4Mendel identified se ven pea plant char acteristics.\nUpon c ompiling his r esul ts for man y thousands o f plants , Mendel c oncluded that the char acteristics c ould be\ndivided int o expressed and lat ent tr aits. He cal led these dominant and r ecessive traits, respectiv ely.Dominant traits\nare those that ar e inherit ed unchang ed in a h ybridization. Recessivetraits bec ome lat ent, or disappear in the\noffspring o f a h ybridization. The r ecessive trait does , however, reappear in the pr ogeny of the h ybrid o ffspring . An\nexample o f a dominant tr ait is the violet -colored flo wer tr ait. F or this same char acteristic (flo wer color), whit e-\ncolored flo wers ar e a r ecessive trait. The fact that the r ecessive trait reappear ed in the F 2gener ation meant that the\ntraits r emained separ ate (and w ere not blended) in the plants o f the F 1gener ation. Mendel pr oposed that this w as\nbecause the plants pos sessed tw o copies o f the tr ait for the flo wer-color char acteristic, and that each par ent\ntransmit ted one o f their tw o copies t o their o ffspring , wher e the y came t ogether . Mor eover, the ph ysical obser vation\nof a dominant tr ait c ould mean that the g enetic c omposition o f the or ganism included tw o dominant v ersions o f the\nchar acteristic, or that it included one dominant and one r ecessive version.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3274, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "85d49a50-580a-4bf3-ba6c-8cf84eb2ee72": {"__data__": {"id_": "85d49a50-580a-4bf3-ba6c-8cf84eb2ee72", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "189", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7bd3e284-20eb-4d3f-819a-2a7f6e5a98f9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "189", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "116e8e82b1f6b3fc98158c0554b75cd576e624df40053d208dcea8d917d59078", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "c52a4847-9ea2-4424-9615-09124c0cfdf8", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "189", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ae66639d6fbc936f5a72f8c13b1ab067ab1415c5228c1205a855b1c8aa1d70c8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The fact that the r ecessive trait reappear ed in the F 2gener ation meant that the\ntraits r emained separ ate (and w ere not blended) in the plants o f the F 1gener ation. Mendel pr oposed that this w as\nbecause the plants pos sessed tw o copies o f the tr ait for the flo wer-color char acteristic, and that each par ent\ntransmit ted one o f their tw o copies t o their o ffspring , wher e the y came t ogether . Mor eover, the ph ysical obser vation\nof a dominant tr ait c ould mean that the g enetic c omposition o f the or ganism included tw o dominant v ersions o f the\nchar acteristic, or that it included one dominant and one r ecessive version. Con versel y, the obser vation o f a recessive\ntrait meant that the or ganism lack ed an y dominant v ersions o f this char acteristic.8.1 \u2022 Mendel\u2019 s Experiments 175", "start_char_idx": 2621, "end_char_idx": 3441, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d8079fb0-b5d4-41bb-b9f3-3d0148c23caf": {"__data__": {"id_": "d8079fb0-b5d4-41bb-b9f3-3d0148c23caf", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "190", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "58b68480-cc68-46c4-8b92-58256e7b2774", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "190", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "059d5cb80515d4a1fb0edb0dc01f1b99ab2d48923518f3ca8a29c8fcbbfe4875", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "68dc3ee9-5527-4d32-b1fd-ca076b97bc70", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "87fb7185f38f634e6d65a537f271850f056e829a57f99d461d7dc23673e70a9f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "8.2Laws of Inheritanc e\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain the r elationship betw een g enotypes and phenotypes in dominant and r ecessive gene s ystems\n\u2022Use a Punnet t squar e to calculat e the e xpect ed pr opor tions o f genotypes and phenotypes in a\nmonoh ybrid cr oss\n\u2022Explain Mendel \u2019s law of segr egation and independent as sortment in t erms o f genetics and the e vents o f\nmeiosis\n\u2022Explain the purpose and methods o f a test cross\nThe se ven char acteristics that Mendel e valuat ed in his pea plants w ere each e xpressed as one o f two versions , or\ntraits. Mendel deduc ed fr om his r esul ts that each individual had tw o discr ete copies o f the char acteristic that ar e\npassed individual ly to offspring . We no w cal l those tw o copies g enes , which ar e carried on chr omosomes . The\nreason w e ha ve tw o copies o f each g ene is that w e inherit one fr om each par ent. In fact, it is the chr omosomes w e\ninherit and the tw o copies o f each g ene ar e locat ed on pair ed chr omosomes . Recal l that in meiosis these\nchromosomes ar e separ ated out int o haploid g amet es. This separ ation, or segr egation, o f the homolog ous\nchromosomes means also that onl y one o f the c opies o f the g ene g ets mo ved int o a g amet e. The o ffspring ar e\nformed when that g amet e unit es with one fr om another par ent and the tw o copies o f each g ene (and chr omosome)\nare restored.\nFor cases in which a single g ene c ontr ols a single char acteristic, a diploid or ganism has tw o genetic c opies that ma y\nor ma y not enc ode the same v ersion o f that char acteristic. F or example , one individual ma y carr y a g ene that\ndetermines whit e flo wer color and a g ene that det ermines violet flo wer color. Gene v ariants that arise b y mutation\nand e xist at the same r elativ e locations on homolog ous chr omosomes ar e cal ledalleles . Mendel e xamined the\ninheritanc e of genes with jus t two allele f orms , but it is c ommon t o enc ount er mor e than tw o alleles f or an y giv en\ngene in a natur al population.\nPheno types and Geno types\nTwo alleles f or a giv en g ene in a diploid or ganism ar e expressed and int eract t o produc e ph ysical char acteristics. The\nobser vable tr aits e xpressed b y an or ganism ar e referred to as its pheno type . An or ganism \u2019s underl ying g enetic\nmak eup, consis ting o f both the ph ysical ly visible and the non-e xpressed al leles , is cal led its genotype . Mendel \u2019s\nhybridization e xperiments demons trate the diff erence betw een phenotype and g enotype . For example , the\nphenotypes that Mendel obser ved in his cr osses betw een pea plants with diff ering tr aits ar e connect ed to the\ndiploid g enotypes o f the plants in the P , F1, and F 2gener ations . We wil l use a sec ond tr ait that Mendel in vestigated,\nseed c olor, as an e xample . Seed c olor is g overned b y a single g ene with tw o alleles . The y ellow-seed al lele is\ndominant and the gr een-seed al lele is r ecessive. When true -breeding plants w ere cross-fertilized, in which one\nparent had y ellow seeds and one had gr een seeds , all of the F 1hybrid o ffspring had y ellow seeds .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3192, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "68dc3ee9-5527-4d32-b1fd-ca076b97bc70": {"__data__": {"id_": "68dc3ee9-5527-4d32-b1fd-ca076b97bc70", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "190", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "58b68480-cc68-46c4-8b92-58256e7b2774", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "190", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "059d5cb80515d4a1fb0edb0dc01f1b99ab2d48923518f3ca8a29c8fcbbfe4875", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "d8079fb0-b5d4-41bb-b9f3-3d0148c23caf", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "190", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8f843a1ec95bac218abccd7038b38a28e5d427d540aaafc97760bd36e7404c2f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "For example , the\nphenotypes that Mendel obser ved in his cr osses betw een pea plants with diff ering tr aits ar e connect ed to the\ndiploid g enotypes o f the plants in the P , F1, and F 2gener ations . We wil l use a sec ond tr ait that Mendel in vestigated,\nseed c olor, as an e xample . Seed c olor is g overned b y a single g ene with tw o alleles . The y ellow-seed al lele is\ndominant and the gr een-seed al lele is r ecessive. When true -breeding plants w ere cross-fertilized, in which one\nparent had y ellow seeds and one had gr een seeds , all of the F 1hybrid o ffspring had y ellow seeds . That is , the h ybrid\noffspring w ere phenotypical ly identical t o the true -breeding par ent with y ellow seeds . Ho wever, we kno w that the\nallele donat ed b y the par ent with gr een seeds w as not simpl y los t because it r eappear ed in some o f the F 2offspring\n(Figure 8.5 ). Ther efore, the F 1plants mus t have been g enotypical ly diff erent fr om the par ent with y ellow seeds .\nThe P plants that Mendel used in his e xperiments w ere each homo zygous f or the tr ait he w as studying . Diploid\norganisms that ar ehomo zygous for a g ene ha ve tw o identical al leles , one on each o f their homolog ous\nchromosomes . The g enotype is o ften writ ten as YYoryy, for which each let ter represents one o f the tw o alleles in\nthe g enotype . The dominant al lele is capitaliz ed and the r ecessive allele is lo wer case . The let ter used f or the g ene\n(seed c olor in this case) is usual ly related to the dominant tr ait (yellow al lele, in this case , or \u201c Y\u201d). Mendel \u2019s par ental\npea plants al ways bred true because both pr oduc ed g amet es carried the same al lele. When P plants with\ncontr asting tr aits w ere cross-fertilized, al l of the o ffspring w ereheterozygous for the c ontr asting tr ait, meaning their\ngenotype had diff erent al leles f or the g ene being e xamined. F or example , the F 1yellow plants that r eceived a Y\nallele fr om their y ellow par ent and a yallele fr om their gr een par ent had the g enotype Yy.176 8 \u2022 P atterns o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2589, "end_char_idx": 4714, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fe120088-7089-42da-b30f-d51a32c46b44": {"__data__": {"id_": "fe120088-7089-42da-b30f-d51a32c46b44", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "191", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a050daed-6d1d-4f53-8155-99fb93ccb692", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "191", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "395c400230410a78b2e0811c967ade76f076b597b289977e170987ab55febdcf", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 8.5Phenotypes ar e ph ysical e xpressions o f traits that ar e transmit ted b y alleles . Capital let ters r epresent dominant al leles and\nlowercase let ters r epresent r ecessive alleles . The phenotypic r atios ar e the r atios o f visible char acteristics. The g enotypic r atios ar e the\nratios o f gene c ombinations in the o ffspring , and these ar e not al ways dis tinguishable in the phenotypes .\nLaw of Dominanc e\nOur discus sion o f homo zygous and het erozygous or ganisms brings us t o wh y the F 1heterozygous o ffspring w ere\nidentical t o one o f the par ents , rather than e xpressing both al leles . In al l seven pea -plant char acteristics, one o f the\ntwo contr asting al leles w as dominant, and the other w as recessive. Mendel cal led the dominant al lele the e xpressed\nunit fact or; the r ecessive allele w as referred to as the lat ent unit fact or. We no w kno w that these so -called unit\nfactors ar e actual ly genes on homolog ous chr omosomes . For a g ene that is e xpressed in a dominant and r ecessive\npattern, homo zygous dominant and het erozygous or ganisms wil l look identical (that is , the y wil l have diff erent\ngenotypes but the same phenotype), and the tr aits o f the r ecessive allele wil l onl y be obser ved in homo zygous\nrecessive individuals ( Table 8.1 ).\nCorr espondenc e betw een Genotype and Phenotype f or a Dominant -Recessive Char acteristic.\nHomo zygous Heterozygous Homo zygous\nGenotype YY Yy yy\nPhenotype yellow yellow green\nTABLE 8.1\nMendel \u2019slaw of dominanc estates that in a het erozygote, one tr ait wil l conceal the pr esenc e of another tr ait for the\nsame char acteristic. F or example , when cr ossing true -breeding violet -flowered plants with true -breeding whit e-\nflowered plants , all of the o ffspring w ere violet -flowered, e ven though the y all had one al lele f or violet and one al lele\nfor whit e. Rather than both al leles c ontributing t o a phenotype , the dominant al lele wil l be e xpressed e xclusiv ely.\nThe r ecessive allele wil l remain lat ent, but wil l be tr ansmit ted to offspring in the same manner as that b y which the\ndominant al lele is tr ansmit ted. The r ecessive trait wil l onl y be e xpressed b y offspring that ha ve tw o copies o f this\nallele ( Figure 8.6 ), and these o ffspring wil l breed true when self-cr ossed.8.2 \u2022 La ws of Inheritanc e 177", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2370, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "15857a30-362e-4b27-b069-8ba2dc879663": {"__data__": {"id_": "15857a30-362e-4b27-b069-8ba2dc879663", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "192", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a388d834-a5d3-460d-8077-3395d623ed2d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "192", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "259fc77aa8f500ceb9c0bb51ba49298af4396e074f4d401a21220e2593b2f69b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "de8dba15-8f21-4fe1-b19a-7805720ddf8b", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "59af157d838072e522dbc33b35191b16258ba306a3ace8f3a6420c139662e167", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 8.6The al lele f or albinism, e xpressed her e in humans , is r ecessive. Both o f this child\u2019 s par ents carried the r ecessive allele.\nMonoh ybrid Cr oss and the P unne tt Squar e\nWhen f ertilization oc curs betw een tw o true -breeding par ents that diff er by onl y the char acteristic being s tudied, the\nprocess is cal led a monoh ybrid cross, and the r esul ting o ffspring ar e cal led monoh ybrids . Mendel per formed se ven\ntypes o f monoh ybrid cr osses, each in volving c ontr asting tr aits f or diff erent char acteristics. Out o f these cr osses, all\nof the F 1offspring had the phenotype o f one par ent, and the F 2offspring had a 3:1 phenotypic r atio. On the basis o f\nthese r esul ts, Mendel pos tulat ed that each par ent in the monoh ybrid cr oss contribut ed one o f two pair ed unit\nfactors t o each o ffspring , and e very pos sible c ombination o f unit fact ors w as equal ly likely.\nThe r esul ts of Mendel \u2019s resear ch can be e xplained in t erms o f probabilities , which ar e mathematical measur es o f\nlikelihood. The pr obability o f an e vent is calculat ed b y the number o f times the e vent oc curs divided b y the t otal\nnumber o f oppor tunities f or the e vent t o oc cur. A pr obability o f one (100 per cent) f or some e vent indicat es that it is\nguaranteed t o oc cur, wher eas a pr obability o f zero (0 per cent) indicat es that it is g uaranteed t o not oc cur, and a\nprobability o f 0.5 (50 per cent) means it has an equal chanc e of occurring or not oc curring .\nTo demons trate this with a monoh ybrid cr oss, consider the case o f true -breeding pea plants with y ellow versus\ngreen seeds . The dominant seed c olor is y ellow; ther efore, the par ental g enotypes w ereYYfor the plants with\nyellow seeds and yyfor the plants with gr een seeds . APunnet t squar e, devised b y the British g eneticis t Reginald\nPunnet t, is useful f or det ermining pr obabilities because it is dr awn t o predict al l pos sible out comes o f all pos sible\nrandom f ertilization e vents and their e xpect ed fr equencies .Figure 8.9 shows a Punnet t squar e for a cr oss betw een a\nplant with y ellow peas and one with gr een peas . To prepar e a Punnet t squar e, all pos sible c ombinations o f the\nparental al leles (the g enotypes o f the g amet es) ar e lis ted along the t op (f or one par ent) and side (f or the other\nparent) o f a grid. The c ombinations o f egg and sperm g amet es ar e then made in the bo xes in the table on the basis\nof which al leles ar e combining . Each bo x then r epresents the diploid g enotype o f a zy gote, or f ertilized eg g. Because\neach pos sibility is equal ly likely, genotypic r atios can be det ermined fr om a Punnet t squar e. If the pat tern o f\ninheritanc e (dominant and r ecessive) is kno wn, the phenotypic r atios can be inf erred as w ell. For a monoh ybrid\ncross of two true -breeding par ents , each par ent c ontribut es one type o f allele. In this case , onl y one g enotype is\npossible in the F 1offspring . All offspring ar eYyand ha ve yellow seeds .\nWhen the F 1offspring ar e crossed with each other , each has an equal pr obability o f contributing either a Yor a yto\nthe F 2offspring .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3194, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "de8dba15-8f21-4fe1-b19a-7805720ddf8b": {"__data__": {"id_": "de8dba15-8f21-4fe1-b19a-7805720ddf8b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "192", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a388d834-a5d3-460d-8077-3395d623ed2d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "192", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "259fc77aa8f500ceb9c0bb51ba49298af4396e074f4d401a21220e2593b2f69b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "15857a30-362e-4b27-b069-8ba2dc879663", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "192", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2e63e2978df6e894f49328dccb9675a61b694c676b45d3f4b845c9d14aabd08a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "For a monoh ybrid\ncross of two true -breeding par ents , each par ent c ontribut es one type o f allele. In this case , onl y one g enotype is\npossible in the F 1offspring . All offspring ar eYyand ha ve yellow seeds .\nWhen the F 1offspring ar e crossed with each other , each has an equal pr obability o f contributing either a Yor a yto\nthe F 2offspring . The r esul t is a 1 in 4 (25 per cent) pr obability o f both par ents c ontributing a Y, resul ting in an\noffspring with a y ellow phenotype; a 25 per cent pr obability o f par ent A c ontributing a Yand par ent B a y, resul ting in\noffspring with a y ellow phenotype; a 25 per cent pr obability o f par ent A c ontributing a yand par ent B a Y, also\nresul ting in a y ellow phenotype; and a (25 per cent) pr obability o f both par ents c ontributing a y, resul ting in a gr een178 8 \u2022 P atterns o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2837, "end_char_idx": 3741, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "dc412380-072e-4e0a-bbbd-3a3fe0224a96": {"__data__": {"id_": "dc412380-072e-4e0a-bbbd-3a3fe0224a96", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "193", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "52aaa74e-3e58-45d2-ac5e-6e256675a46e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "193", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4b19813fa1ed59b0c2733fc4eee8987a6b6f1bed4e099462db43e35096a093ab", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "phenotype . When c ounting al l four pos sible out comes , ther e is a 3 in 4 pr obability o f offspring ha ving the y ellow\nphenotype and a 1 in 4 pr obability o f offspring ha ving the gr een phenotype . This e xplains wh y the r esul ts of\nMendel \u2019s F2gener ation oc curr ed in a 3:1 phenotypic r atio. Using lar ge numbers o f crosses, Mendel w as able t o\ncalculat e probabilities , found that the y fit the model o f inheritanc e, and use these t o predict the out comes o f other\ncrosses.\nLaw of Segr egation\nObser ving that true -breeding pea plants with c ontr asting tr aits g ave rise t o F1gener ations that al l expressed the\ndominant tr ait and F 2gener ations that e xpressed the dominant and r ecessive traits in a 3:1 r atio, Mendel pr oposed\nthelaw of segr egation . This la w states that pair ed unit fact ors ( genes) mus t segr egate equal ly int o gamet es such\nthat o ffspring ha ve an equal lik elihood o f inheriting either fact or. For the F 2gener ation o f a monoh ybrid cr oss, the\nfollowing thr ee pos sible c ombinations o f genotypes r esul t: homo zygous dominant, het erozygous, or homo zygous\nrecessive. Because het erozygotes could arise fr om tw o diff erent path ways (receiving one dominant and one\nrecessive allele fr om either par ent), and because het erozygotes and homo zygous dominant individuals ar e\nphenotypical ly identical , the la w suppor ts Mendel \u2019s obser ved 3:1 phenotypic r atio. The equal segr egation o f alleles\nis the r eason w e can appl y the Punnet t squar e to ac curately predict the o ffspring o f par ents with kno wn g enotypes .\nThe ph ysical basis o f Mendel \u2019s law of segr egation is the firs t division o f meiosis in which the homolog ous\nchromosomes with their diff erent v ersions o f each g ene ar e segr egated int o daught er nuclei. This pr ocess was not\nunders tood b y the scientific c ommunity during Mendel \u2019s lifetime ( Figure 8.7 ).\nFIGURE 8.7The firs t division in meiosis is sho wn.\nTest Cross\nBeyond pr edicting the o ffspring o f a cr oss betw een kno wn homo zygous or het erozygous par ents , Mendel also\ndeveloped a w ay to det ermine whether an or ganism that e xpressed a dominant tr ait w as a het erozygote or a\nhomo zygote. Cal led the test cross, this t echnique is s till used b y plant and animal br eeders . In a t est cross, the\ndominant -expressing or ganism is cr ossed with an or ganism that is homo zygous r ecessive for the same\nchar acteristic. If the dominant -expressing or ganism is a homo zygote, then al l F1offspring wil l be het erozygotes\nexpressing the dominant tr ait (Figure 8.8 ). Alternativ ely, if the dominant -expressing or ganism is a het erozygote, the\nF1offspring wil l exhibit a 1:1 r atio o f het erozygotes and r ecessive homo zygotes (Figure 8.8 ). The t est cross fur ther\nvalidat es Mendel \u2019s pos tulat e that pairs o f unit fact ors segr egate equal ly.8.2 \u2022 La ws of Inheritanc e 179", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2919, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "38cbdb08-0ed5-45d1-94ad-bdffd04bd445": {"__data__": {"id_": "38cbdb08-0ed5-45d1-94ad-bdffd04bd445", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "194", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "25ac192c-cd05-495b-8f0a-bae1a256fc36", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "194", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "93d1ee2e9d98b0579a36828fae9f71be07f24270f5563cf3d5839a95b1924840", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 8.8A test cross can be per formed t o det ermine whether an or ganism e xpressing a dominant tr ait is a homo zygote or a\nheterozygote.180 8 \u2022 P atterns o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 210, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d90448c5-5a2e-478e-8bcf-ef0e62bc2fce": {"__data__": {"id_": "d90448c5-5a2e-478e-8bcf-ef0e62bc2fce", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "195", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3b24b903-9d25-4936-92c2-b81e9c03f86d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "195", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "13e639ef62d4f5f6fc2f06a2e50b1fba9606f1240d4c6373a4239b7990f0e0c3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 8.9This Punnet t squar e sho ws the cr oss betw een plants with y ellow seeds and gr een seeds . The cr oss betw een the true -breeding\nP plants pr oduc es F 1heterozygotes that can be self-f ertilized. The self-cr oss of the F 1gener ation can be anal yzed with a Punnet t squar e to\npredict the g enotypes o f the F 2gener ation. Giv en an inheritanc e pat tern o f dominant \u2013recessive, the g enotypic and phenotypic r atios can\nthen be det ermined.\nIn pea plants , round peas ( R) are dominant t o wrinkled peas ( r). You do a t est cross betw een a pea plant with\nwrinkled peas ( genotype rr) and a plant o f unkno wn g enotype that has r ound peas . You end up with thr ee plants , all\nwhich ha ve round peas . From this data , can y ou tell if the par ent plant is homo zygous dominant or het erozygous?\nLaw of Independent A ssortment\nMendel \u2019slaw of independent as sortment states that g enes do not influenc e each other with r egard to the sor ting o f\nalleles int o gamet es, and e very pos sible c ombination o f alleles f or every gene is equal ly likely to oc cur. Independent\nassortment o f genes can be il lustrated b y the dihybrid cross, a cr oss betw een tw o true -breeding par ents that\nexpress diff erent tr aits f or tw o char acteristics. Consider the char acteristics o f seed c olor and seed t extur e for tw o\npea plants , one that has wrinkled, gr een seeds ( rryy) and another that has r ound, y ellow seeds ( RRYY). Because\neach par ent is homo zygous, the la w of segr egation indicat es that the g amet es for the wrinkled\u2013gr een plant al l are\nry, and the g amet es for the r ound\u2013 yellow plant ar e allRY. Ther efore, the F 1gener ation o f offspring al l areRrYy\n(Figure 8.10 ).\n8.2 \u2022 La ws of Inheritanc e 181", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1772, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e749a4b0-a28b-4f76-99c6-5fe213fc59c9": {"__data__": {"id_": "e749a4b0-a28b-4f76-99c6-5fe213fc59c9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "196", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b5064dae-fdc0-486e-8731-b9bede89fb14", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "196", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "30d635c018aa730225175dab1ee5e646e8306e08175d9c6acb0430a2bf7750e9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 8.10 A dih ybrid cr oss in pea plants in volves the g enes f or seed c olor and t extur e. The P cr oss produc es F 1offspring that ar e all\nheterozygous f or both char acteristics. The r esul ting 9:3:3:1 F 2phenotypic r atio is ob tained using a Punnet t squar e.\nIn pea plants , round seed shape ( R) is dominant t o wrinkled seed shape ( r) and y ellow peas ( Y) are dominant t o\ngreen peas ( y). What ar e the pos sible g enotypes and phenotypes f or a cr oss betw een RrYYand rrYypea plants? Ho w\nman y squar es do y ou need t o do a Punnet t squar e anal ysis o f this cr oss?\nThe g amet es pr oduc ed b y the F 1individuals mus t have one al lele fr om each o f the tw o genes . For example , a\ngamet e could g et an Rallele f or the seed shape g ene and either a Yor a yallele f or the seed c olor g ene. It cannot\nget both an Rand an rallele; each g amet e can ha ve onl y one al lele per g ene. The la w of independent as sortment\nstates that a g amet e int o which an rallele is sor ted w ould be equal ly likely to contain either a Yor a yallele. Thus ,\nther e are four equal ly likely gamet es that can be f ormed when the RrYyheterozygote is self-cr ossed, as f ollows:RY,\nrY,Ry, and ry. Arr anging these g amet es along the t op and left o f a 4 \u00d7 4 Punnet t squar e (Figure 8.10 ) giv es us 16\nequal ly likely genotypic c ombinations . From these g enotypes , we find a phenotypic r atio o f 9 round\u2013 yellow:3\nround\u2013gr een:3 wrinkled\u2013 yellow:1 wrinkled\u2013gr een ( Figure 8.10 ). These ar e the o ffspring r atios w e would e xpect,\nassuming w e per formed the cr osses with a lar ge enough sample siz e.\nThe ph ysical basis f or the la w of independent as sortment also lies in meiosis I, in which the diff erent homolog ous\npairs line up in r andom orientations . Each g amet e can c ontain an y combination o f pat ernal and mat ernal\nchromosomes (and ther efore the g enes on them) because the orientation o f tetrads on the metaphase plane is\nrandom ( Figure 8.11 ).\n182 8 \u2022 P atterns o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2082, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5d8bc388-705e-4e9e-82a0-55ce09966eac": {"__data__": {"id_": "5d8bc388-705e-4e9e-82a0-55ce09966eac", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "197", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4f187664-a009-4b09-84d5-ece6ba8a64e7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "197", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "20f8e79a04eaf264424adbcfa49acd8f1594d00e77747ae3c9a0d0e0df98b9ec", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 8.11 The r andom segr egation int o daught er nuclei that happens during the firs t division in meiosis can lead t o a v ariety o f pos sible\ngenetic arr angements .\n8.3Extensions o f the La ws of Inheritanc e\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Identif y non-Mendelian inheritanc e pat terns such as inc omplet e dominanc e, codominanc e, mul tiple\nalleles , and se x link age from the r esul ts of crosses\n\u2022Explain the eff ect o f link age and r ecombination on g amet e genotypes\n\u2022Explain the phenotypic out comes o f epis tatic eff ects among g enes\nMendel s tudied tr aits with onl y one mode o f inheritanc e in pea plants . The inheritanc e of the tr aits he s tudied al l\nfollowed the r elativ ely simple pat tern o f dominant and r ecessive alleles f or a single char acteristic. Ther e are se veral\nimpor tant modes o f inheritanc e, disc overed aft er Mendel \u2019s work, that do not f ollow the dominant and r ecessive,\nsingle -gene model .\nAlternativ es to Dominanc e and R ecessiv eness\nMendel \u2019s experiments with pea plants sug gested that: 1) tw o types o f \u201cunits\u201d or al leles e xist for every gene; 2)\nalleles maintain their int egrity in each g ener ation (no blending ); and 3) in the pr esenc e of the dominant al lele, the\nrecessive allele is hidden, with no c ontribution t o the phenotype . Ther efore, recessive alleles can be \u201c carried\u201d and\nnot e xpressed b y individuals . Such het erozygous individuals ar e sometimes r eferred to as \u201c carriers .\u201d Sinc e then,\ngenetic s tudies in other or ganisms ha ve sho wn that much mor e comple xity e xists, but that the fundamental\nprinciples o f Mendelian g enetics s till hold true . In the sections t o follow, we consider some o f the e xtensions o f\nMendelism.\nIncomple te Dominanc e\nMendel \u2019s resul ts, demons trating that tr aits ar e inherit ed as dominant and r ecessive pairs , contr adict ed the vie w at\nthat time that o ffspring e xhibit ed a blend o f their par ents\u2019 tr aits. Ho wever, the het erozygote phenotype oc casional ly8.3 \u2022 Ext ensions o f the La ws of Inheritanc e 183", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2106, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "02f03241-fea8-47f4-b329-3eb5c023ae35": {"__data__": {"id_": "02f03241-fea8-47f4-b329-3eb5c023ae35", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "198", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6e871c9f-02e1-47c5-9689-e8c259a9e8f7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "198", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e00bddea61eed85471ee14674dfdb36a92c45a8848e7e1f1d8c37378332e3891", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "does appear t o be int ermediat e betw een the tw o par ents . For example , in the snapdr agon,Antirrhinum majus\n(Figure 8.12 ), a cr oss betw een a homo zygous par ent with whit e flo wers ( CWCW) and a homo zygous par ent with r ed\nflowers ( CRCR) wil l produc e offspring with pink flo wers ( CRCW). (Not e that diff erent g enotypic abbr eviations ar e used\nfor Mendelian e xtensions t o dis tinguish these pat terns fr om simple dominanc e and r ecessivenes s.) This pat tern o f\ninheritanc e is described as incomplet e dominanc e, meaning that one o f the al leles appears in the phenotype in the\nheterozygote, but not t o the e xclusion o f the other , which can also be seen. The al lele f or red flo wers is inc omplet ely\ndominant o ver the al lele f or whit e flo wers. Ho wever, the r esul ts of a het erozygote self-cr oss can s till be pr edict ed,\njust as with Mendelian dominant and r ecessive crosses. In this case , the g enotypic r atio w ould be 1 CRCR:2CRCW:1\nCWCW, and the phenotypic r atio w ould be 1:2:1 f or red:pink:whit e. The basis f or the int ermediat e color in the\nheterozygote is simpl y that the pigment pr oduc ed b y the r ed al lele (anthocy anin) is dilut ed in the het erozygote and\nther efore appears pink because o f the whit e back ground o f the flo wer petals .\nFIGURE 8.12 These pink flo wers o f a het erozygote snapdr agon resul t from inc omplet e dominanc e. (credit: \"s torebukk ebruse \"/Flickr)\nCodominanc e\nA variation on inc omplet e dominanc e iscodominanc e, in which both al leles f or the same char acteristic ar e\nsimul taneousl y expressed in the het erozygote. An e xample o f codominanc e oc curs in the ABO blood gr oups o f\nhumans . The A and B al leles ar e expressed in the f orm o f A or B molecules pr esent on the sur face of red blood c ells.\nHomo zygotes (IAIAand IBIB) express either the A or the B phenotype , and het erozygotes (IAIB) express both\nphenotypes equal ly. The IAIBindividual has blood type AB . In a self-cr oss betw een het erozygotes e xpressing a\ncodominant tr ait, the thr ee pos sible o ffspring g enotypes ar e phenotypical ly dis tinct. Ho wever, the 1:2:1 g enotypic\nratio char acteristic o f a Mendelian monoh ybrid cr oss still applies ( Figure 8.13 ).184 8 \u2022 P atterns o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2319, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "99a53522-815c-4c7f-ad98-9f403fcb8834": {"__data__": {"id_": "99a53522-815c-4c7f-ad98-9f403fcb8834", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "199", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e890e663-30ea-400f-9a75-ee35a4feb6ba", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "199", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dcd20914e3b28aabec044f35f590f9f1836d5734f635b91892eeb9f68a33da3a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 8.13 This Punnet squar e sho ws an AB /AB blood type cr oss\nMultiple Alleles\nMendel implied that onl y tw o alleles , one dominant and one r ecessive, could e xist for a giv en g ene. We no w kno w\nthat this is an o versimplification. Al though individual humans (and al l diploid or ganisms) can onl y ha ve tw o alleles\nfor a giv en g ene, mul tiple al leles ma y exist at the population le vel, such that man y combinations o f two alleles ar e\nobser ved. Not e that when man y alleles e xist for the same g ene, the c onvention is t o denot e the mos t common\nphenotype or g enotype in the natur al population as the wild type (often abbr eviated \u201c+\u201d). Al l other phenotypes or\ngenotypes ar e consider ed v ariants (mutants) o f this typical f orm, meaning the y de viate from the wild type . The\nvariant ma y be r ecessive or dominant t o the wild-type al lele.\nAn e xample o f mul tiple al leles is the ABO blood-type s ystem in humans . In this case , ther e are thr ee al leles\ncirculating in the population. The IAallele c odes f or A molecules on the r ed blood c ells, the IBallele c odes f or B\nmolecules on the sur face of red blood c ells, and the iallele c odes f or no molecules on the r ed blood c ells. In this\ncase , the IAand IBalleles ar e codominant with each other and ar e both dominant o ver the iallele. Although ther e\nare thr ee al leles pr esent in a population, each individual onl y gets tw o of the al leles fr om their par ents . This\nproduc es the g enotypes and phenotypes sho wn in Figure 8.14 . Notic e that ins tead o f thr ee g enotypes , ther e are six\ndifferent g enotypes when ther e are thr ee al leles . The number o f pos sible phenotypes depends on the dominanc e\nrelationships betw een the thr ee al leles .8.3 \u2022 Ext ensions o f the La ws of Inheritanc e 185", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1812, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "262cf08a-f61d-4c11-8c8d-cc9fef8d541d": {"__data__": {"id_": "262cf08a-f61d-4c11-8c8d-cc9fef8d541d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "200", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7f205700-6fe0-434d-a3bb-a9539d742458", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "200", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e37d73701f84dc36529aae75cf8d0d21aa0e70527df895882c2d260529bd7574", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "101ed710-8ca6-417d-9214-17339fbd5056", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "91d2bc640b492b54ef4e2232d43a8e85fa7a5ac28dc30919eefa2f543ec634bc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 8.14 Inheritanc e of the ABO blood s ystem in humans is sho wn.\nEVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nMultiple Alleles C onfer Drug R esistanc e in the Malaria P arasite\nMalaria is a par asitic disease in humans that is tr ansmit ted b y inf ected female mosquit oes, including Anopheles\ngambiae , and is char acterized b y cyclic high f evers, chil ls, flu-lik e symp toms , and se vere anemia .Plasmodium\nfalciparum and P. vivaxare the mos t common causativ e ag ents o f malaria , and P. falciparum is the mos t deadl y.\nWhen pr omp tly and c orrectly treated,P. falciparum malaria has a mor tality r ate of 0.1 per cent. Ho wever, in some\nparts of the w orld, the par asite has e volved resistanc e to commonl y used malaria tr eatments , so the mos t eff ectiv e\nmalarial tr eatments can v ary by geogr aphic r egion. Ninety per cent o f malaria victims liv e in Africa , mos t of them\nchildr en under the ag e of five.\nIn Southeas t Asia , Africa , and South America ,P. falciparum has de veloped r esistanc e to the anti-malarial drugs\nchlor oquine , mefloquine , and sulfado xine -pyrimethamine .P. falciparum , which is haploid during the lif e stage in\nwhich it is inf ectiv e to humans , has e volved mul tiple drug-r esistant mutant al leles o f the dhps gene. Varying degr ees\nof sulfado xine r esistanc e are as sociat ed with each o f these al leles . Being haploid, P. falciparum needs onl y one\ndrug-r esistant al lele t o express this tr ait.\nIn Southeas t Asia , diff erent sulfado xine -resistant al leles o f the dhps gene ar e localiz ed to diff erent g eogr aphic\nregions . This is a c ommon e volutionar y phenomenon that c omes about because drug-r esistant mutants arise in a\npopulation and int erbr eed with other P. falciparum isolat es in close pr oximity . Sulfado xine -resistant par asites cause\nconsider able human har dship in r egions in which this drug is widel y used as an o ver-the -count er malaria r emedy . As\nis common with pathog ens that mul tiply to lar ge numbers within an inf ection cy cle,P. falciparum evolves relativ ely\nrapidl y (over a decade or so) in r esponse t o the selectiv e pressure of commonl y used anti-malarial drugs . For this\nreason, scientis ts mus t constantl y work t o de velop ne w drugs or drug c ombinations t o combat the w orldwide\nmalaria bur den.2\nn lat e 2021, R21/Matrix -M became the firs t vaccine t o be r ecommended f or widespr ead use b y the W orld Heal th\nOrganization. A t leas t ten other candidat e vaccines ar e in de velopment. The eff ort is an mul tinational one in volving\ngovernments , univ ersities , nonpr ofits, philanthr opis ts, and pharmac eutical c ompanies . Much o f the r ecent pr ogress\ncan be cr edited to organizations within the mos t affected c ountries , such as the Malaria R esear ch and T raining\nCent er in Mali. F ounded b y Og obar a Duombo and Y eya Tour\u00e9 in the 1990s , the c enter has emer ged as a primar y\nfront-line r esear ch driv er, including running man y of the critical clinical trials that ar e so impor tant t o vaccine\ndevelopment and appr oval.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3072, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "101ed710-8ca6-417d-9214-17339fbd5056": {"__data__": {"id_": "101ed710-8ca6-417d-9214-17339fbd5056", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "200", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7f205700-6fe0-434d-a3bb-a9539d742458", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "200", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e37d73701f84dc36529aae75cf8d0d21aa0e70527df895882c2d260529bd7574", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "262cf08a-f61d-4c11-8c8d-cc9fef8d541d", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "200", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "441b101716447d8f921f8bb78c7346d2b3a1a4662c5e963b32c68de932ad0cbd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "A t leas t ten other candidat e vaccines ar e in de velopment. The eff ort is an mul tinational one in volving\ngovernments , univ ersities , nonpr ofits, philanthr opis ts, and pharmac eutical c ompanies . Much o f the r ecent pr ogress\ncan be cr edited to organizations within the mos t affected c ountries , such as the Malaria R esear ch and T raining\nCent er in Mali. F ounded b y Og obar a Duombo and Y eya Tour\u00e9 in the 1990s , the c enter has emer ged as a primar y\nfront-line r esear ch driv er, including running man y of the critical clinical trials that ar e so impor tant t o vaccine\ndevelopment and appr oval.\n2Sumiti Vina yak et al ., \u201cOrigin and Ev olution o f Sulfado xine R esistant Plasmodium falciparum, \u201d PL oS P athog ens 6 (2010): e1000830.186 8 \u2022 P atterns o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2451, "end_char_idx": 3280, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5183c520-b58a-4d9e-8d1d-3ac25ef7c354": {"__data__": {"id_": "5183c520-b58a-4d9e-8d1d-3ac25ef7c354", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "201", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "03a1c522-f69d-458e-a71e-6b689c2dec69", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "201", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8c78c17e3a609c70e36e466e62c0612fd141e520201f68212b1680c0ff967468", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "bd43ca29-7b53-46ad-9c2f-cccf37863802", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "7187e8bf1d3133272816bb92e423977c65a01e766c35898d2475a34c1df373fc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Sex-Link ed Traits\nIn humans , as w ell as in man y other animals and some plants , the se x of the individual is det ermined b y sex\nchromosomes \u2014one pair o f non-homolog ous chr omosomes . Humans ma y identif y as being male , female , neither o f\nthese , both, or other g ender(s) independentl y of these chr omosomes , but the se x chr omosomes can be as sociat ed\nwith c ertain tr aits. Until no w, we ha ve onl y consider ed inheritanc e pat terns among non-se x chr omosomes , or\nautosomes . In addition t o 22 homolog ous pairs o f aut osomes , human f emales ha ve a homolog ous pair o f X\nchromosomes , wher eas human males ha ve an XY chr omosome pair . Although the Y chr omosome c ontains a smal l\nregion o f similarity t o the X chr omosome so that the y can pair during meiosis , the Y chr omosome is much shor ter\nand c ontains f ewer genes . When a g ene being e xamined is pr esent on the X , but not the Y , chr omosome , it is X-\nlinked.\nEye color in Drosophila , the c ommon fruit fl y, was the firs t X-link ed tr ait to be identified. Thomas Hunt Mor gan\nmapped this tr ait to the X chr omosome in 1910. Lik e humans ,Drosophila males ha ve an XY chr omosome pair , and\nfemales ar e XX . In flies the wild-type e ye color is r ed (XW) and is dominant t o whit e eye color ( Xw) (Figure 8.15 ).\nBecause o f the location o f the e ye-color g ene, recipr ocal cr osses do not pr oduc e the same o ffspring r atios . Males\nare said t o be hemizy gous, in that the y ha ve onl y one al lele f or an y X-link ed char acteristic. Hemizy gosity mak es\ndescrip tions o f dominanc e and r ecessivenes s irrelevant f or XY males .Drosophila males lack the whit e gene on the Y\nchromosome; that is , their g enotype can onl y be XWY or XwY. In c ontr ast, females ha ve tw o allele c opies o f this g ene\nand can be XWXW, XWXw, or XwXw.\nFIGURE 8.15 InDrosophila , the g ene f or eye color is locat ed on the X chr omosome . Red e ye color is wild-type and is dominant t o whit e eye\ncolor.\nIn an X -link ed cr oss, the g enotypes o f F1and F 2offspring depend on whether the r ecessive trait w as e xpressed b y\nthe male or the f emale in the P g ener ation. With r espect t oDrosophila eye color, when the P male e xpresses the\nwhit e-eye phenotype and the f emale is homo zygousl y red-e yed, al l members o f the F 1gener ation e xhibit r ed e yes\n(Figure 8.16 ). The F 1females ar e het erozygous ( XWXw), and the males ar e all XWY, having r eceived their X\nchromosome fr om the homo zygous dominant P f emale and their Y chr omosome fr om the P male . A subsequent\ncross betw een the XWXwfemale and the XWYmale w ould pr oduc e onl y red-e yed females (with XWXWor XWXw\ngenotypes) and both r ed- and whit e-eyed males (with XWY or XwY genotypes). No w, consider a cr oss betw een a\nhomo zygous whit e-eyed female and a male with r ed e yes. The F 1gener ation w ould e xhibit onl y het erozygous r ed-\neyed females ( XWXw) and onl y whit e-eyed males ( XwY).", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2975, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bd43ca29-7b53-46ad-9c2f-cccf37863802": {"__data__": {"id_": "bd43ca29-7b53-46ad-9c2f-cccf37863802", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "201", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "03a1c522-f69d-458e-a71e-6b689c2dec69", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "201", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8c78c17e3a609c70e36e466e62c0612fd141e520201f68212b1680c0ff967468", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "5183c520-b58a-4d9e-8d1d-3ac25ef7c354", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "201", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0481393764e8071a9c4c184be68a9220b8c89907b8ad79055880c8f747480d61", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "A subsequent\ncross betw een the XWXwfemale and the XWYmale w ould pr oduc e onl y red-e yed females (with XWXWor XWXw\ngenotypes) and both r ed- and whit e-eyed males (with XWY or XwY genotypes). No w, consider a cr oss betw een a\nhomo zygous whit e-eyed female and a male with r ed e yes. The F 1gener ation w ould e xhibit onl y het erozygous r ed-\neyed females ( XWXw) and onl y whit e-eyed males ( XwY). Half o f the F 2females w ould be r ed-e yed (XWXw) and half\nwould be whit e-eyed (XwXw). Similarl y, half o f the F 2males w ould be r ed-e yed (XWY) and half w ould be whit e-eyed\n(XwY).8.3 \u2022 Ext ensions o f the La ws of Inheritanc e 187", "start_char_idx": 2569, "end_char_idx": 3215, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "62c79eb7-b9c2-417a-9393-f21215324a16": {"__data__": {"id_": "62c79eb7-b9c2-417a-9393-f21215324a16", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "202", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c972787b-90a7-4468-a527-4e68268750db", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "202", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "63d612a82868e1dd03b142300a8029ecd99d11a1d501c72b89ed3d478fa3ec17", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 8.16 Crosses in volving se x-link ed tr aits o ften giv e rise t o diff erent phenotypes f or the diff erent se xes o f offspring , as is the case f or\nthis cr oss involving r ed and whit e eye color in Drosophila . In the diagr am, wis the whit e-eye mutant al lele and Wis the wild-type , red-e ye\nallele.\nWhat r atio o f offspring w ould r esul t from a cr oss betw een a whit e-eyed male and a f emale that is het erozygous f or\nred e ye color?\nDisc overies in fruit fl y genetics can be applied t o human g enetics . When a f emale par ent is homo zygous f or a\nrecessive X-link ed tr ait, the par ent wil l pas s the tr ait on t o 100 per cent o f the male o ffspring , because the males wil l\nreceive the Y chr omosome fr om the male par ent. In humans , the al leles f or certain c onditions (some c olor-\nblindnes s, hemophilia , and muscular dy strophy) ar e X-link ed. F emales who ar e het erozygous f or these diseases ar e\nsaid t o be carriers and ma y not e xhibit an y phenotypic eff ects . These f emales wil l pas s the disease t o half o f their\nmale o ffspring and wil l pas s carrier s tatus t o half o f their f emale o ffspring; ther efore, X-link ed tr aits appear mor e\nfrequentl y in males than f emales .\nIn some gr oups o f organisms with se x chr omosomes , the se x with the non-homolog ous se x chr omosomes is the\nfemale r ather than the male . This is the case f or al l birds. In this case , sex-link ed tr aits wil l be mor e lik ely to appear\nin the f emale , in whom the y are hemizy gous.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatchthis video (http://opens tax.org/l/se x-link ed_trts)to learn mor e about se x-link ed tr aits.\nLinked Genes Violat e the La w of Independent A ssortment\nAlthough al l of Mendel \u2019s pea plant char acteristics beha ved ac cording t o the la w of independent as sortment, w e no w\nknow that some al lele c ombinations ar e not inherit ed independentl y of each other . Genes that ar e locat ed on\nsepar ate, non-homolog ous chr omosomes wil l always sor t independentl y. Ho wever, each chr omosome c ontains\n188 8 \u2022 P atterns o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2153, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c16aeec3-e5ba-4a33-8ab4-1568b7822d6b": {"__data__": {"id_": "c16aeec3-e5ba-4a33-8ab4-1568b7822d6b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "203", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6820fd03-40d9-49b9-a17c-b784dcc15926", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "203", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cb8fc5fb453d28a7f9dd9b791c1555f04ddbb27179ebb4c51a2e99e96b86f427", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "f7ab2304-5a7f-436b-8a2f-d8cc372e0f82", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "30b59c75d21aa8b09be4bbaf8cc8a8a2536f1af8030d8aa41a78e964b236aa14", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "hundr eds or thousands o f genes , organiz ed linearl y on chr omosomes lik e beads on a s tring . The segr egation o f\nalleles int o gamet es can be influenc ed b ylinkag e, in which g enes that ar e locat ed ph ysical ly close t o each other on\nthe same chr omosome ar e mor e lik ely to be inherit ed as a pair . Ho wever, because o f the pr ocess of recombination,\nor \u201ccrossover,\u201d it is pos sible f or tw o genes on the same chr omosome t o beha ve independentl y, or as if the y are not\nlinked. T o unders tand this , let us c onsider the biological basis o f gene link age and r ecombination.\nHomolog ous chr omosomes pos sess the same g enes in the same or der, though the specific al leles o f the g ene can\nbe diff erent on each o f the tw o chr omosomes . Recal l that during int erphase and pr ophase I o f meiosis , homolog ous\nchromosomes firs t replicat e and then s ynapse , with lik e genes on the homologs aligning with each other . At this\nstage, segments o f homolog ous chr omosomes e xchang e linear segments o f genetic mat erial ( Figure 8.17 ). This\nprocess is cal ledrecombina tion , or cr ossover, and it is a c ommon g enetic pr ocess. Because the g enes ar e aligned\nduring r ecombination, the g ene or der is not al tered. Ins tead, the r esul t of recombination is that mat ernal and\npaternal al leles ar e combined ont o the same chr omosome . Acr oss a giv en chr omosome , several recombination\nevents ma y oc cur, causing e xtensiv e shuffling o f alleles .\nFIGURE 8.17 The pr ocess of crossover, or r ecombination, oc curs when tw o homolog ous chr omosomes align and e xchang e a segment o f\ngenetic mat erial .\nWhen tw o genes ar e locat ed on the same chr omosome , the y are consider ed link ed, and their al leles t end t o be\ntransmit ted thr ough meiosis t ogether . To exemplif y this , imagine a dih ybrid cr oss involving flo wer color and plant\nheight in which the g enes ar e ne xt to each other on the chr omosome . If one homolog ous chr omosome has al leles\nfor tal l plants and r ed flo wers, and the other chr omosome has g enes f or shor t plants and y ellow flo wers, then when\nthe g amet es ar e formed, the tal l and r ed al leles wil l tend t o go together int o a g amet e and the shor t and y ellow\nalleles wil l go int o other g amet es. These ar e cal led the par ental g enotypes because the y ha ve been inherit ed intact\nfrom the par ents o f the individual pr oducing g amet es. But unlik e if the g enes w ere on diff erent chr omosomes , ther e\nwill be no g amet es with tal l and y ellow al leles and no g amet es with shor t and r ed al leles . If y ou cr eate a Punnet t\nsquar e with these g amet es, you wil l see that the clas sical Mendelian pr ediction o f a 9:3:3:1 out come o f a dih ybrid\ncross would not appl y. As the dis tanc e betw een tw o genes incr eases , the pr obability o f one or mor e crossovers\nbetw een them incr eases and the g enes beha ve mor e lik e the y are on separ ate chr omosomes . Geneticis ts ha ve used\nthe pr opor tion o f recombinant g amet es (the ones not lik e the par ents) as a measur e of how far apar t genes ar e on a\nchromosome . Using this inf ormation, the y ha ve construct ed link age maps o f genes on chr omosomes f or w ell-\nstudied or ganisms , including humans .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3287, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f7ab2304-5a7f-436b-8a2f-d8cc372e0f82": {"__data__": {"id_": "f7ab2304-5a7f-436b-8a2f-d8cc372e0f82", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "203", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6820fd03-40d9-49b9-a17c-b784dcc15926", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "203", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cb8fc5fb453d28a7f9dd9b791c1555f04ddbb27179ebb4c51a2e99e96b86f427", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "c16aeec3-e5ba-4a33-8ab4-1568b7822d6b", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "203", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8f93a0e39acfe98b2842940a07d299ec55a3372d5150e0bd4e97f0be089eeb58", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Geneticis ts ha ve used\nthe pr opor tion o f recombinant g amet es (the ones not lik e the par ents) as a measur e of how far apar t genes ar e on a\nchromosome . Using this inf ormation, the y ha ve construct ed link age maps o f genes on chr omosomes f or w ell-\nstudied or ganisms , including humans .\nMendel \u2019s seminal publication mak es no mention o f link age, and man y resear chers ha ve ques tioned whether he\nencount ered link age but chose not t o publish those cr osses out o f concern that the y would in validat e his\nindependent as sortment pos tulat e. The g arden pea has se ven pairs o f chr omosomes , and some ha ve sug gested that\nhis choic e of seven char acteristics w as not a c oincidenc e. Ho wever, even if the g enes he e xamined w ere not locat ed\non separ ate chr omosomes , it is pos sible that he simpl y did not obser ve link age because o f the e xtensiv e shuffling\neffects o f recombination.8.3 \u2022 Ext ensions o f the La ws of Inheritanc e 189", "start_char_idx": 2984, "end_char_idx": 3961, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "adf30b87-7ab1-4d5e-b970-e5045786bb66": {"__data__": {"id_": "adf30b87-7ab1-4d5e-b970-e5045786bb66", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "204", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a33e521e-d3b2-470d-8af8-5ca982c33b3e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "204", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "554a7d0870ff4f9820d4edf176fe9ea5c6d477df0e9c81aaa516f83a46d859e6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Epistasis\nMendel \u2019s studies in pea plants implied that the sum o f an individual \u2019s phenotype w as contr olled b y genes (or as he\ncalled them, unit fact ors), such that e very char acteristic w as dis tinctl y and c omplet ely contr olled b y a single g ene.\nIn fact, single obser vable char acteristics ar e almos t always under the influenc e of mul tiple g enes (each with tw o or\nmor e alleles) acting in unison. F or example , at leas t eight g enes c ontribut e to eye color in humans .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nEye color in humans is det ermined b y mul tiple al leles . Use the Eye Color Calculat or(http://opens tax.org/l/\neye_color_calc) to predict the e ye color o f childr en fr om par ental e ye color.\nIn some cases , several genes can c ontribut e to aspects o f a c ommon phenotype without their g ene pr oducts e ver\ndirectly int eracting . In the case o f organ de velopment, f or ins tanc e, genes ma y be e xpressed sequential ly, with each\ngene adding t o the c omple xity and specificity o f the or gan. Genes ma y function in c omplementar y or s yner gistic\nfashions , such that tw o or mor e genes e xpressed simul taneousl y aff ect a phenotype . An appar ent e xample o f this\noccurs with human skin c olor, which appears t o involve the action o f at leas t thr ee (and pr obabl y mor e) genes . Cases\nin which inheritanc e for a char acteristic lik e skin c olor or human height depend on the c ombined eff ects o f\nnumer ous g enes ar e cal led pol ygenic inheritanc e.\nGenes ma y also oppose each other , with one g ene suppr essing the e xpression o f another . Inepis tasis , the\ninteraction betw een g enes is antag onis tic, such that one g ene mask s or int erferes with the e xpression o f another .\n\u201cEpis tasis\u201d is a w ord composed o f Greek r oots meaning \u201c standing upon. \u201d The al leles that ar e being mask ed or\nsilenc ed ar e said t o be h ypos tatic t o the epis tatic al leles that ar e doing the masking . Oft en the biochemical basis o f\nepis tasis is a g ene path way in which e xpression o f one g ene is dependent on the function o f a g ene that pr ecedes or\nfollows it in the path way.\nAn e xample o f epis tasis is pigmentation in mic e. The wild-type c oat c olor, agouti (A A) is dominant t o solid-c olored\nfur (aa). Ho wever, a separ ate gene C, when pr esent as the r ecessive homo zygote (cc), neg ates an y expression o f\npigment fr om the A g ene and r esul ts in an albino mouse ( Figure 8.18 ). Ther efore, the g enotypes AAcc,Aacc, and\naaccall produc e the same albino phenotype . A cr oss betw een het erozygotes for both g enes ( AaCc xAaCc) would\ngener ate offspring with a phenotypic r atio o f 9 ag outi:3 black:4 albino ( Figure 8.18 ). In this case , the Cgene is\nepis tatic t o the Agene.\n190 8 \u2022 P atterns o f Inheritanc e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2824, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "970b6aac-1a22-478f-8ec9-606a02028075": {"__data__": {"id_": "970b6aac-1a22-478f-8ec9-606a02028075", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "205", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0c3b18ba-a2f9-4094-b4aa-80b5156ae2d9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "205", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e55f5e7ac912b1115178e08bb36fc86adc61052089d5a2fef68643118594b859", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 8.18 In this e xample o f epis tasis , one g ene ( C) mask s the e xpression o f another ( A) for coat c olor. When the Callele is pr esent,\ncoat c olor is e xpressed; when it is absent ( cc), no c oat c olor is e xpressed. Coat c olor depends on the Agene, which sho ws dominanc e, with\nthe r ecessive homo zygote sho wing a diff erent phenotype than the het erozygote or dominant homo zygote.8.3 \u2022 Ext ensions o f the La ws of Inheritanc e 191", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 452, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3ffebe5e-c6fe-4522-aa95-713e20939083": {"__data__": {"id_": "3ffebe5e-c6fe-4522-aa95-713e20939083", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "206", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c4f1c097-f14a-4769-83fa-bbbcfecd54e1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "206", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "957e9b209ee8dea6149772405f0e7632f87ed6d71f36baa62e41b86ed9bea7b1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "55d1525b-79e2-495f-af5f-193c7c8a7258", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "365b34b89b835f105eaedaa1139028917d08fd6fd7f033f7b5ac8bc591189560", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nallele one o f two or mor e variants o f a g ene that\ndetermines a par ticular tr ait for a char acteristic\ncodominanc ein a het erozygote, complet e and\nsimul taneous e xpression o f both al leles f or the\nsame char acteristic\ncontinuous v aria tion a variation in a char acteristic in\nwhich individuals sho w a r ange of traits with smal l\ndifferences betw een them\ndihybrid the r esul t of a cr oss betw een tw o true -\nbreeding par ents that e xpress diff erent tr aits f or tw o\nchar acteristics\ndisc ontinuous v aria tion a variation in a char acteristic\nin which individuals sho w tw o, or a f ew, traits with\nlarge diff erences betw een them\ndominant describes a tr ait that mask s the e xpression\nof another tr ait when both v ersions o f the g ene ar e\npresent in an individual\nepis tasis an int eraction betw een g enes such that one\ngene mask s or int erferes with the e xpression o f\nanother\nF1the firs t filial g ener ation in a cr oss; the o ffspring o f\nthe par ental g ener ation\nF2the sec ond filial g ener ation pr oduc ed when F 1\nindividuals ar e self-cr ossed or f ertilized with each\nother\ngenotype the underl ying g enetic mak eup, consis ting\nof both ph ysical ly visible and non-e xpressed al leles ,\nof an or ganism\nhemizy gous the pr esenc e of onl y one al lele f or a\nchar acteristic, as in X -link age; hemizy gosity mak es\ndescrip tions o f dominanc e and r ecessivenes s\nirrelevant\nheterozygous having tw o diff erent al leles f or a giv en\ngene on the homolog ous chr omosomes\nhomo zygous having tw o identical al leles f or a giv en\ngene on the homolog ous chr omosomes\nhybridiza tion the pr ocess of mating tw o individuals\nthat diff er, with the g oal o f achie ving a c ertain\nchar acteristic in their o ffspring\nincomplet e dominanc ein a het erozygote, expression\nof two contr asting al leles such that the individual\ndispla ys an int ermediat e phenotype\nlaw of dominanc ein a het erozygote, one tr ait wil l\nconceal the pr esenc e of another tr ait for the same\nchar acteristic\nlaw of independent as sortment genes do not\ninfluenc e each other with r egard to sor ting o f allelesinto gamet es; e very pos sible c ombination o f alleles\nis equal ly likely to oc cur\nlaw of segr egation paired unit fact ors (i. e. genes)\nsegr egate equal ly int o gamet es such that o ffspring\nhave an equal lik elihood o f inheriting an y\ncombination o f fact ors\nlinkag ea phenomenon in which al leles that ar e\nlocat ed in close pr oximity t o each other on the same\nchromosome ar e mor e lik ely to be inherit ed\ntogether\nmodel s ystem a species or biological s ystem used t o\nstudy a specific biological phenomenon t o gain\nunders tanding that wil l be applied t o other species\nmonoh ybrid the r esul t of a cr oss betw een tw o true -\nbreeding par ents that e xpress diff erent tr aits f or\nonly one char acteristic\nparental g ener ation (P) the firs t gener ation in a cr oss\npheno type the obser vable tr aits e xpressed b y an\norganism\nPunnet t squar ea visual r epresentation o f a cr oss\nbetw een tw o individuals in which the g amet es o f\neach individual ar e denot ed along the t op and side\nof a grid, r espectiv ely,", "start_char_idx": null, "end_char_idx": null, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "55d1525b-79e2-495f-af5f-193c7c8a7258": {"__data__": {"id_": "55d1525b-79e2-495f-af5f-193c7c8a7258", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "206", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c4f1c097-f14a-4769-83fa-bbbcfecd54e1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "206", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "957e9b209ee8dea6149772405f0e7632f87ed6d71f36baa62e41b86ed9bea7b1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "3ffebe5e-c6fe-4522-aa95-713e20939083", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "206", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "293e6e2f2ccd77cb2d0e9c585b68f27e62dd05c1fd81b354d55bbb5cf853a05f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "r espectiv ely, and the pos sible zy gotic\ngenotypes ar e recombined at each bo x in the grid\nrecessivedescribes a tr ait whose e xpression is\nmask ed b y another tr ait when the al leles f or both\ntraits ar e present in an individual\nrecipr ocal cr ossa pair ed cr oss in which the\nrespectiv e traits o f the male and f emale in one cr oss\nbecome the r espectiv e traits o f the f emale and male\nin the other cr oss\nrecombina tion the pr ocess during meiosis in which\nhomolog ous chr omosomes e xchang e linear\nsegments o f genetic mat erial , ther eby dramatical ly\nincreasing g enetic v ariation in the o ffspring and\nsepar ating link ed g enes\ntest crossa cross betw een a dominant e xpressing\nindividual with an unkno wn g enotype and a\nhomo zygous r ecessive individual; the o ffspring\nphenotypes indicat e whether the unkno wn par ent is\nheterozygous or homo zygous f or the dominant tr ait\ntrait a variation in an inherit ed char acteristic\nwild type the mos t commonl y oc curring g enotype or\nphenotype f or a giv en char acteristic found in a\npopulation\nX-link ed a gene pr esent on the X chr omosome , but\nnot the Y chr omosome\nChap ter Summar y\n8.1Mendel\u2019 s Experiments\nWorking with g arden pea plants , Mendel f ound thatcrosses betw een par ents that diff ered for one tr ait\nproduc ed F 1offspring that al l expressed one par ent\u2019s\ntraits. The tr aits that w ere visible in the F 1gener ation192 8 \u2022 K ey Terms\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 3154, "end_char_idx": 4614, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "529a90df-00d4-40e6-b402-4adfc3cc1f03": {"__data__": {"id_": "529a90df-00d4-40e6-b402-4adfc3cc1f03", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "207", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "66b49e21-2ac0-4c9f-bdd4-8c1e0fd1fa11", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "207", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ec0af86bf88616f6994f67d09988bba8a22b8c3723849ac9445eb0747dcd1e00", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "10eec0a7-51e1-486f-a6ab-ef033da3a023", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "7a630c319b59d8a94e1beda1f50ac7242b0bc0074cf9abdfc4cc2f3c95db0259", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "are referred to as dominant, and tr aits that disappear in\nthe F 1gener ation ar e described as r ecessive. When the\nF1plants in Mendel \u2019s experiment w ere self-cr ossed,\nthe F 2offspring e xhibit ed the dominant tr ait or the\nrecessive trait in a 3:1 r atio, confirming that the\nrecessive trait had been tr ansmit ted faithful ly from the\noriginal P par ent. R ecipr ocal cr osses g ener ated\nidentical F 1and F 2offspring r atios . By examining\nsample siz es, Mendel sho wed that tr aits w ere inherit ed\nas independent e vents .\n8.2Laws of Inheritanc e\nWhen true -breeding , or homo zygous, individuals that\ndiffer for a c ertain tr ait ar e crossed, al l of the o ffspring\nwill be het erozygous f or that tr ait. If the tr aits ar e\ninherit ed as dominant and r ecessive, the F 1offspring\nwill all exhibit the same phenotype as the par ent\nhomo zygous f or the dominant tr ait. If these\nheterozygous o ffspring ar e self-cr ossed, the r esul ting\nF2offspring wil l be equal ly likely to inherit g amet es\ncarr ying the dominant or r ecessive trait, giving rise t o\noffspring o f which one quar ter ar e homo zygous\ndominant, half ar e het erozygous, and one quar ter ar e\nhomo zygous r ecessive. Because homo zygous dominant\nand het erozygous individuals ar e phenotypical ly\nidentical , the obser ved tr aits in the F 2offspring wil l\nexhibit a r atio o f thr ee dominant t o one r ecessive.\nMendel pos tulat ed that g enes (char acteristics) ar e\ninherit ed as pairs o f alleles (tr aits) that beha ve in a\ndominant and r ecessive pat tern. Al leles segr egate int o\ngamet es such that each g amet e is equal ly likely to\nreceive either one o f the tw o alleles pr esent in a diploid\nindividual . In addition, g enes ar e as sorted int o\ngamet es independentl y of one another . That is , in\ngener al, alleles ar e not mor e lik ely to segr egate int o a\ngamet e with a par ticular al lele o f another g ene.\n8.3Extensions o f the La ws of Inheritanc e\nAlleles do not al ways beha ve in dominant and\nrecessive pat terns . Inc omplet e dominanc e describessituations in which the het erozygote exhibits a\nphenotype that is int ermediat e betw een the\nhomo zygous phenotypes . Codominanc e describes the\nsimul taneous e xpression o f both o f the al leles in the\nheterozygote. Although diploid or ganisms can onl y\nhave tw o alleles f or an y giv en g ene, it is c ommon f or\nmor e than tw o alleles f or a g ene t o exist in a\npopulation. In humans , as in man y animals and some\nplants , females ha ve tw o X chr omosomes and males\nhave one X and one Y chr omosome . Genes that ar e\npresent on the X but not the Y chr omosome ar e said t o\nbe X -link ed, such that males onl y inherit one al lele f or\nthe g ene, and f emales inherit tw o.\nAccording t o Mendel \u2019s law of independent as sortment,\ngenes sor t independentl y of each other int o gamet es\nduring meiosis . This oc curs because chr omosomes , on\nwhich the g enes r eside , assort independentl y during\nmeiosis and cr ossovers cause mos t genes on the same\nchromosomes t o also beha ve independentl y. When\ngenes ar e locat ed in close pr oximity on the same\nchromosome , their al leles t end t o be inherit ed\ntogether .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3188, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "10eec0a7-51e1-486f-a6ab-ef033da3a023": {"__data__": {"id_": "10eec0a7-51e1-486f-a6ab-ef033da3a023", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "207", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "66b49e21-2ac0-4c9f-bdd4-8c1e0fd1fa11", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "207", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ec0af86bf88616f6994f67d09988bba8a22b8c3723849ac9445eb0747dcd1e00", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "529a90df-00d4-40e6-b402-4adfc3cc1f03", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "207", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "234f6f25fd2406626553239cbf09bbadbe79502673c069695ecd4cbea4951c2d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Genes that ar e\npresent on the X but not the Y chr omosome ar e said t o\nbe X -link ed, such that males onl y inherit one al lele f or\nthe g ene, and f emales inherit tw o.\nAccording t o Mendel \u2019s law of independent as sortment,\ngenes sor t independentl y of each other int o gamet es\nduring meiosis . This oc curs because chr omosomes , on\nwhich the g enes r eside , assort independentl y during\nmeiosis and cr ossovers cause mos t genes on the same\nchromosomes t o also beha ve independentl y. When\ngenes ar e locat ed in close pr oximity on the same\nchromosome , their al leles t end t o be inherit ed\ntogether . This r esul ts in o ffspring r atios that violat e\nMendel's la w of independent as sortment. Ho wever,\nrecombination ser ves to exchang e genetic mat erial on\nhomolog ous chr omosomes such that mat ernal and\npaternal al leles ma y be r ecombined on the same\nchromosome . This is wh y alleles on a giv en\nchromosome ar e not al ways inherit ed together .\nRecombination is a r andom e vent oc curring an ywher e\non a chr omosome . Ther efore, genes that ar e far apar t\non the same chr omosome ar e lik ely to still assort\nindependentl y because o f recombination e vents that\noccurr ed in the int ervening chr omosomal spac e.\nWhether or not the y are sor ting independentl y, genes\nmay int eract at the le vel of gene pr oducts , such that\nthe e xpression o f an al lele f or one g ene mask s or\nmodifies the e xpression o f an al lele f or a diff erent\ngene. This is cal led epis tasis .\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 8.9 In pea plants , round peas ( R) are\ndominant t o wrinkled peas ( r). You do a t est cross\nbetw een a pea plant with wrinkled peas ( genotype\nrr) and a plant o f unkno wn g enotype that has r ound\npeas . You end up with thr ee plants , all which ha ve\nround peas . From this data , can y ou tell if the\nparent plant is homo zygous dominant or\nheterozygous?2.Figure 8.10 In pea plants , round seed shape ( R) is\ndominant t o wrinkled seed shape ( r) and y ellow\npeas ( Y) are dominant t o green peas ( y). What ar e\nthe pos sible g enotypes and phenotypes f or a cr oss\nbetw een RrYYand rrYypea plants? Ho w man y\nsquar es do y ou need t o do a Punnet t squar e\nanal ysis o f this cr oss?\n3.Figure 8.16 What r atio o f offspring w ould r esul t\nfrom a cr oss betw een a whit e-eyed male and a\nfemale that is het erozygous f or red e ye color?8 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions 193", "start_char_idx": 2573, "end_char_idx": 5000, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a7e283db-9f5d-4a9c-b0f4-966d671a3187": {"__data__": {"id_": "a7e283db-9f5d-4a9c-b0f4-966d671a3187", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "208", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "284b778f-e93e-4413-bbac-93086afc69f7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "208", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e7f99a5e26f9624414e69a8dfb89b4f50554a488caaea38a3db0ab110e302028", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Review Ques tions\n4.Imagine that y ou ar e per forming a cr oss involving\nseed c olor in g arden pea plants . What tr aits w ould\nyou e xpect t o obser ve in the F 1offspring if y ou\ncross true -breeding par ents with gr een seeds and\nyellow seeds? Y ellow seed c olor is dominant o ver\ngreen.\na.only yellow-green seeds\nb.only yellow seeds\nc.1:1 y ellow seeds:gr een seeds\nd.1:3 gr een seeds:y ellow seeds\n5.Imagine that y ou ar e per forming a cr oss involving\nseed t extur e in g arden pea plants . You cr oss true -\nbreeding r ound and wrinkled par ents t o ob tain F 1\noffspring . Which o f the f ollowing e xperimental\nresul ts in t erms o f numbers o f plants ar e closes t to\nwhat y ou e xpect in the F 2progeny?\na.810 r ound seeds\nb.810 wrinkled seeds\nc.405:395 r ound seeds:wrinkled seeds\nd.610:190 r ound seeds:wrinkled seeds\n6.The obser vable tr aits e xpressed b y an or ganism ar e\ndescribed as its ________.\na.phenotype\nb.genotype\nc.alleles\nd.zygote\n7.A recessive trait wil l be obser ved in individuals that\nare ________ f or that tr ait.\na.heterozygous\nb.homo zygous or het erozygous\nc.homo zygous\nd.diploid\n8.What ar e the types o f gamet es that can be\nproduc ed b y an individual with the g enotype AaBb?\na.Aa,Bb\nb.AA,aa,BB,bb\nc.AB,Ab,aB,ab\nd.AB,ab9.What is the r eason f or doing a t est cross?\na.to identif y het erozygous individuals with the\ndominant phenotype\nb.to det ermine which al lele is dominant and\nwhich is r ecessive\nc.to identif y homo zygous r ecessive individuals in\nthe F 2\nd.to det ermine if tw o genes as sort independentl y\n10.If black and whit e true -breeding mic e are mat ed\nand the r esul t is al l gray offspring , what\ninheritanc e pat tern w ould this be indicativ e of?\na.dominanc e\nb.codominanc e\nc.multiple al leles\nd.incomplet e dominanc e\n11.The ABO blood gr oups in humans ar e expressed\nas the IA,IB, and ialleles . The IAallele enc odes\nthe A blood gr oup antig en,IBencodes B , and i\nencodes O . Both A and B ar e dominant t o O. If a\nheterozygous blood type A par ent ( IAi) and a\nheterozygous blood type B par ent ( IBi) mat e, one\nquar ter of their o ffspring ar e expect ed to ha ve the\nAB blood type ( IAIB) in which both antig ens ar e\nexpressed equal ly. Ther efore, ABO blood gr oups\nare an e xample o f:\na.multiple al leles and inc omplet e dominanc e\nb.codominanc e and inc omplet e dominanc e\nc.incomplet e dominanc e onl y\nd.multiple al leles and c odominanc e\n12.In a cr oss betw een a homo zygous r ed-e yed\nfemale fruit fl y and a whit e-eyed male fruit fl y,\nwhat is the e xpect ed out come?\na.all whit e-eyed male o ffspring\nb.all whit e-eyed female o ffspring\nc.all red-e yed o ffspring\nd.half whit e-eyed mak e offspring\n13.When a population has a g ene with f our al leles\ncirculating , how man y pos sible g enotypes ar e\nther e?\na.3\nb.6\nc.10\nd.16194 8 \u2022 R eview Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2885, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "46cd5ce4-c658-4dbc-abd8-048b54d39aa2": {"__data__": {"id_": "46cd5ce4-c658-4dbc-abd8-048b54d39aa2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "209", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "02959fc6-d39a-4d36-bcff-28fbb8e1ed16", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "209", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "891e00338d5651b4161bf1d720b19b42c74fd0647278db03a9a098a35454fe1c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Critic al Thinking Ques tions\n14.Describe one o f the r easons that made the g arden\npea an e xcellent choic e of model s ystem f or\nstudying inheritanc e.\n15.Use a Punnet t squar e to predict the o ffspring in a\ncross betw een a dw arf pea plant (homo zygous\nrecessive) and a tal l pea plant (het erozygous).\nWhat is the phenotypic r atio o f the o ffspring?16.Use a Punnet t squar e to predict the o ffspring in a\ncross betw een a tal l pea plant (het erozygous) and\na tal l pea plant (het erozygous). What is the\ngenotypic r atio o f the o ffspring?\n17.Can a male be a carrier o f red-gr een c olor\nblindnes s?\n18.Could an individual with blood type O ( genotype ii)\nbe a legitimat e child o f par ents in which one\nparent had blood type A and the other par ent had\nblood type B?8 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions 195", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 819, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "09630d19-4a45-4da9-b91a-c711880d3de6": {"__data__": {"id_": "09630d19-4a45-4da9-b91a-c711880d3de6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "210", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f19741ae-a6bf-41d2-97ed-68ac1f817a8c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "210", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "16557aaac3d382dea0067157a9df29bde97cdeff9e8b18285afc54b187e4d6dd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "196 8 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 71, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c8b79156-9c62-4d51-8951-f31a050c69e2": {"__data__": {"id_": "c8b79156-9c62-4d51-8951-f31a050c69e2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "211", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1214b6ac-67f1-4409-bdc6-4f596e832fba", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "211", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c6cecdfb8c93074c324fa3768f222eb202b8ab7532fc32af266741c436210ff3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 9\nMolecular Biolog y\n9.1The S tructur e of DNA\n9.2DNA R eplica tion\n9.3Transcrip tion\n9.4Transla tion\n9.5How Genes Ar e Regulated\nThe thr ee let ters \u201cDNA \u201d ha ve no w bec ome as sociat ed with crime sol ving ,\npaternity t esting, human identification, and g enetic t esting. DNA can be r etrie ved fr om hair , blood,\nor saliv a. With the e xception o f identical twins , each person \u2019s DNA is unique and it is pos sible t o\ndetect diff erences betw een human beings on the basis o f their unique DNA sequenc e.\nDNA anal ysis has man y practical applications be yond f orensics and pat ernity t esting. DNA t esting\nis used f or tr acing g enealog y and identif ying pathog ens. In the medical field, DNA is used in\ndiagnos tics, new vaccine de velopment, and canc er ther apy. It is no w pos sible t o det ermine\npredisposition t o man y diseases b y anal yzing g enes .\nDNA is the g enetic mat erial pas sed fr om par ent t o offspring f or al l life on Ear th. The t echnolog y of\nmolecular g enetics de veloped in the las t half c entur y has enabled us t o see deep int o the his tory\nof life to deduc e the r elationships betw een living things in w ays ne ver thought pos sible . It also\nallows us t o unders tand the w orkings o f evolution in populations o f organisms . Over a thousand\nspecies ha ve had their entir e genome sequenc ed, and ther e ha ve been thousands o f individual\nhuman g enome sequenc es complet ed. These sequenc es wil l allow us t o unders tand human\ndisease and the r elationship o f humans t o the r est of the tr ee o f life. Final ly, molecular g eneticsFIGURE 9.1Dolly the sheep w as the firs t cloned mammal .\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1690, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "648df6c2-a706-4538-97cc-4818e559efc3": {"__data__": {"id_": "648df6c2-a706-4538-97cc-4818e559efc3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "212", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6d0adbb3-4139-4856-ae55-2f9337ef9ad0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "212", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cb77e5bf7506b21eb86e5c558167d68a82fe4885d111a82093a2e50b5c3213a1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "techniques ha ve revolutioniz ed plant and animal br eeding f or human agricul tural needs . All of\nthese adv ances in biot echnolog y depended on basic r esear ch leading t o the disc overy of the\nstructur e of DNA in 1953, and the r esear ch sinc e then that has unc overed the details o f DNA\nreplication and the c omple x process leading t o the e xpression o f DNA in the f orm o f proteins in the\ncell.\n9.1The S tructure of DNA\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the s tructur e of DNA\n\u2022Describe ho w euk aryotic and pr okaryotic DNA is arr anged in the c ell\nIn the 1950s , Francis Crick and James W atson w orked together at the Univ ersity o f Cambridg e,\nEngland, t o det ermine the s tructur e of DNA . Other scientis ts, such as Linus P auling and Mauric e\nWilkins , were also activ ely exploring this field. P auling had disc overed the sec ondar y structur e of\nproteins using X -ray crystallography. X-ray crystallography is a method f or in vestigating molecular\nstructur e by obser ving the pat terns f ormed b y X-rays shot thr ough a cr ystal o f the subs tanc e. The\npatterns giv e impor tant inf ormation about the s tructur e of the molecule o f interest. In Wilkins\u2019 lab ,\nresear cher R osalind F ranklin w as using X -ray crystallography to unders tand the s tructur e of DNA .\nWatson and Crick w ere able t o piec e together the puzzle o f the DNA molecule using F ranklin 's\ndata ( Figure 9.2 ). Watson and Crick also had k ey piec es o f information a vailable fr om other\nresear chers such as Char gaff\u2019s rules . Char gaff had sho wn that o f the f our kinds o f monomers\n(nucleotides) pr esent in a DNA molecule , two types w ere always present in equal amounts and the\nremaining tw o types w ere also al ways present in equal amounts . This meant the y were always\npaired in some w ay. In 1962, James W atson, F rancis Crick, and Mauric e Wilkins w ere awarded the\nNobel P rize in Medicine f or their w ork in det ermining the s tructur e of DNA .198 9 \u2022 Molecular Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2086, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a410665b-e364-4e45-ac72-9b7c709413fb": {"__data__": {"id_": "a410665b-e364-4e45-ac72-9b7c709413fb", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "213", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "905828d1-030e-4ca2-8888-7eeb4e377097", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "213", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "79ffcb4a4326b1ebf3c558650f595332fb7c84376fa8da5990bc0b78ab39b601", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 9.2Scientis t Rosalind F ranklin disc overed the X -ray diffr action pat tern o f DNA , which helped t o elucidat e its double helix s tructur e.\n(credit: modification o f work b y NIH)\nNow let \u2019s consider the s tructur e of the tw o types o f nucleic acids , deo xyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid\n(RNA). The building block s of DNA ar e nucleotides , which ar e made up o f thr ee par ts: a deoxyribose (5-carbon\nsugar), a phospha te group, and a nitrogenous base (Figure 9.3 ). Ther e are four types o f nitr ogenous bases in DNA .\nAdenine (A) and g uanine (G) ar e double -ring ed purines , and cyt osine (C) and th ymine ( T) are smal ler, single -ring ed\npyrimidines . The nucleotide is named ac cording t o the nitr ogenous base it c ontains .\n9.1 \u2022 The S tructure of DNA 199", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 800, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6d2b3e46-3b17-4b98-a312-cf5bb8514a7f": {"__data__": {"id_": "6d2b3e46-3b17-4b98-a312-cf5bb8514a7f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "214", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "20677ec8-fd0d-48fc-b0ce-624a2b53c3c1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "214", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "58ecd46fa955d175f563e91dd59ee4fbd1224862ab127f716d1c16b3b535de1d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 9.3(a) Each DNA nucleotide is made up o f a sug ar, a phosphat e group, and a base . (b) Cyt osine and th ymine ar e pyrimidines .\nGuanine and adenine ar e purines .\nThe phosphat e group o f one nucleotide bonds c ovalentl y with the sug ar molecule o f the ne xt nucleotide , and so on,\nforming a long pol ymer o f nucleotide monomers . The sug ar\u2013phosphat e groups line up in a \u201cbackbone \u201d for each\nsingle s trand o f DNA , and the nucleotide bases s tick out fr om this backbone . The carbon at oms o f the fiv e-carbon\nsugar ar e number ed clockwise fr om the o xygen as 1' , 2', 3', 4', and 5' (1' is r ead as \u201c one prime \u201d). The phosphat e\ngroup is at tached t o the 5' carbon o f one nucleotide and the 3' carbon o f the ne xt nucleotide . In its natur al state,\neach DNA molecule is actual ly composed o f two single s trands held t ogether along their length with h ydrogen bonds\nbetw een the bases .\nWatson and Crick pr oposed that the DNA is made up o f two strands that ar e twis ted ar ound each other t o form a\nright -handed helix, cal led a double helix . Base -pairing tak es plac e betw een a purine and p yrimidine: namel y, A\npairs with T , and G pairs with C. In other w ords, adenine and th ymine ar e complementar y base pairs , and cyt osine\nand g uanine ar e also c omplementar y base pairs . This is the basis f or Char gaff\u2019s rule; because o f their\ncomplementarity , ther e is as much adenine as th ymine in a DNA molecule and as much g uanine as cyt osine .\nAdenine and th ymine ar e connect ed b y tw o hydrogen bonds , and cyt osine and g uanine ar e connect ed b y thr ee\nhydrogen bonds . The tw o strands ar e anti-par allel in natur e; that is , one s trand wil l have the 3' carbon o f the sug ar in\nthe \u201cup ward\u201d position, wher eas the other s trand wil l have the 5' carbon in the up ward position. The diamet er of the\nDNA double helix is unif orm thr oughout because a purine (tw o rings) al ways pairs with a p yrimidine (one ring ) and\ntheir c ombined lengths ar e always equal . (Figure 9.4 ).\nFIGURE 9.4DNA (a) f orms a double s tranded helix, and (b) adenine pairs with th ymine and cyt osine pairs with g uanine . (credit a:\nmodification o f work b y Jer ome W alker, Dennis Myts)\nThe S tructure of RNA\nTher e is a sec ond nucleic acid in al l cells cal led ribonucleic acid, or RNA . Like DNA , RNA is a pol ymer o f nucleotides .\nEach o f the nucleotides in RNA is made up o f a nitr ogenous base , a fiv e-carbon sug ar, and a phosphat e group. In the\ncase o f RNA , the fiv e-carbon sug ar is ribose , not deo xyribose . Ribose has a h ydroxyl gr oup at the 2' carbon, unlik e200 9 \u2022 Molecular Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2691, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "69e3fec2-5592-4a41-a024-9a79133826f6": {"__data__": {"id_": "69e3fec2-5592-4a41-a024-9a79133826f6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "215", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6334443d-85f5-4cf0-9bcd-535cb8e98757", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "215", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9f823c54c80201a6c8eb31a3db0b07962d5701828bc1bb458986f4e7d1daa246", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "deoxyribose , which has onl y a h ydrogen at om ( Figure 9.5 ).\nFIGURE 9.5The diff erence betw een the ribose f ound in RNA and the deo xyribose f ound in DNA is that ribose has a h ydroxyl gr oup at the 2'\ncarbon.\nRNA nucleotides c ontain the nitr ogenous bases adenine , cyt osine , and g uanine . Ho wever, the y do not c ontain\nthymine , which is ins tead r eplac ed b y uracil, symboliz ed b y a \u201cU .\u201d RNA e xists as a single -stranded molecule r ather\nthan a double -stranded helix. Molecular biologis ts ha ve named se veral kinds o f RNA on the basis o f their function.\nThese include mes seng er RNA (mRNA), tr ansfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)\u2014molecules that ar e\ninvolved in the pr oduction o f proteins fr om the DNA c ode.\nHow DNA Is Arr anged in the C ell\nDNA is a w orking molecule; it mus t be r eplicat ed when a c ell is r eady t o divide , and it mus t be \u201c read\u201d t o produc e the\nmolecules , such as pr oteins , to carr y out the functions o f the c ell. For this r eason, the DNA is pr otected and\npack aged in v ery specific w ays. In addition, DNA molecules can be v ery long . Str etched end-t o-end, the DNA\nmolecules in a single human c ell would c ome t o a length o f about 2 met ers. Thus , the DNA f or a c ell mus t be\npack aged in a v ery ordered w ay to fit and function within a s tructur e (the c ell) that is not visible t o the nak ed e ye.\nThe chr omosomes o f prokaryotes ar e much simpler than those o f euk aryotes in man y of their f eatur es (Figure 9.6 ).\nMos t prokaryotes contain a single , circular chr omosome that is f ound in an ar ea in the cyt oplasm cal led the\nnucleoid.\nFIGURE 9.6A euk aryote contains a w ell-defined nucleus , wher eas in pr okaryotes, the chr omosome lies in the cyt oplasm in an ar ea cal led\nthe nucleoid.\nThe siz e of the g enome in one o f the mos t well-studied pr okaryotes,Escherichia c oli,is 4.6 mil lion base pairs , which\nwould e xtend a dis tanc e of about 1.6 mm if s tretched out. So ho w does this fit inside a smal l bact erial c ell? The DNA\nis twis ted be yond the double helix in what is kno wn as super coiling . Some pr oteins ar e kno wn t o be in volved in the\nsuper coiling; other pr oteins and enzymes help in maintaining the super coiled s tructur e.\nEukaryotes, whose chr omosomes each c onsis t of a linear DNA molecule , emplo y a diff erent type o f packing s trategy\nto fit their DNA inside the nucleus ( Figure 9.7 ). Bef ore the s tructur e of DNA w as e ven unc overed, Marie Ma ynar d\nDaly and Ar thur E. Mirsky c onduct ed e xtensiv e resear ch in the 1940s and 1950s t o unders tand the molecules and\nstructur es in in volved. A t the mos t basic le vel, DNA is wr apped ar ound pr oteins kno wn as his tones t o form\nstructur es cal led nucleosomes . The DNA is wr apped tightl y around the his tone c ore. This nucleosome is link ed to\nthe ne xt one b y a shor t strand o f DNA that is fr ee o f his tones . This is also kno wn as the \u201cbeads on a s tring \u201d9.1 \u2022 The S tructure of DNA 201", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3010, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "28152560-85d3-4512-8abb-95ec77ee851f": {"__data__": {"id_": "28152560-85d3-4512-8abb-95ec77ee851f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "216", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9cf92838-2ea2-433b-a6fd-33e0b483bf59", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "216", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "45ca56489166ac5436d0c1a8a7e7ebdaf551f55178d8d18d38aa02780b41e16f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "structur e; the nucleosomes ar e the \u201cbeads\u201d and the shor t lengths o f DNA betw een them ar e the \u201c string .\u201d The\nnucleosomes , with their DNA c oiled ar ound them, s tack c ompactl y ont o each other t o form a 30-nm\u2013 wide fiber . This\nfiber is fur ther c oiled int o a thick er and mor e compact s tructur e. At the metaphase s tage of mit osis , when the\nchromosomes ar e lined up in the c enter of the c ell, the chr omosomes ar e at their mos t compact ed. The y are\nappr oximat ely 700 nm in width, and ar e found in as sociation with scaff old pr oteins .\nIn int erphase , the phase o f the c ell cycle betw een mit oses at which the chr omosomes ar e dec ondensed, euk aryotic\nchromosomes ha ve tw o dis tinct r egions that can be dis tinguished b y staining . Ther e is a tightl y pack aged region that\nstains darkl y, and a les s dense r egion. The darkl y staining r egions usual ly contain g enes that ar e not activ e, and ar e\nfound in the r egions o f the c entr omer e and t elomer es. The lightl y staining r egions usual ly contain g enes that ar e\nactiv e, with DNA pack aged ar ound nucleosomes but not fur ther c ompact ed.\nFIGURE 9.7These fig ures il lustrate the c ompaction o f the euk aryotic chr omosome .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch this animation (http://opens tax.org/l/DNA _pack aging )of DNA pack aging .\n9.2DNA R eplic ation\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain the pr ocess of DNA r eplication\n\u2022Explain the impor tanc e of telomer ase t o DNA r eplication\n\u2022Describe mechanisms o f DNA r epair\n202 9 \u2022 Molecular Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1630, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c6cd2c53-8bea-4f51-9020-7fa4d3af5b54": {"__data__": {"id_": "c6cd2c53-8bea-4f51-9020-7fa4d3af5b54", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "217", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ddae6e5c-48e8-478f-9ed8-747fcc0b8670", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "217", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9b7729a719c4c23b9fc289a4c3d0bc1f2ac3c9aaeba411ddb92c03b90d57962d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "When a c ell divides , it is impor tant that each daught er cell receives an identical c opy of the DNA . This is\naccomplished b y the pr ocess of DNA r eplication. The r eplication o f DNA oc curs during the s ynthesis phase , or S\nphase , of the c ell cycle, bef ore the c ell ent ers mit osis or meiosis .\nThe elucidation o f the s tructur e of the double helix pr ovided a hint as t o ho w DNA is c opied. R ecal l that adenine\nnucleotides pair with th ymine nucleotides , and cyt osine with g uanine . This means that the tw o strands ar e\ncomplementar y to each other . For example , a strand o f DNA with a nucleotide sequenc e of AGTCATGA wil l have a\ncomplementar y strand with the sequenc e TCAGTACT (Figure 9.8 ).\nFIGURE 9.8The tw o strands o f DNA ar e complementar y, meaning the sequenc e of bases in one s trand can be used t o create the c orrect\nsequenc e of bases in the other s trand.\nBecause o f the c omplementarity o f the tw o strands , having one s trand means that it is pos sible t o recreate the other\nstrand. This model f or replication sug gests that the tw o strands o f the double helix separ ate during r eplication, and\neach s trand ser ves as a t emplat e from which the ne w complementar y strand is c opied ( Figure 9.9 ).9.2 \u2022 DNA R eplic ation 203", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1285, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1b0b2287-0491-44a1-9895-d0d1093d4739": {"__data__": {"id_": "1b0b2287-0491-44a1-9895-d0d1093d4739", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "218", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5a8eb2c3-055c-4aa0-8229-8983223766c6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "218", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6d910abbcb9c9c943354a0307f867fd84985b31a3502ce908fa76cc8492e2909", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 9.9The semic onser vative model o f DNA r eplication is sho wn. Gr ay indicat es the original DNA s trands , and blue indicat es ne wly\nsynthesiz ed DNA .\nDuring DNA r eplication, each o f the tw o strands that mak e up the double helix ser ves as a t emplat e from which ne w\nstrands ar e copied. The ne w strand wil l be c omplementar y to the par ental or \u201c old\u201d s trand. Each ne w double s trand\nconsis ts of one par ental s trand and one ne w daught er strand. This is kno wn as semic onser vative replica tion . When\ntwo DNA c opies ar e formed, the y ha ve an identical sequenc e of nucleotide bases and ar e divided equal ly int o tw o\ndaught er cells.\nDNA R eplic ation in Euk aryotes\nBecause euk aryotic g enomes ar e very comple x, DNA r eplication is a v ery complicat ed pr ocess that in volves se veral\nenzymes and other pr oteins . It oc curs in thr ee main s tages: initiation, elong ation, and t ermination.\nRecal l that euk aryotic DNA is bound t o proteins kno wn as his tones t o form s tructur es cal led nucleosomes . During\ninitiation, the DNA is made ac cessible t o the pr oteins and enzymes in volved in the r eplication pr ocess. Ho w does the\nreplication machiner y kno w wher e on the DNA double helix t o begin? It turns out that ther e are specific nucleotide\nsequenc es cal led origins o f replication at which r eplication begins . Cer tain pr oteins bind t o the origin o f replication\nwhile an enzyme cal ledhelicase unwinds and opens up the DNA helix. As the DNA opens up , Y-shaped s tructur es\ncalledreplica tion f orksare formed ( Figure 9.10 ). Two replication f orks are formed at the origin o f replication, and\nthese g et extended in both dir ections as r eplication pr oceeds . Ther e are mul tiple origins o f replication on the\neukaryotic chr omosome , such that r eplication can oc cur simul taneousl y from se veral plac es in the g enome .\nDuring elong ation, an enzyme cal ledDNA pol ymer ase adds DNA nucleotides t o the 3' end o f the t emplat e. Because\nDNA pol ymer ase can onl y add ne w nucleotides at the end o f a backbone , aprimer sequenc e, which pr ovides this\nstarting point, is added with c omplementar y RNA nucleotides . This primer is r emo ved lat er, and the nucleotides ar e\nreplac ed with DNA nucleotides . One s trand, which is c omplementar y to the par ental DNA s trand, is s ynthesiz ed\ncontinuousl y toward the r eplication f ork so the pol ymer ase can add nucleotides in this dir ection. This c ontinuousl y\nsynthesiz ed s trand is kno wn as the leading s trand . Because DNA pol ymer ase can onl y synthesiz e DNA in a 5' t o 3'\ndirection, the other ne w strand is put t ogether in shor t piec es cal ledOkazaki fr agments . The Ok azaki fr agments\neach r equir e a primer made o f RNA t o start the s ynthesis . The s trand with the Ok azaki fr agments is kno wn as the\nlagging s trand . As s ynthesis pr oceeds , an enzyme r emo ves the RNA primer , which is then r eplac ed with DNA\nnucleotides , and the g aps betw een fr agments ar e sealed b y an enzyme cal ledDNA lig ase.\nThe pr ocess of DNA r eplication can be summariz ed as f ollows:204 9 \u2022 Molecular Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3190, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fc7f1b88-ac93-43d8-a7b1-24d9f162c37c": {"__data__": {"id_": "fc7f1b88-ac93-43d8-a7b1-24d9f162c37c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "219", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5cc95d4a-4fe7-4cf0-990c-c9f2cc84d021", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "219", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "15360fa467b4381934b84767af7c5a48f6d83ec5fa9b9c47f85e4334546d9b47", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "1.DNA un winds at the origin o f replication.\n2.New bases ar e added t o the c omplementar y par ental s trands . One ne w strand is made c ontinuousl y, while the\nother s trand is made in piec es.\n3.Primers ar e remo ved, ne w DNA nucleotides ar e put in plac e of the primers and the backbone is sealed b y DNA\nligase.\nVISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 9.10 A replication f ork is f ormed b y the opening o f the origin o f replication, and helicase separ ates the DNA s trands . An RNA primer\nis synthesiz ed, and is elong ated b y the DNA pol ymer ase. On the leading s trand, DNA is s ynthesiz ed c ontinuousl y, wher eas on the lag ging\nstrand, DNA is s ynthesiz ed in shor t stretches . The DNA fr agments ar e joined b y DNA lig ase (not sho wn).\nYou isolat e a c ell strain in which the joining t ogether o f Ok azaki fr agments is impair ed and suspect that a mutation\nhas oc curr ed in an enzyme f ound at the r eplication f ork. Which enzyme is mos t likely to be mutat ed?\nTelomer e Replic ation\nBecause euk aryotic chr omosomes ar e linear , DNA r eplication c omes t o the end o f a line in euk aryotic chr omosomes .\nAs y ou ha ve learned, the DNA pol ymer ase enzyme can add nucleotides in onl y one dir ection. In the leading s trand,\nsynthesis c ontinues until the end o f the chr omosome is r eached; ho wever, on the lag ging s trand ther e is no plac e for\na primer t o be made f or the DNA fr agment t o be c opied at the end o f the chr omosome . This pr esents a pr oblem f or\nthe c ell because the ends r emain unpair ed, and o ver time these ends g et pr ogressively shor ter as c ells continue t o\ndivide . The ends o f the linear chr omosomes ar e kno wn as telomer es, which ha ve repetitiv e sequenc es that do not\ncode f or a par ticular g ene. As a c onsequenc e, it is t elomer es that ar e shor tened with each r ound o f DNA r eplication\ninstead o f genes . For example , in humans , a six base -pair sequenc e, TTAGGG, is r epeat ed 100 t o 1000 times . The\ndisc overy of the enzyme telomer ase (Figure 9.11 ) helped in the unders tanding o f how chr omosome ends ar e\nmaintained. The t elomer ase at taches t o the end o f the chr omosome , and c omplementar y bases t o the RNA\ntemplat e are added on the end o f the DNA s trand. Onc e the lag ging s trand t emplat e is sufficientl y elong ated, DNA\npolymer ase can no w add nucleotides that ar e complementar y to the ends o f the chr omosomes . Thus , the ends o f\nthe chr omosomes ar e replicat ed.\n9.2 \u2022 DNA R eplic ation 205", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2513, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5be77019-39b3-418c-914a-cdcc239c4aa7": {"__data__": {"id_": "5be77019-39b3-418c-914a-cdcc239c4aa7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "220", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2f3d7c23-5fd6-4a62-98da-65d1a2ec27c2", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "220", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "25f2adc0254d858e6a8eb14be4b6ef1d6a2fb331e69bd602180e5ff6c15225a3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 9.11 The ends o f linear chr omosomes ar e maintained b y the action o f the t elomer ase enzyme .\nTelomer ase is typical ly found t o be activ e in g erm c ells, adul t stem c ells, and some canc er cells. For her disc overy of\ntelomer ase and its action, Elizabeth Blackburn ( Figure 9.12 ) received the Nobel P rize for Medicine and Ph ysiolog y in\n2009. L ater resear ch using HeL a cells (ob tained fr om Henriet ta Lacks) confirmed that t elomer ase is pr esent in\nhuman c ells. And in 2001, r esear chers including Diane L . Wright f ound that t elomer ase is nec essary for cells in\nhuman embr yos to rapidl y proliferate.\nFIGURE 9.12 Elizabeth Blackburn, 2009 Nobel L aureate, was the scientis t who disc overed ho w telomer ase w orks. (credit: U .S. Embas sy,\nStockholm, Sw eden)\nTelomer ase is not activ e in adul t somatic c ells. Adul t somatic c ells that under go cell division c ontinue t o ha ve their\ntelomer es shor tened. This es sential ly means that t elomer e shor tening is as sociat ed with aging . In 2010, scientis ts\nfound that t elomer ase can r everse some ag e-related c onditions in mic e, and this ma y ha ve pot ential in r egener ative\nmedicine .1Telomer ase-deficient mic e were used in these s tudies; these mic e ha ve tis sue atr ophy, stem-c ell\ndepletion, or gan s ystem failur e, and impair ed tis sue injur y responses . Telomer ase r eactiv ation in these mic e caused\nextension o f telomer es, reduc ed DNA damag e, reversed neur odeg ener ation, and impr oved functioning o f the t estes,\nspleen, and int estines . Thus , telomer e reactiv ation ma y ha ve pot ential f or tr eating ag e-related diseases in humans .\nDNA R eplic ation in P rokaryotes\nRecal l that the pr okaryotic chr omosome is a cir cular molecule with a les s extensiv e coiling s tructur e than euk aryotic\nchromosomes . The euk aryotic chr omosome is linear and highl y coiled ar ound pr oteins . While ther e are man y\n1Mariel la Jask elioff, et al ., \u201cTelomer ase r eactiv ation r everses tis sue deg ener ation in ag ed telomer ase-deficient mic e,\u201dNatur e, 469\n(2011):102\u20137.206 9 \u2022 Molecular Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2163, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "77a901e7-6061-47dc-8205-45e7fb700118": {"__data__": {"id_": "77a901e7-6061-47dc-8205-45e7fb700118", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "221", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9fd6a5c5-eb70-4042-a10e-65c5d396d374", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "221", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4ab72d80ca77e4c6f7d0d7d9de47fd2034d7afa7ad11eae6cf3d0169539b8cc6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "similarities in the DNA r eplication pr ocess, these s tructur al diff erences nec essitat e some diff erences in the DNA\nreplication pr ocess in these tw o life forms .\nDNA r eplication has been e xtremel y well-studied in pr okaryotes, primaril y because o f the smal l size of the g enome\nand lar ge number o f variants a vailable .Escherichia c olihas 4.6 mil lion base pairs in a single cir cular chr omosome ,\nand al l of it g ets r eplicat ed in appr oximat ely 42 minut es, starting fr om a single origin o f replication and pr oceeding\naround the chr omosome in both dir ections . This means that appr oximat ely 1000 nucleotides ar e added per sec ond.\nThe pr ocess is much mor e rapid than in euk aryotes.Table 9.1 summariz es the diff erences betw een pr okaryotic and\neukaryotic r eplications .\nDifferences betw een P rokaryotic and Euk aryotic R eplications\nProper ty Prokaryotes Eukaryotes\nOrigin o f replication Single Multiple\nRate of replication 1000 nucleotides/s 50 t o 100 nucleotides/s\nChromosome s tructur e circular linear\nTelomer ase Not pr esent Present\nTABLE 9.1\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nClick thr ough a tutorial (http://opens tax.org/l/DNA _replicatio2) on DNA r eplication.\nDNA R epair\nDNA pol ymer ase can mak e mis takes while adding nucleotides . It edits the DNA b y proofreading e very ne wly added\nbase . Inc orrect bases ar e remo ved and r eplac ed b y the c orrect base , and then pol ymerization c ontinues ( Figure\n9.13 a). Mos t mis takes ar e corrected during r eplication, al though when this does not happen, the misma tch repair\nmechanism is emplo yed. Mismat ch repair enzymes r ecogniz e the wr ongl y inc orpor ated base and e xcise it fr om the\nDNA , replacing it with the c orrect base ( Figure 9.13 b). In y et another type o f repair ,nucleo tide e xcision r epair , the\nDNA double s trand is un wound and separ ated, the inc orrect bases ar e remo ved along with a f ew bases on the 5' and\n3' end, and these ar e replac ed b y copying the t emplat e with the help o f DNA pol ymer ase ( Figure 9.13 c). Nucleotide\nexcision r epair is par ticularl y impor tant in c orrecting th ymine dimers , which ar e primaril y caused b y ultraviolet light.\nIn a th ymine dimer , two thymine nucleotides adjac ent t o each other on one s trand ar e covalentl y bonded t o each\nother r ather than their c omplementar y bases . If the dimer is not r emo ved and r epair ed it wil l lead t o a mutation.\nIndividuals with fla ws in their nucleotide e xcision r epair g enes sho w extreme sensitivity t o sunlight and de velop skin\ncanc ers earl y in lif e.\n9.2 \u2022 DNA R eplic ation 207", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2615, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fa40df55-fc91-4fc8-8d7c-a593ea91a271": {"__data__": {"id_": "fa40df55-fc91-4fc8-8d7c-a593ea91a271", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "222", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9e1a888b-ca50-439a-b20f-d582e5f69165", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "222", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ff0c4a20d84c9d7853d761ffdabed3c19f6415f1ce25d5ad8d44f7611a01b8a8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 9.13 Proofreading b y DNA pol ymer ase (a) c orrects err ors during r eplication. In mismat ch repair (b), the inc orrectly added base is\ndetected aft er replication. The mismat ch repair pr oteins det ect this base and r emo ve it fr om the ne wly synthesiz ed s trand b y nuclease\naction. The g ap is no w fil led with the c orrectly pair ed base . Nucleotide e xcision (c) r epairs th ymine dimers . When e xposed t o UV , thymines\nlying adjac ent t o each other can f orm th ymine dimers . In normal c ells, the y are excised and r eplac ed.\nMos t mis takes ar e corrected; if the y are not, the y ma y resul t in a muta tion \u2014defined as a permanent chang e in the\nDNA sequenc e. Mutations in r epair g enes ma y lead t o serious c onsequenc es lik e canc er.208 9 \u2022 Molecular Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 829, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "61e8ad60-200d-45de-88c0-8023a7079564": {"__data__": {"id_": "61e8ad60-200d-45de-88c0-8023a7079564", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "223", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "68949e1c-1f02-4dda-a6cc-7e6b7ff86cde", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "223", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6cadad60a217a51d7791027f95fc36f81dd2a92bdc289af60b065a12bd0387d5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "9.3Transcrip tion\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain the c entr al dogma\n\u2022Explain the main s teps o f transcrip tion\n\u2022Describe ho w euk aryotic mRNA is pr ocessed\nIn both pr okaryotes and euk aryotes, the sec ond function o f DNA (the firs t was replication) is t o provide the\ninformation needed t o construct the pr oteins nec essary so that the c ell can per form al l of its functions . To do this ,\nthe DNA is \u201c read\u201d or tr anscribed int o an mRNA molecule . The mRNA then pr ovides the c ode t o form a pr otein b y a\nprocess cal led tr anslation. Thr ough the pr ocesses o f transcrip tion and tr anslation, a pr otein is buil t with a specific\nsequenc e of amino acids that w as original ly enc oded in the DNA . This module discus ses the details o f transcrip tion.\nThe C entral Dogma: DNA Enc odes RNA; RNA Enc odes P rotein\nThe flo w of genetic inf ormation in c ells from DNA t o mRNA t o protein is described b y the c entr al dogma ( Figure\n9.14 ), which s tates that g enes specif y the sequenc es o f mRNAs , which in turn specif y the sequenc es o f proteins .\nFIGURE 9.14 The c entr al dogma s tates that DNA enc odes RNA , which in turn enc odes pr otein.\nThe c opying o f DNA t o mRNA is r elativ ely straight forward, with one nucleotide being added t o the mRNA s trand f or\nevery complementar y nucleotide r ead in the DNA s trand. The tr anslation t o protein is mor e comple x because gr oups\nof thr ee mRNA nucleotides c orrespond t o one amino acid o f the pr otein sequenc e. Ho wever, as w e shal l see in the\nnext module , the tr anslation t o protein is s till systematic, such that nucleotides 1 t o 3 c orrespond t o amino acid 1,\nnucleotides 4 t o 6 c orrespond t o amino acid 2, and so on.\nTranscrip tion: fr om DNA t o mRNA\nBoth pr okaryotes and euk aryotes per form fundamental ly the same pr ocess of transcrip tion, with the impor tant\ndifference of the membr ane-bound nucleus in euk aryotes. With the g enes bound in the nucleus , transcrip tion\noccurs in the nucleus o f the c ell and the mRNA tr anscrip t mus t be tr anspor ted to the cyt oplasm. The pr okaryotes,\nwhich include bact eria and ar chaea , lack membr ane-bound nuclei and other or ganel les, and tr anscrip tion oc curs in\nthe cyt oplasm o f the c ell. In both pr okaryotes and euk aryotes, transcrip tion oc curs in thr ee main s tages: initiation,\nelong ation, and t ermination.\nInitiation\nTranscrip tion r equir es the DNA double helix t o par tially un wind in the r egion o f mRNA s ynthesis . The r egion o f\nunwinding is cal led a transcrip tion bubble . The DNA sequenc e ont o which the pr oteins and enzymes in volved in\ntranscrip tion bind t o initiat e the pr ocess is cal led a promo ter. In mos t cases , promot ers e xist ups tream o f the g enes\nthey regulate. The specific sequenc e of a pr omot er is v ery impor tant because it det ermines whether the\ncorresponding g ene is tr anscribed al l of the time , some o f the time , or har dly at al l (Figure 9.15 ).9.3 \u2022 T ranscrip tion 209", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3063, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "297f905a-0b0e-4db1-92ce-9efa11170162": {"__data__": {"id_": "297f905a-0b0e-4db1-92ce-9efa11170162", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "224", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5033b5ff-7bba-43fb-b34f-89597d7fb75c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "224", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "71ce8f755c3f85a132e4c5fca76d70f445fdeb60fde572307716e63b74741124", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 9.15 The initiation o f transcrip tion begins when DNA is un wound, f orming a tr anscrip tion bubble . Enzymes and other pr oteins\ninvolved in tr anscrip tion bind at the pr omot er.\nElongation\nTranscrip tion al ways proceeds fr om one o f the tw o DNA s trands , which is cal led the templa te strand . The mRNA\nproduct is c omplementar y to the t emplat e strand and is almos t identical t o the other DNA s trand, cal led the\nnont empla te strand , with the e xception that RNA c ontains a ur acil (U) in plac e of the th ymine ( T) found in DNA .\nDuring elong ation, an enzyme cal ledRNA pol ymer ase proceeds along the DNA t emplat e adding nucleotides b y\nbase pairing with the DNA t emplat e in a manner similar t o DNA r eplication, with the diff erence that an RNA s trand is\nbeing s ynthesiz ed that does not r emain bound t o the DNA t emplat e. As elong ation pr oceeds , the DNA is\ncontinuousl y un wound ahead o f the c ore enzyme and r ewound behind it ( Figure 9.16 ).\nFIGURE 9.16 During elong ation, RNA pol ymer ase tr acks along the DNA t emplat e, synthesiz es mRNA in the 5' t o 3' dir ection, and un winds\nthen r ewinds the DNA as it is r ead.\nTermination\nOnc e a g ene is tr anscribed, the pr okaryotic pol ymer ase needs t o be ins truct ed to dis sociat e from the DNA t emplat e\nand liber ate the ne wly made mRNA . Depending on the g ene being tr anscribed, ther e are tw o kinds o f termination\nsignals , but both in volve repeat ed nucleotide sequenc es in the DNA t emplat e that r esul t in RNA pol ymer ase s talling,\nleaving the DNA t emplat e, and fr eeing the mRNA tr anscrip t.\nOn t ermination, the pr ocess of transcrip tion is c omplet e. In a pr okaryotic c ell, by the time t ermination oc curs , the\ntranscrip t would alr eady ha ve been used t o par tially synthesiz e numer ous c opies o f the enc oded pr otein because\nthese pr ocesses can oc cur c oncurr ently using mul tiple ribosomes (pol yribosomes) ( Figure 9.17 ). In c ontr ast, the\npresenc e of a nucleus in euk aryotic c ells pr ecludes simul taneous tr anscrip tion and tr anslation.210 9 \u2022 Molecular Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2155, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4fac76ec-f3fe-4cf3-a6a1-ca2d6773a01b": {"__data__": {"id_": "4fac76ec-f3fe-4cf3-a6a1-ca2d6773a01b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "225", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d25793ac-bd18-4f04-801e-c53ad1f81bab", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "225", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1a65f8f7f4a1a62ae97a7879e671c0f0f277bbb2f27743ca8bd7e71146af85ba", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 9.17 Multiple pol ymer ases can tr anscribe a single bact erial g ene while numer ous ribosomes c oncurr ently translat e the mRNA\ntranscrip ts int o pol ypep tides . In this w ay, a specific pr otein can r apidl y reach a high c oncentr ation in the bact erial c ell.\nEukaryotic RNA P rocessing\nThe ne wly transcribed euk aryotic mRNAs mus t under go se veral pr ocessing s teps bef ore the y can be tr ansferred\nfrom the nucleus t o the cyt oplasm and tr anslat ed int o a pr otein. The additional s teps in volved in euk aryotic mRNA\nmatur ation cr eate a molecule that is much mor e stable than a pr okaryotic mRNA . For example , euk aryotic mRNAs\nlast for se veral hours , wher eas the typical pr okaryotic mRNA las ts no mor e than fiv e sec onds .\nThe mRNA tr anscrip t is firs t coated in RNA -stabilizing pr oteins t o prevent it fr om degr ading while it is pr ocessed and\nexpor ted out o f the nucleus . This oc curs while the pr e-mRNA s till is being s ynthesiz ed b y adding a special\nnucleotide \u201c cap\u201d to the 5' end o f the gr owing tr anscrip t. In addition t o preventing degr adation, fact ors in volved in\nprotein s ynthesis r ecogniz e the cap t o help initiat e translation b y ribosomes .\nOnc e elong ation is c omplet e, an enzyme then adds a s tring o f appr oximat ely 200 adenine r esidues t o the 3' end,\ncalled the pol y-A tail . This modification fur ther pr otects the pr e-mRNA fr om degr adation and signals t o cellular\nfactors that the tr anscrip t needs t o be e xpor ted to the cyt oplasm.\nEukaryotic g enes ar e composed o f protein-c oding sequenc es cal ledexons (ex-on signifies that the y areexpressed)\nand intervening sequenc es cal ledintrons (int-ron denot es their intervening r ole). Intr ons ar e remo ved fr om the pr e-\nmRNA during pr ocessing . Intr on sequenc es in mRNA do not enc ode functional pr oteins . It is es sential that al l of a\npre-mRNA \u2019s intr ons be c omplet ely and pr ecisel y remo ved bef ore protein s ynthesis so that the e xons join t ogether t o\ncode f or the c orrect amino acids . If the pr ocess errs b y even a single nucleotide , the sequenc e of the r ejoined e xons\nwould be shift ed, and the r esul ting pr otein w ould be nonfunctional . The pr ocess of remo ving intr ons and\nreconnecting e xons is cal ledsplicing (Figure 9.18 ). Intr ons ar e remo ved and degr aded while the pr e-mRNA is s till in\nthe nucleus .\nFIGURE 9.18 Eukaryotic mRNA c ontains intr ons that mus t be splic ed out. A 5' cap and 3' tail ar e also added.9.3 \u2022 T ranscrip tion 211", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2543, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ac125f76-97fa-436a-bd1d-51d7d010ff72": {"__data__": {"id_": "ac125f76-97fa-436a-bd1d-51d7d010ff72", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "226", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a1aa5b9d-c020-4bf3-b19e-a41e9ddf0f7e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "226", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c5b9975b3ed5598fc9896ba3a7a32718a7402f88efa51d8d936bbb942c0ec5a0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "9.4Translation\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the diff erent s teps in pr otein s ynthesis\n\u2022Discus s the r ole o f ribosomes in pr otein s ynthesis\n\u2022Describe the g enetic c ode and ho w the nucleotide sequenc e det ermines the amino acid and the pr otein\nsequenc e\nThe s ynthesis o f proteins is one o f a c ell\u2019s mos t ener gy-consuming metabolic pr ocesses. In turn, pr oteins ac count\nfor mor e mas s than an y other c omponent o f living or ganisms (with the e xception o f water), and pr oteins per form a\nwide v ariety o f the functions o f a c ell. The pr ocess of translation, or pr otein s ynthesis , involves dec oding an mRNA\nmes sage int o a pol ypep tide pr oduct. Amino acids ar e covalentl y strung t ogether in lengths r anging fr om\nappr oximat ely 50 amino acids t o mor e than 1,000.\nThe P rotein S ynthesis Machiner y\nIn addition t o the mRNA t emplat e, man y other molecules c ontribut e to the pr ocess of translation. The c omposition\nof each c omponent ma y vary acr oss species; f or ins tanc e, ribosomes ma y consis t of diff erent numbers o f ribosomal\nRNAs ( rRNA ) and pol ypep tides depending on the or ganism. Ho wever, the g ener al structur es and functions o f the\nprotein s ynthesis machiner y are compar able fr om bact eria t o human c ells. Translation r equir es the input o f an\nmRNA t emplat e, ribosomes , tRNAs , and v arious enzymatic fact ors ( Figure 9.19 ).\nFIGURE 9.19 The pr otein s ynthesis machiner y includes the lar ge and smal l subunits o f the ribosome , mRNA , and tRNA . (credit:\nmodification o f work b y NIGMS, NIH)\nInE. coli, ther e are 200,000 ribosomes pr esent in e very cell at an y giv en time . A ribosome is a c omple x\nmacr omolecule c omposed o f structur al and catal ytic rRNAs , and man y dis tinct pol ypep tides . In euk aryotes, the\nnucleolus is c omplet ely specializ ed for the s ynthesis and as sembl y of rRNAs .\nRibosomes ar e locat ed in the cyt oplasm in pr okaryotes and in the cyt oplasm and endoplasmic r eticulum o f\neukaryotes. Ribosomes ar e made up o f a lar ge and a smal l subunit that c ome t ogether f or tr anslation. The smal l\nsubunit is r esponsible f or binding the mRNA t emplat e, wher eas the lar ge subunit sequential ly binds tRNAs , a type\nof RNA molecule that brings amino acids t o the gr owing chain o f the pol ypep tide. Each mRNA molecule is\nsimul taneousl y translat ed b y man y ribosomes , all synthesizing pr otein in the same dir ection.\nDepending on the species , 40 t o 60 types o f tRNA e xist in the cyt oplasm. Ser ving as adap tors, specific tRNAs bind t o\nsequenc es on the mRNA t emplat e and add the c orresponding amino acid t o the pol ypep tide chain. Ther efore, tRNAs\nare the molecules that actual ly \u201ctranslat e\u201d the lang uage of RNA int o the lang uage of proteins . For each tRNA t o\nfunction, it mus t have its specific amino acid bonded t o it. In the pr ocess of tRNA \u201c char ging ,\u201d each tRNA molecule is\nbonded t o its c orrect amino acid.212 9 \u2022 Molecular Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3091, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b216048d-b611-4bd0-bc44-202f0ccee016": {"__data__": {"id_": "b216048d-b611-4bd0-bc44-202f0ccee016", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "227", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5e9d16fa-2a7d-45ef-8c95-d1002c4530ba", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "227", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "848b0adc604241dc523880d15ca3b6cd55d7b0338fa4eb73da36d7a02a17e16c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "150bcec0-f0ca-4776-926a-1d4111c43ac1", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "f02184c10baaec1136da354c982ca047d7b7c1ea9df9de6806171fba21b7f600", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The Gene tic C ode\nTo summariz e what w e kno w to this point, the c ellular pr ocess of transcrip tion g ener ates mes seng er RNA (mRNA), a\nmobile molecular c opy of one or mor e genes with an alphabet o f A, C, G, and ur acil (U). T ranslation o f the mRNA\ntemplat e converts nucleotide -based g enetic inf ormation int o a pr otein pr oduct. P rotein sequenc es consis t of 20\ncommonl y oc curring amino acids; ther efore, it can be said that the pr otein alphabet c onsis ts of 20 let ters. Each\namino acid is defined b y a thr ee-nucleotide sequenc e cal led the triplet codon . The r elationship betw een a\nnucleotide c odon and its c orresponding amino acid is cal led the genetic c ode.\nGiven the diff erent numbers o f \u201clet ters\u201d in the mRNA and pr otein \u201c alphabets ,\u201d combinations o f nucleotides\ncorresponded t o single amino acids . Using a thr ee-nucleotide c ode means that ther e are a t otal o f 64 (4 \u00d7 4 \u00d7 4)\npossible c ombinations; ther efore, a giv en amino acid is enc oded b y mor e than one nucleotide triplet ( Figure 9.20 ).\nFIGURE 9.20 This fig ure sho ws the g enetic c ode f or tr anslating each nucleotide triplet, or c odon, in mRNA int o an amino acid or a\ntermination signal in a nasc ent pr otein. (cr edit: modification o f work b y NIH)\nThree o f the 64 c odons t erminat e protein s ynthesis and r elease the pol ypep tide fr om the tr anslation machiner y.\nThese triplets ar e cal ledstop c odons . Another c odon, A UG, also has a special function. In addition t o specif ying the\namino acid methionine , it also ser ves as the start codon to initiat e translation. The r eading fr ame f or tr anslation is\nset b y the A UG s tart codon near the 5' end o f the mRNA . The g enetic c ode is univ ersal . With a f ew exceptions ,\nvirtually all species use the same g enetic c ode f or pr otein s ynthesis , which is po werful e videnc e that al l life on Ear th\nshar es a c ommon origin.\nThe Mechanism o f Protein S ynthesis\nJust as with mRNA s ynthesis , protein s ynthesis can be divided int o thr ee phases: initiation, elong ation, and\ntermination. The pr ocess of translation is similar in pr okaryotes and euk aryotes. Her e we wil l explor e ho w\ntranslation oc curs in E. coli, a representativ e prokaryote, and specif y an y diff erences betw een pr okaryotic and\neukaryotic tr anslation.\nProtein s ynthesis begins with the f ormation o f an initiation c omple x. In E. coli, this c omple x involves the smal l\nribosome subunit, the mRNA t emplat e, thr ee initiation fact ors, and a special initiat or tRNA . The initiat or tRNA\ninteracts with the A UG s tart codon, and link s to a special f orm o f the amino acid methionine that is typical ly\nremo ved fr om the pol ypep tide aft er tr anslation is c omplet e.\nIn pr okaryotes and euk aryotes, the basics o f pol ypep tide elong ation ar e the same , so w e wil l review elong ation fr om\nthe perspectiv e ofE. coli. The lar ge ribosomal subunit o fE. coliconsis ts of thr ee c ompar tments: the A sit e binds\nincoming char ged tRNAs (tRNAs with their at tached specific amino acids). The P sit e binds char ged tRNAs carr ying\namino acids that ha ve formed bonds with the gr owing pol ypep tide chain but ha ve not y et dis sociat ed fr om their\ncorresponding tRNA .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3268, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "150bcec0-f0ca-4776-926a-1d4111c43ac1": {"__data__": {"id_": "150bcec0-f0ca-4776-926a-1d4111c43ac1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "227", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5e9d16fa-2a7d-45ef-8c95-d1002c4530ba", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "227", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "848b0adc604241dc523880d15ca3b6cd55d7b0338fa4eb73da36d7a02a17e16c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "b216048d-b611-4bd0-bc44-202f0ccee016", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "227", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9c039c86a0894298030c67c5fd3cf7653dba6f3ed9a8b9242be69e38a41fd942", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "coli. The lar ge ribosomal subunit o fE. coliconsis ts of thr ee c ompar tments: the A sit e binds\nincoming char ged tRNAs (tRNAs with their at tached specific amino acids). The P sit e binds char ged tRNAs carr ying\namino acids that ha ve formed bonds with the gr owing pol ypep tide chain but ha ve not y et dis sociat ed fr om their\ncorresponding tRNA . The E sit e releases dis sociat ed tRNAs so the y can be r echar ged with fr ee amino acids . The9.4 \u2022 T ranslation 213", "start_char_idx": 2912, "end_char_idx": 3388, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "652067e1-27b4-4e88-bfcd-344c79338cb0": {"__data__": {"id_": "652067e1-27b4-4e88-bfcd-344c79338cb0", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "228", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ae680cc3-396d-4078-adbc-465aebc35490", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "228", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dcb3f8bb0486a96f8a9eac2f6b2eea8bd59680d0b953f4a0de89ac5fb6dec540", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "ribosome shifts one c odon at a time , catal yzing each pr ocess that oc curs in the thr ee sit es. With each s tep, a\nchar ged tRNA ent ers the c omple x, the pol ypep tide bec omes one amino acid long er, and an unchar ged tRNA depar ts.\nThe ener gy for each bond betw een amino acids is deriv ed fr om G TP, a molecule similar t o ATP (Figure 9.21 ).\nAmazingl y, the E. colitranslation appar atus tak es onl y 0.05 sec onds t o add each amino acid, meaning that a\n200-amino acid pol ypep tide c ould be tr anslat ed in jus t 10 sec onds .\nFIGURE 9.21 Translation begins when a tRNA antic odon r ecogniz es a c odon on the mRNA . The lar ge ribosomal subunit joins the smal l\nsubunit, and a sec ond tRNA is r ecruit ed. As the mRNA mo ves relativ e to the ribosome , the pol ypep tide chain is f ormed. Entr y of a release\nfactor int o the A sit e terminat es tr anslation and the c omponents dis sociat e.\nTermination o f translation oc curs when a s top c odon (U AA, UAG, or UGA) is enc ount ered. When the ribosome\nencount ers the s top c odon, the gr owing pol ypep tide is r eleased and the ribosome subunits dis sociat e and lea ve the\nmRNA . Aft er man y ribosomes ha ve complet ed tr anslation, the mRNA is degr aded so the nucleotides can be r eused\nin another tr anscrip tion r eaction.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nTranscribe a g ene and tr anslat e it t o protein using c omplementar y pairing and the g enetic c ode at this sit e\n(http://opens tax.org/l/cr eate_protein2) .\n214 9 \u2022 Molecular Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1539, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a8e02562-d347-47df-bef5-56515da86263": {"__data__": {"id_": "a8e02562-d347-47df-bef5-56515da86263", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "229", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1bb07fa1-2472-42c2-b036-95125cd43e14", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "229", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1890add52528631d201e3632c222f4d1cbbf822ac3f0e1b35d18ca6f17dbb7cb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "889591a3-af47-41f3-8d82-168457bf0314", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "c40818ea7bf12e58950157f869d0a75953c316b4b310da73c7bc3d4b57564fff", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "9.5How Genes Ar e Regulat ed\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Discus s wh y every cell does not e xpress all of its g enes\n\u2022Describe ho w pr okaryotic g ene e xpression oc curs at the tr anscrip tional le vel\n\u2022Unders tand that euk aryotic g ene e xpression oc curs at the epig enetic, tr anscrip tional , pos t-\ntranscrip tional , translational , and pos t-translational le vels\nFor a c ell to function pr operl y, nec essary proteins mus t be s ynthesiz ed at the pr oper time . All organisms and c ells\ncontr ol or r egulate the tr anscrip tion and tr anslation o f their DNA int o protein. The pr ocess of turning on a g ene t o\nproduc e RNA and pr otein is cal ledgene e xpression . Whether in a simple unic ellular or ganism or in a c omple x\nmulticellular or ganism, each c ell contr ols when and ho w its g enes ar e expressed. F or this t o oc cur, ther e mus t be a\nmechanism t o contr ol when a g ene is e xpressed t o mak e RNA and pr otein, ho w much o f the pr otein is made , and\nwhen it is time t o stop making that pr otein because it is no long er needed.\nCells in mul ticellular or ganisms ar e specializ ed; c ells in diff erent tis sues look v ery diff erent and per form diff erent\nfunctions . For example , a muscle c ell is v ery diff erent fr om a liv er cell, which is v ery diff erent fr om a skin c ell. These\ndifferences ar e a c onsequenc e of the e xpression o f diff erent sets o f genes in each o f these c ells. All cells ha ve\ncertain basic functions the y mus t per form f or themsel ves, such as c onverting the ener gy in sug ar molecules int o\nener gy in A TP. Each c ell also has man y genes that ar e not e xpressed, and e xpresses man y that ar e not e xpressed b y\nother c ells, such that it can carr y out its specializ ed functions . In addition, c ells wil l turn on or o ff certain g enes at\ndifferent times in r esponse t o chang es in the en vironment or at diff erent times during the de velopment o f the\norganism. Unic ellular or ganisms , both euk aryotic and pr okaryotic, also turn on and o ff genes in r esponse t o the\ndemands o f their en vironment so that the y can r espond t o special c onditions .\nThe c ontr ol of gene e xpression is e xtremel y comple x. Malfunctions in this pr ocess are detrimental t o the c ell and\ncan lead t o the de velopment o f man y diseases , including canc er.\nProkaryotic versus Euk aryotic Gene Expr ession\nTo unders tand ho w gene e xpression is r egulated, w e mus t firs t unders tand ho w a g ene bec omes a functional pr otein\nin a c ell. The pr ocess oc curs in both pr okaryotic and euk aryotic c ells, jus t in slightl y diff erent fashions .\nBecause pr okaryotic or ganisms lack a c ell nucleus , the pr ocesses o f transcrip tion and tr anslation oc cur almos t\nsimul taneousl y. When the pr otein is no long er needed, tr anscrip tion s tops. As a r esul t, the primar y method t o\ncontr ol what type and ho w much pr otein is e xpressed in a pr okaryotic c ell is thr ough the r egulation o f DNA\ntranscrip tion int o RNA . All the subsequent s teps happen aut omatical ly. When mor e protein is r equir ed, mor e\ntranscrip tion oc curs .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3186, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "889591a3-af47-41f3-8d82-168457bf0314": {"__data__": {"id_": "889591a3-af47-41f3-8d82-168457bf0314", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "229", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1bb07fa1-2472-42c2-b036-95125cd43e14", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "229", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1890add52528631d201e3632c222f4d1cbbf822ac3f0e1b35d18ca6f17dbb7cb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "a8e02562-d347-47df-bef5-56515da86263", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "229", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ce0aa1f923f0eefa5964dba9edc29ec54ebc45440447c047d93d26bf54e75292", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The pr ocess oc curs in both pr okaryotic and euk aryotic c ells, jus t in slightl y diff erent fashions .\nBecause pr okaryotic or ganisms lack a c ell nucleus , the pr ocesses o f transcrip tion and tr anslation oc cur almos t\nsimul taneousl y. When the pr otein is no long er needed, tr anscrip tion s tops. As a r esul t, the primar y method t o\ncontr ol what type and ho w much pr otein is e xpressed in a pr okaryotic c ell is thr ough the r egulation o f DNA\ntranscrip tion int o RNA . All the subsequent s teps happen aut omatical ly. When mor e protein is r equir ed, mor e\ntranscrip tion oc curs . Ther efore, in pr okaryotic c ells, the c ontr ol of gene e xpression is almos t entir ely at the\ntranscrip tional le vel.\nThe firs t example o f such c ontr ol w as disc overed using E.coliin the 1950s and 1960s b y French r esear chers and is\ncalled the lacoper on. The lacoper on is a s tretch o f DNA with thr ee adjac ent g enes that c ode f or pr oteins that\nparticipat e in the absorp tion and metabolism o f lact ose, a food sour ce forE.coli. When lact ose is not pr esent in the\nbact erium \u2019s en vironment, the lacgenes ar e transcribed in smal l amounts . When lact ose is pr esent, the g enes ar e\ntranscribed and the bact erium is able t o use the lact ose as a f ood sour ce. The oper on also c ontains a pr omot er\nsequenc e to which the RNA pol ymer ase binds t o begin tr anscrip tion; betw een the pr omot er and the thr ee g enes is a\nregion cal led the oper ator. When ther e is no lact ose pr esent, a pr otein kno wn as a r epressor binds t o the oper ator\nand pr events RNA pol ymer ase fr om binding t o the pr omot er, except in r are cases . Thus v ery little o f the pr otein\nproducts o f the thr ee g enes is made . When lact ose is pr esent, an end pr oduct o f lact ose metabolism binds t o the\nrepressor pr otein and pr events it fr om binding t o the oper ator. This al lows RNA pol ymer ase t o bind t o the pr omot er\nand fr eely transcribe the thr ee g enes , allowing the or ganism t o metaboliz e the lact ose.\nEukaryotic c ells, in c ontr ast, ha ve intr acellular or ganel les and ar e much mor e comple x. Recal l that in euk aryotic\ncells, the DNA is c ontained inside the c ell\u2019s nucleus and it is tr anscribed int o mRNA ther e. The ne wly synthesiz ed\nmRNA is then tr anspor ted out o f the nucleus int o the cyt oplasm, wher e ribosomes tr anslat e the mRNA int o protein.\nThe pr ocesses o f transcrip tion and tr anslation ar e ph ysical ly separ ated b y the nuclear membr ane; tr anscrip tion\noccurs onl y within the nucleus , and tr anslation onl y oc curs outside the nucleus in the cyt oplasm. The r egulation o f9.5 \u2022 Ho w Genes Ar e Regulat ed 215", "start_char_idx": 2580, "end_char_idx": 5287, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1f81ef5f-8b98-41ed-9cbc-15ac1bfd4147": {"__data__": {"id_": "1f81ef5f-8b98-41ed-9cbc-15ac1bfd4147", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "230", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4bcd0142-f661-4250-9d33-f95869a4f692", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "230", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2a7b0c8206ea7765c4fcbc8061617558128e91a066147f0d90b9606d3f39b014", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "gene e xpression can oc cur at al l stages o f the pr ocess (Figure 9.22 ). Regulation ma y oc cur when the DNA is unc oiled\nand loosened fr om nucleosomes t o bind tr anscrip tion fact ors ( epig enetic level), when the RNA is tr anscribed\n(transcrip tional le vel), when RNA is pr ocessed and e xpor ted to the cyt oplasm aft er it is tr anscribed ( post-\ntranscrip tional level), when the RNA is tr anslat ed int o protein (tr anslational le vel), or aft er the pr otein has been\nmade ( post-transla tional level).\nFIGURE 9.22 Eukaryotic g ene e xpression is r egulated during tr anscrip tion and RNA pr ocessing , which tak e plac e in the nucleus , as w ell as\nduring pr otein tr anslation, which tak es plac e in the cyt oplasm. F urther r egulation ma y oc cur thr ough pos t-translational modifications o f\nproteins .\nThe diff erences in the r egulation o f gene e xpression betw een pr okaryotes and euk aryotes ar e summariz ed in Table\n9.2.216 9 \u2022 Molecular Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1010, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "dcb8e4b4-d861-41e7-8aa6-a98ff4f4f353": {"__data__": {"id_": "dcb8e4b4-d861-41e7-8aa6-a98ff4f4f353", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "231", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "95269340-d527-4ea8-8849-059803a1d81a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "231", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "66b991f71664c9a75adfebbcde2e29221926fbd324f92ccbc5a96265e5d79984", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Differences in the R egulation o f Gene Expr ession o f Prokaryotic and Euk aryotic Or ganisms\nProkaryotic or ganisms Eukaryotic or ganisms\nLack nucleus Contain nucleus\nRNA tr anscrip tion and pr otein\ntranslation oc cur almos t\nsimul taneousl y\u2022RNA tr anscrip tion oc curs prior t o protein tr anslation, and it tak es plac e\nin the nucleus . RNA tr anslation t o protein oc curs in the cyt oplasm.\n\u2022RNA pos t-processing includes addition o f a 5' cap , pol y-A tail , and\nexcision o f intr ons and splicing o f exons.\nGene e xpression is r egulated\nprimaril y at the tr anscrip tional le velGene e xpression is r egulated at man y levels (epig enetic, tr anscrip tional ,\npost-transcrip tional , translational , and pos t-translational)\nTABLE 9.2\nEVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nAlternativ e RNA Splicing\nIn the 1970s , genes w ere firs t obser ved that e xhibit edalterna tive RNA splicing . Alternativ e RNA splicing is a\nmechanism that al lows diff erent pr otein pr oducts t o be pr oduc ed fr om one g ene when diff erent c ombinations o f\nintrons (and sometimes e xons) ar e remo ved fr om the tr anscrip t (Figure 9.23 ). This al ternativ e splicing can be\nhaphazar d, but mor e often it is c ontr olled and acts as a mechanism o f gene r egulation, with the fr equency o f\ndifferent splicing al ternativ es contr olled b y the c ell as a w ay to contr ol the pr oduction o f diff erent pr otein pr oducts\nin diff erent c ells, or at diff erent s tages o f development. Al ternativ e splicing is no w unders tood t o be a c ommon\nmechanism o f gene r egulation in euk aryotes; ac cording t o one es timat e, 70% o f genes in humans ar e expressed as\nmultiple pr oteins thr ough al ternativ e splicing .\n9.5 \u2022 Ho w Genes Ar e Regulat ed 217", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1739, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e26ff789-ddba-4fde-bcbb-18f1b141b6d0": {"__data__": {"id_": "e26ff789-ddba-4fde-bcbb-18f1b141b6d0", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "232", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6ec2f156-b185-4e25-8f37-708fc10ecc3a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "232", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "604c4c22b000ac9bc45ed348725e029fc8f4531952fafb14969cbf448e07d6a0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 9.23 Ther e are fiv e basic modes o f alternativ e splicing . Segments o f pre-mRNA with e xons sho wn in blue , red, or ange, and pink can\nbe splic ed to produc e a v ariety o f new matur e mRNA segments .\nHow could al ternativ e splicing e volve? Intr ons ha ve a beginning and ending r ecognition sequenc e, and it is eas y to\nimagine the failur e of the splicing mechanism t o identif y the end o f an intr on and find the end o f the ne xt intr on, thus\nremo ving tw o intr ons and the int ervening e xon. In fact, ther e are mechanisms in plac e to prevent such e xon\nskipping , but mutations ar e lik ely to lead t o their failur e. Such \u201c mistakes\u201d w ould mor e than lik ely produc e a\nnonfunctional pr otein. Indeed, the cause o f man y genetic diseases is al ternativ e splicing r ather than mutations in a\nsequenc e. However, alternativ e splicing w ould cr eate a pr otein v ariant without the los s of the original pr otein,\nopening up pos sibilities f or adap tation o f the ne w variant t o ne w functions . Gene duplication has pla yed an\nimpor tant r ole in the e volution o f new functions in a similar w ay\u2014by providing g enes that ma y evolve without\neliminating the original functional pr otein.218 9 \u2022 Molecular Biology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1282, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ca9026ba-3669-4c6e-9b75-fac9ba3466ac": {"__data__": {"id_": "ca9026ba-3669-4c6e-9b75-fac9ba3466ac", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "233", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "24deb65b-79a3-4f9f-8143-b096bc04eace", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "233", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2ebed5f05d6c8a672c854c4d4959a659b71f7b83c20d0d8075fd88197808a777", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "d82164dd-1085-465c-8576-dfc04cd31c17", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "efa7e39d010d473bd1817c164006b2120c3be80c981eedec7a6403f3f8b8428c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nalterna tive RNA splicing a pos t-transcrip tional g ene\nregulation mechanism in euk aryotes in which\nmultiple pr otein pr oducts ar e produc ed b y a single\ngene thr ough al ternativ e splicing c ombinations o f\nthe RNA tr anscrip t\ncodon three c onsecutiv e nucleotides in mRNA that\nspecif y the addition o f a specific amino acid or the\nrelease o f a pol ypep tide chain during tr anslation\ndeoxyribose a fiv e-carbon sug ar molecule with a\nhydrogen at om r ather than a h ydroxyl gr oup in the\n2' position; the sug ar component o f DNA\nnucleotides\nDNA lig ase the enzyme that catal yzes the joining o f\nDNA fr agments t ogether\nDNA pol ymer ase an enzyme that s ynthesiz es a ne w\nstrand o f DNA c omplementar y to a t emplat e strand\ndouble helix the molecular shape o f DNA in which\ntwo strands o f nucleotides wind ar ound each other\nin a spir al shape\nepig enetic describing non-g enetic r egulatory fact ors,\nsuch as chang es in modifications t o his tone pr oteins\nand DNA that c ontr ol ac cessibility t o genes in\nchromosomes\nexon a sequenc e present in pr otein-c oding mRNA\nafter completion o f pre-mRNA splicing\ngene e xpression processes that c ontr ol whether a\ngene is e xpressed\ngenetic c ode the amino acids that c orrespond t o\nthree-nucleotide c odons o f mRNA\nhelicase an enzyme that helps t o open up the DNA\nhelix during DNA r eplication b y breaking the\nhydrogen bonds\nintron non\u2013pr otein-c oding int ervening sequenc es\nthat ar e splic ed fr om mRNA during pr ocessing\nlagging s trand during r eplication o f the 3' t o 5'\nstrand, the s trand that is r eplicat ed in shor t\nfragments and a way from the r eplication f ork\nleading s trand the s trand that is s ynthesiz ed\ncontinuousl y in the 5' t o 3' dir ection that is\nsynthesiz ed in the dir ection o f the r eplication f ork\nmisma tch repair a form o f DNA r epair in which non-\ncomplementar y nucleotides ar e recogniz ed,\nexcised, and r eplac ed with c orrect nucleotides\nmRNA mes seng er RNA; a f orm o f RNA that carries\nthe nucleotide sequenc e code f or a pr otein\nsequenc e that is tr anslat ed int o a pol ypep tide\nsequenc e\nmuta tion a permanent v ariation in the nucleotide\nsequenc e of a g enome\nnitrogenous base a nitr ogen-c ontaining molecule\nthat acts as a base; o ften referring t o one o f the\npurine or p yrimidine c omponents o f nucleic acidsnont empla te strand the s trand o f DNA that is not\nused t o transcribe mRNA; this s trand is identical t o\nthe mRNA e xcept that T nucleotides in the DNA ar e\nreplac ed b y U nucleotides in the mRNA\nnucleo tide e xcision r epair a form o f DNA r epair in\nwhich the DNA molecule is un wound and separ ated\nin the r egion o f the nucleotide damag e, the\ndamag ed nucleotides ar e remo ved and r eplac ed\nwith ne w nucleotides using the c omplementar y\nstrand,", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2814, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d82164dd-1085-465c-8576-dfc04cd31c17": {"__data__": {"id_": "d82164dd-1085-465c-8576-dfc04cd31c17", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "233", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "24deb65b-79a3-4f9f-8143-b096bc04eace", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "233", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2ebed5f05d6c8a672c854c4d4959a659b71f7b83c20d0d8075fd88197808a777", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "ca9026ba-3669-4c6e-9b75-fac9ba3466ac", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "233", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "302a690d37f2988dcea5ca2b405a70ed2c0264faaa2581ebd97f709d27bd2a62", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "o ften referring t o one o f the\npurine or p yrimidine c omponents o f nucleic acidsnont empla te strand the s trand o f DNA that is not\nused t o transcribe mRNA; this s trand is identical t o\nthe mRNA e xcept that T nucleotides in the DNA ar e\nreplac ed b y U nucleotides in the mRNA\nnucleo tide e xcision r epair a form o f DNA r epair in\nwhich the DNA molecule is un wound and separ ated\nin the r egion o f the nucleotide damag e, the\ndamag ed nucleotides ar e remo ved and r eplac ed\nwith ne w nucleotides using the c omplementar y\nstrand, and the DNA s trand is r esealed and al lowed\nto rejoin its c omplement\nOkazaki fr agments the DNA fr agments that ar e\nsynthesiz ed in shor t stretches on the lag ging s trand\nphospha te group a molecular gr oup c onsis ting o f a\ncentr al phosphorus at om bound t o four o xygen\natoms\npost-transcrip tional contr ol of gene e xpression aft er\nthe RNA molecule has been cr eated but bef ore it is\ntranslat ed int o protein\npost-transla tional contr ol of gene e xpression aft er a\nprotein has been cr eated\nprimer a shor t stretch o f RNA nucleotides that is\nrequir ed to initiat e replication and al low DNA\npolymer ase t o bind and begin r eplication\npromo ter a sequenc e on DNA t o which RNA\npolymer ase and as sociat ed fact ors bind and initiat e\ntranscrip tion\nreplica tion f ork the Y -shaped s tructur e formed\nduring the initiation o f replication\nRNA pol ymer ase an enzyme that s ynthesiz es an RNA\nstrand fr om a DNA t emplat e strand\nrRNA ribosomal RNA; molecules o f RNA that c ombine\nto form par t of the ribosome\nsemic onser vative replica tion the method used t o\nreplicat e DNA in which the double -stranded\nmolecule is separ ated and each s trand acts as a\ntemplat e for a ne w strand t o be s ynthesiz ed, so the\nresul ting DNA molecules ar e composed o f one ne w\nstrand o f nucleotides and one old s trand o f\nnucleotides\nsplicing the pr ocess of remo ving intr ons and\nreconnecting e xons in a pr e-mRNA\nstart codon the A UG (or , rarely GUG) on an mRNA\nfrom which tr anslation begins; al ways specifies\nmethionine\nstop c odon one o f the thr ee mRNA c odons that\nspecifies t ermination o f translation\ntelomer ase an enzyme that c ontains a catal ytic par t\nand an inbuil t RNA t emplat e; it functions t o maintain\ntelomer es at chr omosome ends\ntelomer ethe DNA at the end o f linear chr omosomes\ntempla te strand the s trand o f DNA that specifies the9 \u2022 K ey Terms 219", "start_char_idx": 2271, "end_char_idx": 4713, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "67b6ded7-e1b8-473f-9d8e-7f4e75bafe20": {"__data__": {"id_": "67b6ded7-e1b8-473f-9d8e-7f4e75bafe20", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "234", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e4e84c06-0052-4f15-aa78-c2e699f78db2", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "234", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9d807375f543d12a7055114b38d9719d4ebcc9679713d4240a94aba8bdcc239f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "492f7afc-6014-47b8-af45-f37684028b0e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "9ce502126e0e56e34bc3b1e90d14aeb9b16b1fdbc71f2e2c1bf668a553ab5e01", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "complementar y mRNA molecule\ntranscrip tion bubble the r egion o f local ly un wound\nDNA that al lows for tr anscrip tion o f mRNA\ntRNA transfer RNA; an RNA molecule that c ontains aspecific thr ee-nucleotide antic odon sequenc e to\npair with the mRNA c odon and also binds t o a\nspecific amino acid\nChap ter Summar y\n9.1The S tructure of DNA\nThe model o f the double -helix s tructur e of DNA w as\nproposed b y Watson and Crick. The DNA molecule is a\npolymer o f nucleotides . Each nucleotide is c omposed\nof a nitr ogenous base , a fiv e-carbon sug ar\n(deo xyribose), and a phosphat e group. Ther e are four\nnitrogenous bases in DNA , two purines (adenine and\nguanine) and tw o pyrimidines (cyt osine and th ymine).\nA DNA molecule is c omposed o f two strands . Each\nstrand is c omposed o f nucleotides bonded t ogether\ncovalentl y betw een the phosphat e group o f one and\nthe deo xyribose sug ar of the ne xt. F rom this backbone\nextend the bases . The bases o f one s trand bond t o the\nbases o f the sec ond s trand with h ydrogen bonds .\nAdenine al ways bonds with th ymine , and cyt osine\nalways bonds with g uanine . The bonding causes the\ntwo strands t o spir al ar ound each other in a shape\ncalled a double helix. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a\nsecond nucleic acid f ound in c ells. RNA is a single -\nstranded pol ymer o f nucleotides . It also diff ers fr om\nDNA in that it c ontains the sug ar ribose , rather than\ndeoxyribose , and the nucleotide ur acil r ather than\nthymine . Various RNA molecules function in the\nprocess of forming pr oteins fr om the g enetic c ode in\nDNA .\nProkaryotes contain a single , double -stranded cir cular\nchromosome . Euk aryotes contain double -stranded\nlinear DNA molecules pack aged int o chr omosomes .\nThe DNA helix is wr apped ar ound pr oteins t o form\nnucleosomes . The pr otein c oils ar e fur ther c oiled, and\nduring mit osis and meiosis , the chr omosomes bec ome\neven mor e greatly coiled t o facilitat e their mo vement.\nChromosomes ha ve tw o dis tinct r egions which can be\ndistinguished b y staining , reflecting diff erent degr ees\nof pack aging and det ermined b y whether the DNA in a\nregion is being e xpressed (euchr omatin) or not\n(het erochr omatin).\n9.2DNA R eplic ation\nDNA r eplicat es b y a semi-c onser vative method in\nwhich each o f the tw o par ental DNA s trands act as a\ntemplat e for ne w DNA t o be s ynthesiz ed. Aft er\nreplication, each DNA has one par ental or \u201c old\u201d s trand,\nand one daught er or \u201c new\u201d strand.\nReplication in euk aryotes starts at mul tiple origins o f\nreplication, while r eplication in pr okaryotes starts froma single origin o f replication. The DNA is opened with\nenzymes , resul ting in the f ormation o f the r eplication\nfork. P rimase s ynthesiz es an RNA primer t o initiat e\nsynthesis b y DNA pol ymer ase, which can add\nnucleotides in onl y one dir ection. One s trand is\nsynthesiz ed c ontinuousl y in the dir ection o f the\nreplication f ork; this is cal led the leading s trand. The\nother s trand is s ynthesiz ed in a dir ection a way from the\nreplication f ork, in shor t stretches o f DNA kno wn as\nOkazaki fr agments . This s trand is kno wn as the lag ging\nstrand.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3185, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "492f7afc-6014-47b8-af45-f37684028b0e": {"__data__": {"id_": "492f7afc-6014-47b8-af45-f37684028b0e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "234", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e4e84c06-0052-4f15-aa78-c2e699f78db2", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "234", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9d807375f543d12a7055114b38d9719d4ebcc9679713d4240a94aba8bdcc239f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "67b6ded7-e1b8-473f-9d8e-7f4e75bafe20", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "234", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "79e6ed1e951f1398295c0f12eda04bd952d5538284f3e1cfc39f18e6547d9131", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The DNA is opened with\nenzymes , resul ting in the f ormation o f the r eplication\nfork. P rimase s ynthesiz es an RNA primer t o initiat e\nsynthesis b y DNA pol ymer ase, which can add\nnucleotides in onl y one dir ection. One s trand is\nsynthesiz ed c ontinuousl y in the dir ection o f the\nreplication f ork; this is cal led the leading s trand. The\nother s trand is s ynthesiz ed in a dir ection a way from the\nreplication f ork, in shor t stretches o f DNA kno wn as\nOkazaki fr agments . This s trand is kno wn as the lag ging\nstrand. Onc e replication is c omplet ed, the RNA primers\nare replac ed b y DNA nucleotides and the DNA is sealed\nwith DNA lig ase.\nThe ends o f euk aryotic chr omosomes pose a pr oblem,\nas pol ymer ase is unable t o extend them without a\nprimer . Telomer ase, an enzyme with an inbuil t RNA\ntemplat e, extends the ends b y copying the RNA\ntemplat e and e xtending one end o f the chr omosome .\nDNA pol ymer ase can then e xtend the DNA using the\nprimer . In this w ay, the ends o f the chr omosomes ar e\nprotected. Cel ls ha ve mechanisms f or repairing DNA\nwhen it bec omes damag ed or err ors ar e made in\nreplication. These mechanisms include mismat ch\nrepair t o replac e nucleotides that ar e pair ed with a\nnon-c omplementar y base and nucleotide e xcision\nrepair , which r emo ves bases that ar e damag ed such as\nthymine dimers .\n9.3Transcrip tion\nIn pr okaryotes, mRNA s ynthesis is initiat ed at a\npromot er sequenc e on the DNA t emplat e. Elong ation\nsynthesiz es ne w mRNA . Termination liber ates the\nmRNA and oc curs b y mechanisms that s tall the RNA\npolymer ase and cause it t o fal l off the DNA t emplat e.\nNewly transcribed euk aryotic mRNAs ar e modified with\na cap and a pol y-A tail . These s tructur es pr otect the\nmatur e mRNA fr om degr adation and help e xpor t it fr om\nthe nucleus . Euk aryotic mRNAs also under go splicing ,\nin which intr ons ar e remo ved and e xons ar e\nreconnect ed with single -nucleotide ac curacy. Onl y\nfinished mRNAs ar e expor ted fr om the nucleus t o the\ncytoplasm.\n9.4Translation\nThe c entr al dogma describes the flo w of genetic\ninformation in the c ell from g enes t o mRNA t o proteins .\nGenes ar e used t o mak e mRNA b y the pr ocess of220 9 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2647, "end_char_idx": 4940, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9c0a0dd1-ae46-4783-b62e-c1b87ee612d3": {"__data__": {"id_": "9c0a0dd1-ae46-4783-b62e-c1b87ee612d3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "235", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b5880340-87b2-4b27-ab80-7e4820d904bd", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "235", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "221b468abda2cab1be22b0a1bda11cb9ab961bbb9cad4ed9e7969f270625709e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "bbdaf810-c318-4553-94f5-319c5cb9265a", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "eadd8ddfad72a831eaa0ec0feae9c8b36766876b5b87071e6bcb79e9aa303b40", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "transcrip tion; mRNA is used t o synthesiz e proteins b y\nthe pr ocess of translation. The g enetic c ode is the\ncorrespondenc e betw een the thr ee-nucleotide mRNA\ncodon and an amino acid. The g enetic c ode is\n\u201ctranslat ed\u201d b y the tRNA molecules , which as sociat e a\nspecific c odon with a specific amino acid. The g enetic\ncode is deg ener ate because 64 triplet c odons in mRNA\nspecif y onl y 20 amino acids and thr ee s top c odons .\nThis means that mor e than one c odon c orresponds t o\nan amino acid. Almos t every species on the planet uses\nthe same g enetic c ode.\nThe pla yers in tr anslation include the mRNA t emplat e,\nribosomes , tRNAs , and v arious enzymatic fact ors. The\nsmal l ribosomal subunit binds t o the mRNA t emplat e.\nTranslation begins at the initiating A UG on the mRNA .\nThe f ormation o f bonds oc curs betw een sequential\namino acids specified b y the mRNA t emplat e ac cording\nto the g enetic c ode. The ribosome ac cepts char ged\ntRNAs , and as it s teps along the mRNA , it catal yzes\nbonding betw een the ne w amino acid and the end o f\nthe gr owing pol ypep tide. The entir e mRNA is tr anslat ed\nin thr ee-nucleotide \u201c steps\u201d o f the ribosome . When a\nstop c odon is enc ount ered, a r elease fact or binds anddissociat es the c omponents and fr ees the ne w pr otein.\n9.5How Genes Ar e Regulat ed\nWhile al l somatic c ells within an or ganism c ontain the\nsame DNA , not al l cells within that or ganism e xpress\nthe same pr oteins . Prokaryotic or ganisms e xpress the\nentir e DNA the y enc ode in e very cell, but not\nnecessaril y all at the same time . Proteins ar e\nexpressed onl y when the y are needed. Euk aryotic\norganisms e xpress a subset o f the DNA that is enc oded\nin an y giv en c ell. In each c ell type , the type and amount\nof protein is r egulated b y contr olling g ene e xpression.\nTo express a pr otein, the DNA is firs t transcribed int o\nRNA , which is then tr anslat ed int o proteins . In\nprokaryotic c ells, these pr ocesses oc cur almos t\nsimul taneousl y. In euk aryotic c ells, transcrip tion\noccurs in the nucleus and is separ ate from the\ntranslation that oc curs in the cyt oplasm. Gene\nexpression in pr okaryotes is r egulated onl y at the\ntranscrip tional le vel, wher eas in euk aryotic c ells, gene\nexpression is r egulated at the epig enetic,\ntranscrip tional , pos t-transcrip tional , translational , and\npost-translational le vels.\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 9.10 You isolat e a c ell strain in which the\njoining t ogether o f Ok azaki fr agments is impair ed\nand suspect that a mutation has oc curr ed in an\nenzyme f ound at the r eplication f ork. Which enzyme\nis mos t likely to be mutat ed?\nReview Ques tions\n2.Which o f the f ollowing does cyt osine pair with?\na.guanine\nb.thymine\nc.adenine\nd.a pyrimidine\n3.Prokaryotes contain a ________ chromosome , and\neukaryotes contain ________ chr omosomes .\na.single -stranded cir cular; single -stranded linear\nb.single -stranded linear; single -stranded cir cular\nc.double -stranded cir cular; double -stranded\nlinear\nd.double -stranded linear; double -stranded\ncircular\n4.DNA r eplicat es b y which o f the f ollowing models?", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3170, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bbdaf810-c318-4553-94f5-319c5cb9265a": {"__data__": {"id_": "bbdaf810-c318-4553-94f5-319c5cb9265a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "235", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b5880340-87b2-4b27-ab80-7e4820d904bd", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "235", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "221b468abda2cab1be22b0a1bda11cb9ab961bbb9cad4ed9e7969f270625709e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "9c0a0dd1-ae46-4783-b62e-c1b87ee612d3", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "235", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c5918d284337c4325f6da2ed8db90becd7445942518675954f2749f89d33b43c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Which enzyme\nis mos t likely to be mutat ed?\nReview Ques tions\n2.Which o f the f ollowing does cyt osine pair with?\na.guanine\nb.thymine\nc.adenine\nd.a pyrimidine\n3.Prokaryotes contain a ________ chromosome , and\neukaryotes contain ________ chr omosomes .\na.single -stranded cir cular; single -stranded linear\nb.single -stranded linear; single -stranded cir cular\nc.double -stranded cir cular; double -stranded\nlinear\nd.double -stranded linear; double -stranded\ncircular\n4.DNA r eplicat es b y which o f the f ollowing models?\na.conser vative\nb.semic onser vative\nc.dispersiv e\nd.none o f the abo ve5.The initial mechanism f or repairing nucleotide\nerrors in DNA is ________.\na.mismat ch repair\nb.DNA pol ymer ase pr oofreading\nc.nucleotide e xcision r epair\nd.thymine dimers\n6.A pr omot er is ________.\na.a specific sequenc e of DNA nucleotides\nb.a specific sequenc e of RNA nucleotides\nc.a protein that binds t o DNA\nd.an enzyme that s ynthesiz es RNA\n7.Portions o f euk aryotic mRNA sequenc e that ar e\nremo ved during RNA pr ocessing ar e ________.\na.exons\nb.caps\nc.poly-A tails\nd.introns9 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions 221", "start_char_idx": 2646, "end_char_idx": 3774, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "520cceed-9ac9-4464-8aa8-e1122feb2632": {"__data__": {"id_": "520cceed-9ac9-4464-8aa8-e1122feb2632", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "236", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3be624ef-7635-4397-a369-ff00370e71b2", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "236", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "82a11e26cf432c5a8a68f55d6c3668dd09b597780eb5b29e4393aba04d7492ea", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "8.The RNA c omponents o f ribosomes ar e synthesiz ed\nin the ________.\na.cytoplasm\nb.nucleus\nc.nucleolus\nd.endoplasmic r eticulum\n9.How long w ould the pep tide be that is tr anslat ed\nfrom this MRNA sequenc e: 5'-A UGGGCU ACCGA-3'?\na.0\nb.2\nc.3\nd.410.Contr ol of gene e xpression in euk aryotic c ells\noccurs at which le vel(s)?\na.only the tr anscrip tional le vel\nb.epig enetic and tr anscrip tional le vels\nc.epig enetic, tr anscrip tional , and tr anslational\nlevels\nd.epig enetic, tr anscrip tional , pos t-\ntranscrip tional , translational , and pos t-\ntranslational le vels\n11.Post-translational c ontr ol refers t o:\na.regulation o f gene e xpression aft er\ntranscrip tion\nb.regulation o f gene e xpression aft er tr anslation\nc.contr ol of epig enetic activ ation\nd.period betw een tr anscrip tion and tr anslation\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n12.Describe the or ganization o f the euk aryotic\nchromosome .\n13.Describe the s tructur e and c omplementar y base\npairing o f DNA .\n14.How do the linear chr omosomes in euk aryotes\nensur e that its ends ar e replicat ed c omplet ely?15.Transcribe and tr anslat e the f ollowing DNA\nsequenc e (nont emplat e strand): 5'-\nATGGC CGGTTATTAAGCA -3'\n16.Describe ho w contr olling g ene e xpression wil l\nalter the o verall protein le vels in the c ell.222 9 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1372, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "30106663-3e2f-4bc8-9d77-73b7ff3dba2e": {"__data__": {"id_": "30106663-3e2f-4bc8-9d77-73b7ff3dba2e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "237", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1d735ae4-c31c-4d2e-817d-36d1331ded41", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "237", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "674cdcbe5d42d5e0f5f67022263a0b0f0aa2306d175e4a568f1813ba212c5d70", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 10\nBiotechnolog y\n10.1 Cloning and Genetic Engineering\n10.2 Biotechnolog y in Medicine and Agricul ture\n10.3 Genomics and P roteomics\nThe lat ter half o f the tw entieth c entur y beg an with the disc overy of the s tructur e\nof DNA , then pr ogressed t o the de velopment o f the basic t ools used t o study and manipulat e DNA .\nThese adv ances, as w ell as adv ances in our unders tanding o f and ability t o manipulat e cells, have\nled some t o refer to the tw enty -firs t centur y as the biot echnolog y centur y. The r ate of disc overy\nand o f the de velopment o f new applications in medicine , agricul ture, and ener gy is e xpect ed to\naccelerate, bringing hug e benefits t o humankind and perhaps also significant risk s. Man y of these\ndevelopments ar e expect ed to raise significant ethical and social ques tions that human societies\nhave not y et had t o consider .\n10.1 Cloning and Gene tic Engineering\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain the basic t echniques used t o manipulat e genetic mat erial\n\u2022Explain molecular and r eproductiv e cloning\nBiotechnolog yis the use o f artificial methods t o modif y the g enetic mat erial o f living or ganisms or\ncells to produc e no vel compounds or t o per form ne w functions . Biot echnolog y has been used f or\nimpr oving liv estock and cr ops sinc e the beginning o f agricul ture thr ough selectiv e breeding . Sinc e\nthe disc overy of the s tructur e of DNA in 1953, and par ticularl y sinc e the de velopment o f tools and\nmethods t o manipulat e DNA in the 1970s , biot echnolog y has bec ome s ynon ymous with the\nmanipulation o f organisms\u2019 DNA at the molecular le vel. The primar y applications o f this\ntechnolog y are in medicine (f or the pr oduction o f vaccines and antibiotics) and in agricul ture (forFIGURE 10.1 (a) A thermal cy cler, such as the one sho wn her e, is a basic t ool used t o study DNA in a pr ocess cal led\nthe pol ymer ase chain r eaction (PCR). The pol ymer ase enzyme mos t often used with PCR c omes fr om a s train o f\nbact eria that liv es in (b) the hot springs o f Yellowstone National P ark. (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Magnus\nMansk e; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Jon Sul livan)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2289, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "dca35717-34ee-4f0f-a3fe-da668efac8d9": {"__data__": {"id_": "dca35717-34ee-4f0f-a3fe-da668efac8d9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "238", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9c4ded68-5f26-424e-b748-f1eadd9ea168", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "238", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0a099de8a7a8cfb383bffe106670e4deea00d263850318b74decfa5f94229edb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "the g enetic modification o f crops). Biot echnolog y also has man y indus trial applications , such as\nfermentation, the tr eatment o f oil spil ls, and the pr oduction o f bio fuels , as w ell as man y\nhousehold applications such as the use o f enzymes in laundr y det ergent.\nManipulating Gene tic Mat erial\nTo ac complish the applications described abo ve, biot echnologis ts mus t be able t o extract,\nmanipulat e, and anal yze nucleic acids .\nReview of Nucleic A cid S tructure\nTo unders tand the basic t echniques used t o work with nucleic acids , remember that nucleic acids\nare macr omolecules made o f nucleotides (a sug ar, a phosphat e, and a nitr ogenous base). The\nphosphat e groups on these molecules each ha ve a net neg ative char ge. An entir e set o f DNA\nmolecules in the nucleus o f euk aryotic or ganisms is cal led the g enome . DNA has tw o\ncomplementar y strands link ed b y hydrogen bonds betw een the pair ed bases .\nUnlik e DNA in euk aryotic c ells, RNA molecules lea ve the nucleus . Mes seng er RNA (mRNA) is\nanal yzed mos t frequentl y because it r epresents the pr otein-c oding g enes that ar e being e xpressed\nin the c ell.\nIsolation o f Nucleic A cids\nTo study or manipulat e nucleic acids , the DNA mus t firs t be e xtracted fr om c ells. Various\ntechniques ar e used t o extract diff erent types o f DNA ( Figure 10.2 ). Mos t nucleic acid e xtraction\ntechniques in volve steps t o break open the c ell, and then the use o f enzymatic r eactions t o\ndestroy all undesir ed macr omolecules . Cel ls ar e broken open using a det ergent solution\ncontaining buff ering c ompounds . To prevent degr adation and c ontamination, macr omolecules\nsuch as pr oteins and RNA ar e inactiv ated using enzymes . The DNA is then br ought out o f solution\nusing alc ohol . The r esul ting DNA , because it is made up o f long pol ymers , forms a g elatinous\nmas s.\nFIGURE 10.2 This diagr am sho ws the basic method used f or the e xtraction o f DNA .\nRNA is s tudied t o unders tand g ene e xpression pat terns in c ells. RNA is natur ally very uns table\nbecause enzymes that br eak do wn RNA ar e commonl y present in natur e. Some ar e even secr eted\nby our o wn skin and ar e very difficul t to inactiv ate. Similar t o DNA e xtraction, RNA e xtraction\ninvolves the use o f various buff ers and enzymes t o inactiv ate other macr omolecules and pr eser ve\nonly the RNA .224 10 \u2022 Bio technology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2455, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "31b3351f-d2e8-4f07-a44b-ab48f189e727": {"__data__": {"id_": "31b3351f-d2e8-4f07-a44b-ab48f189e727", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "239", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7a66a5b5-0f7d-48ec-9abe-ea7e67e2a53e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "239", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "195b5a9daa1f26463658d701b11895b631044521ded3269069f7bade3d058959", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Gel Elec trophor esis\nBecause nucleic acids ar e neg atively char ged ions at neutr al or alk aline pH in an aqueous en vironment, the y can be\nmoved b y an electric field. Gel electr ophor esis is a t echnique used t o separ ate char ged molecules on the basis o f\nsize and char ge. The nucleic acids can be separ ated as whole chr omosomes or as fr agments . The nucleic acids ar e\nloaded int o a slot at one end o f a g el matrix, an electric curr ent is applied, and neg atively char ged molecules ar e\npulled t oward the opposit e end o f the g el (the end with the positiv e electr ode). Smal ler molecules mo ve thr ough the\npores in the g el fas ter than lar ger molecules; this diff erence in the r ate of migr ation separ ates the fr agments on the\nbasis o f size. The nucleic acids in a g el matrix ar e invisible until the y are stained with a c ompound that al lows them\nto be seen, such as a dy e. Dis tinct fr agments o f nucleic acids appear as bands at specific dis tanc es fr om the t op o f\nthe g el (the neg ative electr ode end) that ar e based on their siz e (Figure 10.3 ). A mixtur e of man y fragments o f\nvarying siz es appear as a long smear , wher eas uncut g enomic DNA is usual ly too lar ge to run thr ough the g el and\nforms a single lar ge band at the t op o f the g el.\nFIGURE 10.3 Shown ar e DNA fr agments fr om six samples run on a g el, stained with a fluor escent dy e and vie wed under UV light. (cr edit:\nmodification o f work b y James Jac ob, Tompkins Cor tland Community Col lege)\nPolymer ase Chain R eaction\nDNA anal ysis o ften requir es focusing on one or mor e specific r egions o f the g enome . It also fr equentl y involves\nsituations in which onl y one or a f ew copies o f a DNA molecule ar e available f or fur ther anal ysis. These amounts ar e\ninsufficient f or mos t procedur es, such as g el electr ophor esis.Polymer ase chain r eaction (PCR) is a t echnique used\nto rapidl y incr ease the number o f copies o f specific r egions o f DNA f or fur ther anal yses ( Figure 10.4 ). PCR uses a\nspecial f orm o f DNA pol ymer ase, the enzyme that r eplicat es DNA , and other shor t nucleotide sequenc es cal led\nprimers that base pair t o a specific por tion o f the DNA being r eplicat ed. PCR is used f or man y purposes in\nlabor atories . These include: 1) the identification o f the o wner o f a DNA sample left at a crime sc ene; 2) pat ernity\nanal ysis; 3) the c omparison o f smal l amounts o f ancient DNA with modern or ganisms; and 4) det ermining the\nsequenc e of nucleotides in a specific r egion.10.1 \u2022 Cloning and Gene tic Engineering 225", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2607, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "16cfd0f6-da7c-4906-a012-ee795d54760e": {"__data__": {"id_": "16cfd0f6-da7c-4906-a012-ee795d54760e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "240", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7874803c-70e0-46ad-a465-c883e5868f51", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "240", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a07c7214e006f29eaa5e63762708a3c5fe040bc9a453793423987fa09ac4a8e3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 10.4 Polymer ase chain r eaction, or PCR, is used t o produc e man y copies o f a specific sequenc e of DNA using a special f orm o f DNA\npolymer ase.\nCloning\nIn gener al,cloning means the cr eation o f a per fect r eplica . Typical ly, the w ord is used t o describe the cr eation o f a\ngenetical ly identical c opy. In biolog y, the r e-creation o f a whole or ganism is r eferred to as \u201c reproductiv e cloning .\u201d\nLong bef ore attemp ts w ere made t o clone an entir e organism, r esear chers learned ho w to copy shor t stretches o f\nDNA \u2014a pr ocess that is r eferred to as molecular cloning . The t echnique o ffered methods t o create ne w medicines\nand t o overcome difficul ties with e xisting ones . When L ydia Vil la-Komar off, working in the Gilber t Lab at Har vard,\npublished the firs t paper outlining the t echnique f or pr oducing s ynthetic insulin, diabet es resear chers and patients\nreceived ne w hope in fighting the disease . Insulin at that time w as onl y produc ed using pig and c ow pancr eases , and\nthe lif e-saving subs tanc e was o ften in shor t suppl y. Synthetic insulin, onc e mas s produc ed, w ould sol ve that\nproblem f or man y patients . These earl y disc overies led t o the \"Bio Tech Boom, \" and spurr ed c ontinued r esear ch and\nfunding f or ne wer and bet ter w ays to impr ove heal th.\nMolecular Cloning\nCloning al lows for the cr eation o f mul tiple c opies o f genes , expression o f genes , and s tudy o f specific g enes . To get\nthe DNA fr agment int o a bact erial c ell in a f orm that wil l be c opied or e xpressed, the fr agment is firs t inser ted int o a\nplasmid. A plasmid (also cal led a v ector in this c ontext) is a smal l circular DNA molecule that r eplicat es\nindependentl y of the chr omosomal DNA in bact eria. In cloning , the plasmid molecules can be used t o provide a226 10 \u2022 Bio technology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1903, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5ff49644-7be0-48f6-b3aa-4e201dce9c55": {"__data__": {"id_": "5ff49644-7be0-48f6-b3aa-4e201dce9c55", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "241", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b1999719-1918-491f-94b6-861b9b66fd84", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "241", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "86f91b2400f8c9a429915f63184722628b1afeb9d7f4d6e52853b1398689094b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "\"vehicle \" in which t o inser t a desir ed DNA fr agment. Modified plasmids ar e usual ly reintr oduc ed int o a bact erial hos t\nfor replication. As the bact eria divide , the y copy their o wn DNA (including the plasmids). The inser ted DNA fr agment\nis copied along with the r est of the bact erial DNA . In a bact erial c ell, the fr agment o f DNA fr om the human g enome\n(or another or ganism that is being s tudied) is r eferred to as f oreign DNA t o diff erentiat e it fr om the DNA o f the\nbact erium (the hos t DNA).\nPlasmids oc cur natur ally in bact erial populations (such as Escherichia c oli) and ha ve genes that can c ontribut e\nfavorable tr aits t o the or ganism, such as antibiotic r esistanc e (the ability t o be unaff ected b y antibiotics). Plasmids\nhave been highl y engineer ed as v ectors f or molecular cloning and f or the subsequent lar ge-scale pr oduction o f\nimpor tant molecules , such as insulin. A v aluable char acteristic o f plasmid v ectors is the ease with which a f oreign\nDNA fr agment can be intr oduc ed. These plasmid v ectors c ontain man y shor t DNA sequenc es that can be cut with\ndifferent c ommonl y available restriction enzymes . Restriction enzymes (also cal led r estriction endonucleases)\nrecogniz e specific DNA sequenc es and cut them in a pr edictable manner; the y are natur ally produc ed b y bact eria as\na def ense mechanism ag ains t foreign DNA . Man y restriction enzymes mak e staggered cuts in the tw o strands o f\nDNA , such that the cut ends ha ve a 2- t o 4-nucleotide single -stranded o verhang . The sequenc e that is r ecogniz ed b y\nthe r estriction enzyme is a f our- to eight -nucleotide sequenc e that is a palindr ome . Like with a w ord palindr ome , this\nmeans the sequenc e reads the same f orward and backw ard. In mos t cases , the sequenc e reads the same f orward\non one s trand and backw ard on the c omplementar y strand. When a s taggered cut is made in a sequenc e lik e this ,\nthe o verhangs ar e complementar y (Figure 10.5 ).\nFIGURE 10.5 In this (a) six -nucleotide r estriction enzyme r ecognition sit e, notic e that the sequenc e of six nucleotides r eads the same in the\n5' to 3' dir ection on one s trand as it does in the 5' t o 3' dir ection on the c omplementar y strand. This is kno wn as a palindr ome . (b) The\nrestriction enzyme mak es br eaks in the DNA s trands , and (c) the cut in the DNA r esul ts in \u201c sticky ends\u201d . Another piec e of DNA cut on either\nend b y the same r estriction enzyme c ould at tach t o these s ticky ends and be inser ted int o the g ap made b y this cut.\nBecause these o verhangs ar e capable o f coming back t ogether b y hydrogen bonding with c omplementar y overhangs\non a piec e of DNA cut with the same r estriction enzyme , these ar e cal led \u201c sticky ends .\u201d The pr ocess of forming\nhydrogen bonds betw een c omplementar y sequenc es on single s trands t o form double -stranded DNA is cal led\nannealing . Addition o f an enzyme cal led DNA lig ase, which tak es par t in DNA r eplication in c ells, permanentl y joins\nthe DNA fr agments when the s ticky ends c ome t ogether . In this w ay, any DNA fr agment can be splic ed betw een the\ntwo ends o f a plasmid DNA that has been cut with the same r estriction enzyme ( Figure 10.6 ).10.1 \u2022 Cloning and Gene tic Engineering 227", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3321, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e89cfb90-df23-4d53-b6af-90cff0364108": {"__data__": {"id_": "e89cfb90-df23-4d53-b6af-90cff0364108", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "242", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cfd495d3-8f63-482f-ba4d-e294c3c6a5aa", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "242", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fe573c9982bb874dc4ead4eb111cbce5d432b9ba451c8b16ee74e41b7f85260d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 10.6 This diagr am sho ws the s teps in volved in molecular cloning .\nPlasmids with f oreign DNA inser ted int o them ar e cal ledrecombinant DNA molecules because the y contain ne w\ncombinations o f genetic mat erial . Proteins that ar e produc ed fr om r ecombinant DNA molecules ar e cal led\nrecombinant pr oteins . Not al l recombinant plasmids ar e capable o f expressing g enes . Plasmids ma y also be\nengineer ed to express proteins onl y when s timulat ed b y certain en vironmental fact ors, so that scientis ts can c ontr ol\nthe e xpression o f the r ecombinant pr oteins .\nReproduc tive Cloning\nReproductiv e cloning is a method used t o mak e a clone or an identical c opy of an entir e mul ticellular or ganism.\nMos t mul ticellular or ganisms under go reproduction b y sexual means , which in volves the c ontribution o f DNA fr om\ntwo individuals (par ents), making it impos sible t o gener ate an identical c opy or a clone o f either par ent. R ecent228 10 \u2022 Bio technology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1031, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ba42c5b5-654e-4a3f-99db-cd75c25d8040": {"__data__": {"id_": "ba42c5b5-654e-4a3f-99db-cd75c25d8040", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "243", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8d760c4d-968b-4b21-938e-c1f8f5f9cf14", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "243", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "17e1bbe7166c7c5bb5d16f98c136c56aaec32cd2f25a44da55cac372f27dadb9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "advances in biot echnolog y ha ve made it pos sible t o reproductiv ely clone mammals in the labor atory.\nNatur al se xual r eproduction in volves the union, during f ertilization, o f a sperm and an eg g. Each o f these g amet es is\nhaploid, meaning the y contain one set o f chr omosomes in their nuclei. The r esul ting c ell, or zy gote, is then diploid\nand c ontains tw o sets o f chr omosomes . This c ell divides mit otical ly to produc e a mul ticellular or ganism. Ho wever,\nthe union o f jus t any tw o cells cannot pr oduc e a viable zy gote; ther e are components in the cyt oplasm o f the eg g cell\nthat ar e es sential f or the earl y de velopment o f the embr yo during its firs t few cell divisions . Without these\nprovisions , ther e would be no subsequent de velopment. Ther efore, to produc e a ne w individual , both a diploid\ngenetic c omplement and an eg g cyt oplasm ar e requir ed. The appr oach t o producing an ar tificial ly cloned individual\nis to tak e the eg g cell of one individual and t o remo ve the haploid nucleus . Then a diploid nucleus fr om a body c ell of\na sec ond individual , the donor , is put int o the eg g cell. The eg g is then s timulat ed to divide so that de velopment\nproceeds . This sounds simple , but in fact it tak es man y attemp ts bef ore each o f the s teps is c omplet ed suc cessfully.\nThe firs t cloned agricul tural animal w as Dol ly, a sheep who w as born in 1996. The suc cess rate of reproductiv e\ncloning at the time w as very low. Dol ly lived for six y ears and died o f a lung tumor ( Figure 10.7 ). Ther e was\nspeculation that because the c ell DNA that g ave rise t o Dol ly came fr om an older individual , the ag e of the DNA ma y\nhave aff ected her lif e expectancy . Sinc e Dol ly, several species o f animals (such as horses , bul ls, and g oats) ha ve\nbeen suc cessfully cloned.\nTher e ha ve been at temp ts at pr oducing cloned human embr yos as sour ces o f embr yonic s tem c ells. In the\nprocedur e, the DNA fr om an adul t human is intr oduc ed int o a human eg g cell, which is then s timulat ed to divide . The\ntechnolog y is similar t o the t echnolog y that w as used t o produc e Dol ly, but the embr yo is ne ver implant ed int o a\nsurr ogate carrier . The c ells pr oduc ed ar e cal led embr yonic s tem c ells because the y ha ve the capacity t o de velop int o\nman y diff erent kinds o f cells, such as muscle or ner ve cells. The s tem c ells could be used t o resear ch and ul timat ely\nprovide ther apeutic applications , such as r eplacing damag ed tis sues . The benefit o f cloning in this ins tanc e is that\nthe c ells used t o regener ate ne w tis sues w ould be a per fect mat ch to the donor o f the original DNA . For example , a\nleuk emia patient w ould not r equir e a sibling with a tis sue mat ch for a bone -marr ow transplant. F reda Mil ler and\nElaine F uchs , working independentl y, disc overed s tem c ells in diff erent la yers o f the skin. These c ells help the skin\nrepair itself , and their disc overy ma y ha ve applications in tr eatments o f skin disease and pot ential ly other\nconditions , such as ner ve damag e.10.1 \u2022 Cloning and Gene tic Engineering 229", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3182, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "146467eb-4bbb-4bd9-9957-1c9b3c9f9615": {"__data__": {"id_": "146467eb-4bbb-4bd9-9957-1c9b3c9f9615", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "244", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cfab0a90-137d-493d-8e98-2719fff0af8b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "244", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4a08e4467e33201e8ff2661a091b3b242d44a5429055708bef10abf8846f4aab", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 10.7 Dolly the sheep w as the firs t agricul tural animal t o be cloned. T o create Dol ly, the nucleus w as remo ved fr om a donor eg g cell.\nThe enucleat ed eg g was plac ed ne xt to the other c ell, then the y were shock ed to fuse . The y were shock ed ag ain t o start division. The c ells\nwere allowed to divide f or se veral da ys until an earl y embr yonic s tage was reached, bef ore being implant ed in a surr ogate mother .\nWhy was Dol ly a Finn-Dorset and not a Sc ottish Blackfac e sheep?\nGene tic Engineering\nUsing r ecombinant DNA t echnolog y to modif y an or ganism \u2019s DNA t o achie ve desir able tr aits is cal ledgenetic\nengineering . Addition o f foreign DNA in the f orm o f recombinant DNA v ectors that ar e gener ated b y molecular\ncloning is the mos t common method o f genetic engineering . An or ganism that r eceives the r ecombinant DNA is\ncalled a genetical ly modified or ganism (GMO). If the f oreign DNA that is intr oduc ed c omes fr om a diff erent species ,\nthe hos t organism is cal ledtransg enic . Bact eria, plants , and animals ha ve been g enetical ly modified sinc e the earl y\n1970s f or academic, medical , agricul tural, and indus trial purposes . These applications wil l be e xamined in mor e\ndetail in the ne xt module .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch this shor t video (http://opens tax.org/l/transgenic) explaining ho w scientis ts cr eate a tr ansgenic animal .\nAlthough the clas sic methods o f studying the function o f genes beg an with a giv en phenotype and det ermined the\ngenetic basis o f that phenotype , modern t echniques al low resear chers t o start at the DNA sequenc e level and ask:\n\"What does this g ene or DNA element do?\" This t echnique , cal ledreverse g enetics , has r esul ted in r eversing the\nclas sical g enetic methodolog y. One e xample o f this method is analog ous t o damaging a body par t to det ermine its\nfunction. An insect that loses a wing cannot fl y, which means that the wing \u2019s function is flight. The clas sic g enetic\nmethod c ompar es insects that cannot fl y with insects that can fl y, and obser ves that the non-fl ying insects ha ve los t\nwings . Similarl y in a r everse g enetics appr oach, mutating or deleting g enes pr ovides r esear chers with clues about\ngene function. Al ternat ely, reverse g enetics can be used t o cause a g ene t o overexpress itself t o det ermine what\nphenotypic eff ects ma y oc cur.\n230 10 \u2022 Bio technology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2496, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ca35ad55-be08-4634-87a7-314fa92a6e2c": {"__data__": {"id_": "ca35ad55-be08-4634-87a7-314fa92a6e2c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "245", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d383ae69-6ef8-4277-9b30-985f9a362ff3", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "245", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2def49049644b20a9c504bc1d620b40e63a8056d1decea850c8859a4065a5621", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "10.2 Biotechnology in Medicine and A gricultur e\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe uses o f biot echnolog y in medicine\n\u2022Describe uses o f biot echnolog y in agricul ture\nIt is eas y to see ho w biot echnolog y can be used f or medicinal purposes . Knowledg e of the g enetic mak eup o f our\nspecies , the g enetic basis o f heritable diseases , and the in vention o f technolog y to manipulat e and fix mutant g enes\nprovides methods t o treat diseases . Biot echnolog y in agricul ture can enhanc e resistanc e to disease , pes ts, and\nenvironmental s tress to impr ove both cr op yield and quality .\nGene tic Diagnosis and Gene Ther apy\nThe pr ocess of testing f or suspect ed g enetic def ects bef ore adminis tering tr eatment is cal led g enetic diagnosis b y\ngenetic t esting. In some cases in which a g enetic disease is pr esent in an individual \u2019s famil y, famil y members ma y\nbe advised t o under go genetic t esting. For example , mutations in the BRCAgenes ma y incr ease the lik elihood o f\ndeveloping br east, ovarian, and some other canc ers. A person with br east canc er can be scr eened f or these\nmutations . If one o f the high-risk mutations is f ound, r elativ es ma y also wish t o be scr eened f or that par ticular\nmutation, or simpl y be mor e vigilant f or the oc curr ence of canc ers. Genetic t esting is also o ffered for fetuses (or\nembr yos with in vitr o fertilization) t o det ermine the pr esenc e or absenc e of disease -causing g enes in families with\nspecific debilitating diseases .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nSee ho whuman DNA is e xtracted(http://opens tax.org/l/DNA _extraction) for uses such as g enetic t esting.\nGene ther apyis a g enetic engineering t echnique that ma y one da y be used t o cur e certain g enetic diseases . In its\nsimples t form, it in volves the intr oduction o f a non-mutat ed g ene at a r andom location in the g enome t o cur e a\ndisease b y replacing a pr otein that ma y be absent in these individuals because o f a g enetic mutation. The non-\nmutat ed g ene is usual ly intr oduc ed int o diseased c ells as par t of a v ector tr ansmit ted b y a virus , such as an\nadeno virus , that can inf ect the hos t cell and deliv er the f oreign DNA int o the g enome o f the tar geted c ell (Figure\n10.8 ). To dat e, gene ther apies ha ve been primaril y experimental pr ocedur es in humans . A few of these e xperimental\ntreatments ha ve been suc cessful, but the methods ma y be impor tant in the futur e as the fact ors limiting its suc cess\nare resol ved.\n10.2 \u2022 Bio technology in Medicine and A gricultur e 231", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2626, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e9d0b718-a47f-4488-9cf8-dab7b01f169d": {"__data__": {"id_": "e9d0b718-a47f-4488-9cf8-dab7b01f169d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "246", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3c83a625-ffd2-412d-a1c0-f624fd8687ad", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "246", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "669cb2d1cb26d2e7314578bdf29d0b4fd22893779940d6a0aef90661077b07f3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 10.8 This diagr am sho ws the s teps in volved in curing disease with g ene ther apy using an adeno virus v ector. (credit: modification o f\nwork b y NIH)\nProduc tion o f Vaccines , Antibio tics, and Hormones\nTraditional v accination s trategies use w eakened or inactiv e forms o f micr oorganisms or viruses t o stimulat e the\nimmune s ystem. Modern t echniques use specific g enes o f micr oorganisms cloned int o vectors and mas s-produc ed\nin bact eria t o mak e lar ge quantities o f specific subs tanc es to stimulat e the immune s ystem. The subs tanc e is then\nused as a v accine . In some cases , such as the H1N1 flu v accine , genes cloned fr om the virus ha ve been used t o\ncombat the c onstantl y changing s trains o f this virus .\nAntibiotics kil l bact eria and ar e natur ally produc ed b y micr oorganisms such as fungi; penicil lin is perhaps the mos t\nwell-kno wn e xample . Antibiotics ar e produc ed on a lar ge scale b y cul tivating and manipulating fung al cells. The\nfung al cells ha ve typical ly been g enetical ly modified t o impr ove the yields o f the antibiotic c ompound.\nRecombinant DNA t echnolog y was used t o produc e lar ge-scale quantities o f the human hormone insulin in E. colias\nearly as 1978. P reviousl y, it w as onl y pos sible t o treat diabet es with pig insulin, which caused al lergic r eactions in\nman y humans because o f diff erences in the insulin molecule . In addition, human gr owth hormone (HGH) is used t o\ntreat gr owth disor ders in childr en. The HGH g ene w as cloned fr om a cDNA (c omplementar y DNA) libr ary and\ninser ted int oE. colicells by cloning it int o a bact erial v ector.\nTransgenic Animals\nAlthough se veral recombinant pr oteins used in medicine ar e suc cessfully produc ed in bact eria, some pr oteins need\na euk aryotic animal hos t for pr oper pr ocessing . For this r eason, g enes ha ve been cloned and e xpressed in animals\nsuch as sheep , goats , chick ens, and mic e. Animals that ha ve been modified t o express recombinant DNA ar e cal led\ntransgenic animals ( Figure 10.9 ).232 10 \u2022 Bio technology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2133, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "075eb2bb-2d1b-499d-9091-99daa41b6c80": {"__data__": {"id_": "075eb2bb-2d1b-499d-9091-99daa41b6c80", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "247", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6db34500-7210-4407-bd71-133e7828ec4d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "247", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7673f46963d14faa532405dc257a3dfa56c9451bdae07c738211ea8910270c94", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 10.9 It can be seen that tw o of these mic e are transgenic because the y ha ve a g ene that causes them t o fluor esce under a UV light.\nThe non-tr ansgenic mouse does not ha ve the g ene that causes fluor escence. (credit: Ingrid Moen et al .)\nSeveral human pr oteins ar e expressed in the milk o f transgenic sheep and g oats . In one c ommer cial e xample , the\nFDA has appr oved a blood antic oagulant pr otein that is pr oduc ed in the milk o f transgenic g oats f or use in humans .\nMice ha ve been used e xtensiv ely for expressing and s tudying the eff ects o f recombinant g enes and mutations .\nTransgenic Plants\nManipulating the DNA o f plants (cr eating g enetical ly modified or ganisms , or GMOs) has helped t o create desir able\ntraits such as disease r esistanc e, herbicide , and pes t resistanc e, bet ter nutritional v alue , and bet ter shelf lif e (Figure\n10.10 ). Plants ar e the mos t impor tant sour ce of food f or the human population. F armers de veloped w ays to select\nfor plant v arieties with desir able tr aits long bef ore modern-da y biot echnolog y practic es w ere es tablished.\nFIGURE 10.10 Corn, a major agricul tural cr op used t o create products f or a v ariety o f indus tries , is o ften modified thr ough plant\nbiotechnolog y. (credit: K eith W eller, USD A)\nTransg enic plants ha ve received DNA fr om other species . Because the y contain unique c ombinations o f genes and\nare not r estrict ed to the labor atory, transgenic plants and other GMOs ar e closel y monit ored b y government\nagencies t o ensur e that the y are fit f or human c onsump tion and do not endang er other plant and animal lif e.10.2 \u2022 Bio technology in Medicine and A gricultur e 233", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1712, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "41fd86de-8291-4548-a269-a2b9618bbe33": {"__data__": {"id_": "41fd86de-8291-4548-a269-a2b9618bbe33", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "248", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "eb8e4206-4f28-4f11-b9b6-6eb2dfc21645", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "248", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "eeb829ec7e58782c49e03bbe6987bb3ab9d8ae7ec72e099086cf5868667c932b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "b9303d76-ec32-4ea5-a7d1-3b76a9144b57", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "654b6213efb91f3637432b4861e307b933b1a72dd5ae65b0547971066b23a509", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Because f oreign g enes can spr ead t o other species in the en vironment, par ticularl y in the pol len and seeds o f plants ,\nextensiv e testing is r equir ed to ensur e ec ological s tability . Staples lik e corn, potat oes, and t omat oes w ere the firs t\ncrop plants t o be g enetical ly engineer ed.\nTransf ormation o f Plants Using Agrobac terium tume faciens\nIn plants , tumors caused b y the bact erium Agrobact erium tumefaciens occur b y transfer of DNA fr om the bact erium\nto the plant. The ar tificial intr oduction o f DNA int o plant c ells is mor e chal lenging than in animal c ells because o f the\nthick plant c ell wall. Resear chers used the natur al transfer of DNA fr omAgrobact erium to a plant hos t to intr oduc e\nDNA fr agments o f their choic e int o plant hos ts. In natur e, the disease -causing A. tumefaciens have a set o f plasmids\nthat c ontain g enes that int egrate int o the inf ected plant c ell\u2019s genome . Resear chers manipulat e the plasmids t o\ncarr y the desir ed DNA fr agment and inser t it int o the plant g enome .\nThe Or ganic Insec ticide Bacillus thuringiensis\nBacil lus thuringiensis (Bt) is a bact erium that pr oduc es pr otein cr ystals that ar e toxic t o man y insect species that\nfeed on plants . Insects that ha ve eat en B t toxin s top feeding on the plants within a f ew hours . Aft er the t oxin is\nactiv ated in the int estines o f the insects , death oc curs within a c ouple o f days. The cr ystal toxin g enes ha ve been\ncloned fr om the bact erium and intr oduc ed int o plants , ther efore allowing plants t o produc e their o wn cr ystal B t\ntoxin that acts ag ains t insects . Bt toxin is saf e for the en vironment and non-t oxic t o mammals (including humans).\nAs a r esul t, it has been appr oved for use b y organic farmers as a natur al insecticide . Ther e is some c oncern,\nhowever, that insects ma y evolve resistanc e to the B t toxin in the same w ay that bact eria e volve resistanc e to\nantibiotics .\nFlavrSa vr Tomat o\nThe firs t GM cr op to be intr oduc ed int o the mark et w as the Fla vrSavr Tomat o produc ed in 1994. Molecular g enetic\ntechnolog y was used t o slo w do wn the pr ocess of softening and r otting caused b y fung al inf ections , which led t o\nincreased shelf lif e of the GM t omat oes. Additional g enetic modification impr oved the fla vor of this t omat o. The\nFlavrSavr tomat o did not suc cessfully stay in the mark et because o f problems maintaining and shipping the cr op.\n10.3 Genomics and P roteomics\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Define g enomics and pr oteomics\n\u2022Define whole g enome sequencing\n\u2022Explain diff erent applications o f genomics and pr oteomics\nThe s tudy o f nucleic acids beg an with the disc overy of DNA , progressed t o the s tudy o f genes and smal l fragments ,\nand has no w exploded t o the field o fgenomics . Genomics is the s tudy o f entir e genomes , including the c omplet e set\nof genes , their nucleotide sequenc e and or ganization, and their int eractions within a species and with other species .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3090, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b9303d76-ec32-4ea5-a7d1-3b76a9144b57": {"__data__": {"id_": "b9303d76-ec32-4ea5-a7d1-3b76a9144b57", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "248", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "eb8e4206-4f28-4f11-b9b6-6eb2dfc21645", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "248", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "eeb829ec7e58782c49e03bbe6987bb3ab9d8ae7ec72e099086cf5868667c932b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "41fd86de-8291-4548-a269-a2b9618bbe33", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "248", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "68a87be195a80c4df50048a404ca85c1de368699965013959476976ee9329088", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "10.3 Genomics and P roteomics\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Define g enomics and pr oteomics\n\u2022Define whole g enome sequencing\n\u2022Explain diff erent applications o f genomics and pr oteomics\nThe s tudy o f nucleic acids beg an with the disc overy of DNA , progressed t o the s tudy o f genes and smal l fragments ,\nand has no w exploded t o the field o fgenomics . Genomics is the s tudy o f entir e genomes , including the c omplet e set\nof genes , their nucleotide sequenc e and or ganization, and their int eractions within a species and with other species .\nThe adv ances in g enomics ha ve been made pos sible b y DNA sequencing t echnolog y. Jus t as inf ormation t echnolog y\nhas led t o Google Maps that enable us t o get detailed inf ormation about locations ar ound the globe , genomic\ninformation is used t o create similar maps o f the DNA o f diff erent or ganisms .\nMapping Genomes\nGenome mapping is the pr ocess of finding the location o f genes on each chr omosome . The maps that ar e created\nare compar able t o the maps that w e use t o na vigate streets . Agenetic map is an il lustration that lis ts genes and\ntheir location on a chr omosome . Genetic maps pr ovide the big pictur e (similar t o a map o f interstate high ways) and\nuse g enetic mark ers (similar t o landmark s). A g enetic mark er is a g ene or sequenc e on a chr omosome that sho ws\ngenetic link age with a tr ait o f interest. The g enetic mark er tends t o be inherit ed with the g ene o f interest, and one\nmeasur e of dis tanc e betw een them is the r ecombination fr equency during meiosis . Earl y geneticis ts cal led this\nlinkage anal ysis.\nPhysical maps get int o the intimat e details o f smal ler r egions o f the chr omosomes (similar t o a detailed r oad map)\n(Figure 10.11 ). A ph ysical map is a r epresentation o f the ph ysical dis tanc e, in nucleotides , betw een g enes or g enetic\nmark ers. Both g enetic link age maps and ph ysical maps ar e requir ed to build a c omplet e pictur e of the g enome .\nHaving a c omplet e map o f the g enome mak es it easier f or resear chers t o study individual g enes . Human g enome234 10 \u2022 Bio technology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2486, "end_char_idx": 4716, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0fcd0ef1-8d24-4eff-9ed1-bf1b40cbd447": {"__data__": {"id_": "0fcd0ef1-8d24-4eff-9ed1-bf1b40cbd447", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "249", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c090c435-ffbc-44bd-bb95-2d1f175c7026", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "249", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c56534c2863e6085cc744e9fe2ed45e458daa5979cef506134baa2d755760c4d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "maps help r esear chers in their eff orts to identif y human disease -causing g enes r elated to illnes ses such as canc er,\nhear t disease , and cy stic fibr osis , to name a f ew. In addition, g enome mapping can be used t o help identif y\norganisms with beneficial tr aits, such as micr obes with the ability t o clean up pol lutants or e ven pr event pol lution.\nResear ch in volving plant g enome mapping ma y lead t o methods that pr oduc e higher cr op yields or t o the\ndevelopment o f plants that adap t bet ter to climat e chang e.\nFIGURE 10.11 This is a ph ysical map o f the human X chr omosome . (credit: modification o f work b y NCBI, NIH)\nGenetic maps pr ovide the outline , and ph ysical maps pr ovide the details . It is eas y to unders tand wh y both types o f\ngenome -mapping t echniques ar e impor tant t o sho w the big pictur e. Inf ormation ob tained fr om each t echnique is\nused in c ombination t o study the g enome . Genomic mapping is used with diff erent model or ganisms that ar e used\nfor resear ch. Genome mapping is s till an ong oing pr ocess, and as mor e adv anced techniques ar e de veloped, mor e\nadvances ar e expect ed. Genome mapping is similar t o completing a c omplicat ed puzzle using e very piec e of\navailable data . Mapping inf ormation g ener ated in labor atories al l over the w orld is ent ered int o centr al databases ,\nsuch as the National Cent er for Biot echnolog y Inf ormation (NCBI). Eff orts ar e made t o mak e the inf ormation mor e\neasil y accessible t o resear chers and the g ener al public. Jus t as w e use global positioning s ystems ins tead o f paper\nmaps t o na vigate thr ough r oadw ays, NCBI al lows us t o use a g enome vie wer tool t o simplif y the data mining\nprocess.10.3 \u2022 Genomics and P roteomics 235", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1783, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "48fd016c-a16b-4fae-b920-f2005665896a": {"__data__": {"id_": "48fd016c-a16b-4fae-b920-f2005665896a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "250", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b159d527-c452-488d-8d3a-fbee1d9976ed", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "250", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6a75eb1aa8c30d7f3a632bf6a89110d939d3cf07198c42b42f8e9fb4a3e805ac", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "LINK T O LE ARNING\nOnline Mendelian Inheritanc e in Man (OMIM) (http://opens tax.org/l/OMIM2) is a sear chable online catalog o f human\ngenes and g enetic disor ders . This w ebsit e sho ws genome mapping , and also details the his tory and r esear ch o f each\ntrait and disor der. Click the link t o sear ch for tr aits (such as handednes s) and g enetic disor ders (such as diabet es).\nWhole Genome Sequencing\nAlthough ther e ha ve been significant adv ances in the medical scienc es in r ecent y ears , doct ors ar e still confounded\nby man y diseases and r esear chers ar e using whole g enome sequencing t o get to the bot tom o f the pr oblem. Whole\ngenome sequencing is a pr ocess that det ermines the DNA sequenc e of an entir e genome . Whole g enome\nsequencing is a brut e-force appr oach t o problem sol ving when ther e is a g enetic basis at the c ore of a disease .\nSeveral labor atories no w pr ovide ser vices to sequenc e, anal yze, and int erpr et entir e genomes .\nIn 2010, whole g enome sequencing w as used t o sa ve a y oung bo y whose int estines had mul tiple m ysterious\nabsc esses. The child had se veral colon oper ations with no r elief . Final ly, a whole g enome sequenc e revealed a\ndefect in a path way that c ontr ols apop tosis (pr ogrammed c ell death). A bone marr ow transplant w as used t o\novercome this g enetic disor der, leading t o a cur e for the bo y. He w as the firs t person t o be suc cessfully diagnosed\nusing whole g enome sequencing .\nThe firs t genomes t o be sequenc ed, such as those belonging t o viruses , bact eria, and y east, were smal ler in t erms o f\nthe number o f nucleotides than the g enomes o f mul ticellular or ganisms . The g enomes o f other model or ganisms ,\nsuch as the mouse ( Mus musculus ), the fruit fl y (Drosophila melanog aster), and the nemat ode ( Caenorhabditis\neleg ans) are no w kno wn. A gr eat deal o f basic r esear ch is per formed in model or ganisms because the inf ormation\ncan be applied t o other or ganisms . A model or ganism is a species that is s tudied as a model t o unders tand the\nbiological pr ocesses in other species that can be r epresent ed b y the model or ganism. F or example , fruit flies ar e\nable t o metaboliz e alc ohol lik e humans , so the g enes aff ecting sensitivity t o alc ohol ha ve been s tudied in fruit flies in\nan eff ort to unders tand the v ariation in sensitivity t o alc ohol in humans . Having entir e genomes sequenc ed helps\nwith the r esear ch eff orts in these model or ganisms ( Figure 10.12 ).\nFIGURE 10.12 Much basic r esear ch is done with model or ganisms , such as the mouse ,Mus musculus ; the fruit fl y,Drosophila\nmelanog aster; the nemat ode Caenorhabditis eleg ans; the y eastSacchar omyces cerevisiae ; and the c ommon w eed, Arabidopsis thaliana .\n(credit \"mouse \": modification o f work b y Flor ean F ortescue; cr edit \"nemat odes \": modification o f work b y \"snick clunk\"/Flickr; cr edit\n\"common w eed\": modification o f work b y Peggy Gr eb, USD A; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nThe firs t human g enome sequenc e was published in 2003. The number o f whole g enomes that ha ve been\nsequenc ed s teadil y incr eases and no w includes hundr eds o f species and thousands o f individual human g enomes .\n236 10 \u2022 Bio technology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3323, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f9568c60-411d-4077-8d01-9779f4a20758": {"__data__": {"id_": "f9568c60-411d-4077-8d01-9779f4a20758", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "251", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "01a4bbc5-ea13-4fb3-8ac4-ae13f40fb5af", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "251", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5b0645083e8cd9b40d2c53dd4e0fe52143f112ecf2c594b069e7170f3bb7800f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "525e9b0c-9c78-4148-a7cc-fdb884412a60", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "ccef616144df6b4efb5d62d3cefd8fcf3ceaa59efc88bcccef88d1bdf5149201", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Applying Genomics\nThe intr oduction o f DNA sequencing and whole g enome sequencing pr ojects , par ticularl y the Human Genome\nProject, has e xpanded the applicability o f DNA sequenc e inf ormation. Genomics is no w being used in a wide v ariety\nof fields , such as metag enomics , pharmac ogenomics , and mit ochondrial g enomics . The mos t commonl y kno wn\napplication o f genomics is t o unders tand and find cur es for diseases .\nPredicting Disease Risk at the Individual L evel\nPredicting the risk o f disease in volves scr eening and identif ying curr ently heal thy individuals b y genome anal ysis at\nthe individual le vel. Int ervention with lif estyle chang es and drugs can be r ecommended bef ore disease onset.\nHowever, this appr oach is mos t applicable when the pr oblem arises fr om a single g ene mutation. Such def ects onl y\naccount f or about 5 per cent o f diseases f ound in de veloped c ountries . Mos t of the c ommon diseases , such as hear t\ndisease , are mul tifact orial or pol ygenic, which r efers t o a phenotypic char acteristic that is det ermined b y tw o or\nmor e genes , and also en vironmental fact ors such as diet. In April 2010, scientis ts at Stanf ord Univ ersity published\nthe g enome anal ysis o f a heal thy individual (St ephen Quak e, a scientis t at Stanf ord Univ ersity , who had his g enome\nsequenc ed); the anal ysis pr edict ed his pr opensity t o ac quire various diseases . A risk as sessment w as done t o\nanal yze Quak e\u2019s per centag e of risk f or 55 diff erent medical c onditions . A rare genetic mutation w as found that\nshowed him t o be at risk f or sudden hear t attack. He w as also pr edict ed to ha ve a 23 per cent risk o f developing\nprostate canc er and a 1.4 per cent risk o f developing Alzheimer \u2019s disease . The scientis ts used databases and se veral\npublications t o anal yze the g enomic data . Even though g enomic sequencing is bec oming mor e aff ordable and\nanal ytical t ools ar e bec oming mor e reliable , ethical is sues surr ounding g enomic anal ysis at a population le vel\nremain t o be addr essed. F or example , could such data be legitimat ely used t o char ge mor e or les s for insur ance or\nto aff ect cr edit r atings?\nGene E diting\nFor thousands o f years , humans ha ve eng aged in some le vel of contr ol over genes and her edity r egarding the plants\nand animals w e rely on. The t echnolog y no w exists to exert that c ontr ol mor e dir ectly by precisel y altering the DNA\nof organisms . The t echnique is usual ly referred to as CRISPR, f or the por tions o f DNA it tar gets: \" Clus tered R egularl y\nInterspac ed Shor t Palindr omic R epeats .\" In es senc e, DNA c ontains r epetitiv e sequenc es with \"spac ers\" betw een\nthem. CRISPR -associat ed nucleases (kno wn as \" Cas\") ar e enzymes that can identif y, attach t o, and cut the s trand at\nprecise locations . In 2012, Jennif er Doudna and Emmanuel le Charpentier de veloped a method t o combine the Cas\nnuclease with a s ynthetical ly produc ed \"g uide RNA \" that leads the nuclease t o select ed locations on the DNA\nstrand. The disc overy revolutioniz ed g ene editing . Resear chers ar ound the w orld ha ve used CRISPR t o manipulat e\nthe actual DNA o f plants , animals , labor atory cell lines , and (in trials) human patients . Doudna and Charpentier w ere\nawarded the Nobel P rize for their w ork.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3369, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "525e9b0c-9c78-4148-a7cc-fdb884412a60": {"__data__": {"id_": "525e9b0c-9c78-4148-a7cc-fdb884412a60", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "251", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "01a4bbc5-ea13-4fb3-8ac4-ae13f40fb5af", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "251", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5b0645083e8cd9b40d2c53dd4e0fe52143f112ecf2c594b069e7170f3bb7800f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "f9568c60-411d-4077-8d01-9779f4a20758", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "251", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "db13e8169c1d4763244111efd5098a93ae8897c2e0e05d3a282c7bee7befec75", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "CRISPR -associat ed nucleases (kno wn as \" Cas\") ar e enzymes that can identif y, attach t o, and cut the s trand at\nprecise locations . In 2012, Jennif er Doudna and Emmanuel le Charpentier de veloped a method t o combine the Cas\nnuclease with a s ynthetical ly produc ed \"g uide RNA \" that leads the nuclease t o select ed locations on the DNA\nstrand. The disc overy revolutioniz ed g ene editing . Resear chers ar ound the w orld ha ve used CRISPR t o manipulat e\nthe actual DNA o f plants , animals , labor atory cell lines , and (in trials) human patients . Doudna and Charpentier w ere\nawarded the Nobel P rize for their w ork.\nGene editing is so pr omising because it can be used e xperimental ly to unders tand disease or or ganismal limitations ,\nthen be applied t o overcome those is sues . For example , in a human trial , canc erous c ells were remo ved fr om a\nperson, edit ed to remo ve their canc erous pr oper ties at the DNA le vel, and r eintr oduc ed int o the patient so that\nthose no w edit ed c ells could mul tiply and r eplac e the canc erous ones . Using the person 's own c ells incr eases the\nlikelihood o f acceptanc e and suc cess.\nLike other applications o f genomics , the pr ospect o f directly editing g enes brings up a number o f ethical is sues . Both\nDoudna and Chapentier , as w ell as man y other g enetic engineers , suppor t onl y certain CRISPR applications . And\nman y governments and other entities plac e strict g uidelines on the uses o f the po werful technolog y.\nGenome -wide A ssociation S tudies\nSinc e 2005, it has been pos sible t o conduct a type o f study cal led a g enome -wide as sociation s tudy , or G WAS. A\nGWAS is a method that identifies diff erences betw een individuals in single nucleotide pol ymorphisms (SNP s) that\nmay be in volved in causing diseases . The method is par ticularl y suit ed to diseases that ma y be aff ected b y one or\nman y genetic chang es thr oughout the g enome . It is v ery difficul t to identif y the g enes in volved in such a disease\nusing famil y his tory inf ormation. The G WAS method r elies on a g enetic database that has been in de velopment sinc e\n2002 cal led the Int ernational HapMap P roject. The HapMap P roject sequenc ed the g enomes o f several hundr ed\nindividuals fr om ar ound the w orld and identified gr oups o f SNP s. The gr oups include SNP s that ar e locat ed near t o\neach other on chr omosomes so the y tend t o stay together thr ough r ecombination. The fact that the gr oup s tays\ntogether means that identif ying one mark er SNP is al l that is needed t o identif y all the SNP s in the gr oup. Ther e are10.3 \u2022 Genomics and P roteomics 237", "start_char_idx": 2736, "end_char_idx": 5404, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1d2160fe-dff2-4f88-81f2-784fdf365259": {"__data__": {"id_": "1d2160fe-dff2-4f88-81f2-784fdf365259", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "252", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9168f876-d605-451d-ab4e-260ebe812433", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "252", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "daaab5e6d2ff8251c5add5db306039e3e0eccefefbc773ff70e623228756e040", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "482b9f97-0b0a-4c1f-9bc2-087187e8e3bb", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "e28f4eecd6c8a28829e3ae161cc6a66417ac2eac56f6285228cc35ebe5c40e4e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "several mil lion SNP s identified, but identif ying them in other individuals who ha ve not had their c omplet e genome\nsequenc ed is much easier because onl y the mark er SNP s need t o be identified.\nIn a c ommon design f or a G WAS, tw o groups o f individuals ar e chosen; one gr oup has the disease , and the other\ngroup does not. The individuals in each gr oup ar e mat ched in other char acteristics t o reduc e the eff ect o f\nconfounding v ariables causing diff erences betw een the tw o groups . For example , the g enotypes ma y diff er because\nthe tw o groups ar e mos tly tak en fr om diff erent par ts of the w orld. Onc e the individuals ar e chosen, and typical ly\ntheir numbers ar e a thousand or mor e for the s tudy t o work, samples o f their DNA ar e ob tained. The DNA is anal yzed\nusing aut omat ed s ystems t o identif y lar ge diff erences in the per centag e of par ticular SNP s betw een the tw o groups .\nOften the s tudy e xamines a mil lion or mor e SNP s in the DNA . The r esul ts of GWAS can be used in tw o ways: the\ngenetic diff erences ma y be used as mark ers f or susc eptibility t o the disease in undiagnosed individuals , and the\nparticular g enes identified can be tar gets f or resear ch int o the molecular path way of the disease and pot ential\nther apies . An o ffshoot o f the disc overy of gene as sociations with disease has been the f ormation o f companies that\nprovide so -called \u201c personal g enomics\u201d that wil l identif y risk le vels f or various diseases based on an individual \u2019s SNP\ncomplement. The scienc e behind these ser vices is c ontr oversial .\nBecause G WAS look s for as sociations betw een g enes and disease , these s tudies pr ovide data f or other r esear ch int o\ncauses , rather than ans wering specific ques tions themsel ves. An as sociation betw een a g ene diff erence and a\ndisease does not nec essaril y mean ther e is a cause -and-eff ect r elationship . Ho wever, some s tudies ha ve provided\nuseful inf ormation about the g enetic causes o f diseases . For example , thr ee diff erent s tudies in 2005 identified a\ngene f or a pr otein in volved in r egulating inflammation in the body that is as sociat ed with a disease -causing\nblindnes s cal led ag e-related macular deg ener ation. This opened up ne w pos sibilities f or resear ch int o the cause o f\nthis disease . A lar ge number o f genes ha ve been identified t o be as sociat ed with Cr ohn\u2019s disease using G WAS, and\nsome o f these ha ve sug gested ne w hypothetical mechanisms f or the cause o f the disease .\nPharmac ogenomics\nPharmac ogenomics involves e valuating the eff ectiv enes s and saf ety o f drugs on the basis o f information fr om an\nindividual's g enomic sequenc e. Personal g enome sequenc e inf ormation can be used t o prescribe medications that\nwill be mos t eff ectiv e and leas t toxic on the basis o f the individual patient \u2019s genotype . Studying chang es in g ene\nexpression c ould pr ovide inf ormation about the g ene tr anscrip tion pr ofile in the pr esenc e of the drug , which can be\nused as an earl y indicat or of the pot ential f or toxic eff ects . For example , genes in volved in c ellular gr owth and\ncontr olled c ell death, when dis turbed, c ould lead t o the gr owth o f canc erous c ells. Genome -wide s tudies can also\nhelp t o find ne w genes in volved in drug t oxicity . The g ene signatur es ma y not be c omplet ely accurate, but can be\ntested fur ther bef ore pathologic s ymp toms arise .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3482, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "482b9f97-0b0a-4c1f-9bc2-087187e8e3bb": {"__data__": {"id_": "482b9f97-0b0a-4c1f-9bc2-087187e8e3bb", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "252", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9168f876-d605-451d-ab4e-260ebe812433", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "252", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "daaab5e6d2ff8251c5add5db306039e3e0eccefefbc773ff70e623228756e040", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "1d2160fe-dff2-4f88-81f2-784fdf365259", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "252", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7d11d158513b7ac8c8db02ec059d1949b317be4b24b8a78e2dc670074eba1f60", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Studying chang es in g ene\nexpression c ould pr ovide inf ormation about the g ene tr anscrip tion pr ofile in the pr esenc e of the drug , which can be\nused as an earl y indicat or of the pot ential f or toxic eff ects . For example , genes in volved in c ellular gr owth and\ncontr olled c ell death, when dis turbed, c ould lead t o the gr owth o f canc erous c ells. Genome -wide s tudies can also\nhelp t o find ne w genes in volved in drug t oxicity . The g ene signatur es ma y not be c omplet ely accurate, but can be\ntested fur ther bef ore pathologic s ymp toms arise .\nMetagenomics\nTraditional ly, micr obiolog y has been taught with the vie w that micr oorganisms ar e bes t studied under pur e cul ture\nconditions , which in volves isolating a single type o f cell and cul turing it in the labor atory. Because micr oorganisms\ncan g o thr ough se veral gener ations in a mat ter of hours , their g ene e xpression pr ofiles adap t to the ne w labor atory\nenvironment v ery quickl y. On the other hand, man y species r esist being cul tured in isolation. Mos t micr oorganisms\ndo not liv e as isolat ed entities , but in micr obial c ommunities kno wn as bio films . For al l of these r easons , pur e\nculture is not al ways the bes t way to study micr oorganisms .Metag enomics is the s tudy o f the c ollectiv e genomes o f\nmultiple species that gr ow and int eract in an en vironmental niche . Metag enomics can be used t o identif y ne w\nspecies mor e rapidl y and t o anal yze the eff ect o f pol lutants on the en vironment ( Figure 10.13 ). Metag enomics\ntechniques can no w also be applied t o communities o f higher euk aryotes, such as fish.238 10 \u2022 Bio technology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2905, "end_char_idx": 4623, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "27caa837-0361-4d33-8ddb-d4aaaf1056de": {"__data__": {"id_": "27caa837-0361-4d33-8ddb-d4aaaf1056de", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "253", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8b51d999-d8d1-4419-a77a-e718b5c2d705", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "253", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ede870f8b0fa81ff884d9d9a8b6ac7980e9faeca07cb5cf70f7b1d7857b68318", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 10.13 Metag enomics in volves isolating DNA fr om mul tiple species within an en vironmental niche . The DNA is cut up and\nsequenc ed, al lowing entir e genome sequenc es o f mul tiple species t o be r econstruct ed fr om the sequenc es o f overlapping piec es.\nCreation o f New Bio fuels\nKnowledg e of the g enomics o f micr oorganisms is being used t o find bet ter w ays to harnes s bio fuels fr om alg ae and\ncyanobact eria. The primar y sour ces o f fuel t oday are coal, oil, wood, and other plant pr oducts such as ethanol .\nAlthough plants ar e renewable r esour ces, ther e is s till a need t o find mor e alternativ e renewable sour ces o f ener gy\nto meet our population \u2019s ener gy demands . The micr obial w orld is one o f the lar gest resour ces for genes that enc ode\nnew enzymes and pr oduc e ne w or ganic c ompounds , and it r emains lar gely untapped. This v ast genetic r esour ce\nholds the pot ential t o provide ne w sour ces o f bio fuels ( Figure 10.14 ).\nFIGURE 10.14 Renewable fuels w ere tested in Na vy ships and air craft at the firs t Na val Ener gy Forum. (cr edit: modification o f work b y John\nF. Wil liams , US Na vy)10.3 \u2022 Genomics and P roteomics 239", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1194, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b602b9b5-3f48-4bf6-89e6-0997e8f20b39": {"__data__": {"id_": "b602b9b5-3f48-4bf6-89e6-0997e8f20b39", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "254", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "594ddbc0-34bf-4401-ac13-150f160a3a9d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "254", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c79725cc4a182ea36a2d8d1582395d181a7d812aedf4869876fdb6b20629bc06", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Mitochondrial Genomics\nMitochondria ar e intr acellular or ganel les that c ontain their o wn DNA . Mit ochondrial DNA mutat es at a r apid r ate and\nis often used t o study e volutionar y relationships . Another f eatur e that mak es studying the mit ochondrial g enome\ninteresting is that in mos t mul ticellular or ganisms , the mit ochondrial DNA is pas sed on fr om the mother during the\nprocess of fertilization. F or this r eason, mit ochondrial g enomics is o ften used t o trace genealog y.\nGenomics in F orensic Analy sis\nInformation and clues ob tained fr om DNA samples f ound at crime sc enes ha ve been used as e videnc e in c ourt\ncases , and g enetic mark ers ha ve been used in f orensic anal ysis. Genomic anal ysis has also bec ome useful in this\nfield. In 2001, the firs t use o f genomics in f orensics w as published. It w as a c ollabor ative eff ort betw een academic\nresear ch ins titutions and the FBI t o sol ve the m ysterious cases o f anthr ax (Figure 10.15 ) that w as tr anspor ted b y\nthe US P ostal Ser vice. Anthr ax bact eria w ere made int o an inf ectious po wder and mailed t o ne ws media and tw o\nU.S. Senat ors. The po wder inf ected the adminis trative staff and pos tal w orkers who opened or handled the let ters.\nFive people died, and 17 w ere sick ened fr om the bact eria. Using micr obial g enomics , resear chers det ermined that a\nspecific s train o f anthr ax w as used in al l the mailings; e ventual ly, the sour ce was tr aced to a scientis t at a national\nbiodef ense labor atory in Mar yland.\nFIGURE 10.15 Bacil lus anthr acis is the or ganism that causes anthr ax. (cr edit: modification o f work b y CDC; scale -bar data fr om Mat t\nRussell)\nGenomics in A gricultur e\nGenomics can r educ e the trials and failur es in volved in scientific r esear ch to a c ertain e xtent, which c ould impr ove\nthe quality and quantity o f crop yields in agricul ture (Figure 10.16 ). Linking tr aits t o genes or g ene signatur es helps\nto impr ove crop br eeding t o gener ate hybrids with the mos t desir able qualities . Scientis ts use g enomic data t o\nidentif y desir able tr aits, and then tr ansfer those tr aits t o a diff erent or ganism t o create a ne w genetical ly modified\norganism, as described in the pr evious module . Scientis ts ar e disc overing ho w genomics can impr ove the quality\nand quantity o f agricul tural pr oduction. F or example , scientis ts could use desir able tr aits t o create a useful pr oduct\nor enhanc e an e xisting pr oduct, such as making a dr ought -sensitiv e crop mor e tolerant o f the dr y season.240 10 \u2022 Bio technology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2649, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "13f98abf-0092-4ac9-987e-69ecf2863c26": {"__data__": {"id_": "13f98abf-0092-4ac9-987e-69ecf2863c26", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "255", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f8106948-0e87-4014-ae06-e8847aafa357", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "255", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b3202692f09812a727680027796b846511149459a0efc510a87e41475777c925", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "a566a1cb-10c7-486d-a334-7c07476edac3", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "366e11c4e6309b99c4130a19b1a11acc78a9d8fa71a32b0b19c2256b95ce9a25", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 10.16 Transgenic agricul tural plants can be made t o resist disease . These tr ansgenic plums ar e resistant t o the plum po x virus .\n(credit: Sc ott Bauer , USD A ARS)\nProteomics\nProteins ar e the final pr oducts o f genes that per form the function enc oded b y the g ene. Proteins ar e composed o f\namino acids and pla y impor tant r oles in the c ell. All enzymes (e xcept ribo zymes) ar e proteins and act as catal ysts\nthat aff ect the r ate of reactions . Proteins ar e also r egulatory molecules , and some ar e hormones . Transpor t proteins ,\nsuch as hemoglobin, help tr anspor t oxygen to various or gans. Antibodies that def end ag ains t foreign par ticles ar e\nalso pr oteins . In the diseased s tate, protein function can be impair ed because o f chang es at the g enetic le vel or\nbecause o f direct impact on a specific pr otein.\nA pr oteome is the entir e set o f proteins pr oduc ed b y a c ell type . Proteomes can be s tudied using the kno wledg e of\ngenomes because g enes c ode f or mRNAs , and the mRNAs enc ode pr oteins . The s tudy o f the function o f proteomes\nis cal ledproteomics . Proteomics c omplements g enomics and is useful when scientis ts w ant t o test their\nhypotheses that w ere based on g enes . Even though al l cells in a mul ticellular or ganism ha ve the same set o f genes ,\nthe set o f proteins pr oduc ed in diff erent tis sues is diff erent and dependent on g ene e xpression. Thus , the g enome is\nconstant, but the pr oteome v aries and is dynamic within an or ganism. In addition, RNAs can be al ternativ ely splic ed\n(cut and pas ted to create no vel combinations and no vel pr oteins), and man y proteins ar e modified aft er tr anslation.\nAlthough the g enome pr ovides a blueprint, the final ar chitectur e depends on se veral fact ors that can chang e the\nprogression o f events that g ener ate the pr oteome .\nGenomes and pr oteomes o f patients suff ering fr om specific diseases ar e being s tudied t o unders tand the g enetic\nbasis o f the disease . The mos t prominent disease being s tudied with pr oteomic appr oaches is canc er (Figure 10.17 ).\nProteomic appr oaches ar e being used t o impr ove the scr eening and earl y det ection o f canc er; this is achie ved b y\nidentif ying pr oteins whose e xpression is aff ected b y the disease pr ocess. An individual pr otein is cal led a\nbiomark er, wher eas a set o f proteins with al tered e xpression le vels is cal led a protein signa ture. For a biomark er or\nprotein signatur e to be useful as a candidat e for earl y scr eening and det ection o f a canc er, it mus t be secr eted in\nbody fluids such as s weat, blood, or urine , so that lar ge-scale scr eenings can be per formed in a nonin vasive fashion.\nThe curr ent pr oblem with using biomark ers f or the earl y det ection o f canc er is the high r ate of false -neg ative resul ts.\nA false -neg ative resul t is a neg ative test resul t that should ha ve been positiv e. In other w ords, man y cases o f canc er\ngo undet ected, which mak es biomark ers unr eliable . Some e xamples o f protein biomark ers used in canc er det ection\nare CA -125 f or ovarian canc er and PSA f or pr ostate canc er. Protein signatur es ma y be mor e reliable than biomark ers\nto det ect canc er cells.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3270, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a566a1cb-10c7-486d-a334-7c07476edac3": {"__data__": {"id_": "a566a1cb-10c7-486d-a334-7c07476edac3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "255", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f8106948-0e87-4014-ae06-e8847aafa357", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "255", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b3202692f09812a727680027796b846511149459a0efc510a87e41475777c925", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "13f98abf-0092-4ac9-987e-69ecf2863c26", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "255", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "da896b96c41b83fec025b96188a1935ada8180da8740242d1eaa2b4e665401c0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The curr ent pr oblem with using biomark ers f or the earl y det ection o f canc er is the high r ate of false -neg ative resul ts.\nA false -neg ative resul t is a neg ative test resul t that should ha ve been positiv e. In other w ords, man y cases o f canc er\ngo undet ected, which mak es biomark ers unr eliable . Some e xamples o f protein biomark ers used in canc er det ection\nare CA -125 f or ovarian canc er and PSA f or pr ostate canc er. Protein signatur es ma y be mor e reliable than biomark ers\nto det ect canc er cells. Proteomics is also being used t o de velop individualiz ed tr eatment plans , which in volves the\nprediction o f whether or not an individual wil l respond t o specific drugs and the side eff ects that the individual ma y\nhave. Proteomics is also being used t o predict the pos sibility o f disease r ecurr ence.10.3 \u2022 Genomics and P roteomics 241", "start_char_idx": 2737, "end_char_idx": 3618, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "72937d1c-1d06-400c-aa64-cea072ac8433": {"__data__": {"id_": "72937d1c-1d06-400c-aa64-cea072ac8433", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "256", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3fdf70c4-c0f2-4a07-a966-e4f7a4fc6d54", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "256", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "69668c27c37a4428592ba48ef0b29a0077ac873fe2f42fad453816806b7652c5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 10.17 This machine is pr eparing t o do a pr oteomic pat tern anal ysis t o identif y specific canc ers so that an ac curate canc er\nprognosis can be made . (credit: Dorie Hight ower, NCI, NIH)\nThe National Canc er Ins titut e has de veloped pr ograms t o impr ove the det ection and tr eatment o f canc er. The\nClinical P roteomic T echnologies f or Canc er and the Earl y Det ection R esear ch Netw ork ar e eff orts to identif y protein\nsignatur es specific t o diff erent types o f canc ers. The Biomedical P roteomics P rogram is designed t o identif y protein\nsignatur es and design eff ectiv e ther apies f or canc er patients .242 10 \u2022 Bio technology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 699, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "236ab993-6bdc-483c-911b-23b6e0cce5cb": {"__data__": {"id_": "236ab993-6bdc-483c-911b-23b6e0cce5cb", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "257", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fb768383-249a-457c-a156-5cd906b60894", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "257", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "39bc92cfe0daf99e37b2e87e3435d0c5b44e99af2112de0de55d46a1ec13217f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "8c435f83-ad26-4f10-8bde-732e94093f72", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "102e1fea58d651d6ff2b295124bc1a129b6da33e88116ca19eecc03c7e64702d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nanneal in molecular biolog y, the pr ocess by which\ntwo single s trands o f DNA h ydrogen bond at\ncomplementar y nucleotides t o form a double -\nstranded molecule\nbiomark er an individual pr otein that is uniquel y\nproduc ed in a diseased s tate\nbiotechnolog ythe use o f artificial methods t o modif y\nthe g enetic mat erial o f living or ganisms or c ells to\nproduc e no vel compounds or t o per form ne w\nfunctions\ncloning the pr oduction o f an e xact c opy\u2014specifical ly,\nan e xact g enetic c opy\u2014of a g ene, cell, or or ganism\ngel electr ophor esis a technique used t o separ ate\nmolecules on the basis o f their ability t o migr ate\nthrough a semisolid g el in r esponse t o an electric\ncurr ent\ngene ther apythe t echnique used t o cur e heritable\ndiseases b y replacing mutant g enes with g ood\ngenes\ngenetic engineering alteration o f the g enetic mak eup\nof an or ganism using the molecular methods o f\nbiotechnolog y\ngenetic map an outline o f genes and their location on\na chr omosome that is based on r ecombination\nfrequencies betw een mark ers\ngenetic t esting identif ying g ene v ariants in an\nindividual that ma y lead t o a g enetic disease in that\nindividual\ngenetical ly modified or ganism (GMO) an or ganism\nwhose g enome has been ar tificial ly chang ed\ngenomics the s tudy o f entir e genomes , including the\ncomplet e set o f genes , their nucleotide sequenc e\nand or ganization, and their int eractions within a\nspecies and with other species\nmetag enomics the s tudy o f the c ollectiv e genomes o f\nmultiple species that gr ow and int eract in an\nenvironmental niche\nmodel or ganism a species that is s tudied and used asa model t o unders tand the biological pr ocesses in\nother species r epresent ed b y the model or ganism\npharmac ogenomics the s tudy o f drug int eractions\nwith the g enome or pr oteome; also cal led\ntoxicogenomics\nphysical map a representation o f the ph ysical\ndistanc e betw een g enes or g enetic mark ers\nplasmid a smal l circular molecule o f DNA f ound in\nbact eria that r eplicat es independentl y of the main\nbact erial chr omosome; plasmids c ode f or some\nimpor tant tr aits f or bact eria and can be used as\nvectors t o transpor t DNA int o bact eria in g enetic\nengineering applications\npolymer ase chain r eaction (PCR) a technique used\nto mak e mul tiple c opies o f DNA\nprotein signa turea set o f over- or under -expressed\nproteins char acteristic o f cells in a par ticular\ndiseased tis sue\nproteomics study o f the function o f proteomes\nrecombinant DNA a combination o f DNA fr agments\ngener ated b y molecular cloning that does not e xist\nin natur e\nrecombinant pr otein a protein that is e xpressed fr om\nrecombinant DNA molecules\nreproductiv e cloning cloning o f entir e organisms\nrestriction enzyme an enzyme that r ecogniz es a\nspecific nucleotide sequenc e in DNA and cuts the\nDNA double s trand at that r ecognition sit e, often\nwith a s taggered cut lea ving shor t single s trands or\n\u201csticky \u201d ends\nreverse g enetics a form o f genetic anal ysis that\nmanipulat es DNA t o disrup t or aff ect the pr oduct o f\na gene t o anal yze the g ene\u2019s function\ntransg enic describing an or ganism that r eceives DNA\nfrom a diff erent species\nwhole g enome sequencing a process that\ndetermines the nucleotide sequenc e of an entir e\ngenome\nChap ter Summar y\n10.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3340, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8c435f83-ad26-4f10-8bde-732e94093f72": {"__data__": {"id_": "8c435f83-ad26-4f10-8bde-732e94093f72", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "257", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fb768383-249a-457c-a156-5cd906b60894", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "257", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "39bc92cfe0daf99e37b2e87e3435d0c5b44e99af2112de0de55d46a1ec13217f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "236ab993-6bdc-483c-911b-23b6e0cce5cb", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "257", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "89b4b310556c4181588398c7656ceac3c01409817f1a6429c53cb01ac90384c9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "often\nwith a s taggered cut lea ving shor t single s trands or\n\u201csticky \u201d ends\nreverse g enetics a form o f genetic anal ysis that\nmanipulat es DNA t o disrup t or aff ect the pr oduct o f\na gene t o anal yze the g ene\u2019s function\ntransg enic describing an or ganism that r eceives DNA\nfrom a diff erent species\nwhole g enome sequencing a process that\ndetermines the nucleotide sequenc e of an entir e\ngenome\nChap ter Summar y\n10.1 Cloning and Gene tic Engineering\nNucleic acids can be isolat ed fr om c ells for the\npurposes o f fur ther anal ysis b y breaking open the c ells\nand enzymatical ly des troying al l other major\nmacr omolecules . Fragment ed or whole chr omosomes\ncan be separ ated on the basis o f size by gel\nelectr ophor esis. Shor t stretches o f DNA can be\namplified b y PCR. DNA can be cut (and subsequentl y\nre-splic ed together) using r estriction enzymes . The\nmolecular and c ellular t echniques o f biot echnolog y\nallow resear chers t o genetical ly engineer or ganisms ,modif ying them t o achie ve desir able tr aits.\nCloning ma y involve cloning smal l DNA fr agments\n(molecular cloning ), or cloning entir e organisms\n(reproductiv e cloning ). In molecular cloning with\nbact eria, a desir ed DNA fr agment is inser ted int o a\nbact erial plasmid using r estriction enzymes and the\nplasmid is tak en up b y a bact erium, which wil l then\nexpress the f oreign DNA . Using other t echniques ,\nforeign g enes can be inser ted int o euk aryotic\norganisms . In each case , the or ganisms ar e cal led\ntransgenic or ganisms . In r eproductiv e cloning , a donor10 \u2022 K ey Terms 243", "start_char_idx": 2912, "end_char_idx": 4513, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "efa523d1-e3e4-4e30-bda7-bec9b6a4c524": {"__data__": {"id_": "efa523d1-e3e4-4e30-bda7-bec9b6a4c524", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "258", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "719bb258-be6c-474d-8680-2f90ea165e94", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "258", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "18c9b7e64e7857c9f41dcfef8b210d4fce17c07b86bc7da4965357e3c1fff91d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "13e8787b-743b-41c8-809f-476e70a0433b", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "fcf5abb6a6d9504eefbb03802d30b3d46fa1d1df3db5df15d87887f3a4551057", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "nucleus is put int o an enucleat ed eg g cell, which is\nthen s timulat ed to divide and de velop int o an\norganism.\nIn reverse g enetics methods , a g ene is mutat ed or\nremo ved in some w ay to identif y its eff ect on the\nphenotype o f the whole or ganism as a w ay to\ndetermine its function.\n10.2 Biotechnology in Medicine and\nAgricultur e\nGenetic t esting is per formed t o identif y disease -\ncausing g enes , and can be used t o benefit aff ected\nindividuals and their r elativ es who ha ve not de veloped\ndisease s ymp toms y et. Gene ther apy\u2014by which\nfunctioning g enes ar e inc orpor ated int o the g enomes o f\nindividuals with a non-functioning mutant g ene\u2014has\nthe pot ential t o cur e heritable diseases . Transgenic\norganisms pos sess DNA fr om a diff erent species ,\nusual ly gener ated b y molecular cloning t echniques .\nVaccines , antibiotics , and hormones ar e examples o f\nproducts ob tained b y recombinant DNA t echnolog y.\nTransgenic animals ha ve been cr eated for experimental\npurposes and some ar e used t o produc e some human\nproteins .\nGenes ar e inser ted int o plants , using plasmids in the\nbact erium Agrobact erium tumefaciens , which inf ects\nplants . Transgenic plants ha ve been cr eated to impr ove\nthe char acteristics o f crop plants \u2014for example , by\ngiving them insect r esistanc e by inser ting a g ene f or a\nbact erial t oxin.\n10.3 Genomics and P roteomics\nGenome mapping is similar t o sol ving a big ,\ncomplicat ed puzzle with piec es o f information c oming\nfrom labor atories al l over the w orld. Genetic mapsprovide an outline f or the location o f genes within a\ngenome , and the y estimat e the dis tanc e betw een\ngenes and g enetic mark ers on the basis o f the\nrecombination fr equency during meiosis . Physical\nmaps pr ovide detailed inf ormation about the ph ysical\ndistanc e betw een the g enes . The mos t detailed\ninformation is a vailable thr ough sequenc e mapping .\nInformation fr om al l mapping and sequencing sour ces\nis combined t o study an entir e genome .\nWhole g enome sequencing is the lat est available\nresour ce to treat g enetic diseases . Some doct ors ar e\nusing whole g enome sequencing t o sa ve liv es.\nGenomics has man y indus trial applications , including\nbiofuel de velopment, agricul ture, pharmac euticals , and\npollution c ontr ol.\nImagination is the onl y barrier t o the applicability o f\ngenomics . Genomics is being applied t o mos t fields o f\nbiolog y; it can be used f or personaliz ed medicine ,\nprediction o f disease risk s at an individual le vel, the\nstudy o f drug int eractions bef ore the c onduction o f\nclinical trials , and the s tudy o f micr oorganisms in the\nenvironment as opposed t o the labor atory. It is also\nbeing applied t o the g ener ation o f new bio fuels ,\ngenealogical as sessment using mit ochondria ,\nadvances in f orensic scienc e, and impr ovements in\nagricul ture.\nProteomics is the s tudy o f the entir e set o f proteins\nexpressed b y a giv en type o f cell under c ertain\nenvironmental c onditions . In a mul ticellular or ganism,\ndifferent c ell types wil l have diff erent pr oteomes , and\nthese wil l vary with chang es in the en vironment. Unlik e\na genome , a pr oteome is dynamic and under c onstant\nflux, which mak es it mor e complicat ed and mor e useful\nthan the kno wledg e of genomes alone .\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 10.7 Why was Dol ly a Finn-Dorset and not a\nScottish Blackfac e sheep?", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3446, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "13e8787b-743b-41c8-809f-476e70a0433b": {"__data__": {"id_": "13e8787b-743b-41c8-809f-476e70a0433b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "258", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "719bb258-be6c-474d-8680-2f90ea165e94", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "258", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "18c9b7e64e7857c9f41dcfef8b210d4fce17c07b86bc7da4965357e3c1fff91d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "efa523d1-e3e4-4e30-bda7-bec9b6a4c524", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "258", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "bf8dae7cb6054a05e75dbb430a1e8c95c269d87e55e23a5876323c2d27b009ca", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Proteomics is the s tudy o f the entir e set o f proteins\nexpressed b y a giv en type o f cell under c ertain\nenvironmental c onditions . In a mul ticellular or ganism,\ndifferent c ell types wil l have diff erent pr oteomes , and\nthese wil l vary with chang es in the en vironment. Unlik e\na genome , a pr oteome is dynamic and under c onstant\nflux, which mak es it mor e complicat ed and mor e useful\nthan the kno wledg e of genomes alone .\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 10.7 Why was Dol ly a Finn-Dorset and not a\nScottish Blackfac e sheep?\nReview Ques tions\n2.In gel electr ophor esis o f DNA , the diff erent bands in\nthe final g el form because the DNA molecules\n________.\na.are from diff erent or ganisms\nb.have diff erent lengths\nc.have diff erent nucleotide c ompositions\nd.have diff erent g enes3.In the r eproductiv e cloning o f an animal , the\ngenome o f the cloned individual c omes fr om\n________.\na.a sperm c ell\nb.an eg g cell\nc.any gamet e cell\nd.a body c ell244 10 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2894, "end_char_idx": 3953, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6a4792d4-c1e6-4d52-a5bd-72a6e0de02a7": {"__data__": {"id_": "6a4792d4-c1e6-4d52-a5bd-72a6e0de02a7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "259", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4d644af7-a5a1-4e9d-8f34-60e6112f8ac4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "259", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "10d04fc714796181f2eca3237c19c86a4c06f7722bf4dff1efcef4b46e56b45c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "4.What carries a g ene fr om one or ganism int o a\nbact eria c ell?\na.a plasmid\nb.an electr ophor esis g el\nc.a restriction enzyme\nd.polymer ase chain r eaction\n5.What is a g enetical ly modified or ganism (GMO)?\na.a plant with c ertain g enes r emo ved\nb.an or ganism with an ar tificial ly altered g enome\nc.a hybrid or ganism\nd.any agricul tural or ganism pr oduc ed b y\nbreeding or biot echnolog y\n6.What is the r ole o fAgrobact erium tumefaciens in\nthe pr oduction o f transgenic plants?\na.Genes fr omA. tumefaciens are inser ted int o\nplant DNA t o giv e the plant diff erent tr aits.\nb.Transgenic plants ha ve been giv en resistanc e\nto the pes tA. tumefaciens .\nc.A. tumefaciens is used as a v ector to mo ve\ngenes int o plant c ells.\nd.Plant g enes ar e inc orpor ated int o the g enome\nofAgrobact erium tumefaciens .7.What is the mos t chal lenging is sue facing g enome\nsequencing?\na.the inability t o de velop fas t and ac curate\nsequencing t echniques\nb.the ethics o f using inf ormation fr om g enomes\nat the individual le vel\nc.the a vailability and s tability o f DNA\nd.all of the abo ve\n8.Genomics can be used in agricul ture to:\na.gener ate ne w hybrid s trains\nb.impr ove disease r esistanc e\nc.impr ove yield\nd.all of the abo ve\n9.What kind o f diseases ar e studied using g enome -\nwide as sociation s tudies?\na.viral diseases\nb.single -gene inherit ed diseases\nc.diseases caused b y mul tiple g enes\nd.diseases caused b y en vironmental fact ors\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n10.What is the purpose and benefit o f the pol ymer ase\nchain r eaction?\n11.Today, it is pos sible f or a diabetic patient t o\npurchase human insulin fr om a pharmacis t. What\ntechnolog y mak es this pos sible and wh y is it a\nbenefit o ver ho w things used t o be?12.Describe tw o of the applications f or genome\nmapping .\n13.Identif y a pos sible adv antag e and a pos sible\ndisadv antag e of a g enetic t est that w ould identif y\ngenes in individuals that incr ease their pr obability\nof having Alzheimer 's disease lat er in lif e.10 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions 245", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2073, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "580f1183-684e-4cdf-b8cb-95583cdd58ba": {"__data__": {"id_": "580f1183-684e-4cdf-b8cb-95583cdd58ba", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "260", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ac1d1f4b-9ab2-4bda-b260-440788f63b6a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "260", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f97df9b351b80f538440c87d420a0f98b4d3eb11aa6ec5b145af33495233aac3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "246 10 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 72, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5e00f97a-4198-44f5-bd04-add74a724d59": {"__data__": {"id_": "5e00f97a-4198-44f5-bd04-add74a724d59", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "261", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4003ec71-c443-4686-928c-1fb4673c16af", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "261", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "27457d56e14a0d0af52b84a30916571ae25c33824bf42047f647f9b561737b5d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 11\nEvolution and Its P rocesses\n11.1 Disc overing Ho w Popula tions Chang e\n11.2 Mechanisms o f Evolution\n11.3 Evidenc e of Evolution\n11.4 Specia tion\n11.5 Common Misc onceptions about Ev olution\nAll species o f living or ganisms \u2014from the bact eria on our skin, t o the tr ees in our\nyards, to the bir ds outside \u2014evolved at some point fr om a diff erent species . Although it ma y seem\nthat living things t oday stay much the same fr om g ener ation t o gener ation, that is not the case:\nevolution is ong oing . Evolution is the pr ocess thr ough which the char acteristics o f species chang e\nand thr ough which ne w species arise .FIGURE 11.1 The div ersity o f life on Ear th is the r esul t of evolution, a c ontinuous pr ocess that is s till occurring . (credit\n\u201cwolf\u201d: modification o f work b y Gar y Kramer , USFWS; cr edit \u201c coral\u201d: modification o f work b y Wil liam Harrig an, NO AA;\ncredit \u201c river\u201d: modification o f work b y Vojt\u011bch Dos t\u00e1l; cr edit \u201c protozoa\u201d: modification o f work b y Shar on F ranklin,\nStephen Ausmus , USD A ARS; cr edit \u201c fish\u201d modification o f work b y Chris tian Mehlf\u00fchr er; cr edit \u201c mushr oom \u201d, \u201cbee \u201d:\nmodification o f work b y Cor y Zank er; cr edit \u201c tree\u201d: modification o f work b y Joseph K ranak)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1287, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9de62cd4-68b1-406f-86d1-dfd839a16700": {"__data__": {"id_": "9de62cd4-68b1-406f-86d1-dfd839a16700", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "262", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1ed5399b-fbe8-4d7d-b044-e2b1d977e666", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "262", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "51d8a804030786d3832f581a653350a1107c7423710f388e83e370df2b695c22", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "daf38f03-18a8-4609-bab3-7261d63657d5", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "ae078b210d2cd2746615c28f8bd1696fa648b10ec548b9674deb4cfd94a1e3c2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The theor y of evolution is the unif ying theor y of biolog y, meaning it is the fr ame work within which\nbiologis ts ask ques tions about the living w orld. Its po wer is that it pr ovides dir ection f or\npredictions about living things that ar e borne out in e xperiment aft er experiment. The Ukr ainian-\nborn American g eneticis t Theodosius Dob zhansky famousl y wr ote that \u201c nothing mak es sense in\nbiolog y except in the light o f evolution. \u201d1He meant that the principle that al l life has e volved and\ndiversified fr om a c ommon anc estor is the f oundation fr om which w e unders tand al l other\nques tions in biolog y. This chap ter wil l explain some o f the mechanisms f or evolutionar y chang e\nand the kinds o f ques tions that biologis ts can and ha ve ans wered using e volutionar y theor y.\n11.1 Discovering Ho w Populations Change\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain ho w Dar win\u2019s theor y of evolution diff ered fr om the curr ent vie w at the time\n\u2022Describe ho w the pr esent -day theor y of evolution w as de veloped\n\u2022Describe ho w population g enetics is used t o study the e volution o f populations\nThe theor y of evolution b y natur al selection describes a mechanism f or species chang e over time .\nThat species chang e had been sug gested and debat ed w ell bef ore Dar win. The vie w that species\nwere static and unchanging w as gr ounded in the writings o f Plat o, yet ther e were also ancient\nGreeks that e xpressed e volutionar y ideas .\nIn the eight eenth c entur y, ideas about the e volution o f animals w ere reintr oduc ed b y the\nnatur alist Geor ges-Louis L ecler c, Comt e de Buff on and e ven b y Charles Dar win\u2019s grandfather ,\nErasmus Dar win. During this time , it w as also ac cepted that ther e were extinct species . At the\nsame time , James Hut ton, the Sc ottish natur alist, pr oposed that g eological chang e oc curr ed\ngradual ly by the ac cumulation o f smal l chang es fr om pr ocesses (o ver long periods o f time) jus t\nlike those happening t oday. This c ontr asted with the pr edominant vie w that the g eolog y of the\nplanet w as a c onsequenc e of catas trophic e vents oc curring during a r elativ ely brief pas t. Hut ton\u2019s\nview was lat er populariz ed b y the g eologis t Charles L yell in the ninet eenth c entur y. Lyell became a\nfriend t o Dar win and his ideas w ere very influential on Dar win\u2019s thinking . Lyell argued that the\ngreater ag e of Ear th gave mor e time f or gr adual chang e in species , and the pr ocess provided an\nanalog y for gr adual chang e in species .\nIn the earl y ninet eenth c entur y, Jean-Bap tiste Lamar ck published a book that detailed a\nmechanism f or evolutionar y chang e that is no w referred to as inheritanc e of acquir ed\nchar acteristics. In L amar ck\u2019s theor y, modifications in an individual caused b y its en vironment, or\nthe use or disuse o f a s tructur e during its lif etime , could be inherit ed b y its o ffspring and, thus ,\nbring about chang e in a species . While this mechanism f or evolutionar y chang e as described b y\nLamar ck w as discr edited, L amar ck\u2019s ideas w ere an impor tant influenc e on e volutionar y thought.\nThe inscrip tion on the s tatue o f Lamar ck that s tands at the g ates o f the Jar din des Plant es in P aris\ndescribes him as the \u201c founder o f the doctrine o f evolution. \u201d\n1Theodosius Dob zhansky . \u201cBiolog y, Molecular and Or ganismic. \u201dAmerican Z oologis t4, no .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3467, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "daf38f03-18a8-4609-bab3-7261d63657d5": {"__data__": {"id_": "daf38f03-18a8-4609-bab3-7261d63657d5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "262", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1ed5399b-fbe8-4d7d-b044-e2b1d977e666", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "262", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "51d8a804030786d3832f581a653350a1107c7423710f388e83e370df2b695c22", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "9de62cd4-68b1-406f-86d1-dfd839a16700", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "262", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a64700e5039b32ead056d5cc2c9c6a6e9fb1d7f31f0ed2e28233a05ff368baad", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "While this mechanism f or evolutionar y chang e as described b y\nLamar ck w as discr edited, L amar ck\u2019s ideas w ere an impor tant influenc e on e volutionar y thought.\nThe inscrip tion on the s tatue o f Lamar ck that s tands at the g ates o f the Jar din des Plant es in P aris\ndescribes him as the \u201c founder o f the doctrine o f evolution. \u201d\n1Theodosius Dob zhansky . \u201cBiolog y, Molecular and Or ganismic. \u201dAmerican Z oologis t4, no . 4 (1964): 449.248 11 \u2022 E volution and Its P rocesses\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 3030, "end_char_idx": 3554, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1b355856-fae6-4c9c-ac8a-50b9452ffbee": {"__data__": {"id_": "1b355856-fae6-4c9c-ac8a-50b9452ffbee", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "263", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "625f89c1-e63a-4081-8046-2f2f0d6f8781", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "263", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "de55c2c8cc0d6f76cc9988841c510fc5613415e0464982c1679851ac4d379833", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "6efa5f7f-e636-4883-bc53-b0c199fb1c22", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "32986ff9cd2772c5804ba56ca5ee1f84aa9757939ed5cfcda1efbaded2756a3d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Charles Dar win and Natur al Selec tion\nThe actual mechanism f or evolution w as independentl y conceived o f and described b y tw o natur alists, Charles\nDarwin and Alfr ed Rus sell Wallace, in the mid-ninet eenth c entur y. Impor tantl y, each spent time e xploring the\nnatur al w orld on e xpeditions t o the tr opics . From 1831 t o 1836, Dar win tr aveled ar ound the w orld on H.M.S. Beagle ,\nvisiting South America , Aus tralia, and the southern tip o f Africa . Wallace traveled t o Br azil t o collect insects in the\nAmaz on rainforest from 1848 t o 1852 and t o the Mala y Archipelag o from 1854 t o 1862. Dar win\u2019s journe y, like\nWallace\u2019s lat er journe ys in the Mala y Archipelag o, included s tops at se veral island chains , the las t being the\nGal\u00e1pag os Islands (w est of Ecuador). On these islands , Dar win obser ved species o f organisms on diff erent islands\nthat w ere clearl y similar , yet had dis tinct diff erences. For example , the gr ound finches inhabiting the Gal\u00e1pag os\nIslands c omprised se veral species that each had a unique beak shape ( Figure 11.2 ). He obser ved both that these\nfinches closel y resembled another finch species on the mainland o f South America and that the gr oup o f species in\nthe Gal\u00e1pag os formed a gr aded series o f beak siz es and shapes , with v ery smal l diff erences betw een the mos t\nsimilar . Dar win imagined that the island species might be al l species modified fr om one original mainland species . In\n1860, he wr ote, \u201cSeeing this gr adation and div ersity o f structur e in one smal l, intimat ely related gr oup o f birds, one\nmight r eally fancy that fr om an original paucity o f birds in this ar chipelag o, one species had been tak en and modified\nfor diff erent ends .\u201d2\nFIGURE 11.2 Darwin obser ved that beak shape v aries among finch species . He pos tulat ed that the beak o f an anc estral species had\nadap ted o ver time t o equip the finches t o ac quire diff erent f ood sour ces. This il lustration sho ws the beak shapes f or four species o f ground\nfinch: 1. Geospiza magnir ostris(the lar ge ground finch), 2. G. fortis(the medium gr ound finch), 3. G. par vula (the smal l tree finch), and 4.\nCerthidea oliv acea(the gr een-w arbler finch).\nWallace and Dar win both obser ved similar pat terns in other or ganisms and independentl y conceived a mechanism\nto explain ho w and wh y such chang es could tak e plac e. Dar win cal led this mechanism natur al selection. Natural\nselection , Dar win ar gued, w as an ine vitable out come o f thr ee principles that oper ated in natur e. Firs t, the\nchar acteristics o f organisms ar e inherit ed, or pas sed fr om par ent t o offspring . Sec ond, mor e offspring ar e produc ed\nthan ar e able t o sur vive; in other w ords, resour ces for sur vival and r eproduction ar e limit ed. The capacity f or\nreproduction in al l organisms outs trips the a vailability o f resour ces to suppor t their numbers . Thus , ther e is a\ncompetition f or those r esour ces in each g ener ation. Both Dar win and W allace\u2019s unders tanding o f this principle came\nfrom r eading an es say by the ec onomis t Thomas Mal thus , who discus sed this principle in r elation t o human\npopulations . Thir d, offspring v ary among each other in r egard to their char acteristics and those v ariations ar e\ninherit ed.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3328, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6efa5f7f-e636-4883-bc53-b0c199fb1c22": {"__data__": {"id_": "6efa5f7f-e636-4883-bc53-b0c199fb1c22", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "263", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "625f89c1-e63a-4081-8046-2f2f0d6f8781", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "263", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "de55c2c8cc0d6f76cc9988841c510fc5613415e0464982c1679851ac4d379833", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "1b355856-fae6-4c9c-ac8a-50b9452ffbee", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "263", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "49f1aa8c553753b4616e0ff9644f1b7eec3aa17b8da5640c29a104f7dbcaaa29", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Sec ond, mor e offspring ar e produc ed\nthan ar e able t o sur vive; in other w ords, resour ces for sur vival and r eproduction ar e limit ed. The capacity f or\nreproduction in al l organisms outs trips the a vailability o f resour ces to suppor t their numbers . Thus , ther e is a\ncompetition f or those r esour ces in each g ener ation. Both Dar win and W allace\u2019s unders tanding o f this principle came\nfrom r eading an es say by the ec onomis t Thomas Mal thus , who discus sed this principle in r elation t o human\npopulations . Thir d, offspring v ary among each other in r egard to their char acteristics and those v ariations ar e\ninherit ed. Out o f these thr ee principles , Dar win and W allace reasoned that o ffspring with inherit ed char acteristics\nthat al low them t o bes t compet e for limit ed resour ces wil l sur vive and ha ve mor e offspring than those individuals\nwith v ariations that ar e les s able t o compet e. Because char acteristics ar e inherit ed, these tr aits wil l be bet ter\nrepresent ed in the ne xt gener ation. This wil l lead t o chang e in populations o ver gener ations in a pr ocess that Dar win\n2Charles Dar win, Journal o f Resear ches int o the Natur al His tory and Geolog y of the Countries Visit ed during the V oyage of H.M.S. Beagle\nRound the W orld, under the Command o f Cap t. Fitz R oy, R.N , 2nd. ed. (L ondon: John Murr ay, 1860), ht tp://www .archiv e.org/details/\njournalo fresea00dar w.11.1 \u2022 Disc overing Ho w Populations Change 249", "start_char_idx": 2676, "end_char_idx": 4173, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6238d745-9ff7-49ef-b8de-c0c2e9fe46d9": {"__data__": {"id_": "6238d745-9ff7-49ef-b8de-c0c2e9fe46d9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "264", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "45c7e4ac-a671-48cf-9b2d-8de743918af8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "264", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3e5af9e7a4710cea07f2158eff8bd12be2db9d6863247dbd88e632ae47f4ca46", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "called \u201c desc ent with modification. \u201d\nPapers b y Dar win and W allace (Figure 11.3 ) presenting the idea o f natur al selection w ere read t ogether in 1858\nbefore the Linnaean Society in L ondon. The f ollowing y ear Dar win\u2019s book, On the Origin o f Species ,was published,\nwhich outlined in c onsider able detail his ar guments f or evolution b y natur al selection.\nFIGURE 11.3 (a) Charles Dar win and (b) Alfr ed W allace wr ote scientific papers on natur al selection that w ere present ed together bef ore the\nLinnean Society in 1858.\nDemons trations o f evolution b y natur al selection can be time c onsuming . One o f the bes t demons trations has been\nin the v ery bir ds that helped t o inspir e the theor y, the Gal\u00e1pag os finches . Peter and R osemar y Gr ant and their\ncolleag ues ha ve studied Gal\u00e1pag os finch populations e very year sinc e 1976 and ha ve provided impor tant\ndemons trations o f the oper ation o f natur al selection. The Gr ants f ound chang es fr om one g ener ation t o the ne xt in\nthe beak shapes o f the medium gr ound finches on the Gal\u00e1pag os island o f Daphne Major . The medium gr ound finch\nfeeds on seeds . The bir ds ha ve inherit ed v ariation in the bil l shape with some individuals ha ving wide , deep bil ls and\nothers ha ving thinner bil ls. Large-billed bir ds feed mor e efficientl y on lar ge, har d seeds , wher eas smal ler bil led bir ds\nfeed mor e efficientl y on smal l, soft seeds . During 1977, a dr ought period al tered v egetation on the island. Aft er this\nperiod, the number o f seeds declined dr amatical ly: the decline in smal l, soft seeds w as gr eater than the decline in\nlarge, har d seeds . The lar ge-billed bir ds w ere able t o sur vive bet ter than the smal l-billed bir ds the f ollowing y ear.\nThe y ear f ollowing the dr ought when the Gr ants measur ed beak siz es in the much-r educ ed population, the y found\nthat the a verage bil l size was lar ger (Figure 11.4 ). This w as clear e videnc e for natur al selection (diff erences in\nsurvival) o f bill size caused b y the a vailability o f seeds . The Gr ants had s tudied the inheritanc e of bill sizes and kne w\nthat the sur viving lar ge-billed bir ds w ould t end t o produc e offspring with lar ger bil ls, so the selection w ould lead t o\nevolution o f bill size. Subsequent s tudies b y the Gr ants ha ve demons trated selection on and e volution o f bill size in\nthis species in r esponse t o changing c onditions on the island. The e volution has oc curr ed both t o lar ger bil ls, as in\nthis case , and t o smal ler bil ls when lar ge seeds became r are.\nFIGURE 11.4 A dr ought on the Gal\u00e1pag os island o f Daphne Major in 1977 r educ ed the number o f smal l seeds a vailable t o finches , causing\nman y of the smal l-beak ed finches t o die . This caused an incr ease in the finches\u2019 a verage beak siz e betw een 1976 and 1978.\nVariation and A daptation\nNatur al selection can onl y tak e plac e if ther e isvaria tion , or diff erences, among individuals in a population.250 11 \u2022 E volution and Its P rocesses\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3094, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "229052e8-1ca9-42f9-9a0d-37833282f516": {"__data__": {"id_": "229052e8-1ca9-42f9-9a0d-37833282f516", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "265", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8d8483b8-4991-4725-8b23-3edac65c3117", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "265", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8d920dc2270cf2e6d9233b6c7d661c617137a4bb07fddd4d243f5ab39c9eb069", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "93a1c208-677f-4491-a50b-73cd3cf9d8c3", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "04f2b06d69af011f1969a83faf2284b37f83e87bd39feb78b22eb623fa6128f3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Impor tantl y, these diff erences mus t have some g enetic basis; other wise , selection wil l not lead t o chang e in the\nnext gener ation. This is critical because v ariation among individuals can be caused b y non-g enetic r easons , such as\nan individual being tal ler because o f bet ter nutrition r ather than diff erent g enes .\nGenetic div ersity in a population c omes fr om tw o main sour ces: mutation and se xual r eproduction. Mutation, a\nchang e in DNA , is the ul timat e sour ce of new al leles or ne w genetic v ariation in an y population. An individual that\nhas a mutat ed g ene might ha ve a diff erent tr ait than other individuals in the population. Ho wever, this is not al ways\nthe case . A mutation can ha ve one o f thr ee out comes on the or ganisms\u2019 appear ance (or phenotype):\n\u2022A mutation ma y aff ect the phenotype o f the or ganism in a w ay that giv es it r educ ed fitnes s\u2014lower lik elihood o f\nsurvival, resul ting in f ewer offspring .\n\u2022A mutation ma y produc e a phenotype with a beneficial eff ect on fitnes s.\n\u2022Man y mutations , cal led neutr al mutations , wil l have no eff ect on fitnes s.\nMutations ma y also ha ve a whole r ange of effect siz es on the fitnes s of the or ganism that e xpresses them in their\nphenotype , from a smal l effect t o a gr eat eff ect. Se xual r eproduction and cr ossing o ver in meiosis also lead t o\ngenetic div ersity: when tw o par ents r eproduc e, unique c ombinations o f alleles as semble t o produc e unique\ngenotypes and, thus , phenotypes in each o f the o ffspring .\nA heritable tr ait that aids the sur vival and r eproduction o f an or ganism in its pr esent en vironment is cal led an\nadap tation . An adap tation is a \u201c match\u201d of the or ganism t o the en vironment. Adap tation t o an en vironment c omes\nabout when a chang e in the r ange of genetic v ariation oc curs o ver time that incr eases or maintains the mat ch o f the\npopulation with its en vironment. The v ariations in finch beak s shift ed fr om g ener ation t o gener ation pr oviding\nadap tation t o food a vailability .\nWhether or not a tr ait is fa vorable depends on the en vironment at the time . The same tr aits do not al ways ha ve the\nsame r elativ e benefit or disadv antag e because en vironmental c onditions can chang e. For example , finches with\nlarge bil ls were benefit ed in one climat e, while smal l bills were a disadv antag e; in a diff erent climat e, the\nrelationship r eversed.\nPatterns o f Evolution\nThe e volution o f species has r esul ted in enormous v ariation in f orm and function. When tw o species e volve in\ndifferent dir ections fr om a c ommon point, it is cal leddivergent e volution . Such div ergent e volution can be seen in\nthe f orms o f the r eproductiv e organs o f flowering plants , which shar e the same basic anat omies; ho wever, the y can\nlook v ery diff erent as a r esul t of selection in diff erent ph ysical en vironments , and adap tation t o diff erent kinds o f\npollinat ors ( Figure 11.5 ).\nFIGURE 11.5 Flowering plants e volved fr om a c ommon anc estor. Notic e that the (a) dense blazing s tar and (b) purple c oneflo wer vary in\nappear ance, yet both shar e a similar basic morpholog y. (credit a , b: modification o f work b y Cor y Zank er)\nIn other cases , similar phenotypes e volve independentl y in dis tantl y related species .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3351, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "93a1c208-677f-4491-a50b-73cd3cf9d8c3": {"__data__": {"id_": "93a1c208-677f-4491-a50b-73cd3cf9d8c3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "265", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8d8483b8-4991-4725-8b23-3edac65c3117", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "265", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8d920dc2270cf2e6d9233b6c7d661c617137a4bb07fddd4d243f5ab39c9eb069", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "229052e8-1ca9-42f9-9a0d-37833282f516", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "265", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "821e8f8740bfbc8d9e0b56c2ebf85e0697601d3de43b55aa75e659f5d472f54d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 11.5 Flowering plants e volved fr om a c ommon anc estor. Notic e that the (a) dense blazing s tar and (b) purple c oneflo wer vary in\nappear ance, yet both shar e a similar basic morpholog y. (credit a , b: modification o f work b y Cor y Zank er)\nIn other cases , similar phenotypes e volve independentl y in dis tantl y related species . For example , flight has e volved\nin both bats and insects , and the y both ha ve structur es w e refer to as wings , which ar e adap tations t o flight. The\nwings o f bats and insects , however, evolved fr om v ery diff erent original s tructur es. When similar s tructur es arise\nthrough e volution independentl y in diff erent species it is cal ledconvergent e volution . The wings o f bats and insects\nare cal ledanalog ous s tructur es; the y are similar in function and appear ance, but do not shar e an origin in a\ncommon anc estor. Ins tead the y evolved independentl y in the tw o lineag es. The wings o f a hummingbir d and an11.1 \u2022 Disc overing Ho w Populations Change 251", "start_char_idx": 3004, "end_char_idx": 4035, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d2444c51-d79f-467b-96e5-058cb942ca14": {"__data__": {"id_": "d2444c51-d79f-467b-96e5-058cb942ca14", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "266", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3d3a08dd-0f8a-4b7f-a59c-178f4dba88db", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "266", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "bb54ca0c08948f850c5a759aac3ae2e6504784911070f707185a6f8cb467f8dd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "412b2e85-ce00-4567-9483-440a386c8f21", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "97628e940ab9c485961689924f31611085889a8e7bcee5067dbc51a42f206fff", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "ostrich ar ehomolog ous s tructur es, meaning the y shar e similarities (despit e their diff erences resul ting fr om\nevolutionar y div ergence). The wings o f hummingbir ds and os triches did not e volve independentl y in the\nhummingbir d lineag e and the os trich lineag e\u2014the y desc ended fr om a c ommon anc estor with wings .\nThe Modern S ynthesis\nThe mechanisms o f inheritanc e, genetics , were not unders tood at the time Dar win and W allace were de veloping\ntheir idea o f natur al selection. This lack o f unders tanding w as a s tumbling block t o compr ehending man y aspects o f\nevolution. In fact, blending inheritanc e was the pr edominant (and inc orrect) g enetic theor y of the time , which made\nit difficul t to unders tand ho w natur al selection might oper ate. Dar win and W allace were una ware of the g enetics\nwork b y Aus trian monk Gr egor Mendel , which w as published in 1866, not long aft er publication o fOn the Origin o f\nSpecies . Mendel \u2019s work w as redisc overed in the earl y tw entieth c entur y at which time g eneticis ts w ere rapidl y\ncoming t o an unders tanding o f the basics o f inheritanc e. Initial ly, the ne wly disc overed par ticulat e natur e of genes\nmade it difficul t for biologis ts to unders tand ho w gr adual e volution c ould oc cur. But o ver the ne xt few decades\ngenetics and e volution w ere int egrated in what became kno wn as the modern s ynthesis \u2014the c oher ent\nunders tanding o f the r elationship betw een natur al selection and g enetics that t ook shape b y the 1940s and is\ngener ally accepted today. In sum, the modern s ynthesis describes ho w evolutionar y pressures, such as natur al\nselection, can aff ect a population \u2019s genetic mak eup, and, in turn, ho w this can r esul t in the gr adual e volution o f\npopulations and species . The theor y also c onnects this gr adual chang e of a population o ver time , cal led\nmicr oevolution , with the pr ocesses that g ave rise t o ne w species and higher tax onomic gr oups with widel y\ndivergent char acters, cal ledmacr oevolution .\nPopulation Gene tics\nRecal l that a g ene f or a par ticular char acter ma y ha ve se veral variants , or al leles , that c ode f or diff erent tr aits\nassociat ed with that char acter. For example , in the ABO blood type s ystem in humans , thr ee al leles det ermine the\nparticular blood-type carboh ydrate on the sur face of red blood c ells. Each individual in a population o f diploid\norganisms can onl y carr y tw o alleles f or a par ticular g ene, but mor e than tw o ma y be pr esent in the individuals that\nmak e up the population. Mendel f ollowed al leles as the y were inherit ed fr om par ent t o offspring . In the earl y\ntwentieth c entur y, biologis ts beg an to study what happens t o all the al leles in a population in a field o f study kno wn\naspopula tion g enetics .\nUntil no w, we ha ve defined e volution as a chang e in the char acteristics o f a population o f organisms , but behind that\nphenotypic chang e is g enetic chang e. In population g enetic t erms , evolution is defined as a chang e in the fr equency\nof an al lele in a population. Using the ABO s ystem as an e xample , the fr equency o f one o f the al leles ,IA, is the\nnumber o f copies o f that al lele divided b y all the c opies o f the ABO g ene in the population.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3323, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "412b2e85-ce00-4567-9483-440a386c8f21": {"__data__": {"id_": "412b2e85-ce00-4567-9483-440a386c8f21", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "266", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3d3a08dd-0f8a-4b7f-a59c-178f4dba88db", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "266", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "bb54ca0c08948f850c5a759aac3ae2e6504784911070f707185a6f8cb467f8dd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "d2444c51-d79f-467b-96e5-058cb942ca14", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "266", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d1af9fac55e166f45341855c87881012c0646c43cfa5650fb61de7666d980f05", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In the earl y\ntwentieth c entur y, biologis ts beg an to study what happens t o all the al leles in a population in a field o f study kno wn\naspopula tion g enetics .\nUntil no w, we ha ve defined e volution as a chang e in the char acteristics o f a population o f organisms , but behind that\nphenotypic chang e is g enetic chang e. In population g enetic t erms , evolution is defined as a chang e in the fr equency\nof an al lele in a population. Using the ABO s ystem as an e xample , the fr equency o f one o f the al leles ,IA, is the\nnumber o f copies o f that al lele divided b y all the c opies o f the ABO g ene in the population. F or example , a study in\nJordan f ound a fr equency o fIAto be 26.1 per cent.3The IB,I0alleles made up 13.4 per cent and 60.5 per cent o f the\nalleles r espectiv ely, and al l of the fr equencies add up t o 100 per cent. A chang e in this fr equency o ver time w ould\nconstitut e evolution in the population.\nTher e are se veral w ays the al lele fr equencies o f a population can chang e. One o f those w ays is natur al selection. If a\ngiven al lele c onfers a phenotype that al lows an individual t o ha ve mor e offspring that sur vive and r eproduc e, that\nallele, by vir tue o f being inherit ed b y those o ffspring , wil l be in gr eater fr equency in the ne xt gener ation. Sinc e allele\nfrequencies al ways add up t o 100 per cent, an incr ease in the fr equency o f one al lele al ways means a c orresponding\ndecr ease in one or mor e of the other al leles . Highl y beneficial al leles ma y, over a v ery few gener ations , bec ome\n\u201cfixed\u201d in this w ay, meaning that e very individual o f the population wil l carr y the al lele. Similarl y, detrimental al leles\nmay be s wiftl y eliminat ed fr om the gene pool , the sum o f all the al leles in a population. P art of the s tudy o f\npopulation g enetics is tr acking ho w selectiv e forces chang e the al lele fr equencies in a population o ver time , which\ncan giv e scientis ts clues r egarding the selectiv e forces that ma y be oper ating on a giv en population. The s tudies o f\nchang es in wing c oloration in the pepper ed moth fr om mot tled whit e to dark in r esponse t o soot -covered tr ee trunk s\nand then back t o mot tled whit e when fact ories s topped pr oducing so much soot is a clas sic e xample o f studying\nevolution in natur al populations ( Figure 11.6 ).\n3Sahar S. Hanania , Dhia S. Has sawi, and Nidal M. Irshaid, \u201c Allele F requency and Molecular Genotypes o f ABO Blood Gr oup Sy stem in a\nJordanian P opulation, \u201dJournal o f Medical Scienc es7 (2007): 51-58, doi:10.3923/jms .2007.51.58252 11 \u2022 E volution and Its P rocesses\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2685, "end_char_idx": 5375, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "24d07b43-4fe6-46e4-b836-ad85d4ce560c": {"__data__": {"id_": "24d07b43-4fe6-46e4-b836-ad85d4ce560c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "267", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "80addff9-645d-469e-85c7-ffe734f2737b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "267", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5bc4db19b5d59f5173ef4bb6606b13dc9746727ad05527ccea466f9c96a79462", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "034437f7-a52a-4b8d-ae26-45b03fd2d941", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "5151bdeac8fde874919eebd248f50f534c58302e5f7072b680c37021e29fa20b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 11.6 As the Indus trial R evolution caused tr ees t o dark en fr om soot, dark er colored pepper ed moths w ere bet ter camouflag ed than\nthe light er colored ones , which caused ther e to be mor e of the dark er colored moths in the population.\nIn the earl y tw entieth c entur y, English mathematician Godfr ey Har dy and German ph ysician Wilhelm W einber g\nindependentl y provided an e xplanation f or a some what c ount erintuitiv e concept. Har dy\u2019s original e xplanation w as in\nresponse t o a misunders tanding as t o wh y a \u201c dominant \u201d allele, one that mask s a r ecessive allele, should not\nincrease in fr equency in a population until it eliminat ed al l the other al leles . The ques tion r esul ted fr om a c ommon\nconfusion about what \u201c dominant \u201d means , but it f orced Har dy, who w as not e ven a biologis t, to point out that if ther e\nare no fact ors that aff ect an al lele fr equency those fr equencies wil l remain c onstant fr om one g ener ation t o the\nnext. This principle is no w kno wn as the Har dy-Weinber g equilibrium. The theor y states that a population \u2019s allele\nand g enotype fr equencies ar e inher ently stable \u2014unles s some kind o f evolutionar y force is acting on the population,\nthe population w ould carr y the same al leles in the same pr opor tions g ener ation aft er gener ation. Individuals w ould,\nas a whole , look es sential ly the same and this w ould be unr elated to whether the al leles w ere dominant or\nrecessive. The f our mos t impor tant e volutionar y forces, which wil l disrup t the equilibrium, ar e natur al selection,\nmutation, genetic drift , and migr ation into or out o f a population. A fifth fact or, nonr andom mating , wil l also disrup t\nthe Har dy-Weinber g equilibrium but onl y by shifting g enotype fr equencies , not al lele fr equencies (unles s the al lele\ncontribut es toward incr eased or decr eased r eproductiv e pot ential). In nonr andom mating , individuals ar e mor e\nlikely to mat e with individuals with specific phenotypes r ather than at r andom. Sinc e nonr andom mating does not\nchang e allele fr equencies , it does not cause e volution dir ectly. Natur al selection has been described. Mutation\ncreates one al lele out o f another one and chang es an al lele\u2019s frequency b y a smal l, but c ontinuous amount each\ngener ation. Each al lele is g ener ated b y a lo w, constant mutation r ate that wil l slo wly incr ease the al lele\u2019s frequency\nin a population if no other f orces act on the al lele. If natur al selection acts ag ains t the al lele, it wil l be r emo ved fr om\nthe population at a lo w rate leading t o a fr equency that r esul ts from a balanc e betw een selection and mutation. This\nis one r eason that g enetic diseases r emain in the human population at v ery low frequencies . If the al lele is fa vored\nby selection, it wil l incr ease in fr equency . Genetic drift causes r andom chang es in al lele fr equencies when\npopulations ar e smal l. Genetic drift can o ften be impor tant in e volution, as discus sed in the ne xt section. Final ly, if\ntwo populations o f a species ha ve diff erent al lele fr equencies , migr ation o f individuals betw een them wil l cause\nfrequency chang es in both populations . As it happens , ther e is no population in which one or mor e of these\nprocesses ar e not oper ating , so populations ar e always evolving , and the Har dy-Weinber g equilibrium wil l never be\nexactl y obser ved.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3450, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "034437f7-a52a-4b8d-ae26-45b03fd2d941": {"__data__": {"id_": "034437f7-a52a-4b8d-ae26-45b03fd2d941", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "267", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "80addff9-645d-469e-85c7-ffe734f2737b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "267", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5bc4db19b5d59f5173ef4bb6606b13dc9746727ad05527ccea466f9c96a79462", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "24d07b43-4fe6-46e4-b836-ad85d4ce560c", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "267", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "04004a19ff031ebe96b57edfe2af5fc4edfbddfc8d795d821495645f8c20099c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "If the al lele is fa vored\nby selection, it wil l incr ease in fr equency . Genetic drift causes r andom chang es in al lele fr equencies when\npopulations ar e smal l. Genetic drift can o ften be impor tant in e volution, as discus sed in the ne xt section. Final ly, if\ntwo populations o f a species ha ve diff erent al lele fr equencies , migr ation o f individuals betw een them wil l cause\nfrequency chang es in both populations . As it happens , ther e is no population in which one or mor e of these\nprocesses ar e not oper ating , so populations ar e always evolving , and the Har dy-Weinber g equilibrium wil l never be\nexactl y obser ved. Ho wever, the Har dy-Weinber g principle giv es scientis ts a baseline e xpectation f or al lele\nfrequencies in a non-e volving population t o which the y can c ompar e evolving populations and ther eby inf er what\nevolutionar y forces might be at pla y. The population is e volving if the fr equencies o f alleles or g enotypes de viate\nfrom the v alue e xpect ed fr om the Har dy-Weinber g principle .\nDarwin identified a special case o f natur al selection that he cal led se xual selection. Se xual selection aff ects an\nindividual \u2019s ability t o mat e and thus pr oduc e offspring , and it leads t o the e volution o f dramatic tr aits that o ften\nappear maladap tive in t erms o f sur vival but persis t because the y giv e their o wners gr eater reproductiv e suc cess.\nSexual selection oc curs in tw o ways: thr ough intr asexual selection, as male \u2013male or f emale \u2013female c ompetition f or\nmates, and thr ough int erse xual selection, as f emale or male selection o f mat es. Male \u2013male c ompetition tak es the\nform o f conflicts betw een males , which ar e often ritualiz ed, but ma y also pose significant thr eats t o a male \u2019s\nsurvival. Sometimes the c ompetition is f or territ ory, with f emales mor e lik ely to mat e with males with higher quality\nterrit ories . Female choic e oc curs when f emales choose a male based on a par ticular tr ait, such as f eather c olors , the\nperformanc e of a mating danc e, or the building o f an elabor ate structur e. In some cases male \u2013male c ompetition\nand f emale choic e combine in the mating pr ocess. In each o f these cases , the tr aits select ed for, such as fighting\nability or f eather c olor and length, bec ome enhanc ed in the males . In g ener al, it is thought that se xual selection can11.1 \u2022 Disc overing Ho w Populations Change 253", "start_char_idx": 2803, "end_char_idx": 5257, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9ac3c823-e288-4f5a-b91f-b232a026510f": {"__data__": {"id_": "9ac3c823-e288-4f5a-b91f-b232a026510f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "268", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c27a4488-bcb7-4807-ad08-888ea3163c98", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "268", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d4e844a8d063140a9e9fc58cf075519a7ce59e37701b9c5d09db84187588f241", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "1c95dc1f-ae9f-4453-ab49-df11d0ee6360", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "653ff19357e555978cb2d314511e9736c4b73da4652687171a00fcea4a52792e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "proceed t o a point at which natur al selection ag ains t a char acter\u2019s fur ther enhanc ement pr events its fur ther\nevolution because it neg atively impacts the male \u2019s ability t o sur vive. For example , colorful feathers or an elabor ate\ndispla y mak e the male mor e ob vious t o predat ors.\n11.2 Mechanisms o f Evolution\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the f our basic causes o f evolution: natur al selection, mutation, g enetic drift, and g ene flo w\n\u2022Explain ho w each e volutionar y force can influenc e the al lele fr equencies o f a population\nThe Har dy-Weinber g equilibrium principle sa ys that al lele fr equencies in a population wil l remain c onstant in the\nabsenc e of the f our fact ors that c ould chang e them. Those fact ors ar e natur al selection, mutation, g enetic drift, and\nmigr ation ( gene flo w). In fact, w e kno w the y are probabl y always aff ecting populations .\nNatur al Selec tion\nNatur al selection has alr eady been discus sed. Al leles ar e expressed in a phenotype . Depending on the\nenvironmental c onditions , the phenotype c onfers an adv antag e or disadv antag e to the individual with the phenotype\nrelativ e to the other phenotypes in the population. If it is an adv antag e, then that individual wil l likely ha ve mor e\noffspring than individuals with the other phenotypes , and this wil l mean that the al lele behind the phenotype wil l\nhave greater representation in the ne xt gener ation. If c onditions r emain the same , those o ffspring , which ar e\ncarr ying the same al lele, wil l also benefit. Ov er time , the al lele wil l incr ease in fr equency in the population.\nMutation\nMutation is a sour ce of new al leles in a population. Mutation is a chang e in the DNA sequenc e of the g ene. A\nmutation can chang e one al lele int o another , but the net eff ect is a chang e in fr equency . The chang e in fr equency\nresul ting fr om mutation is smal l, so its eff ect on e volution is smal l unles s it int eracts with one o f the other fact ors,\nsuch as selection. A mutation ma y produc e an al lele that is select ed ag ains t, select ed for, or selectiv ely neutr al.\nHarmful mutations ar e remo ved fr om the population b y selection and wil l gener ally onl y be f ound in v ery low\nfrequencies equal t o the mutation r ate. Beneficial mutations wil l spr ead thr ough the population thr ough selection,\nalthough that initial spr ead is slo w. Whether or not a mutation is beneficial or harmful is det ermined b y whether it\nhelps an or ganism sur vive to se xual maturity and r eproduc e. It should be not ed that mutation is the ul timat e sour ce\nof genetic v ariation in al l populations \u2014ne w al leles , and, ther efore, new genetic v ariations arise thr ough mutation.\nGene tic Drif t\nAnother w ay a population \u2019s allele fr equencies can chang e is g enetic drift ( Figure 11.7 ), which is simpl y the eff ect o f\nchanc e. Genetic drift is mos t impor tant in smal l populations . Drift w ould be c omplet ely absent in a population with\ninfinit e individuals , but, o f course , no population is this lar ge. Genetic drift oc curs because the al leles in an o ffspring\ngener ation ar e a r andom sample o f the al leles in the par ent g ener ation. Al leles ma y or ma y not mak e it int o the ne xt\ngener ation due t o chanc e events including mor tality o f an individual , events aff ecting finding a mat e, and e ven the\nevents aff ecting which g amet es end up in f ertilizations .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3515, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1c95dc1f-ae9f-4453-ab49-df11d0ee6360": {"__data__": {"id_": "1c95dc1f-ae9f-4453-ab49-df11d0ee6360", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "268", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c27a4488-bcb7-4807-ad08-888ea3163c98", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "268", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d4e844a8d063140a9e9fc58cf075519a7ce59e37701b9c5d09db84187588f241", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "9ac3c823-e288-4f5a-b91f-b232a026510f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "268", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "961c1c5f79e8921783f6c08925accfcf39ee75d122aee8613cd31ee4c1b88611", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Drift w ould be c omplet ely absent in a population with\ninfinit e individuals , but, o f course , no population is this lar ge. Genetic drift oc curs because the al leles in an o ffspring\ngener ation ar e a r andom sample o f the al leles in the par ent g ener ation. Al leles ma y or ma y not mak e it int o the ne xt\ngener ation due t o chanc e events including mor tality o f an individual , events aff ecting finding a mat e, and e ven the\nevents aff ecting which g amet es end up in f ertilizations . If one individual in a population o f ten individuals happens\nto die bef ore it lea ves an y offspring t o the ne xt gener ation, al l of its g enes \u2014a t enth o f the population \u2019s gene\npool \u2014will be suddenl y los t. In a population o f 100, that 1 individual r epresents onl y 1 per cent o f the o verall gene\npool; ther efore, it has much les s impact on the population \u2019s genetic s tructur e and is unlik ely to remo ve all copies o f\neven a r elativ ely rare allele.\nImagine a population o f ten individuals , half with al lele Aand half with al lele a(the individuals ar e haploid). In a\nstable population, the ne xt gener ation wil l also ha ve ten individuals . Choose that g ener ation r andoml y by flipping a\ncoin t en times and let heads be Aand tails be a. It is unlik ely that the ne xt gener ation wil l have exactl y half o f each\nallele. Ther e might be six o f one and f our o f the other , or some diff erent set o f frequencies . Thus , the al lele\nfrequencies ha ve chang ed and e volution has oc curr ed. A c oin wil l no long er w ork t o choose the ne xt gener ation\n(because the odds ar e no long er one half f or each al lele). The fr equency in each g ener ation wil l drift up and do wn on\nwhat is kno wn as a r andom w alk until at one point either al lAor al laare chosen and that al lele is fix ed fr om that\npoint on. This c ould tak e a v ery long time f or a lar ge population. This simplification is not v ery biological , but it can\nbe sho wn that r eal populations beha ve this w ay. The eff ect o f drift on fr equencies is gr eater the smal ler a population254 11 \u2022 E volution and Its P rocesses\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 3009, "end_char_idx": 5183, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d6a44486-c247-4e66-bd33-e91b6ac258e5": {"__data__": {"id_": "d6a44486-c247-4e66-bd33-e91b6ac258e5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "269", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4b4a3c98-d3f7-4db3-a2b0-cb77553ca034", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "269", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "94b76d1be1c81703b0198c679ef44a996765ded83d8f21c5a88f1694320a7d5f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "is. Its eff ect is also gr eater on an al lele with a fr equency far fr om one half . Drift wil l influenc e every allele, even those\nthat ar e being natur ally select ed.\nVISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 11.7 Genetic drift in a population can lead t o the elimination o f an al lele fr om a population b y chanc e. In each g ener ation, a\nrandom set o f individuals r eproduc es to produc e the ne xt gener ation. The fr equency o f alleles in the ne xt gener ation is equal t o the\nfrequency o f alleles among the individuals r eproducing .\nDo y ou think g enetic drift w ould happen mor e quickl y on an island or on the mainland?\nGenetic drift can also be magnified b y natur al or human-caused e vents , such as a disas ter that r andoml y kil ls a lar ge\nportion o f the population, which is kno wn as the bottleneck ef fectthat r esul ts in a lar ge por tion o f the g ene pool\nsuddenl y being wiped out ( Figure 11.8 ). In one f ell swoop, the g enetic s tructur e of the sur vivors bec omes the\ngenetic s tructur e of the entir e population, which ma y be v ery diff erent fr om the pr e-disas ter population. The\ndisas ter mus t be one that kil ls for reasons unr elated to the or ganism \u2019s traits, such as a hurricane or la va flo w. A\nmas s killing caused b y unusual ly cold t emper atur es at night, is lik ely to aff ect individuals diff erently depending on\nthe al leles the y pos sess that c onfer cold har dines s.\nFIGURE 11.8 A chanc e event or catas trophe can r educ e the g enetic v ariability within a population.\n11.2 \u2022 Mechanisms o f Evolution 255", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1567, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "467ed5b7-2774-42b9-bf1b-91d27bc5478f": {"__data__": {"id_": "467ed5b7-2774-42b9-bf1b-91d27bc5478f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "270", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b73b0340-0a2e-41df-9975-62711addf8ed", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "270", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "25de6bea1089d9011800ddf3063fc85c4e01aa821f58f39872453b03071cd481", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "c7a97d0a-db23-49af-8bc9-f098a5211aef", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "159ab25db217b15e19740a9437ba1b643ce5e2565af623d08c5f919bdcd9fe0d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Another sc enario in which populations might e xperienc e a s trong influenc e of genetic drift is if some por tion o f the\npopulation lea ves to start a ne w population in a ne w location, or if a population g ets divided b y a ph ysical barrier o f\nsome kind. In this situation, those individuals ar e unlik ely to be r epresentativ e of the entir e population which r esul ts\nin the founder ef fect. The f ounder eff ect oc curs when the g enetic s tructur e mat ches that o f the ne w population \u2019s\nfounding fathers and mothers . The f ounder eff ect is belie ved to ha ve been a k ey fact or in the g enetic his tory of the\nAfrik aner population o f Dut ch set tlers in South Africa , as e videnc ed b y mutations that ar e common in Afrik aners but\nrare in mos t other populations . This is lik ely due t o a higher -than-normal pr opor tion o f the f ounding c olonis ts, which\nwere a smal l sample o f the original population, carried these mutations . As a r esul t, the population e xpresses\nunusual ly high incidenc es o f Huntingt on\u2019s disease (HD) and F anconi anemia (F A), a g enetic disor der kno wn t o cause\nbone marr ow and c ongenital abnormalities , and e ven canc er.4\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nVisit this site(http://opens tax.org/l/genetic _drift2) to learn mor e about g enetic drift and t o run simulations o f allele\nchang es caused b y drift.\nGene Flo w\nAnother impor tant e volutionar y force isgene flo w, or the flo w of alleles in and out o f a population r esul ting fr om the\nmigr ation o f individuals or g amet es (Figure 11.9 ). While some populations ar e fairl y stable , others e xperienc e mor e\nflux. Man y plants , for example , send their seeds far and wide , by wind or in the g uts o f animals; these seeds ma y\nintroduc e alleles c ommon in the sour ce population t o a ne w population in which the y are rare.\nFIGURE 11.9 Gene flo w can oc cur when an individual tr avels fr om one g eogr aphic location t o another and joins a diff erent population o f the\nspecies . In the e xample sho wn her e, the br own al lele is intr oduc ed int o the gr een population.\n11.3 Evidenc e of Evolution\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain sour ces o f evidenc e for evolution\n\u2022Define homolog ous and v estigial s tructur es\nThe e videnc e for evolution is c ompel ling and e xtensiv e. Looking at e very level of organization in living s ystems ,\nbiologis ts see the signatur e of pas t and pr esent e volution. Dar win dedicat ed a lar ge por tion o f his book, On the\nOrigin o f Species , identif ying pat terns in natur e that w ere consis tent with e volution and sinc e Dar win our\nunders tanding has bec ome clear er and br oader .\nFossils\nFossils pr ovide solid e videnc e that or ganisms fr om the pas t are not the same as those f ound t oday; fossils sho w the\ngradual e volutionar y chang es o ver time . Scientis ts det ermine the ag e of fossils and cat egorize them al l over the\nworld t o det ermine when the or ganisms liv ed relativ e to each other . The r esul ting f ossil record tells the s tory of the\npast, and sho ws the e volution o f form o ver mil lions o f years ( Figure 11.10 ). For example , highl y detailed f ossil\n4A. J. Tipping et al ., \u201cMolecular and Genealogical Evidenc e for a F ounder Eff ect in F anconi Anemia F amilies o f the Afrik aner P opulation o f\nSouth Africa ,\u201dPNAS 98, no .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3400, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c7a97d0a-db23-49af-8bc9-f098a5211aef": {"__data__": {"id_": "c7a97d0a-db23-49af-8bc9-f098a5211aef", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "270", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b73b0340-0a2e-41df-9975-62711addf8ed", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "270", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "25de6bea1089d9011800ddf3063fc85c4e01aa821f58f39872453b03071cd481", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "467ed5b7-2774-42b9-bf1b-91d27bc5478f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "270", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "64ffc79148bad020d7ac1bdbb750c2c18ae563f4ee8627a11f9bb6959415878b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Scientis ts det ermine the ag e of fossils and cat egorize them al l over the\nworld t o det ermine when the or ganisms liv ed relativ e to each other . The r esul ting f ossil record tells the s tory of the\npast, and sho ws the e volution o f form o ver mil lions o f years ( Figure 11.10 ). For example , highl y detailed f ossil\n4A. J. Tipping et al ., \u201cMolecular and Genealogical Evidenc e for a F ounder Eff ect in F anconi Anemia F amilies o f the Afrik aner P opulation o f\nSouth Africa ,\u201dPNAS 98, no . 10 (2001): 5734-5739, doi: 10.1073/pnas .091402398.256 11 \u2022 E volution and Its P rocesses\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2892, "end_char_idx": 3524, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "95959baa-d8c4-4cba-9c01-4440359b821d": {"__data__": {"id_": "95959baa-d8c4-4cba-9c01-4440359b821d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "271", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3b235288-86ec-45fa-871f-df0ac17988b0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "271", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "04982bf40a9cd60475d17e57dd0731d33e61ec7c83f109e5f9b49ce70cb22c9f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "records ha ve been r ecovered for sequenc es o f species in the e volution o f whales and modern horses . The f ossil\nrecord of horses in Nor th America is especial ly rich and man y contain tr ansition f ossils: those sho wing int ermediat e\nanat omy betw een earlier and lat er forms . The f ossil record extends back t o a dog-lik e anc estor some 55 mil lion\nyears ag o that g ave rise t o the firs t horse -like species 55 t o 42 mil lion y ears ag o in the g enus Eohippus . The series o f\nfossils tr acks the chang e in anat omy resul ting fr om a gr adual dr ying tr end that chang ed the landscape fr om a\nforested one t o a pr airie . Suc cessive fossils sho w the e volution o f teeth shapes and f oot and leg anat omy to a\ngrazing habit, with adap tations f or escaping pr edat ors, for example in species o fMesohippus found fr om 40 t o 30\nmillion y ears ag o. Later species sho wed g ains in siz e, such as those o fHipparion , which e xisted fr om about 23 t o 2\nmillion y ears ag o. The f ossil record sho ws several adap tive radiations in the horse lineag e, which is no w much\nreduc ed to onl y one g enus ,Equus , with se veral species .\nFIGURE 11.10 This il lustration sho ws an ar tist\u2019s renderings o f these species deriv ed fr om f ossils o f the e volutionar y his tory of the horse\nand its anc estors. The species depict ed ar e onl y four fr om a v ery div erse lineag e that c ontains man y branches , dead ends , and adap tive\nradiations . One o f the tr ends , depict ed her e is the e volutionar y tracking o f a dr ying climat e and incr ease in pr airie v ersus f orest habitat\nreflect ed in f orms that ar e mor e adap ted to grazing and pr edat or escape thr ough running . Przewalski's horse is one o f a few living species\nof horse .\nAnat omy and Embr yology\nAnother type o f evidenc e for evolution is the pr esenc e of structur es in or ganisms that shar e the same basic f orm.\nFor example , the bones in the appendag es o f a human, dog , bird, and whale al l shar e the same o verall construction\n(Figure 11.11 ). That similarity r esul ts from their origin in the appendag es o f a c ommon anc estor. Over time ,\nevolution led t o chang es in the shapes and siz es o f these bones in diff erent species , but the y ha ve maintained the\nsame o verall layout, e videnc e of desc ent fr om a c ommon anc estor. Scientis ts cal l these s ynon ymous par ts\nhomolog ous s tructur es. Some s tructur es e xist in or ganisms that ha ve no appar ent function at al l, and appear t o be\nresidual par ts from a pas t anc estor. For example , some snak es ha ve pel vic bones despit e ha ving no legs because\nthey desc ended fr om r eptiles that did ha ve legs . These unused s tructur es without function ar e cal ledvestigial\nstructur es. Other e xamples o f vestigial s tructur es ar e wings on flightles s bir ds (which ma y ha ve other functions),\nleaves on some cacti, tr aces o f pel vic bones in whales , and the sightles s eyes o f cave animals .\nFIGURE 11.11 The similar c onstruction o f these appendag es indicat es that these or ganisms shar e a c ommon anc estor.11.3 \u2022 E videnc e of Evolution 257", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3143, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9ee4c2ba-d1dd-4407-8912-6fec781ae041": {"__data__": {"id_": "9ee4c2ba-d1dd-4407-8912-6fec781ae041", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "272", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fa571884-3a2a-4d87-9a94-66be5c0f4e69", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "272", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ba54e09587be0ffe1ff92598700c5c76d3961cf0412af80faf78644c78c4c4b4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "LINK T O LE ARNING\nClick thr ough the activities at this interactiv e sit e(http://opens tax.org/l/bone _structur e2)to guess which bone\nstructur es ar e homolog ous and which ar e analog ous, and t o see e xamples o f all kinds o f evolutionar y adap tations\nthat il lustrate these c oncepts.\nAnother piec e of evidenc e of evolution is the c onvergence of form in or ganisms that shar e similar en vironments . For\nexample , species o f unr elated animals , such as the ar ctic f ox and p tarmig an (a bir d), living in the ar ctic r egion ha ve\ntempor ary whit e coverings during wint er to blend with the sno w and ic e (Figure 11.12 ). The similarity oc curs not\nbecause o f common anc estry, indeed one c overing is o f fur and the other o f feathers , but because o f similar\nselection pr essures\u2014the benefits o f not being seen b y predat ors.\nFIGURE 11.12 The whit e wint er coat o f (a) the ar ctic f ox and (b) the p tarmig an\u2019s plumag e are adap tations t o their en vironments . (credit a:\nmodification o f work b y Keith Mor ehouse)\nEmbr yolog y, the s tudy o f the de velopment o f the anat omy of an or ganism t o its adul t form also pr ovides e videnc e of\nrelatednes s betw een no w widel y div ergent gr oups o f organisms . Structur es that ar e absent in some gr oups o ften\nappear in their embr yonic f orms and disappear b y the time the adul t or juv enile f orm is r eached. F or example , all\nvertebrate embr yos, including humans , exhibit gil l slits at some point in their earl y de velopment. These disappear in\nthe adul ts of terrestrial gr oups , but ar e maintained in adul t forms o f aquatic gr oups such as fish and some\namphibians . Great ape embr yos, including humans , have a tail s tructur e during their de velopment that is los t by the\ntime o f birth. The r eason embr yos o f unr elated species ar e often similar is that mutational chang es that aff ect the\norganism during embr yonic de velopment can cause amplified diff erences in the adul t, even while the embr yonic\nsimilarities ar e preser ved.\nBiogeogr aphy\nThe g eogr aphic dis tribution o f organisms on the planet f ollows pat terns that ar e bes t explained b y evolution in\nconjunction with the mo vement o f tectonic plat es o ver geological time . Broad gr oups that e volved bef ore the\nbreakup o f the super continent P angaea (about 200 mil lion y ears ag o) ar e dis tribut ed w orldwide . Groups that\nevolved sinc e the br eakup appear uniquel y in r egions o f the planet, f or example the unique flor a and fauna o f\nnorthern c ontinents that f ormed fr om the super continent L aurasia and o f the southern c ontinents that f ormed fr om\nthe super continent Gondw ana. The pr esenc e of Proteaceae in Aus tralia, southern Africa , and South America is bes t\nexplained b y the plant famil y\u2019s presenc e ther e prior t o the southern super continent Gondw ana br eaking up ( Figure\n11.13 ).\n258 11 \u2022 E volution and Its P rocesses\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2981, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "090990f2-b67e-4967-8a80-50947a6143eb": {"__data__": {"id_": "090990f2-b67e-4967-8a80-50947a6143eb", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "273", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1fede177-c27d-4189-a552-6318b0da4962", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "273", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9c72f280462470818cfa4442c346050d92de81236ec8be7c6e586656d5b6f3d4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 11.13 The P roteacea famil y of plants e volved bef ore the super continent Gondw ana br oke up . Today, members o f this plant famil y\nare found thr oughout the southern hemispher e (sho wn in r ed). (cr edit \u201cP roteacea flo wer\u201d: modification o f work b y \u201cdorofofoto\u201d/Flickr)\nThe gr eat div ersification o f the marsupials in Aus tralia and the absenc e of other mammals r eflects that island\ncontinent \u2019s long isolation. Aus tralia has an abundanc e of endemic species \u2014species f ound no wher e else \u2014which is\ntypical o f islands whose isolation b y expanses o f water pr events migr ation o f species t o other r egions . Over time ,\nthese species div erge evolutionaril y int o ne w species that look v ery diff erent fr om their anc estors that ma y exist on\nthe mainland. The marsupials o f Aus tralia, the finches on the Gal\u00e1pag os, and man y species on the Ha waiian Islands\nare all found no wher e else but on their island, y et displa y dis tant r elationships t o anc estral species on mainlands .\nMolecular Biology\nLike anat omical s tructur es, the s tructur es o f the molecules o f life reflect desc ent with modification. Evidenc e of a\ncommon anc estor for al l of life is r eflect ed in the univ ersality o f DNA as the g enetic mat erial and o f the near\nuniv ersality o f the g enetic c ode and the machiner y of DNA r eplication and e xpression. F undamental divisions in lif e\nbetw een the thr ee domains ar e reflect ed in major s tructur al diff erences in other wise c onser vative structur es such\nas the c omponents o f ribosomes and the s tructur es o f membr anes . In g ener al, the r elatednes s of groups o f\norganisms is r eflect ed in the similarity o f their DNA sequenc es\u2014exactl y the pat tern that w ould be e xpect ed fr om\ndesc ent and div ersification fr om a c ommon anc estor.\nDNA sequenc es ha ve also shed light on some o f the mechanisms o f evolution. F or example , it is clear that the\nevolution o f new functions f or pr oteins c ommonl y oc curs aft er gene duplication e vents . These duplications ar e a\nkind o f mutation in which an entir e gene is added as an e xtra copy (or man y copies) in the g enome . These\nduplications al low the fr ee modification o f one c opy by mutation, selection, and drift, while the sec ond c opy\ncontinues t o produc e a functional pr otein. This al lows the original function f or the pr otein t o be k ept, while\nevolutionar y forces tw eak the c opy until it functions in a ne w way.\n11.4 Speciation\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the definition o f species and ho w species ar e identified as diff erent\n\u2022Explain al lopatric and s ympatric speciation\n\u2022Describe adap tive radiation\nThe biological definition o f species , which w orks for se xual ly reproducing or ganisms , is a gr oup o f actual ly or\npotential ly int erbr eeding individuals . According t o this definition, one species is dis tinguished fr om another b y the\npossibility o f matings betw een individuals fr om each species t o produc e fertile o ffspring . Ther e are exceptions t o\nthis rule . Man y species ar e similar enough that h ybrid o ffspring ar e pos sible and ma y often oc cur in natur e, but f or\nthe majority o f species this rule g ener ally holds . In fact, the pr esenc e of hybrids betw een similar species sug gests11.4 \u2022 Speciation 259", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3381, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c0979dda-21e8-4d88-85f1-5b5e5cbf30d7": {"__data__": {"id_": "c0979dda-21e8-4d88-85f1-5b5e5cbf30d7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "274", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c7a255d0-d675-4342-b3de-3c86c1061d00", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "274", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cebab437eab1fbe638be3b026908ddc8420f99031803681c5eb6e51ba7c27683", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "9157ba3d-3740-4833-a924-7a3de39757bd", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "aeae58a736eaf506c8119b493c87bd4dde818f26a28cf6a7a60aa0d176c5c014", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "that the y ma y ha ve desc ended fr om a single int erbr eeding species and that the speciation pr ocess ma y not y et be\ncomplet ed.\nGiven the e xtraordinar y div ersity o f life on the planet ther e mus t be mechanisms f orspecia tion : the f ormation o f\ntwo species fr om one original species . Dar win en visioned this pr ocess as a br anching e vent and diagr ammed the\nprocess in the onl y illustration f ound in On the Origin o f Species (Figure 11.14 a). For speciation t o oc cur, two ne w\npopulations mus t be f ormed fr om one original population, and the y mus t evolve in such a w ay that it bec omes\nimpos sible f or individuals fr om the tw o ne w populations t o int erbr eed. Biologis ts ha ve proposed mechanisms b y\nwhich this c ould oc cur that fal l into tw o broad cat egories .Allopa tric specia tion , meaning speciation in \u201c other\nhomelands ,\u201d involves a g eogr aphic separ ation o f populations fr om a par ent species and subsequent e volution.\nSympa tric specia tion , meaning speciation in the \u201c same homeland, \u201d involves speciation oc curring within a par ent\nspecies while r emaining in one location.\nBiologis ts think o f speciation e vents as the split ting o f one anc estral species int o tw o desc endant species . Ther e is\nno reason wh y ther e might not be mor e than tw o species f ormed at one time e xcept that it is les s likely and such\nmultiple e vents can also be c onceptualiz ed as single splits oc curring close in time .\nFIGURE 11.14 The onl y illustration in Dar win\u2019sOn the Origin o f Species is (a) a diagr am sho wing speciation e vents leading t o biological\ndiversity . The diagr am sho ws similarities t o ph ylog enetic char ts that ar e drawn t oday to illustrate the r elationships o f species . (b) Modern\nelephants e volved fr om the Palaeomas todon , a species that liv ed in E gypt 35\u201350 mil lion y ears ag o.\nSpeciation thr ough Geogr aphic Separ ation\nA geogr aphical ly continuous population has a g ene pool that is r elativ ely homog eneous . Gene flo w, the mo vement o f\nalleles acr oss the r ange of the species , is r elativ ely free because individuals can mo ve and then mat e with\nindividuals in their ne w location. Thus , the fr equency o f an al lele at one end o f a dis tribution wil l be similar t o the\nfrequency o f the al lele at the other end. When populations bec ome g eogr aphical ly disc ontinuous that fr ee-flow of\nalleles is pr evented. When that separ ation las ts for a period o f time , the tw o populations ar e able t o evolve along\ndifferent tr aject ories . Thus , their al lele fr equencies at numer ous g enetic loci gr adual ly bec ome mor e and mor e\ndifferent as ne w al leles independentl y arise b y mutation in each population. T ypical ly, environmental c onditions ,\nsuch as climat e, resour ces, predat ors, and c ompetit ors, for the tw o populations wil l diff er causing natur al selection\nto favor div ergent adap tations in each gr oup. Diff erent his tories o f genetic drift, enhanc ed because the populations\nare smal ler than the par ent population, wil l also lead t o div ergence.\nGiven enough time , the g enetic and phenotypic div ergence betw een populations wil l likely aff ect char acters that\ninfluenc e reproduction enough that w ere individuals o f the tw o populations br ought t ogether , mating w ould be les s\nlikely, or if a mating oc curr ed, o ffspring w ould be non-viable or inf ertile. Man y types o f div erging char acters ma y\naffect the r eproductiv e isolation (inability t o int erbr eed) o f the tw o populations .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3563, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9157ba3d-3740-4833-a924-7a3de39757bd": {"__data__": {"id_": "9157ba3d-3740-4833-a924-7a3de39757bd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "274", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c7a255d0-d675-4342-b3de-3c86c1061d00", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "274", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cebab437eab1fbe638be3b026908ddc8420f99031803681c5eb6e51ba7c27683", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "c0979dda-21e8-4d88-85f1-5b5e5cbf30d7", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "274", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "105c320da630f5cf6c6d36dfe5c7c2f1b3e394697f8907464ecffa955fcdbf50", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Diff erent his tories o f genetic drift, enhanc ed because the populations\nare smal ler than the par ent population, wil l also lead t o div ergence.\nGiven enough time , the g enetic and phenotypic div ergence betw een populations wil l likely aff ect char acters that\ninfluenc e reproduction enough that w ere individuals o f the tw o populations br ought t ogether , mating w ould be les s\nlikely, or if a mating oc curr ed, o ffspring w ould be non-viable or inf ertile. Man y types o f div erging char acters ma y\naffect the r eproductiv e isolation (inability t o int erbr eed) o f the tw o populations . These mechanisms o f reproductiv e\nisolation can be divided int o prezygotic mechanisms (those that oper ate bef ore fertilization) and pos tzygotic\nmechanisms (those that oper ate aft er fertilization). P rezygotic mechanisms include tr aits that al low the individuals\nto find each other , such as the timing o f mating , sensitivity t o pher omones , or choic e of mating sit es. If individuals260 11 \u2022 E volution and Its P rocesses\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2954, "end_char_idx": 4033, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5974f7be-2928-4132-be81-232d48663c2a": {"__data__": {"id_": "5974f7be-2928-4132-be81-232d48663c2a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "275", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6288bab5-1ddf-427b-b9f7-de2be49bfbbb", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "275", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "31fc347d155d91d83f37760a1c791076de335203492f9d97e83352f5089903c3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "are able t o enc ount er each other , char acter div ergence ma y prevent c ourtship rituals fr om leading t o a mating either\nbecause f emale pr eferences ha ve chang ed or male beha viors ha ve chang ed. Ph ysiological chang es ma y int erfere\nwith suc cessful fertilization if mating is able t o oc cur. Postzygotic mechanisms include g enetic inc ompatibilities that\nprevent pr oper de velopment o f the o ffspring , or if the o ffspring liv e, the y ma y be unable t o produc e viable g amet es\nthemsel ves as in the e xample o f the mule , the inf ertile o ffspring o f a female horse and a male donk ey.\nIf the tw o isolat ed populations ar e brought back t ogether and the h ybrid o ffspring that f ormed fr om matings\nbetw een individuals o f the tw o populations ha ve lower sur vivorship or r educ ed fertility , then selection wil l favor\nindividuals that ar e able t o discriminat e betw een pot ential mat es o f their o wn population and the other population.\nThis selection wil l enhanc e the r eproductiv e isolation.\nIsolation o f populations leading t o allopatric speciation can oc cur in a v ariety o f ways: from a riv er forming a ne w\nbranch, er osion f orming a ne w valley, or a gr oup o f organisms tr aveling t o a ne w location without the ability t o\nreturn, such as seeds floating o ver the oc ean t o an island. The natur e of the g eogr aphic separ ation nec essary to\nisolat e populations depends entir ely on the biolog y of the or ganism and its pot ential f or dispersal . If tw o flying\ninsect populations t ook up r esidenc e in separ ate nearb y valleys, chanc es ar e that individuals fr om each population\nwould fl y back and f orth, c ontinuing g ene flo w. Ho wever, if tw o rodent populations became divided b y the f ormation\nof a ne w lak e, continued g ene flo w would be unlik ely; ther efore, speciation w ould be mor e lik ely.\nBiologis ts gr oup al lopatric pr ocesses int o tw o cat egories . If a f ew members o f a species mo ve to a ne w geogr aphical\narea, this is cal leddispersal . If a natur al situation arises t o ph ysical ly divide or ganisms , this is cal ledvicarianc e.\nScientis ts ha ve document ed numer ous cases o f allopatric speciation taking plac e. For example , along the w est\ncoast of the Unit ed Stat es, two separ ate subspecies o f spot ted o wls e xist. The nor thern spot ted o wl has g enetic and\nphenotypic diff erences fr om its close r elativ e, the Me xican spot ted o wl, which liv es in the south ( Figure 11.15 ). The\ncause o f their initial separ ation is not clear , but it ma y ha ve been caused b y the glaciers o f the ic e ag e dividing an\ninitial population int o tw o.5\nFIGURE 11.15 The nor thern spot ted o wl and the Me xican spot ted o wl inhabit g eogr aphical ly separ ate locations with diff erent climat es and\necosystems . The o wl is an e xample o f incipient speciation. (cr edit \u201c northern spot ted o wl\u201d: modification o f work b y John and K aren\nHollings worth, USFWS; cr edit \u201cMe xican spot ted o wl\u201d: modification o f work b y Bil l Radke, USFWS)\n5Cour tney, S.P ., et al , \u201cScientific Ev aluation o f the Status o f the Nor thern Spot ted Owl ,\u201d Sus tainable E cosystems Ins titut e (2004),\nPortland, OR.11.4 \u2022 Speciation 261", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3240, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0e69a063-547b-4549-b40c-ec6c89b5b91b": {"__data__": {"id_": "0e69a063-547b-4549-b40c-ec6c89b5b91b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "276", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "98e042f4-99cb-409d-b279-139e399cbb1c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "276", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5a4e32d0f7cbf1214a1878715bb262add30df96383cb3b57357fcba4ffacbe09", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Additional ly, scientis ts ha ve found that the fur ther the dis tanc e betw een tw o groups that onc e were the same\nspecies , the mor e lik ely for speciation t o tak e plac e. This seems logical because as the dis tanc e incr eases , the\nvarious en vironmental fact ors w ould lik ely ha ve les s in c ommon than locations in close pr oximity . Consider the tw o\nowls; in the nor th, the climat e is c ooler than in the south; the other types o f organisms in each ec osystem diff er, as\ndo their beha viors and habits; also , the hunting habits and pr ey choic es o f the o wls in the south v ary from the\nnorthern ones . These v arianc es can lead t o evolved diff erences in the o wls, and o ver time speciation wil l likely oc cur\nunles s gene flo w betw een the populations is r estored.\nIn some cases , a population o f one species disperses thr oughout an ar ea, and each finds a dis tinct niche or isolat ed\nhabitat. Ov er time , the v aried demands o f their ne w lif estyles lead t o mul tiple speciation e vents originating fr om a\nsingle species , which is cal ledadap tive radia tion . From one point o f origin, man y adap tations e volve causing the\nspecies t o radiat e int o se veral ne w ones . Island ar chipelag os lik e the Ha waiian Islands pr ovide an ideal c ontext for\nadap tive radiation e vents because w ater surr ounds each island, which leads t o geogr aphical isolation f or man y\norganisms ( Figure 11.16 ). The Ha waiian hone ycreeper il lustrates one e xample o f adap tive radiation. F rom a single\nspecies , cal led the f ounder species , numer ous species ha ve evolved, including the eight sho wn in Figure 11.16 .\nFIGURE 11.16 The hone ycreeper bir ds il lustrate adap tive radiation. F rom one original species o f bird, mul tiple others e volved, each with its\nown dis tinctiv e char acteristics.\nNotic e the diff erences in the species\u2019 beak s in Figure 11.16 . Chang e in the g enetic v ariation f or beak s in r esponse t o\nnatur al selection based on specific f ood sour ces in each ne w habitat led t o evolution o f a diff erent beak suit ed to the\nspecific f ood sour ce. The fruit and seed-eating bir ds ha ve thick er, stronger beak s which ar e suit ed to break har d\nnuts . The nectar -eating bir ds ha ve long beak s to dip int o flo wers t o reach their nectar . The insect -eating bir ds ha ve\nbeak s like swords, appr opriat e for stabbing and impaling insects . Dar win\u2019s finches ar e another w ell-studied e xample\nof adap tive radiation in an ar chipelag o.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nClick thr ough this interactiv e sit e(http://opens tax.org/l/bir d_evolution) to see ho w island bir ds e volved; click t o see\nimag es o f each species in e volutionar y incr ements fr om fiv e mil lion y ears ag o to today.\n262 11 \u2022 E volution and Its P rocesses\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2838, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d009331f-0501-4387-814f-dc4407d6e6fa": {"__data__": {"id_": "d009331f-0501-4387-814f-dc4407d6e6fa", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "277", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "679cc2dd-7932-434f-baf2-f1425fe49d85", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "277", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3d02bdae6382fa3cb0234dda94a53f9e562b53b5fa8a2da8757ea6da3ed4158b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Speciation without Geogr aphic Separ ation\nCan div ergence oc cur if no ph ysical barriers ar e in plac e to separ ate individuals who c ontinue t o liv e and r eproduc e\nin the same habitat? A number o f mechanisms f or sympatric speciation ha ve been pr oposed and s tudied.\nOne f orm o f sympatric speciation can begin with a chr omosomal err or during meiosis or the f ormation o f a h ybrid\nindividual with t oo man y chr omosomes . Polyploidy is a c ondition in which a c ell, or or ganism, has an e xtra set, or\nsets , of chr omosomes . Scientis ts ha ve identified tw o main types o f pol yploidy that can lead t o reproductiv e isolation\nof an individual in the pol yploid s tate. In some cases a pol yploid individual wil l have tw o or mor e complet e sets o f\nchromosomes fr om its o wn species in a c ondition cal led aut opol yploidy ( Figure 11.17 ). The pr efix \u201c auto\u201d means\nself, so the t erm means mul tiple chr omosomes fr om one \u2019s own species . Polyploidy r esul ts from an err or in meiosis\nin which al l of the chr omosomes mo ve int o one c ell ins tead o f separ ating .\nFIGURE 11.17 Autopol yploidy r esul ts when mit osis is not f ollowed b y cyt okinesis .\nFor example , if a plant species with 2 n= 6 pr oduc es aut opol yploid g amet es that ar e also diploid (2 n= 6, when the y\nshould be n= 3), the g amet es no w ha ve twic e as man y chr omosomes as the y should ha ve. These ne w gamet es wil l\nbe inc ompatible with the normal g amet es pr oduc ed b y this plant species . But the y could either self-pol linat e or\nreproduc e with other aut opol yploid plants with g amet es ha ving the same diploid number . In this w ay, sympatric\nspeciation can oc cur quickl y by forming o ffspring with 4 ncalled a t etraploid. These individuals w ould immediat ely\nbe able t o reproduc e onl y with those o f this ne w kind and not those o f the anc estral species . The other f orm o f\npolyploidy oc curs when individuals o f two diff erent species r eproduc e to form a viable o ffspring cal led an\nallopol yploid. The pr efix \u201c allo\u201d means \u201c other \u201d (recal l from al lopatric); ther efore, an al lopol yploid oc curs when\ngamet es fr om tw o diff erent species c ombine .Figure 11.18 illustrates one pos sible w ay an al lopol yploidy can f orm.\nNotic e ho w it tak es tw o gener ations , or tw o reproductiv e acts , bef ore the viable f ertile h ybrid r esul ts.\nFIGURE 11.18 Alloploidy r esul ts when tw o species mat e to produc e viable o ffspring . In the e xample sho wn, a normal g amet e from one\nspecies fuses with a pol yploid g amet e from another . Two matings ar e nec essary to produc e viable o ffspring .\nThe cul tivated forms o f wheat, c otton, and t obac co plants ar e all allopol yploids . Although pol yploidy oc curs\noccasional ly in animals , mos t chr omosomal abnormalities in animals ar e lethal; it tak es plac e mos t commonl y in\nplants . Scientis ts ha ve disc overed mor e than 1/2 o f all plant species s tudied r elate back t o a species e volved\nthrough pol yploidy .11.4 \u2022 Speciation 263", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3054, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2ddc4f24-9741-4429-9b97-6770995c8392": {"__data__": {"id_": "2ddc4f24-9741-4429-9b97-6770995c8392", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "278", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "783a8add-1ba8-4906-9f3f-ceb690b92b75", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "278", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7fed4d396f70c5f3d08505010fc6781c5ef55968c0393968086c623c48d5f1a5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "3159ed87-c0df-4182-92b7-8ea98aec7dc6", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "8a20ba230e640dd7b2f1adef4ab8a3cb2d04792682bc4b4ed7346f74b56c5b9b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Sympatric speciation ma y also tak e plac e in w ays other than pol yploidy . For example , imagine a species o f fish that\nlived in a lak e. As the population gr ew, competition f or food also gr ew. Under pr essure to find f ood, suppose that a\ngroup o f these fish had the g enetic fle xibility t o disc over and f eed o ff another r esour ce that w as unused b y the other\nfish. What if this ne w food sour ce was found at a diff erent dep th of the lak e? Ov er time , those f eeding on the sec ond\nfood sour ce would int eract mor e with each other than the other fish; ther efore the y would br eed t ogether as w ell.\nOffspring o f these fish w ould lik ely beha ve as their par ents and f eed and liv e in the same ar ea, keeping them\nsepar ate from the original population. If this gr oup o f fish c ontinued t o remain separ ate from the firs t population,\neventual ly sympatric speciation might oc cur as mor e genetic diff erences ac cumulat ed betw een them.\nThis sc enario does pla y out in natur e, as do others that lead t o reproductiv e isolation. One such plac e is L ake\nVictoria in Africa , famous f or its s ympatric speciation o f cichlid fish. R esear chers ha ve found hundr eds o f sympatric\nspeciation e vents in these fish, which ha ve not onl y happened in gr eat number , but also o ver a shor t period o f time .\nFigure 11.19 shows this type o f speciation among a cichlid fish population in Nicar agua. In this locale , two types o f\ncichlids liv e in the same g eogr aphic location; ho wever, the y ha ve come t o ha ve diff erent morphologies that al low\nthem t o eat v arious f ood sour ces.\nFIGURE 11.19 Cichlid fish fr om L ake Apo yeque , Nicar agua, sho w evidenc e of sympatric speciation. L ake Apo yeque , a cr ater lak e, is 1800\nyears old, but g enetic e videnc e indicat es that the lak e was populat ed onl y 100 y ears ag o by a single population o f cichlid fish. Ne vertheles s,\ntwo populations with dis tinct morphologies and diets no w exist in the lak e, and scientis ts belie ve these populations ma y be in an earl y\nstage of speciation.\nFinal ly, a w ell-document ed e xample o f ong oing s ympatric speciation oc curr ed in the apple mag got fly,Rhag oletis\npomonel la,which ar ose as an isolat ed population sometime aft er the intr oduction o f the apple int o Nor th America .\nThe nativ e population o f flies f ed on ha wthorn species and is hos t-specific: it onl y inf ests ha wthorn tr ees.\nImpor tantl y, it also uses the tr ees as a location t o meet f or mating . It is h ypothesiz ed that either thr ough mutation\nor a beha vioral mis take, flies jumped hos ts and met and mat ed in apple tr ees, subsequentl y laying their eg gs in\napple fruit. The o ffspring matur ed and k ept their pr eference for the apple tr ees eff ectiv ely dividing the original\npopulation int o tw o ne w populations separ ated b y hos t species , not b y geogr aphy. The hos t jump t ook plac e in the\nninet eenth c entur y, but ther e are no w measur eable diff erences betw een the tw o populations o f fly. It seems lik ely\nthat hos t specificity o f par asites in g ener al is a c ommon cause o f sympatric speciation.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3168, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3159ed87-c0df-4182-92b7-8ea98aec7dc6": {"__data__": {"id_": "3159ed87-c0df-4182-92b7-8ea98aec7dc6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "278", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "783a8add-1ba8-4906-9f3f-ceb690b92b75", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "278", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7fed4d396f70c5f3d08505010fc6781c5ef55968c0393968086c623c48d5f1a5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "2ddc4f24-9741-4429-9b97-6770995c8392", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "278", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f8aec8eaef0f5e3486ce437b7b734d3a6963e01a43a8ad1c090230c3b6d9226a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "It is h ypothesiz ed that either thr ough mutation\nor a beha vioral mis take, flies jumped hos ts and met and mat ed in apple tr ees, subsequentl y laying their eg gs in\napple fruit. The o ffspring matur ed and k ept their pr eference for the apple tr ees eff ectiv ely dividing the original\npopulation int o tw o ne w populations separ ated b y hos t species , not b y geogr aphy. The hos t jump t ook plac e in the\nninet eenth c entur y, but ther e are no w measur eable diff erences betw een the tw o populations o f fly. It seems lik ely\nthat hos t specificity o f par asites in g ener al is a c ommon cause o f sympatric speciation.\n11.5 Common Misc onceptions about E volution\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Identif y common misc onceptions about e volution\n\u2022Identif y common criticisms o f evolution\nAlthough the theor y of evolution initial ly gener ated some c ontr oversy, by 20 y ears aft er the publication o fOn the\nOrigin o f Species it was almos t univ ersal ly accepted b y biologis ts, par ticularl y young er biologis ts. Nevertheles s, the\ntheor y of evolution is a difficul t concept and misc onceptions about ho w it w orks abound. In addition, ther e are those\nthat r eject it as an e xplanation f or the div ersity o f life.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nThis websit e(http://opens tax.org/l/misc onception2) addr esses some o f the main misc onceptions as sociat ed with\nthe theor y of evolution.\n264 11 \u2022 E volution and Its P rocesses\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2531, "end_char_idx": 4058, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3427916f-df4d-4bf0-a5cc-3a34b57846dc": {"__data__": {"id_": "3427916f-df4d-4bf0-a5cc-3a34b57846dc", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "279", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7376b02f-202f-4035-ac08-1fff6557972e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "279", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "430cdb6501e31b56e09efbca3e0f48813a1c50197d6b818311aa4c273b0a42bd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "504ec348-7dda-4936-b33b-dadadd34d9d0", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "200de97a276d5460eb9cbc2251a3199d4f2b126ada361f314715682e9b4250c4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Evolution Is Jus t a Theor y\nCritics o f the theor y of evolution dismis s its impor tanc e by purposeful ly confounding the e veryday usag e of the w ord\n\u201ctheor y\u201d with the w ay scientis ts use the w ord. In scienc e, a \u201ctheor y\u201d is unders tood t o be a c oncept that has been\nextensiv ely tested and suppor ted o ver time . We ha ve a theor y of the at om, a theor y of gravity, and the theor y of\nrelativity , each o f which describes what scientis ts unders tand t o be facts about the w orld. In the same w ay, the\ntheor y of evolution describes facts about the living w orld. As such, a theor y in scienc e has sur vived significant\nefforts to discr edit it b y scientis ts, who ar e natur ally skeptical . While theories can sometimes be o verturned or\nrevised, this does not les sen their w eight but simpl y reflects the c onstantl y evolving s tate of scientific kno wledg e. In\ncontr ast, a \u201c theor y\u201d in c ommon v ernacular means a g uess or sug gested e xplanation f or something . This meaning is\nmor e akin t o the c oncept of a \u201ch ypothesis\u201d used b y scientis ts, which is a t entativ e explanation f or something that is\nproposed t o either be suppor ted or dispr oved. When critics o f evolution sa y evolution is \u201cjus t a theor y,\u201d the y are\nimpl ying that ther e is lit tle e videnc e suppor ting it and that it is s till in the pr ocess of being rig orousl y tested. This is a\nmischar acterization. If this w ere the case , geneticis t Theodosius Dob zhansky w ould not ha ve said that \u201c nothing in\nbiolog y mak es sense , except in the light o f evolution. \u201d6\nIndividuals E volve\nAn individual is born with the g enes it has \u2014these do not chang e as the individual ag es. Ther efore, an individual\ncannot e volve or adap t thr ough natur al selection. Ev olution is the chang e in g enetic c omposition o f a population\nover time , specifical ly over gener ations , resul ting fr om diff erential r eproduction o f individuals with c ertain al leles .\nIndividuals do chang e over their lif etime , but this is cal led de velopment; it in volves chang es pr ogrammed b y the set\nof genes the individual ac quired at bir th in c oordination with the individual \u2019s en vironment. When thinking about the\nevolution o f a char acteristic, it is pr obabl y bes t to think about the chang e of the a verage value o f the char acteristic in\nthe population o ver time . For example , when natur al selection leads t o bil l-size chang e in medium gr ound finches in\nthe Gal\u00e1pag os, this does not mean that individual bil ls on the finches ar e changing . If one measur es the a verage bil l\nsize among al l individuals in the population at one time , and then measur es the a verage bil l size in the population\nseveral years lat er aft er ther e has been a s trong selectiv e pressure, this a verage value ma y be diff erent as a r esul t of\nevolution. Al though some individuals ma y sur vive from the firs t time t o the sec ond, those individuals wil l still have\nthe same bil l size. Ho wever, ther e ma y be enough ne w individuals with diff erent bil l sizes to chang e the a verage bil l\nsize.\nEvolution Explains the Origin o f Life\nIt is a c ommon misunders tanding that e volution includes an e xplanation o f life\u2019s origins . Some o f the theor y\u2019s critics\ncomplain that it cannot e xplain the origin o f life. The theor y does not tr y to explain the origin o f life. The theor y of\nevolution e xplains ho w populations chang e over time and ho w lif e div ersifies \u2014the origin o f species .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3515, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "504ec348-7dda-4936-b33b-dadadd34d9d0": {"__data__": {"id_": "504ec348-7dda-4936-b33b-dadadd34d9d0", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "279", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7376b02f-202f-4035-ac08-1fff6557972e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "279", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "430cdb6501e31b56e09efbca3e0f48813a1c50197d6b818311aa4c273b0a42bd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "3427916f-df4d-4bf0-a5cc-3a34b57846dc", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "279", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "701eed8bc6a69e520f1cdb7509fe162bd57bdaf4d88113e5ff92ef5e7f241898", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Al though some individuals ma y sur vive from the firs t time t o the sec ond, those individuals wil l still have\nthe same bil l size. Ho wever, ther e ma y be enough ne w individuals with diff erent bil l sizes to chang e the a verage bil l\nsize.\nEvolution Explains the Origin o f Life\nIt is a c ommon misunders tanding that e volution includes an e xplanation o f life\u2019s origins . Some o f the theor y\u2019s critics\ncomplain that it cannot e xplain the origin o f life. The theor y does not tr y to explain the origin o f life. The theor y of\nevolution e xplains ho w populations chang e over time and ho w lif e div ersifies \u2014the origin o f species . It does not shed\nlight on the beginnings o f life including the origins o f the firs t cells, which is ho w lif e is defined. The mechanisms o f\nthe origin o f life on Ear th ar e a par ticularl y difficul t problem because it oc curr ed a v ery long time ag o, over a v ery\nlong time , and pr esumabl y jus t occurr ed onc e. Impor tantl y, biologis ts belie ve that the pr esenc e of life on Ear th\nprecludes the pos sibility that the e vents that led t o life on Ear th can be r epeat ed because the int ermediat e stages\nwould immediat ely bec ome f ood f or existing living things . The earl y stages o f life included the f ormation o f organic\nmolecules such as carboh ydrates, amino acids , or nucleotides . If these w ere formed fr om inor ganic pr ecursors\ntoday, the y would simpl y be br oken do wn b y living things . The earl y stages o f life also pr obabl y included mor e\ncomple x ag gregations o f molecules int o enclosed s tructur es with an int ernal en vironment, a boundar y layer of some\nform, and the e xternal en vironment. Such s tructur es, if the y were formed no w, would be quickl y consumed or\nbroken do wn b y living or ganisms .\nHowever, onc e a mechanism o f inheritanc e was in plac e in the f orm o f a molecule lik e DNA or RNA , either within a\ncell or within a pr e-cell, these entities w ould be subject t o the principle o f natur al selection. Mor e eff ectiv e\nreproduc ers w ould incr ease in fr equency at the e xpense o f inefficient r eproduc ers. So while e volution does not\nexplain the origin o f life, it ma y ha ve something t o sa y about some o f the pr ocesses oper ating onc e pre-living\nentities ac quired c ertain pr oper ties.\n6Theodosius Dob zhansky . \u201cBiolog y, Molecular and Or ganismic. \u201dAmerican Z oologis t4, no . 4 (1964): 449.11.5 \u2022 C ommon Misc onceptions about E volution 265", "start_char_idx": 2866, "end_char_idx": 5361, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5f96a161-509d-4452-b065-dd19ea93246a": {"__data__": {"id_": "5f96a161-509d-4452-b065-dd19ea93246a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "280", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3ce7306b-40e5-473f-8281-5a4f7b9db7ec", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "280", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6df011153dac72fd894c288d4d824f184a9312daa5e892a900b33c725b33a5b1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "9c8a2c45-3792-44cb-98c4-24edce5c403c", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "3b07c2753b837e6bcb76df72ef0849e2c74dd475aee1634e13cda2c9d636113e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Organisms E volve on P urpose\nStat ements such as \u201c organisms e volve in r esponse t o a chang e in an en vironment, \u201d are quit e common. Ther e are\ntwo eas y misunders tandings pos sible with such a s tatement. Firs t of all, the s tatement mus t not be unders tood t o\nmean that individual or ganisms e volve, as w as discus sed abo ve. The s tatement is shor thand f or \u201ca population\nevolves in r esponse t o a changing en vironment. \u201d Ho wever, a sec ond misunders tanding ma y arise b y int erpr eting the\nstatement t o mean that the e volution is someho w int entional . A chang ed en vironment r esul ts in some individuals in\nthe population, those with par ticular phenotypes , benefiting and, ther efore, producing pr opor tionat ely mor e\noffspring than other phenotypes . This r esul ts in chang e in the population if the char acters ar e genetical ly\ndetermined.\nIt is also impor tant t o unders tand that the v ariation that natur al selection w orks on is alr eady in a population and\ndoes not arise in r esponse t o an en vironmental chang e. For example , appl ying antibiotics t o a population o f bact eria\nwill, over time , select f or a population o f bact eria that ar e resistant t o antibiotics . The r esistanc e, which is caused b y\na gene, did not arise b y mutation because o f the application o f the antibiotic. The g ene f or resistanc e was alr eady\npresent in the g ene pool o f the bact eria, likely at a lo w frequency . The antibiotic, which kil ls the bact erial c ells\nwithout the r esistanc e gene, strongl y selects f or individuals that ar e resistant, sinc e these w ould be the onl y ones\nthat sur vived and divided. Experiments ha ve demons trated that mutations f or antibiotic r esistanc e do not arise as a\nresul t of antibiotic application.\nIn a lar ger sense , evolution is also not g oal dir ected. Species do not bec ome \u201cbet ter\u201d over time; the y simpl y track\ntheir changing en vironment with adap tations that maximiz e their r eproduction in a par ticular en vironment at a\nparticular time . Evolution has no g oal o f making fas ter, big ger, mor e comple x, or e ven smar ter species . This kind o f\nlang uage is c ommon in popular lit eratur e. Cer tain or ganisms , oursel ves included, ar e described as the \u201c pinnacle \u201d of\nevolution, or \u201c perfected\u201d b y evolution. What char acteristics e volve in a species ar e a function o f the v ariation\npresent and the en vironment, both o f which ar e constantl y changing in a non-dir ectional w ay. What tr ait is fit in one\nenvironment at one time ma y well be fatal at some point in the futur e. This holds equal ly well for a species o f insect\nas it does the human species .\nEvolution Is C ontroversial among Scientis ts\nThe theor y of evolution w as contr oversial when it w as firs t proposed in 1859, y et within 20 y ears vir tually every\nworking biologis t had ac cepted e volution as the e xplanation f or the div ersity o f life. The r ate of acceptanc e was\nextraordinaril y rapid, par tly because Dar win had amas sed an impr essive body o f evidenc e. The earl y contr oversies\ninvolved both scientific ar guments ag ains t the theor y and the ar guments o f religious leaders . It w as the ar guments\nof the biologis ts that w ere resol ved aft er a shor t time , while the ar guments o f religious leaders ha ve persis ted to this\nday.\nThe theor y of evolution r eplac ed the pr edominant theor y at the time that species had al l been special ly created\nwithin r elativ ely recent his tory.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3511, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9c8a2c45-3792-44cb-98c4-24edce5c403c": {"__data__": {"id_": "9c8a2c45-3792-44cb-98c4-24edce5c403c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "280", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3ce7306b-40e5-473f-8281-5a4f7b9db7ec", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "280", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6df011153dac72fd894c288d4d824f184a9312daa5e892a900b33c725b33a5b1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "5f96a161-509d-4452-b065-dd19ea93246a", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "280", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "192f38b61ef51243ba4b48aaa216a5cce763a1fbfe19c2a630a776993fb949ed", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The r ate of acceptanc e was\nextraordinaril y rapid, par tly because Dar win had amas sed an impr essive body o f evidenc e. The earl y contr oversies\ninvolved both scientific ar guments ag ains t the theor y and the ar guments o f religious leaders . It w as the ar guments\nof the biologis ts that w ere resol ved aft er a shor t time , while the ar guments o f religious leaders ha ve persis ted to this\nday.\nThe theor y of evolution r eplac ed the pr edominant theor y at the time that species had al l been special ly created\nwithin r elativ ely recent his tory. Despit e the pr evalenc e of this theor y, it w as bec oming incr easingl y clear t o\nnatur alists during the ninet eenth c entur y that it c ould no long er explain man y obser vations o f geolog y and the living\nworld. The persuasiv enes s of the theor y of evolution t o these natur alists la y in its ability t o explain these\nphenomena , and it c ontinues t o hold e xtraordinar y explanat ory po wer to this da y. Its c ontinued r ejection b y some\nreligious leaders r esul ts from its r eplac ement o f special cr eation, a t enet o f their r eligious belief . These leaders\ncannot ac cept the r eplac ement o f special cr eation b y a mechanis tic pr ocess that e xcludes the actions o f a deity as\nan e xplanation f or the div ersity o f life including the origins o f the human species . It should be not ed, ho wever, that\nmos t of the major denominations in the Unit ed Stat es ha ve statements suppor ting the ac ceptanc e of evidenc e for\nevolution as c ompatible with their theologies .266 11 \u2022 E volution and Its P rocesses\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2945, "end_char_idx": 4585, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "989e081c-fbd5-49f2-9a10-19feb47d939a": {"__data__": {"id_": "989e081c-fbd5-49f2-9a10-19feb47d939a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "281", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d42761b3-8ffa-4780-a38a-ff8faee6d6a4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "281", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ec3b131a37019cd60f47b04b5b5c1fe3c537d56120aa8eba65dddb1d621cdc1a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "0ba95f7c-f3fe-47af-95aa-c78f8ed330f3", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "a44ec2d86dd269a180ad900a759268c53cc173a189802702b96bb99977376e45", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The natur e of the ar guments ag ains t evolution b y religious leaders has e volved o ver time . One curr ent ar gument is\nthat the theor y is s till contr oversial among biologis ts. This claim is simpl y not true . The number o f working scientis ts\nwho r eject the theor y of evolution, or ques tion its v alidity and sa y so, is smal l. A P ew Resear ch pol l in 2009 f ound\nthat 97 per cent o f the 2500 scientis ts pol led belie ve species e volve.7The suppor t for the theor y is r eflect ed in\nsigned s tatements fr om man y scientific societies such as the American As sociation f or the Adv ancement o f Scienc e,\nwhich includes w orking scientis ts as members . Man y of the scientis ts that r eject or ques tion the theor y of evolution\nare non-biologis ts, such as engineers , physicians , and chemis ts. Ther e are no e xperimental r esul ts or r esear ch\nprograms that c ontr adict the theor y. Ther e are no papers published in peer -reviewed scientific journals that appear\nto refut e the theor y. The lat ter obser vation might be c onsider ed a c onsequenc e of suppr ession o f dis sent, but it\nmus t be r emember ed that scientis ts ar e sk eptics and that ther e is a long his tory of published r epor ts that\nchal leng ed scientific or thodo xy in unpopular w ays. Examples include the endos ymbiotic theor y of euk aryotic\norigins , the theor y of group selection, the micr obial cause o f stomach ulc ers, the as teroid-impact theor y of the\nCretac eous e xtinction, and the theor y of plat e tectonics . Resear ch with e videnc e and ideas with scientific merit ar e\nconsider ed b y the scientific c ommunity . Resear ch that does not meet these s tandar ds is r eject ed.\nOther Theories Should Be T aught\nA common ar gument fr om some people is that al ternativ e theories t o evolution should be taught in public schools .\nCritics o f evolution use this s trategy to create unc ertainty about the v alidity o f the theor y without o ffering actual\nevidenc e. In fact, ther e are no viable al ternativ e scientific theories t o evolution. The las t such theor y, proposed b y\nLamar ck in the ninet eenth c entur y, was replac ed b y the theor y of natur al selection. A single e xception w as a\nresear ch pr ogram in the So viet Union based on L amar ck\u2019s theor y during the earl y tw entieth c entur y that set that\ncountr y\u2019s agricul tural resear ch back decades . Special cr eation is not a viable al ternativ e scientific theor y because it\nis not a scientific theor y, sinc e it r elies on an unt estable e xplanation. Int elligent design, despit e the claims o f its\nproponents , is also not a scientific e xplanation. This is because int elligent design posits the e xistence of an\nunkno wn designer o f living or ganisms and their s ystems . Whether the designer is unkno wn or supernatur al, it is a\ncause that cannot be measur ed; ther efore, it is not a scientific e xplanation. Ther e are tw o reasons not t o teach\nnonscientific theories . Firs t, these e xplanations f or the div ersity o f life lack scientific usefulnes s because the y do\nnot, and cannot, giv e rise t o resear ch pr ograms that pr omot e our unders tanding o f the natur al w orld. Experiments\ncannot t est non-mat erial e xplanations f or natur al phenomena . For this r eason, t eaching these e xplanations as\nscienc e in public schools is not in the public int erest. Sec ond, in the Unit ed Stat es, it is il legal to teach them as\nscienc e because the U .S.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3474, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0ba95f7c-f3fe-47af-95aa-c78f8ed330f3": {"__data__": {"id_": "0ba95f7c-f3fe-47af-95aa-c78f8ed330f3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "281", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d42761b3-8ffa-4780-a38a-ff8faee6d6a4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "281", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ec3b131a37019cd60f47b04b5b5c1fe3c537d56120aa8eba65dddb1d621cdc1a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "989e081c-fbd5-49f2-9a10-19feb47d939a", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "281", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d20a8d7fe18e128c8b51a7f65b231b5227aaa7f4a4eb8452d73a8a3c78189aee", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Ther e are tw o reasons not t o teach\nnonscientific theories . Firs t, these e xplanations f or the div ersity o f life lack scientific usefulnes s because the y do\nnot, and cannot, giv e rise t o resear ch pr ograms that pr omot e our unders tanding o f the natur al w orld. Experiments\ncannot t est non-mat erial e xplanations f or natur al phenomena . For this r eason, t eaching these e xplanations as\nscienc e in public schools is not in the public int erest. Sec ond, in the Unit ed Stat es, it is il legal to teach them as\nscienc e because the U .S. Supr eme Cour t and lo wer courts ha ve ruled that the t eaching o f religious belief , such as\nspecial cr eation or int elligent design, violat es the es tablishment clause o f the Firs t Amendment o f the U .S.\nCons titution, which pr ohibits g overnment sponsorship o f a par ticular r eligion.\nThe theor y of evolution and scienc e in g ener al is , by definition, silent on the e xistence or non-e xistence of the\nspiritual w orld. Scienc e is onl y able t o study and kno w the mat erial w orld. Individual biologis ts ha ve sometimes\nbeen v ocal atheis ts, but it is equal ly true that ther e are man y deepl y religious biologis ts. Nothing in biolog y\nprecludes the e xistence of a g od or other supr eme beings , indeed biolog y as a scienc e has nothing t o sa y about it.\nIndividual biologis ts ar e free to reconcile their personal and scientific kno wledg e as the y see fit. The V oices for\nEvolution pr oject (ht tp://ncse .com/v oices), de veloped thr ough the National Cent er for Scienc e Education, w orks to\ngather the div ersity o f perspectiv es on e volution t o adv ocat e it being taught in public schools .\n7Pew Resear ch Cent er for the P eople & the P ress,Public P raises Scienc e; Scientis ts Fault Public, Media (Washingt on, DC, 2009), 37.11.5 \u2022 C ommon Misc onceptions about E volution 267", "start_char_idx": 2918, "end_char_idx": 4798, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "98a44aca-dc2c-4304-9dc0-df2f58382b33": {"__data__": {"id_": "98a44aca-dc2c-4304-9dc0-df2f58382b33", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "282", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4fd7cca5-05bf-47d2-bcb5-ec4823409cbe", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "282", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4753101c36133c4512e50c5d3bc1cc5fc929ebe9fd1ae85cc4eac3c615ff4dea", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "899cc31b-44e9-4e6c-989a-aca8116c0195", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "9f00b7f74d42366a8b20aff4c7ff748604cfce8a6b5a4a0159a4f084818cf886", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nadap tation a heritable tr ait or beha vior in an\norganism that aids in its sur vival in its pr esent\nenvironment\nadap tive radia tion a speciation when one species\nradiat es out t o form se veral other species\nallopa tric specia tion a speciation that oc curs via a\ngeogr aphic separ ation\nanalog ous s tructur ea structur e that is similar\nbecause o f evolution in r esponse t o similar selection\npressures resul ting in c onvergent e volution, not\nsimilar because o f desc ent fr om a c ommon anc estor\nbottleneck ef fect the magnification o f genetic drift as\na resul t of natur al events or catas trophes\nconvergent e volution an e volution that r esul ts in\nsimilar f orms on diff erent species\ndispersal an al lopatric speciation that oc curs when a\nfew members o f a species mo ve to a ne w\ngeogr aphical ar ea\ndivergent e volution an e volution that r esul ts in\ndifferent f orms in tw o species with a c ommon\nancestor\nfounder ef fect a magnification o f genetic drift in a\nsmal l population that migr ates a way from a lar ge\nparent population carr ying with it an\nunrepresentativ e set o f alleles\ngene flo wthe flo w of alleles in and out o f a\npopulation due t o the migr ation o f individuals or\ngamet es\ngene pool all of the al leles carried b y all of the\nindividuals in the population\ngenetic drift the eff ect o f chanc e on a population \u2019s\ngene pool\nhomolog ous s tructur ea structur e that is similar\nbecause o f desc ent fr om a c ommon anc estor\ninheritanc e of acquir ed char acteristics a phr ase\nthat describes the mechanism o f evolutionproposed b y Lamar ck in which tr aits ac quired b y\nindividuals thr ough use or disuse c ould be pas sed\non to their o ffspring thus leading t o evolutionar y\nchang e in the population\nmacr oevolution a broader scale o f evolutionar y\nchang es seen o ver paleont ological time\nmicr oevolution the chang es in a population \u2019s genetic\nstructur e (i.e. allele fr equency)\nmigr ation the mo vement o f individuals o f a\npopulation t o a ne w location; in population g enetics\nit refers t o the mo vement o f individuals and their\nalleles fr om one population t o another , pot ential ly\nchanging al lele fr equencies in both the old and the\nnew population\nmodern s ynthesis the o verarching e volutionar y\nparadigm that t ook shape b y the 1940s and is\ngener ally accepted today\nnatural selection the gr eater relativ e sur vival and\nreproduction o f individuals in a population that ha ve\nfavorable heritable tr aits, leading t o evolutionar y\nchang e\npopula tion g enetics the s tudy o f how selectiv e\nforces chang e the al lele fr equencies in a population\nover time\nspecia tion a formation o f a ne w species\nsympa tric specia tion a speciation that oc curs in the\nsame g eogr aphic spac e\nvaria tion the v ariety o f alleles in a population\nvestigial s tructur ea ph ysical s tructur e present in an\norganism but that has no appar ent function and\nappears t o be fr om a functional s tructur e in a\ndistant anc estor\nvicarianc ean al lopatric speciation that oc curs when\nsomething in the en vironment separ ates or ganisms\nof the same species int o separ ate groups\nChap ter Summar y\n11.1 Discovering Ho w Populations Change\nEvolution b y natur al selection arises fr om thr ee\nconditions: individuals within a species v ary, some o f\nthose v ariations ar e heritable , and or ganisms ha ve\nmor e offspring than r esour ces can suppor t.", "start_char_idx": null, "end_char_idx": null, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "899cc31b-44e9-4e6c-989a-aca8116c0195": {"__data__": {"id_": "899cc31b-44e9-4e6c-989a-aca8116c0195", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "282", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4fd7cca5-05bf-47d2-bcb5-ec4823409cbe", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "282", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4753101c36133c4512e50c5d3bc1cc5fc929ebe9fd1ae85cc4eac3c615ff4dea", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "98a44aca-dc2c-4304-9dc0-df2f58382b33", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "282", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e052da39134953d74280e3cdec9d41863b727a3b7ce50a30345c1a6e97eb01eb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "1 Discovering Ho w Populations Change\nEvolution b y natur al selection arises fr om thr ee\nconditions: individuals within a species v ary, some o f\nthose v ariations ar e heritable , and or ganisms ha ve\nmor e offspring than r esour ces can suppor t. The\nconsequenc e is that individuals with r elativ ely\nadvantag eous v ariations wil l be mor e lik ely to sur vive\nand ha ve higher r eproductiv e rates than those\nindividuals with diff erent tr aits. The adv antag eous\ntraits wil l be pas sed on t o offspring in gr eater\npropor tion. Thus , the tr ait wil l have higher\nrepresentation in the ne xt and subsequent g ener ations\nleading t o genetic chang e in the population.The modern s ynthesis o f evolutionar y theor y grew out\nof the r econciliation o f Dar win\u2019s, Wallace\u2019s, and\nMendel \u2019s thoughts on e volution and her edity .\nPopulation g enetics is a theor etical fr ame work f or\ndescribing e volutionar y chang e in populations thr ough\nthe chang e in al lele fr equencies . Population g enetics\ndefines e volution as a chang e in al lele fr equency o ver\ngener ations . In the absenc e of evolutionar y forces\nallele fr equencies wil l not chang e in a population; this\nis kno wn as Har dy-Weinber g equilibrium principle .\nHowever, in al l populations , mutation, natur al\nselection, g enetic drift, and migr ation act t o chang e\nallele fr equencies .268 11 \u2022 K ey Terms\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 3166, "end_char_idx": 4586, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d8087790-33ab-4af2-bc07-734010b79e69": {"__data__": {"id_": "d8087790-33ab-4af2-bc07-734010b79e69", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "283", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7dc15949-9aa3-4bf2-a3ee-4443f6205e07", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "283", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c0592599d9972d7fd331fbd4322be04243c6a24cafe8afad7f6855d8deebb8a4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "1e941a60-2887-4714-8a24-73f2d98eddb2", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "05830b502d831621e206cf523ff03d5fbb2eada1724bf6d772cfb30d4c6f05fb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "11.2 Mechanisms o f Evolution\nTher e are four fact ors that can chang e the al lele\nfrequencies o f a population. Natur al selection w orks by\nselecting f or al leles that c onfer beneficial tr aits or\nbeha viors , while selecting ag ains t those f or delet erious\nqualities . Mutations intr oduc e ne w al leles int o a\npopulation. Genetic drift s tems fr om the chanc e\noccurr ence that some individuals ha ve mor e offspring\nthan others and r esul ts in chang es in al lele fr equencies\nthat ar e random in dir ection. When individuals lea ve or\njoin the population, al lele fr equencies can chang e as a\nresul t of gene flo w.\n11.3 Evidenc e of Evolution\nThe e videnc e for evolution is f ound at al l levels o f\norganization in living things and in the e xtinct species\nwe kno w about thr ough f ossils. Fossils pr ovide\nevidenc e for the e volutionar y chang e thr ough no w\nextinct f orms that led t o modern species . For example ,\nther e is a rich f ossil record that sho ws the e volutionar y\ntransitions fr om horse anc estors t o modern horses that\ndocument int ermediat e forms and a gr adual adap tation\no changing ec osystems . The anat omy of species and\nthe embr yological de velopment o f that anat omy reveal\ncommon s tructur es in div ergent lineag es that ha ve\nbeen modified o ver time b y evolution. The g eogr aphical\ndistribution o f living species r eflects the origins o f\nspecies in par ticular g eogr aphic locations and the\nhistory of continental mo vements . The s tructur es o f\nmolecules , like anat omical s tructur es, reflect the\nrelationships o f living species and mat ch pat terns o f\nsimilarity e xpect ed fr om desc ent with modification.\n11.4 Speciation\nSpeciation oc curs along tw o main path ways:\ngeogr aphic separ ation (al lopatric speciation) and\nthrough mechanisms that oc cur within a shar ed habitat\n(sympatric speciation). Both path ways force\nreproductiv e isolation betw een populations . Sympatric\nspeciation can oc cur thr ough err ors in meiosis thatform g amet es with e xtra chr omosomes , cal led\npolyploidy . Aut opol yploidy oc curs within a single\nspecies , wher eas al lopol yploidy oc curs because o f a\nmating betw een closel y related species . Onc e the\npopulations ar e isolat ed, e volutionar y div ergence can\ntake plac e leading t o the e volution o f reproductiv e\nisolating tr aits that pr event int erbr eeding should the\ntwo populations c ome t ogether ag ain. The r educ ed\nviability o f hybrid o ffspring aft er a period o f isolation is\nexpect ed to select f or stronger inher ent isolating\nmechanisms .\n11.5 Common Misc onceptions about\nEvolution\nThe theor y of evolution is a difficul t concept and\nmisc onceptions abound. The factual natur e of\nevolution is o ften chal leng ed b y wr ongl y associating\nthe scientific meaning o f a theor y with the v ernacular\nmeaning . Evolution is sometimes mis takenly\ninterpr eted to mean that individuals e volve, when in\nfact onl y populations can e volve as their g ene\nfrequencies chang e over time . Evolution is o ften\nassumed t o explain the origin o f life, which it does not\nspeak t o. It is o ften spok en in g oal-directed terms b y\nwhich or ganisms chang e thr ough int ention, and\nselection oper ates on mutations pr esent in a\npopulation that ha ve not arisen in r esponse t o a\nparticular en vironmental s tress.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3348, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1e941a60-2887-4714-8a24-73f2d98eddb2": {"__data__": {"id_": "1e941a60-2887-4714-8a24-73f2d98eddb2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "283", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7dc15949-9aa3-4bf2-a3ee-4443f6205e07", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "283", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c0592599d9972d7fd331fbd4322be04243c6a24cafe8afad7f6855d8deebb8a4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "d8087790-33ab-4af2-bc07-734010b79e69", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "283", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "af7961ac8e37dcdbf8016cd63cc7c09b3411aa4987c25377220d084f51a85e3b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The factual natur e of\nevolution is o ften chal leng ed b y wr ongl y associating\nthe scientific meaning o f a theor y with the v ernacular\nmeaning . Evolution is sometimes mis takenly\ninterpr eted to mean that individuals e volve, when in\nfact onl y populations can e volve as their g ene\nfrequencies chang e over time . Evolution is o ften\nassumed t o explain the origin o f life, which it does not\nspeak t o. It is o ften spok en in g oal-directed terms b y\nwhich or ganisms chang e thr ough int ention, and\nselection oper ates on mutations pr esent in a\npopulation that ha ve not arisen in r esponse t o a\nparticular en vironmental s tress. Evolution is o ften\nchar acterized as being c ontr oversial among scientis ts;\nhowever, it is ac cepted b y the v ast majority o f working\nscientis ts. Critics o f evolution o ften ar gue that\nalternativ e theories t o evolution should be taught in\npublic schools; ho wever, ther e are no viable al ternativ e\nscientific theories t o evolution. The al ternativ e religious\nbeliefs should not be taught as scienc e because it\ncannot be pr oven, and in the Unit ed Stat es it is\nunconstitutional . Scienc e is silent on the ques tion o f\nthe e xistence of a g od while scientis ts ar e able t o\nreconcile r eligious belief and scientific kno wledg e.\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 11.7 Do y ou think g enetic drift w ould happen\nmor e quickl y on an island or on the mainland?\nReview Ques tions\n2.Which scientific c oncept did Charles Dar win and\nAlfred W allace independentl y disc over?\na.mutation\nb.natur al selection\nc.overbr eeding\nd.sexual r eproduction11 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions 269", "start_char_idx": 2704, "end_char_idx": 4355, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e6e9c634-0f78-4897-a2fd-1e3fe47e3a3e": {"__data__": {"id_": "e6e9c634-0f78-4897-a2fd-1e3fe47e3a3e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "284", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0b4620e5-d20f-4148-828a-ffc709c9b52d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "284", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "27509cd325c256770b7eedfc019bf4656046a1ecf0746f1f0d831ff40f6a8d0c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "4bcccf41-85d3-4ff1-a9b8-a8e27c9df59e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "5baaa74ee4fd8457a5987970a6ad8fd3191f59601cdd3a0d6fd6d0c855bb02f6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "3.Which o f the f ollowing situations wil l lead t o natur al\nselection?\na.The seeds o f two plants land near each other\nand one gr ows lar ger than the other .\nb.Two types o f fish eat the same kind o f food,\nand one is bet ter able t o gather f ood than the\nother .\nc.Male lions c ompet e for the right t o mat e with\nfemales , with onl y one pos sible winner .\nd.all of the abo ve\n4.What is the diff erence betw een micr o- and\nmacr oevolution?\na.Micr oevolution describes the e volution o f smal l\norganisms , such as insects , while\nmacr oevolution describes the e volution o f large\norganisms , like people and elephants .\nb.Micr oevolution describes the e volution o f\nmicr oscopic entities , such as molecules and\nproteins , while macr oevolution describes the\nevolution o f whole or ganisms .\nc.Micr oevolution describes the e volution o f\npopulations , while macr oevolution describes\nthe emer gence of new species o ver long\nperiods o f time .\nd.Micr oevolution describes the e volution o f\norganisms o ver their lif etimes , while\nmacr oevolution describes the e volution o f\norganisms o ver mul tiple g ener ations .\n5.Population g enetics is the s tudy o f ________.\na.how al lele fr equencies in a population chang e\nover time\nb.populations o f cells in an individual\nc.the r ate of population gr owth\nd.how genes aff ect embr yological de velopment\n6.Gal\u00e1pag os medium gr ound finches ar e found on\nSanta Cruz and San Cris t\u00f3bal islands , which ar e\nsepar ated b y about 100 km o f ocean. Oc casional ly,\nindividuals fr om either island fl y to the other island\nto stay. This can al ter the al lele fr equencies o f the\npopulation thr ough which o f the f ollowing\nmechanisms?\na.natur al selection\nb.genetic drift\nc.gene flo w\nd.mutation7.In which o f the f ollowing pairs do both e volutionar y\nprocesses intr oduc e ne w genetic v ariation int o a\npopulation?\na.natur al selection and g enetic drift\nb.mutation and g ene flo w\nc.natur al selection and g ene flo w\nd.gene flo w and g enetic drift\n8.The wing o f a bir d and the arm o f a human ar e\nexamples o f ________.\na.vestigial s tructur es\nb.molecular s tructur es\nc.homolog ous s tructur es\nd.analog ous s tructur es\n9.The fact that DNA sequenc es ar e mor e similar in\nmor e closel y related or ganisms is e videnc e of\nwhat?\na.optimal design in or ganisms\nb.adap tation\nc.mutation\nd.desc ent with modification\n10.Which situation w ould mos t likely lead t o\nallopatric speciation?\na.A flood causes the f ormation o f a ne w lak e.\nb.A storm causes se veral lar ge trees t o fal l\ndown.\nc.A mutation causes a ne w trait to de velop .\nd.An injur y causes an or ganism t o seek out a\nnew food sour ce.\n11.What is the main diff erence betw een dispersal\nand vicarianc e?\na.One leads t o allopatric speciation, wher eas\nthe other leads t o sympatric speciation.\nb.One in volves the mo vement o f the or ganism,\nwher eas the other in volves a chang e in the\nenvironment.\nc.One depends on a g enetic mutation oc curring ,\nwher eas the other does not.\nd.One in volves closel y related or ganisms ,\nwher eas the other in volves onl y individuals o f\nthe same species .\n12.Which v ariable incr eases the lik elihood o f\nallopatric speciation taking plac e mor e quickl y?", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3238, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4bcccf41-85d3-4ff1-a9b8-a8e27c9df59e": {"__data__": {"id_": "4bcccf41-85d3-4ff1-a9b8-a8e27c9df59e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "284", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0b4620e5-d20f-4148-828a-ffc709c9b52d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "284", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "27509cd325c256770b7eedfc019bf4656046a1ecf0746f1f0d831ff40f6a8d0c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "e6e9c634-0f78-4897-a2fd-1e3fe47e3a3e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "284", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f4f1bb478f78d65f6024235a42ac5cc90873f156a797cbd2a98078c2e1683ac2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "c.A mutation causes a ne w trait to de velop .\nd.An injur y causes an or ganism t o seek out a\nnew food sour ce.\n11.What is the main diff erence betw een dispersal\nand vicarianc e?\na.One leads t o allopatric speciation, wher eas\nthe other leads t o sympatric speciation.\nb.One in volves the mo vement o f the or ganism,\nwher eas the other in volves a chang e in the\nenvironment.\nc.One depends on a g enetic mutation oc curring ,\nwher eas the other does not.\nd.One in volves closel y related or ganisms ,\nwher eas the other in volves onl y individuals o f\nthe same species .\n12.Which v ariable incr eases the lik elihood o f\nallopatric speciation taking plac e mor e quickl y?\na.lower rate of mutation\nb.long er dis tanc e betw een divided gr oups\nc.increased ins tanc es o f hybrid f ormation\nd.equiv alent numbers o f individuals in each\npopulation270 11 \u2022 R eview Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2563, "end_char_idx": 3473, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1aa7bacd-a046-4aeb-8e74-46b6c4c3203e": {"__data__": {"id_": "1aa7bacd-a046-4aeb-8e74-46b6c4c3203e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "285", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "03d50fb0-3167-4bb9-aa13-b2bccfbd22f1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "285", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ab241b492a909fe87de193e8e70cfef2d6b40a86227194c97eba06b5a1487855", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "13.The w ord \u201ctheor y\u201d in theor y of evolution is bes t\nreplac ed b y ________.\na.fact\nb.hypothesis\nc.idea\nd.alternat e explanation14.Why are alternativ e scientific theories t o evolution\nnot taught in public school?\na.mor e theories w ould c onfuse s tudents\nb.ther e are no viable scientific al ternativ es\nc.it is ag ains t the la w\nd.alternativ e scientific theories ar e suppr essed\nby the scienc e es tablishment\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n15.If a person scat ters a handful o f plant seeds fr om\none species in an ar ea, how would natur al\nselection w ork in this situation?\n16.Explain the Har dy-Weinber g principle o f\nequilibrium.\n17.Describe natur al selection and giv e an e xample o f\nnatur al selection at w ork in a population.\n18.Why do scientis ts consider v estigial s tructur es\nevidenc e for evolution?\n19.Why do island chains pr ovide ideal c onditions f or\nadap tive radiation t o oc cur?20.Two species o f fish had r ecently under gone\nsympatric speciation. The males o f each species\nhad a diff erent c oloring thr ough which f emales\ncould identif y and choose a par tner fr om her o wn\nspecies . Aft er some time , pol lution made the lak e\nso cloudy it w as har d for females t o dis tinguish\ncolors . What might tak e plac e in this situation?\n21.How does the scientific meaning o f \u201ctheor y\u201d diff er\nfrom the c ommon, e veryday meaning o f the w ord?\n22.Explain wh y the s tatement that a monk ey is mor e\nevolved than a mouse is inc orrect.11 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions 271", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1512, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "387c18da-a812-4ce3-a061-67f5b2459ba6": {"__data__": {"id_": "387c18da-a812-4ce3-a061-67f5b2459ba6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "286", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "18e7dfd3-aa96-4f12-a8e9-1540ae315bc8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "286", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f5c2d75affc4103a593c2bffdb185830677026c6f9065a2f16c148217556ec73", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "272 11 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 72, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9f3a8ee2-69e0-4f21-b445-3af796a4ad78": {"__data__": {"id_": "9f3a8ee2-69e0-4f21-b445-3af796a4ad78", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "287", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1490779e-bf0d-4ba9-a9ad-d7f114d71039", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "287", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ff25db079515977361d3fe2d66a583c8fdd69606ae560ce1e2b1b19377f0aba8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 12\nDiversit y of Life\n12.1 Organizing Lif e on Ear th\n12.2 Determining Ev olutionar y Relationships\nThis bee and Echinac eaflower could not look mor e diff erent, y et the y are\nrelated, as ar e all living or ganisms on Ear th. B y following path ways of similarities and\ndifferences\u2014both visible and g enetic\u2014scientis ts seek t o map the his tory of evolution fr om single -\ncelled or ganisms t o the tr emendous div ersity o f creatur es that ha ve crawled, g erminat ed, float ed,\nswam, flo wn, and w alked on this planet.\n12.1 Organizing Lif e on E arth\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Discus s the need f or a c ompr ehensiv e clas sification s ystem\n\u2022List the diff erent le vels o f the tax onomic clas sification s ystem\n\u2022Describe ho w systematics and tax onom y relate to ph ylog eny\nAll life on Ear th evolved fr om a c ommon anc estor. Biologis ts map ho w or ganisms ar e related b y\nconstructing ph ylog enetic tr ees. In other w ords, a \u201ctree o f life\u201d can be c onstruct ed to illustrate\nwhen diff erent or ganisms e volved and t o sho w the r elationships among diff erent or ganisms , as\nshown in Figure 12.2 . Notic e that fr om a single point, the thr ee domains o f Archaea , Bact eria, andFIGURE 12.1 Although the y look diff erent, this bee and flo wer ar e dis tantl y related. (cr edit: modification o f work b y\nJohn Beetham)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1432, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c42980f8-7bfa-4e43-9125-c03d47cc6981": {"__data__": {"id_": "c42980f8-7bfa-4e43-9125-c03d47cc6981", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "288", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "64b094a5-294d-4ad1-a377-35091687f898", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "288", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "494735297653d08c505079967a992d659b9472f239d98143a25484db61e18fc3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Eukarya div erge and then br anch r epeat edly. The smal l branch that plants and animals (including\nhumans) oc cupy in this diagr am sho ws ho w recently these gr oups had their origin c ompar ed with\nother gr oups .\nFIGURE 12.2 In the e volution o f life on Ear th, the thr ee domains o f life\u2014Archaea , Bact eria, and Euk arya\u2014branch fr om\na single point. (cr edit: modification o f work b y Eric Gaba)\nThe ph ylog enetic tr ee in Figure 12.2 illustrates the path way of evolutionar y his tory. The path way\ncan be tr aced fr om the origin o f life to an y individual species b y na vigating thr ough the\nevolutionar y branches betw een the tw o points . Also , by starting with a single species and tr acing\nbackw ard to an y branch point, the or ganisms r elated to it b y various degr ees o f closenes s can be\nidentified.\nAphylog enyis the e volutionar y his tory and the r elationships among a species or gr oup o f species .\nThe s tudy o f organisms with the purpose o f deriving their r elationships is cal ledsystema tics.\nMan y disciplines within the s tudy o f biolog y contribut e to unders tanding ho w pas t and pr esent lif e\nevolved o ver time , and t ogether the y contribut e to building , updating , and maintaining the \u201c tree o f\nlife.\u201d Inf ormation g ather ed ma y include data c ollected fr om f ossils, from s tudying morpholog y,\nfrom the s tructur e of body par ts, or fr om molecular s tructur e, such as the sequenc e of amino\nacids in pr oteins or DNA nucleotides . By considering the tr ees g ener ated b y diff erent sets o f data\nscientis ts can put t ogether the ph ylog eny of a species .\nScientis ts continue t o disc over ne w species o f life on Ear th as w ell as ne w char acter inf ormation,\nthus tr ees chang e as ne w data arriv e.\nThe L evels o f Classific ation\nTaxonom y(which lit erally means \u201c arrangement la w\u201d) is the scienc e of naming and gr ouping\nspecies t o construct an int ernational ly shar ed clas sification s ystem. The tax onomic clas sification\nsystem (also cal led the Linnaean s ystem aft er its in ventor, Carl Linnaeus , a Sw edish natur alist)\nuses a hier archical model . A hier archical s ystem has le vels and each gr oup at one o f the le vels\nincludes gr oups at the ne xt lo west level, so that at the lo west level each member belongs t o a\nseries o f nes ted gr oups . An analog y is the nes ted series o f directories on the main disk driv e of a\ncomput er. For example , in the mos t inclusiv e grouping , scientis ts divide or ganisms int o thr ee274 12 \u2022 Div ersity of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2587, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8935655e-c288-458a-a2ab-a343ecb82569": {"__data__": {"id_": "8935655e-c288-458a-a2ab-a343ecb82569", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "289", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1601bddc-b0d1-4b36-ac82-88e08b15e38f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "289", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "db2bcac3a7793ae23fc599703f02cc21d21e9a86fddf551f5afbbfda14424550", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "domains : Bact eria, Archaea , and Euk arya. Within each domain is a sec ond le vel cal led a king dom . Each domain\ncontains se veral king doms . Within king doms , the subsequent cat egories o f incr easing specificity ar e:phylum ,clas s,\norder,famil y,genus , and species .\nAs an e xample , the clas sification le vels f or the domes tic dog ar e sho wn in Figure 12.3 . The gr oup at each le vel is\ncalled a taxon(plur al: taxa). In other w ords, for the dog , Carniv ora is the tax on at the or der le vel, Canidae is the\ntaxon at the famil y level, and so f orth. Or ganisms also ha ve a c ommon name that people typical ly use , such as\ndomes tic dog , or w olf. Each tax on name is capitaliz ed e xcept for species , and the g enus and species names ar e\nitaliciz ed. Scientis ts refer to an or ganism b y its g enus and species names t ogether , commonl y cal led a scientific\nname , or L atin name . This tw o-name s ystem is cal ledbinomial nomencla ture. The scientific name o f the w olf is\nther eforeCanis lupus . Recent s tudy o f the DNA o f domes tic dogs and w olves sug gest that the domes tic dog is a\nsubspecies o f the w olf, not its o wn species , thus it is giv en an e xtra name t o indicat e its subspecies s tatus ,Canis\nlupus familiaris .\nFigure 12.3 also sho ws ho w tax onomic le vels mo ve toward specificity . Notic e ho w within the domain w e find the dog\ngrouped with the wides t div ersity o f organisms . These include plants and other or ganisms not pictur ed, such as\nfungi and pr otists. At each suble vel, the or ganisms bec ome mor e similar because the y are mor e closel y related.\nBefore Dar win\u2019s theor y of evolution w as de veloped, natur alists sometimes clas sified or ganisms using arbitr ary\nsimilarities , but sinc e the theor y of evolution w as pr oposed in the 19thcentur y, biologis ts w ork t o mak e the\nclas sification s ystem r eflect e volutionar y relationships . This means that al l of the members o f a tax on should ha ve a\ncommon anc estor and be mor e closel y related to each other than t o members o f other taxa .\nRecent g enetic anal ysis and other adv ancements ha ve found that some earlier tax onomic clas sifications do not\nreflect actual e volutionar y relationships , and ther efore, chang es and updat es mus t be made as ne w disc overies tak e\nplac e. One dr amatic and r ecent e xample w as the br eaking apar t of prokaryotic species , which until the 1970s w ere\nall clas sified as bact eria. Their division int o Ar chaea and Bact eria came about aft er the r ecognition that their lar ge\ngenetic diff erences w arranted their separ ation int o tw o of thr ee fundamental br anches o f life.12.1 \u2022 Or ganizing Lif e on E arth 275", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2716, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1a3270f5-7299-442c-b82f-5b45f7646172": {"__data__": {"id_": "1a3270f5-7299-442c-b82f-5b45f7646172", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "290", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "714c6929-6606-4914-b4c7-a4dbcbf183c9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "290", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "07d6f77f6594cc9bc5576c3e607ce121afdd65c29eb17f460df9815d3252afbd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 12.3 At each suble vel in the tax onomic clas sification s ystem, or ganisms bec ome mor e similar . Dogs and w olves ar e the same\nspecies because the y can br eed and pr oduc e viable o ffspring , but the y are diff erent enough t o be clas sified as diff erent subspecies . (credit\n\u201cplant \u201d: modification o f work b y \"ber duch wal\"/Flickr; cr edit \u201cinsect \u201d: modification o f work b y Jon Sul livan; cr edit \u201c fish\u201d: modification o f\nwork b y Chris tian Mehlf\u00fchr er; cr edit \u201c rabbit \u201d: modification o f work b y Aidan W ojtas; cr edit \u201c cat\u201d: modification o f work b y Jonathan Lidbeck;\ncredit \u201c fox\u201d: modification o f work b y Kevin Bacher , NPS; cr edit \u201cjack al\u201d: modification o f work b y Thomas A . Hermann, NBII, USGS; cr edit\n\u201cwolf\u201d modification o f work b y Rober t De war; cr edit \u201c dog\u201d: modification o f work b y \"digital _imag e_fan\"/Flickr)\nIn what le vels ar e cats and dogs c onsider ed to be par t of the same gr oup?\nClassific ation and Ph ylogen y\nScientis ts use a t ool cal led a ph ylog enetic tr ee to sho w the e volutionar y path ways and r elationships betw een\norganisms . Aphylog enetic tr eeis a diagr am used t o reflect e volutionar y relationships among or ganisms or gr oups\nof organisms . The hier archical clas sification o f groups nes ted within mor e inclusiv e groups is r eflect ed in diagr ams .\nScientis ts consider ph ylog enetic tr ees t o be a h ypothesis o f the e volutionar y pas t because one cannot g o back\nthrough time t o confirm the pr oposed r elationships .\nUnlik e with a tax onomic clas sification, a ph ylog enetic tr ee can be r ead lik e a map o f evolutionar y his tory, as sho wn\ninFigure 12.4 . Shar ed char acteristics ar e used t o construct ph ylog enetic tr ees. The point wher e a split oc curs in a\ntree, cal led a branch point , represents wher e a single lineag e evolved int o dis tinct ne w ones . Man y ph ylog enetic\ntrees ha ve a single br anch point at the base r epresenting a c ommon anc estor of all the br anches in the tr ee.\nScientis ts cal l such tr ees rooted, which means ther e is a single anc estral tax on at the base o f a ph ylog enetic tr ee to\n276 12 \u2022 Div ersity of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2231, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "045aa1ef-67fb-4956-9cc3-cdd609e09164": {"__data__": {"id_": "045aa1ef-67fb-4956-9cc3-cdd609e09164", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "291", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "efbc3cb5-6e18-415e-b256-3e71124e3158", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "291", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f80a930281653e0b8d78a4b2eef91002551fe2cddfc334102fff064568b7d693", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "which al l organisms r epresent ed in the diagr am desc end fr om. When tw o lineag es stem fr om the same br anch point,\nthey are cal ledsister taxa , for example the tw o species o f orangutans . A br anch point with mor e than tw o groups\nillustrates a situation f or which scientis ts ha ve not definitiv ely det ermined r elationships . An e xample is il lustrated b y\nthe thr ee br anches leading t o the g orilla subspecies; their e xact r elationships ar e not y et unders tood. It is impor tant\nto not e that sis ter taxa shar e an anc estor, which does not mean that one tax on e volved fr om the other . The br anch\npoint, or split, r epresents a c ommon anc estor that e xisted in the pas t, but that no long er exists. Humans did not\nevolve from chimpanz ees (nor did chimpanz ees e volve from humans) al though the y are our closes t living r elativ es.\nBoth humans and chimpanz ees e volved fr om a c ommon anc estor that liv ed, scientis ts belie ve, six mil lion y ears ag o\nand look ed diff erent fr om both modern chimpanz ees and modern humans .\nFIGURE 12.4 A ph ylog enetic tr ee is r ooted and sho ws ho w diff erent or ganisms , in this case the species and subspecies o f living apes ,\nevolved fr om a c ommon anc estor.\nThe br anch points and the br anches in ph ylog enetic tr ee s tructur e also impl y evolutionar y chang e. Sometimes the\nsignificant char acter chang es ar e identified on a br anch or br anch point. F or example , inFigure 12.5 , the br anch\npoint that giv es rise t o the mammal and r eptile lineag e from the fr og lineag e sho ws the origin o f the amniotic eg g\nchar acter. Also the br anch point that giv es rise t o organisms with legs is indicat ed at the c ommon anc estor of\nmammals , reptiles , amphibians , and ja wed fishes .\nFIGURE 12.5 This ph ylog enetic tr ee is r ooted b y an or ganism that lack ed a v ertebral column. A t each br anch point, or ganisms with diff erent\nchar acters ar e plac ed in diff erent gr oups .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nThis interactiv e exercise (http://opens tax.org/l/tree_of_life3)allows you to explor e the e volutionar y relationships\namong species .\nLimitations o f Phylogene tic Trees\nIt is eas y to as sume that mor e closel y related or ganisms look mor e alik e, and while this is o ften the case , it is not\nalways true . If tw o closel y related lineag es e volved under significantl y diff erent surr oundings or aft er the e volution\nof a major ne w adap tation, the y ma y look quit e diff erent fr om each other , even mor e so than other gr oups that ar e\n12.1 \u2022 Or ganizing Lif e on E arth 277", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2596, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6c8172e8-0c93-498e-ba3a-3df46a35eefd": {"__data__": {"id_": "6c8172e8-0c93-498e-ba3a-3df46a35eefd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "292", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "bbb088d8-de08-4fca-ab3d-2aad3a1cf5bb", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "292", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a8b314735335869d2a54a0c19411bf2fe99cb9b657604bbabbbac59b1766f3c0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "not as closel y related. F or example , the ph ylog enetic tr ee in Figure 12.5 shows that lizar ds and r abbits both ha ve\namniotic eg gs, wher eas salamanders (within the fr og lineag e) do not; y et on the sur face, lizar ds and salamanders\nappear mor e similar than the lizar ds and r abbits .\nAnother aspect o f phylog enetic tr ees is that, unles s other wise indicat ed, the br anches do not sho w length o f time ,\nthey sho w onl y the or der in time o f evolutionar y events . In other w ords, a long br anch does not nec essaril y mean\nmor e time pas sed, nor does a shor t branch mean les s time pas sed\u2014 unles s specified on the diagr am. F or example ,\ninFigure 12.5 , the tr ee does not indicat e ho w much time pas sed betw een the e volution o f amniotic eg gs and hair .\nWhat the tr ee does sho w is the or der in which things t ook plac e. Again using Figure 12.5 , the tr ee sho ws that the\noldes t trait is the v ertebral column, f ollowed b y hing ed ja ws, and so f orth. R emember that an y ph ylog enetic tr ee is a\npart of the gr eater whole , and similar t o a r eal tr ee, it does not gr ow in onl y one dir ection aft er a ne w br anch\ndevelops . So, for the or ganisms in Figure 12.5 , jus t because a v ertebral column e volved does not mean that\ninvertebrate evolution c eased, it onl y means that a ne w br anch f ormed. Also , groups that ar e not closel y related, but\nevolve under similar c onditions , ma y appear mor e similar t o each other than t o a close r elativ e.\n12.2 Determining E volutionar y Relationships\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Compar e homolog ous and analog ous tr aits\n\u2022Discus s the purpose o f cladis tics\nScientis ts collect inf ormation that al lows them t o mak e evolutionar y connections betw een or ganisms . Similar t o\ndetectiv e work, scientis ts mus t use e videnc e to unc over the facts . In the case o f phylog eny, evolutionar y\ninvestigations f ocus on tw o types o f evidenc e: morphologic (f orm and function) and g enetic.\nTwo Measur es of Similarit y\nOrganisms that shar e similar ph ysical f eatur esand genetic sequenc es tend t o be mor e closel y related than those\nthat do not. F eatur es that o verlap both morphological ly and g enetical ly are referred to as homolog ous s tructur es;\nthe similarities s tem fr om c ommon e volutionar y paths . For example , as sho wn in Figure 12.6 , the bones in the wings\nof bats and bir ds, the arms o f humans , and the f oreleg o f a horse ar e homolog ous s tructur es. Notic e the s tructur e is\nnot simpl y a single bone , but r ather a gr ouping o f several bones arr anged in a similar w ay in each or ganism e ven\nthough the elements o f the s tructur e ma y ha ve chang ed shape and siz e.278 12 \u2022 Div ersity of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2830, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fa90f5b9-5154-440f-a7a8-8e607892dbf9": {"__data__": {"id_": "fa90f5b9-5154-440f-a7a8-8e607892dbf9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "293", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "26b1a484-f82f-404c-87e7-2879c52ef1cb", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "293", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0bb1980f535199040350d3080952b6940e30532af882cce0b9cebc9006982524", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 12.6 Bat and bir d wings , the f oreleg o f a horse , the flipper o f a whale , and the arm o f a human ar e homolog ous s tructur es,\nindicating that bats , birds, horses , whales , and humans shar e a c ommon e volutionar y pas t. (cr edit a phot o: modification o f work b y Steve\nHillebrand, USFWS; cr edit b phot o: modification o f work b y U.S. BLM; cr edit c phot o: modification o f work b y Vir endr a Kankariya; cr edit d\nphot o: modification o f work b y Rus sian Go v./Wikimedia Commons)\nMisleading Appear ances\nSome or ganisms ma y be v ery closel y related, e ven though a minor g enetic chang e caused a major morphological\ndifference to mak e them look quit e diff erent. F or example , chimpanz ees and humans , the sk ulls of which ar e sho wn\ninFigure 12.7 are very similar g enetical ly, sharing 99 per cent1of their g enes . Ho wever, chimpanz ees and humans\nshow consider able anat omical diff erences, including the degr ee to which the ja w pr otrudes in the adul t and the\nrelativ e lengths o f our arms and legs .\n1Gibbons , A. (2012, June 13). Scienc e No w. Retrie ved fr om ht tp://news.scienc emag .org/scienc enow/2012/06/bonobo -genome -12.2 \u2022 De termining E volutionar y Relationships 279", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1229, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f2bfc314-6688-4dce-807c-d12fbc3d6f47": {"__data__": {"id_": "f2bfc314-6688-4dce-807c-d12fbc3d6f47", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "294", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2b038367-bfef-46c7-acb0-7ef99a695e9f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "294", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a256a83b86b9220f1f7b7f3c7e5a92e4b80f424987c51d8a16b22c30c6337ac6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 12.7 (a) The chimpanz ee ja w pr otrudes t o a much gr eater degr ee than (b) the human ja w. (credit a: modification o f work b y\n\"Pastorius \"/Wikimedia Commons)\nHowever, unr elated or ganisms ma y be dis tantl y related y et appear v ery much alik e, usual ly because c ommon\nadap tations t o similar en vironmental c onditions e volved in both. An e xample is the s treamlined body shapes , the\nshapes o f fins and appendag es, and the shape o f the tails in fishes and whales , which ar e mammals . These\nstructur es bear super ficial similarity because the y are adap tations t o mo ving and maneuv ering in the same\nenvironment \u2014water. When a char acteristic that is similar oc curs b y adap tive convergence (convergent e volution),\nand not because o f a close e volutionar y relationship , it is cal led an analog ous s tructur e. In another e xample ,\ninsects use wings t o fly like bats and bir ds. We cal l them both wings because the y per form the same function and\nhave a super ficial ly similar f orm, but the embr yonic origin o f the tw o wings is c omplet ely diff erent. The diff erence in\nthe de velopment, or embr yogenesis , of the wings in each case is a signal that insects and bats or bir ds do not shar e\na common anc estor that had a wing . The wing s tructur es, sho wn in Figure 12.8 evolved independentl y in the tw o\nlineag es.\nSimilar tr aits can be either homolog ous or analog ous. Homolog ous tr aits shar e an e volutionar y path that led t o the\ndevelopment o f that tr ait, and analog ous tr aits do not. Scientis ts mus t det ermine which type o f similarity a f eatur e\nexhibits t o decipher the ph ylog eny of the or ganisms being s tudied.\nsequenc ed.html280 12 \u2022 Div ersity of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1765, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c13be918-b510-46d5-bcbd-2c10d379ffd0": {"__data__": {"id_": "c13be918-b510-46d5-bcbd-2c10d379ffd0", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "295", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a50a6d6c-613a-4280-a1a7-29542aca6382", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "295", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c1dc7ca2405accfca404fff17526df1011da47586227906ff7be835cff0773c8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 12.8 The wing o f a hone y bee is similar in shape t o a bir d wing and a bat wing and ser ves the same function (flight). The bir d and\nbat wings ar e homolog ous s tructur es. Ho wever, the hone y bee wing has a diff erent s tructur e (it is made o f a chitinous e xoskeleton, not a\nbone y endosk eleton) and embr yonic origin. The bee and bir d or bat wing types il lustrate an analog y\u2014similar s tructur es that do not shar e an\nevolutionar y his tory. (credit a phot o: modification o f work b y U.S. BLM; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Steve Hil lebrand, USFWS; cr edit c:\nmodification o f work b y Jon Sul livan)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nThis websit e(https:/ /opens tax.org/l/relationships2) has se veral examples t o sho w ho w appear ances can be\nmisleading in unders tanding the ph ylog enetic r elationships o f organisms .\nMolecular C omparisons\nWith the adv ancement o f DNA t echnolog y, the ar ea o fmolecular s ystema tics, which describes the use o f\ninformation on the molecular le vel including DNA sequencing , has blos somed. Ne w anal ysis o f molecular char acters\nnot onl y confirms man y earlier clas sifications , but also unc overs pr eviousl y made err ors. Molecular char acters can\ninclude diff erences in the amino -acid sequenc e of a pr otein, diff erences in the individual nucleotide sequenc e of a\ngene, or diff erences in the arr angements o f genes . Phylog enies based on molecular char acters as sume that the\nmor e similar the sequenc es ar e in tw o organisms , the mor e closel y related the y are. Diff erent g enes chang e\nevolutionaril y at diff erent r ates and this aff ects the le vel at which the y are useful at identif ying r elationships . Rapidl y\nevolving sequenc es ar e useful f or det ermining the r elationships among closel y related species . Mor e slo wly evolving\nsequenc es ar e useful f or det ermining the r elationships betw een dis tantl y related species . To det ermine the\nrelationships betw een v ery diff erent species such as Euk arya and Ar chaea , the g enes used mus t be v ery ancient,\nslowly evolving g enes that ar e present in both gr oups , such as the g enes f or ribosomal RNA . Comparing\nphylog enetic tr ees using diff erent sequenc es and finding them similar helps t o build c onfidenc e in the inf erred\nrelationships .\n12.2 \u2022 De termining E volutionar y Relationships 281", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2369, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "67940c57-1e2a-4061-a4d6-441ff5816bb5": {"__data__": {"id_": "67940c57-1e2a-4061-a4d6-441ff5816bb5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "296", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b566d013-1b6b-4c71-9b1d-8db8e1c4bfc0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "296", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "53e7cd5d58c00c4801f0ef0733cff3d7f087e02be254c73a3298bfe81113939d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "89466348-9b09-4408-a78b-b0f4ab791353", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "f19b58dc19311945218f8dad4a3fe61c68553f681ff5fb7a0b0457fcf29bbb7b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Sometimes tw o segments o f DNA in dis tantl y related or ganisms r andoml y shar e a high per centag e of bases in the\nsame locations , causing these or ganisms t o appear closel y related when the y are not. F or example , the fruit fl y\nshar es 60 per cent o f its DNA with humans .2In this situation, c omput er-based s tatis tical alg orithms ha ve been\ndeveloped t o help identif y the actual r elationships , and ul timat ely, the c oupled use o f both morphologic and\nmolecular inf ormation is mor e eff ectiv e in det ermining ph ylog eny.\nEVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nWhy Does Ph ylogen y Mat ter?\nIn addition t o enhancing our unders tanding o f the e volutionar y his tory of species , our o wn included, ph ylog enetic\nanal ysis has numer ous pr actical applications . Two of those applications include unders tanding the e volution and\ntransmis sion o f disease and making decisions about c onser vation eff orts. A 2010 s tudy3of MRSA (methicil lin-\nresistant Staph yloc occus aur eus), an antibiotic r esistant pathog enic bact erium, tr aced the origin and spr ead o f the\nstrain thr oughout the pas t 40 y ears . The s tudy unc overed the timing and pat terns in which the r esistant s train\nmoved fr om its point o f origin in Eur ope t o centers o f infection and e volution in South America , Asia , Nor th America ,\nand Aus tralasia . The s tudy sug gested that intr oductions o f the bact eria t o ne w populations oc curr ed v ery few times ,\nperhaps onl y onc e, and then spr ead fr om that limit ed number o f individuals . This is in c ontr ast to the pos sibility that\nman y individuals had carried the bact eria fr om one plac e to another . This r esul t sug gests that public heal th officials\nshould c oncentr ate on quickl y identif ying the c ontacts o f individuals inf ected with a ne w strain o f bact eria t o contr ol\nits spr ead.\nA sec ond ar ea o f usefulnes s for ph ylog enetic anal ysis is in c onser vation. Biologis ts ha ve argued that it is impor tant\nto protect species thr oughout a ph ylog enetic tr ee rather than jus t those fr om one br anch o f the tr ee. Doing this wil l\npreser ve mor e of the v ariation pr oduc ed b y evolution. F or example , conser vation eff orts should f ocus on a single\nspecies without sis ter species r ather than another species that has a clus ter of close sis ter species that r ecently\nevolved. If the single e volutionaril y dis tinct species g oes e xtinct a dispr opor tionat e amount o f variation fr om the tr ee\nwill be los t compar ed to one species in the clus ter of closel y related species . A s tudy published in 20074made\nrecommendations f or conser vation o f mammal species w orldwide based on ho w evolutionaril y dis tinct and at risk o f\nextinction the y are. The s tudy f ound that their r ecommendations diff ered fr om priorities based on simpl y the le vel of\nextinction thr eat t o the species . The s tudy r ecommended pr otecting some thr eatened and v alued lar ge mammals\nsuch as the or angutans , the giant and les ser pandas , and the African and Asian elephants . But the y also f ound that\nsome much les ser kno wn species should be pr otected based on ho w evolutionar y dis tinct the y are. These include a\nnumber o f rodents , bats , shr ews and hedg ehogs . In addition ther e are some critical ly endang ered species that did\nnot r ate as v ery impor tant in e volutionar y dis tinctiv enes s including species o f deer mic e and g erbils .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3457, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "89466348-9b09-4408-a78b-b0f4ab791353": {"__data__": {"id_": "89466348-9b09-4408-a78b-b0f4ab791353", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "296", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b566d013-1b6b-4c71-9b1d-8db8e1c4bfc0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "296", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "53e7cd5d58c00c4801f0ef0733cff3d7f087e02be254c73a3298bfe81113939d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "67940c57-1e2a-4061-a4d6-441ff5816bb5", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "296", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b941ebef3ee85cdb89a8fe06329fea0b012c6afcf4a92add67df1d421ffe8c67", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The s tudy f ound that their r ecommendations diff ered fr om priorities based on simpl y the le vel of\nextinction thr eat t o the species . The s tudy r ecommended pr otecting some thr eatened and v alued lar ge mammals\nsuch as the or angutans , the giant and les ser pandas , and the African and Asian elephants . But the y also f ound that\nsome much les ser kno wn species should be pr otected based on ho w evolutionar y dis tinct the y are. These include a\nnumber o f rodents , bats , shr ews and hedg ehogs . In addition ther e are some critical ly endang ered species that did\nnot r ate as v ery impor tant in e volutionar y dis tinctiv enes s including species o f deer mic e and g erbils . While man y\ncriteria aff ect c onser vation decisions , preser ving ph ylog enetic div ersity pr ovides an objectiv e way to protect the ful l\nrange of div ersity g ener ated b y evolution.\nBuilding Ph ylogene tic Trees\nHow do scientis ts construct ph ylog enetic tr ees? P resentl y, the mos t accepted method f or constructing ph ylog enetic\ntrees is a method cal ledcladis tics. This method sor ts or ganisms int oclades , groups o f organisms that ar e mos t\nclosel y related to each other and the anc estor fr om which the y desc ended. F or example , inFigure 12.9 , all of the\norganisms in the shaded r egion e volved fr om a single anc estor that had amniotic eg gs. Consequentl y, all of these\norganisms also ha ve amniotic eg gs and mak e a single clade , also cal led a monoph yletic gr oup. Clades mus t include\nthe anc estral species and al l of the desc endants fr om a br anch point.\n2Back ground on c ompar ative genomic anal ysis. (2002, Dec ember). R etrie ved fr om ht tp://www .genome .gov/10005835\n3Harris , S.R. et al . 2010. Ev olution o f MRSA during hospital tr ansmis sion and int ercontinental spr ead. Scienc e327:469\u2013474.\n4Isaac NJ , Turvey ST, Col len B , Waterman C, Bail lie JE (2007) Mammals on the EDGE: Conser vation P riorities Based on Thr eat and\nPhylog eny. PLoS ONE 2(3): e296. doi:10.1371/journal .pone .0000296282 12 \u2022 Div ersity of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2759, "end_char_idx": 4871, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5476c25a-d6a5-403c-b94a-e6b709008513": {"__data__": {"id_": "5476c25a-d6a5-403c-b94a-e6b709008513", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "297", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d9492661-e0ef-466e-9ffa-3ace673a3861", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "297", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b7ceccf23e47b9530ef27e7e0a17ad60347fc33518f7f523844e1893dc0a6c4f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "f1605db3-5da2-443d-8657-6a2b8cc9ff5c", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "38c8e7c7cdedb503d9c61af90546c65d15a9141931aed1a8bd14ff1980607cea", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 12.9 Lizar ds, rabbits , and humans al l desc end fr om a c ommon anc estor in which the amniotic eg g evolved. Thus , lizar ds, rabbits ,\nand humans al l belong t o the clade Amniota . Vertebrata is a lar ger clade that also includes fish and lampr ey.\nWhich animals in this fig ure belong t o a clade that includes animals with hair? Which e volved firs t: hair or the\namniotic eg g?\nClades can v ary in siz e depending on which br anch point is being r eferenced. The impor tant fact or is that al l of the\norganisms in the clade or monoph yletic gr oup s tem fr om a single point on the tr ee. This can be r emember ed\nbecause monoph yletic br eaks do wn int o \u201cmono ,\u201d meaning one , and \u201c phyletic, \u201d meaning e volutionar y relationship .\nShar ed Char acteristics\nCladis tics r ests on thr ee as sump tions . The firs t is that living things ar e related b y desc ent fr om a c ommon anc estor,\nwhich is a g ener al as sump tion o f evolution. The sec ond is that speciation oc curs b y splits o f one species int o tw o,\nnever mor e than tw o at a time , and es sential ly at one point in time . This is some what c ontr oversial , but is ac ceptable\nto mos t biologis ts as a simplification. The thir d as sump tion is that tr aits chang e enough o ver time t o be c onsider ed\nto be in a diff erent s tate .It is also as sumed that one can identif y the actual dir ection o f chang e for a s tate. In other\nwords, we as sume that an amniotic eg g is a lat er char acter state than non-amniotic eg gs. This is cal led the polarity\nof the char acter chang e. We kno w this b y reference to a gr oup outside the clade: f or example , insects ha ve non-\namniotic eg gs; ther efore, this is the older or anc estral char acter state. Cladis tics c ompar es ingr oups and out groups .\nAn ingr oup (lizar d, rabbit and human in our e xample) is the gr oup o f taxa being anal yzed. An out group (lanc elet,\nlampr ey and fish in our e xample) is a species or gr oup o f species that div erged bef ore the lineag e containing the\ngroup(s) o f interest. By comparing ingr oup members t o each other and t o the out group members , we can det ermine\nwhich char acteristics ar e evolutionar y modifications det ermining the br anch points o f the ingr oup\u2019s ph ylog eny.\nIf a char acteristic is f ound in al l of the members o f a gr oup, it is a shar ed anc estral char acterbecause ther e has\nbeen no chang e in the tr ait during the desc ent o f each o f the members o f the clade . Although these tr aits appear\ninteresting because the y unif y the clade , in cladis tics the y are consider ed not help ful when w e are trying t o\ndetermine the r elationships o f the members o f the clade because e very member is the same . In c ontr ast, consider\nthe amniotic eg g char acteristic o fFigure 12.9 . Onl y some o f the or ganisms ha ve this tr ait, and t o those that do , it is\ncalled a shar ed deriv ed char acterbecause this tr ait chang ed at some point during desc ent. This char acter does t ell\nus about the r elationships among the members o f the clade; it t ells us that lizar ds, rabbits , and humans gr oup mor e\nclosel y together than an y of these or ganisms do with fish, lampr eys, and lanc elets .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3242, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f1605db3-5da2-443d-8657-6a2b8cc9ff5c": {"__data__": {"id_": "f1605db3-5da2-443d-8657-6a2b8cc9ff5c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "297", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d9492661-e0ef-466e-9ffa-3ace673a3861", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "297", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b7ceccf23e47b9530ef27e7e0a17ad60347fc33518f7f523844e1893dc0a6c4f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "5476c25a-d6a5-403c-b94a-e6b709008513", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "297", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7cf1a0b27bf89d73abd4763fc667aec703dbcfbab9afea487892ba93ebbf79cc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In c ontr ast, consider\nthe amniotic eg g char acteristic o fFigure 12.9 . Onl y some o f the or ganisms ha ve this tr ait, and t o those that do , it is\ncalled a shar ed deriv ed char acterbecause this tr ait chang ed at some point during desc ent. This char acter does t ell\nus about the r elationships among the members o f the clade; it t ells us that lizar ds, rabbits , and humans gr oup mor e\nclosel y together than an y of these or ganisms do with fish, lampr eys, and lanc elets .\nA sometimes c onfusing aspect o f \u201cancestral\u201d and \u201c deriv ed\u201d char acters is that these t erms ar e relativ e. The same\ntrait c ould be either anc estral or deriv ed depending on the diagr am being used and the or ganisms being c ompar ed.\nScientis ts find these t erms useful when dis tinguishing betw een clades during the building o f phylog enetic tr ees, but\nit is impor tant t o remember that their meaning depends on c ontext.\nChoosing the Right R elationships\nCons tructing a ph ylog enetic tr ee, or cladogr am, fr om the char acter data is a monumental task that is usual ly left up\nto a c omput er. The c omput er dr aws a tr ee such that al l of the clades shar e the same lis t of deriv ed char acters. But\nther e are other decisions t o be made , for example , what if a species pr esenc e in a clade is suppor ted b y all of the\n12.2 \u2022 De termining E volutionar y Relationships 283", "start_char_idx": 2753, "end_char_idx": 4139, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e113f53c-7122-4fe9-a760-412c7b379d32": {"__data__": {"id_": "e113f53c-7122-4fe9-a760-412c7b379d32", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "298", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f21a8970-9b15-4171-bfb9-78dd7e1b9448", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "298", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2de477b540a90d9ad03a530305c1f45738570a8bf3b584e829291412928f400f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "shar ed deriv ed char acters f or that clade e xcept one? One c onclusion is that the tr ait e volved in the anc estor, but\nthen chang ed back in that one species . Also a char acter state that appears in tw o clades mus t be as sumed t o ha ve\nevolved independentl y in those clades . These inc onsis tencies ar e common in tr ees dr awn fr om char acter data and\ncomplicat e the decision-making pr ocess about which tr ee mos t closel y represents the r eal r elationships among the\ntaxa .\nTo aid in the tr emendous task o f choosing the bes t tree, scientis ts often use a c oncept cal ledmaximum parsimon y,\nwhich means that e vents oc curr ed in the simples t, mos t obvious w ay. This means that the \u201cbes t\u201d tree is the one\nwith the f ewest number o f char acter reversals , the f ewest number o f independent char acter chang es, and the\nfewest number o f char acter chang es thr oughout the tr ee. Comput er pr ograms sear ch thr ough al l of the pos sible\ntrees t o find the smal l number o f trees with the simples t evolutionar y path ways. Star ting with al l of the homolog ous\ntraits in a gr oup o f organisms , scientis ts can det ermine the or der o f evolutionar y events o f which those tr aits\noccurr ed that is the mos t obvious and simple .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nPractic e Parsimon y: Go t othis w ebsit e(http://opens tax.org/l/parsimon y2)to learn ho w maximum parsimon y is used\nto create ph ylog enetic tr ees (be sur e to continue t o the sec ond pag e).\nThese t ools and c oncepts ar e onl y a f ew of the s trategies scientis ts use t o tackle the task o f revealing the\nevolutionar y his tory of life on Ear th. R ecently, newer technologies ha ve unc overed surprising disc overies with\nunexpect ed relationships , such as the fact that people seem t o be mor e closel y related to fungi than fungi ar e to\nplants . Sound unbelie vable? As the inf ormation about DNA sequenc es gr ows, scientis ts wil l bec ome closer t o\nmapping the e volutionar y his tory of all life on Ear th.\n284 12 \u2022 Div ersity of Life\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2070, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8eaadff0-adf1-42be-a9e9-fec90d0392c3": {"__data__": {"id_": "8eaadff0-adf1-42be-a9e9-fec90d0392c3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "299", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f315306c-dd53-454a-98ef-e9d7f297c836", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "299", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5130a09fd69e5f25935655e78728600ed1a81b61082703bbd3ee220a08a21634", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "65b859cf-dcb9-4b4c-a652-c7241f24f67e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "d12056eca219175cdd90cd9b68ce0d0c178e005a8225d6c7f3d55f702906e387", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nanalog ous s tructur ea char acter found in tw o taxa\nthat look s similar because o f convergent e volution,\nnot because o f desc ent fr om a c ommon anc estor\nbinomial nomencla turea system o f two-par t\nscientific names f or an or ganism, which includes\ngenus and species names\nbranch point a point on a ph ylog enetic tr ee wher e a\nsingle lineag e splits t o dis tinct ne w ones\nclade a group o f taxa with the same set o f shar ed\nderiv ed char acters, including an anc estral species\nand al l its desc endants\ncladis tics a method used t o organiz e homolog ous\ntraits t o describe ph ylog enies using c ommon\ndesc endent as the primar y crit erion used t o clas sify\norganisms\nclas sthe cat egory in the tax onomic clas sification\nsystem that fal ls within ph ylum and includes or ders\ndomain the highes t level cat egory in the clas sification\nsystem and that includes al l tax onomic\nclas sifications belo w it; it is the mos t inclusiv e tax on\nfamil ythe cat egory in the tax onomic clas sification\nsystem that fal ls within or der and includes g ener a\ngenus the cat egory in the tax onomic clas sification\nsystem that fal ls within famil y and includes species;\nthe firs t par t of the scientific name\nking dom the cat egory in the tax onomic clas sification\nsystem that fal ls within domain and includes ph yla\nmaximum parsimon yappl ying the simples t, mos t\nobvious w ay with the leas t number o f steps\nmolecular s ystema tics the methods o f using\nmolecular e videnc e to identif y ph ylog eneticrelationships\nmonoph yletic gr oup (also , clade) or ganisms that\nshar e a single anc estor\norder the cat egory in the tax onomic clas sification\nsystem that fal ls within clas s and includes families\nphylog enetic tr ee diagr am used t o reflect the\nevolutionar y relationships betw een or ganisms or\ngroups o f organisms\nphylog enyevolutionar y his tory and r elationship o f an\norganism or gr oup o f organisms\nphylum the cat egory in the tax onomic clas sification\nsystem that fal ls within king dom and includes\nclas ses\nrooted describing a ph ylog enetic tr ee with a single\nancestral lineag e to which al l organisms\nrepresent ed in the diagr am r elate\nshar ed anc estral char acter a char acter on a\nphylog enetic br anch that is shar ed b y a par ticular\nclade\nshar ed deriv ed char acter a char acter on a\nphylog enetic tr ee that is shar ed onl y by a c ertain\nclade o f organisms\nsister taxa two lineag es that div erged fr om the same\nbranch point\nspecies the mos t specific cat egory of clas sification\nsystema tics the scienc e of det ermining the\nevolutionar y relationships o f organisms\ntaxon a single le vel in the tax onomic clas sification\nsystem\ntaxonom ythe scienc e of clas sifying or ganisms\nChap ter Summar y\n12.1 Organizing Lif e on E arth\nScientis ts continual ly ob tain ne w inf ormation that\nhelps t o unders tand the e volutionar y his tory of life on\nEarth. Each gr oup o f organisms w ent thr ough its o wn\nevolutionar y journe y, cal led its ph ylog eny. Each\norganism shar es relatednes s with others , and based on\nmorphologic and g enetic e videnc e scientis ts at temp t to\nmap the e volutionar y path ways of all life on Ear th.\nHistorical ly, organisms w ere organiz ed int o a\ntaxonomic clas sification s ystem. Ho wever, today man y\nscientis ts build ph ylog enetic tr ees t o illustrate\nevolutionar y relationships and the tax onomic\nclas sification s ystem is e xpect ed to reflect e volutionar y\nrelationships .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3482, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "65b859cf-dcb9-4b4c-a652-c7241f24f67e": {"__data__": {"id_": "65b859cf-dcb9-4b4c-a652-c7241f24f67e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "299", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f315306c-dd53-454a-98ef-e9d7f297c836", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "299", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5130a09fd69e5f25935655e78728600ed1a81b61082703bbd3ee220a08a21634", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "8eaadff0-adf1-42be-a9e9-fec90d0392c3", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "299", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "83dfc9d81880578046e18551408d4009343567c07ed8ed646f3f2703f4bb47be", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Each gr oup o f organisms w ent thr ough its o wn\nevolutionar y journe y, cal led its ph ylog eny. Each\norganism shar es relatednes s with others , and based on\nmorphologic and g enetic e videnc e scientis ts at temp t to\nmap the e volutionar y path ways of all life on Ear th.\nHistorical ly, organisms w ere organiz ed int o a\ntaxonomic clas sification s ystem. Ho wever, today man y\nscientis ts build ph ylog enetic tr ees t o illustrate\nevolutionar y relationships and the tax onomic\nclas sification s ystem is e xpect ed to reflect e volutionar y\nrelationships .\n12.2 Determining E volutionar y\nRelationships\nTo build ph ylog enetic tr ees, scientis ts mus t collectchar acter inf ormation that al lows them t o mak e\nevolutionar y connections betw een or ganisms . Using\nmorphologic and molecular data , scientis ts w ork t o\nidentif y homolog ous char acteristics and g enes .\nSimilarities betw een or ganisms can s tem either fr om\nshar ed e volutionar y his tory (homologies) or fr om\nsepar ate evolutionar y paths (analogies). Aft er\nhomolog ous inf ormation is identified, scientis ts use\ncladis tics t o organiz e these e vents as a means t o\ndetermine an e volutionar y timeline . Scientis ts appl y\nthe c oncept of maximum parsimon y, which s tates that\nthe lik elies t order o f events is pr obabl y the simples t\nshor test path. F or evolutionar y events , this w ould be\nthe path with the leas t number o f major div ergences\nthat c orrelate with the e videnc e.12 \u2022 K ey Terms 285", "start_char_idx": 2916, "end_char_idx": 4413, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "12c17430-568d-4f01-85ec-acf8b5aeb1f6": {"__data__": {"id_": "12c17430-568d-4f01-85ec-acf8b5aeb1f6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "300", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b7b7c540-2106-4ec5-8615-0441cf36d5bf", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "300", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0d9e50f38cdc523fc003a1593e89b5c76d0de7d46ddd3c26c6e00e2986825b47", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Visual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 12.3 In what le vels ar e cats and dogs\nconsider ed to be par t of the same gr oup?2.Figure 12.9 Which animals in this fig ure belong t o a\nclade that includes animals with hair? Which\nevolved firs t: hair or the amniotic eg g?\nReview Ques tions\n3.What is a ph ylog eny a descrip tion o f?\na.mutations\nb.DNA\nc.evolutionar y his tory\nd.organisms on Ear th\n4.What do scientis ts in the field o f systematics\naccomplish?\na.disc over ne w fossil sit es\nb.organiz e and clas sify organisms\nc.name ne w species\nd.communicat e betw een field biologis ts\n5.Which s tatement about the tax onomic clas sification\nsystem is c orrect?\na.Ther e are mor e domains than king doms .\nb.King doms ar e the t op cat egory of clas sification.\nc.A ph ylum ma y be r epresent ed in mor e than one\nking dom.\nd.Species ar e the mos t specific cat egory of\nclas sification.\n6.Which bes t describes the r elationship betw een\nchimpanz ees and humans?\na.chimpanz ees e volved fr om humans\nb.humans e volved fr om chimpanz ees\nc.chimpanz ees and humans e volved fr om a\ncommon anc estor\nd.chimpanz ees and humans belong t o the same\nspecies\n7.Which bes t describes a br anch point in a\nphylog enetic tr ee?\na.a hypothesis\nb.new lineag e\nc.hybridization\nd.a mating8.Which s tatement about analogies is c orrect?\na.They oc cur onl y as err ors.\nb.They are synon ymous with homolog ous tr aits.\nc.They are deriv ed b y response t o similar\nenvironmental pr essures.\nd.They are a f orm o f mutation.\n9.What kind o f trait is impor tant t o cladis tics?\na.shar ed deriv ed tr aits\nb.shar ed anc estral traits\nc.analog ous tr aits\nd.parsimonious tr aits\n10.What is true about or ganisms that ar e a par t of the\nsame clade?\na.They all shar e the same basic char acteristics.\nb.They evolved fr om a shar ed anc estor.\nc.They all are on the same tr ee.\nd.They ha ve identical ph ylog enies .\n11.Which as sump tion o f cladis tics is s tated\nincorrectly?\na.Living things ar e related b y desc ent fr om a\ncommon anc estor.\nb.Speciation can pr oduc e one , two, or thr ee\nnew species .\nc.Traits chang e from one s tate to another .\nd.The polarity o f a char acter state chang e can\nbe det ermined.\n12.A monoph yletic gr oup is a ________.\na.phylog enetic tr ee\nb.shar ed deriv ed tr ait\nc.char acter state\nd.clade\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n13.How does a ph ylog enetic tr ee indicat e major\nevolutionar y events within a lineag e?\n14.List the diff erent le vels o f the tax onomic\nclas sification s ystem.15.Dolphins and fish ha ve similar body shapes . Is this\nfeatur e mor e lik ely a homolog ous or analog ous\ntrait?\n16.Describe maximum parsimon y.\n17.How does a biologis t det ermine the polarity o f a\nchar acter chang e?286 12 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2805, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "06f2362c-494b-4608-98ea-f3840f92d6a1": {"__data__": {"id_": "06f2362c-494b-4608-98ea-f3840f92d6a1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "301", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9a08170c-f645-4ddc-9537-20425901bfd5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "301", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "159d60ad426bfe60bf84195913ae38bc3552204d297b113166937ef52b0d9318", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 13\nDiversit y of Micr obes , Fungi, and\nProtists\n13.1 Prokar yotic Div ersity\n13.2 Eukar yotic Origins\n13.3 Protists\n13.4 Fungi\nUntil the lat e tw entieth c entur y, scientis ts mos t commonl y grouped living things\ninto fiv e king doms \u2014animals , plants , fungi, pr otists, and bact eria\u2014based on se veral crit eria, such\nas absenc e or pr esenc e of a nucleus and other membr ane-bound or ganel les, absenc e or pr esenc e\nof cell walls, mul ticellularity , and mode o f nutrition. In the lat e tw entieth c entur y, the pioneering\nwork o f Carl W oese and others c ompar ed nucleotide sequenc es o f smal l-subunit ribosomal RNA\n(SSU rRNA), which r esul ted in a dr amatical ly diff erent w ay to group or ganisms on Ear th. Based on\ndifferences in the s tructur e of cell membr anes and in rRNA , Woese and his c olleag ues pr oposedFIGURE 13.1 Living things ar e very div erse , from simple , single -celled bact eria t o comple x, mul ticellular or ganisms .\n(credit \"ring worm \": modification o f work b y Dr. Lucille K. Geor g, CDC; cr edit \" Trypanosomes \": modification o f work b y\nDr. Myr on G. Schul tz, CDC; cr edit \u201c tree mold\u201d : modification o f work b y Janic e Hane y Carr , Rober t Simmons , CDC;\ncredit \" coral fung us\": modification o f work b y Cor y Zank er; cr edit \"bact erium \": modification o f work b y Dr. David Co x,\nCDC; cr edit \" cup fung us\": modification o f work b y \"ic elight\"/Flickr; cr edit \"MRSA \": modification o f work b y Janic e\nHane y Carr , CDC; cr edit \"moldy gr apefruit\": modification o f work b y Joseph Smilanick)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1604, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b5b54ec3-9c69-4352-85bd-7475232e199e": {"__data__": {"id_": "b5b54ec3-9c69-4352-85bd-7475232e199e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "302", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4f183547-f686-4e57-8d8f-3b9ff5d139d4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "302", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9d286871271947763e7df7060f3f03687218fb39c15d1c70b5234c86beea3e9f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "76807bf9-d7e2-442d-a055-545eca6fd784", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "1c81a89e962d80aaab85ae50166d60134272426b2073341660380077b2250f39", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "that al l life on Ear th evolved along thr ee lineag es, cal led domains . The thr ee domains ar e cal led\nBact eria, Archaea , and Euk arya.\nTwo of the thr ee domains \u2014Bact eria and Ar chaea \u2014are prokaryotic, meaning that the y lack both a\nnucleus and true membr ane-bound or ganel les. Ho wever, the y are no w consider ed, on the basis o f\nmembr ane s tructur e and rRNA , to be as diff erent fr om each other as the y are from the thir d\ndomain, the Euk arya. Prokaryotes w ere the firs t inhabitants on Ear th, perhaps appearing\nappr oximat ely 3.9 bil lion y ears ag o. Today the y are ubiquit ous\u2014inhabiting the harshes t\nenvironments on the planet, fr om boiling hot springs t o permanentl y frozen en vironments in\nAntar ctica , as w ell as mor e benign en vironments such as c ompos t heaps , soils , ocean w aters, and\nthe g uts o f animals (including humans). The Euk arya include the familiar king doms o f animals ,\nplants , and fungi. The y also include a div erse gr oup o f king doms f ormerl y grouped t ogether as\nprotists.\n13.1 Prokaryotic Div ersity\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the e volutionar y his tory of prokaryotes\n\u2022Describe the basic s tructur e of a typical pr okaryote\n\u2022Identif y bact erial diseases that caused his torical ly impor tant plag ues and epidemics\n\u2022Describe the uses o f prokaryotes in f ood pr ocessing and bior emediation\nProkaryotes ar e present e verywher e. The y cover every imaginable sur face wher e ther e is\nsufficient mois ture, and the y live on and inside o f other living things . Ther e are mor e prokaryotes\ninside and on the e xterior o f the human body than ther e are human c ells in the body . Some\nprokaryotes thriv e in en vironments that ar e inhospitable f or mos t other living things . Prokaryotes\nrecycle nutrients \u2014essential subs tanc es (such as carbon and nitr ogen)\u2014and the y driv e the\nevolution o f new ec osystems , some o f which ar e natur al while others ar e man-made . Prokaryotes\nhave been on Ear th sinc e long bef ore mul ticellular lif e appear ed.\nProkaryotic Div ersity\nThe adv ent o f DNA sequencing pr ovided immense insight int o the r elationships and origins o f\nprokaryotes that w ere not pos sible using tr aditional methods o f clas sification. A major insight\nidentified tw o groups o f prokaryotes that w ere found t o be as diff erent fr om each other as the y\nwere from euk aryotes. This r ecognition o f prokaryotic div ersity f orced a ne w unders tanding o f the\nclas sification o f all life and br ought us closer t o unders tanding the fundamental r elationships o f all\nliving things , including oursel ves.\nEarly Lif e on E arth\nWhen and wher e did lif e begin? What w ere the c onditions on Ear th when lif e beg an? P rokaryotes\nwere the firs t forms o f life on Ear th, and the y existed for bil lions o f years bef ore plants and animals\nappear ed. Ear th is about 4.54 billion y ears old. This es timat e is based on e videnc e from the dating\nof met eorit e mat erial , sinc e sur face rocks on Ear th ar e not as old as Ear th itself . Mos t rocks\navailable on Ear th ha ve under gone g eological chang es that mak e them y oung er than Ear th itself .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3223, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "76807bf9-d7e2-442d-a055-545eca6fd784": {"__data__": {"id_": "76807bf9-d7e2-442d-a055-545eca6fd784", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "302", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4f183547-f686-4e57-8d8f-3b9ff5d139d4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "302", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9d286871271947763e7df7060f3f03687218fb39c15d1c70b5234c86beea3e9f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "b5b54ec3-9c69-4352-85bd-7475232e199e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "302", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6aa4a3beb3190a64ac0f4a12c5787c6a4a8361debfdc2fc2dd4409c597aebc42", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Early Lif e on E arth\nWhen and wher e did lif e begin? What w ere the c onditions on Ear th when lif e beg an? P rokaryotes\nwere the firs t forms o f life on Ear th, and the y existed for bil lions o f years bef ore plants and animals\nappear ed. Ear th is about 4.54 billion y ears old. This es timat e is based on e videnc e from the dating\nof met eorit e mat erial , sinc e sur face rocks on Ear th ar e not as old as Ear th itself . Mos t rocks\navailable on Ear th ha ve under gone g eological chang es that mak e them y oung er than Ear th itself .\nSome met eorit es ar e made o f the original mat erial in the solar disk that f ormed the objects o f the\nsolar s ystem, and the y ha ve not been al tered b y the pr ocesses that al tered rocks on Ear th. Thus ,\nthe ag e of met eorit es is a g ood indicat or of the ag e of the f ormation o f Ear th. The original es timat e\nof 4.54 bil lion y ears w as ob tained b y Clair P atterson in 1956. His meticulous w ork has sinc e been\ncorrobor ated b y ag es det ermined fr om other sour ces, all of which point t o an Ear th ag e of about\n4.54 bil lion y ears .\nEarly Ear th had a v ery diff erent atmospher e than it does t oday. Evidenc e indicat es that during the\nfirst 2 bil lion y ears o f Ear th\u2019s existence, the atmospher e wasanoxic, meaning that ther e was no\noxygen. Ther efore, onl y those or ganisms that can gr ow without o xygen\u2014 anaer obic\norganisms \u2014were able t o liv e. Organisms that c onvert solar ener gy int o chemical ener gy are cal led288 13 \u2022 Div ersity of Micr obes , Fungi, and P rotists\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2671, "end_char_idx": 4270, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "92792682-e717-4b11-8881-8f50ca229849": {"__data__": {"id_": "92792682-e717-4b11-8881-8f50ca229849", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "303", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f9f36889-75b1-481e-958b-f3044cd9f5d1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "303", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ca4f50adfbfbba62d8721192c2b30a94f5a202570720cfbe07208a932d3d40bf", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "phototrophs . Phot otrophic or ganisms that r equir ed an or ganic sour ce of carbon appear ed within one bil lion y ears o f\nthe f ormation o f Ear th. Then, cyanobact eria , also kno wn as blue -green alg ae, evolved fr om these simple\nphot otrophs one bil lion y ears lat er. Cyanobact eria ar e able t o use carbon dio xide as a sour ce of carbon.\nCyanobact eria ( Figure 13.2 ) beg an the o xygenation o f the atmospher e. The incr ease in o xygen c oncentr ation\nallowed the e volution o f other lif e forms .\nFIGURE 13.2 This hot spring in Y ellowstone National P ark flo ws toward the f oreground. Cy anobact eria in the spring ar e green, and as w ater\nflows do wn the heat gr adient, the int ensity o f the c olor incr eases because c ell density incr eases . The w ater is c ooler at the edg es o f the\nstream than in the c enter, causing the edg es to appear gr eener . (credit: Gr aciela Br elles-Mari\u00f1o)\nBefore the atmospher e became o xygenat ed, the planet w as subject ed to strong r adiation; thus , the firs t organisms\nwould ha ve flourished wher e the y were mor e protected, such as in oc ean dep ths or beneath the sur face of Ear th. A t\nthis time , too, strong v olcanic activity w as common on Ear th, so it is lik ely that these firs t organisms \u2014the firs t\nprokaryotes\u2014were adap ted to very high t emper atur es. These ar e not the typical t emper ate en vironments in which\nmos t life flourishes t oday; thus , we can c onclude that the firs t organisms that appear ed on Ear th lik ely were able t o\nwiths tand harsh c onditions .\nMicr obial mats ma y represent the earlies t forms o f life on Ear th, and ther e is f ossil e videnc e of their pr esenc e,\nstarting about 3.5 bil lion y ears ag o. Amicr obial ma tis a lar ge bio film, a mul ti-la yered sheet o f prokaryotes (Figure\n13.3 a), including mos tly bact eria, but also ar chaea . Micr obial mats ar e a f ew centimet ers thick, and the y typical ly\ngrow on mois t sur faces. Their v arious types o f prokaryotes carr y out diff erent metabolic path ways, and f or this\nreason, the y reflect v arious c olors . Prokaryotes in a micr obial mat ar e held t ogether b y a g umm y-like subs tanc e that\nthey secr ete.\nThe firs t micr obial mats lik ely ob tained their ener gy from h ydrothermal v ents . Ahydrothermal v ent is a fis sure in\nEarth\u2019s sur face that r eleases g eothermal ly heat ed w ater. With the e volution o f phot osynthesis about 3 bil lion y ears\nago, some pr okaryotes in micr obial mats came t o use a mor e widel y available ener gy sour ce\u2014sunlight \u2014wher eas\nothers w ere still dependent on chemicals fr om h ydrothermal v ents f or food.\nFIGURE 13.3 (a) This micr obial mat gr ows over a h ydrothermal v ent in the P acific Oc ean. Chimne ys such as the one indicat ed b y the arr ow\nallow gases t o escape . (b) This phot o sho ws stromat olites that ar e nearl y 1.5 bil lion y ears old, f ound in Glacier National P ark, Montana .\n(credit a: modification o f work b y Dr. Bob Emble y, NO AA PMEL; cr edit b: modification o f work b y P. Carr ara, NPS)13.1 \u2022 P rokaryotic Div ersity 289", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3101, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2da4fa0d-b2ec-400f-8aeb-e74f205e2240": {"__data__": {"id_": "2da4fa0d-b2ec-400f-8aeb-e74f205e2240", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "304", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "876158fa-58aa-4b79-b3a8-edc9139217c1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "304", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6428c4e323d9e3c0eedafe91c6ac947f230d12d0b83bec28de65d1e30a53f85e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "37ebcab2-f0e8-40f9-acab-a19e10f29eab", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "850be66a2aef9f755cc4a8b427c1adbea316c7412c83f8428a0c49cf8e7f2d93", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Fossilized micr obial mats r epresent the earlies t record of life on Ear th. A stroma toliteis a sedimentar y structur e\nformed when miner als ar e precipitat ed fr om w ater by prokaryotes in a micr obial mat ( Figure 13.3 b). Str omat olites\nform la yered rocks made o f carbonat e or silicat e. Although mos t stromat olites ar e artifacts fr om the pas t, ther e are\nplac es on Ear th wher e stromat olites ar e still forming . For example , living s tromat olites ha ve been f ound in the Anza -\nBorr ego Deser t Stat e Park in San Dieg o County , Calif ornia . Efforts to unders tand the earlies t micr obial mats ma y also\nhave implications on the sear ch for lif e else wher e. Nor a No ffke, who identified man y of the f eatur es used in dating\nand cat egorizing micr obial ly produc ed sedimentar y structur es, emphasiz es that similar f ormations c ould be used t o\nfind e videnc e of life on Mars . When anal yzing phot os tak en b y the NASA Curiosity r over, Noffke sho wcased the\nsimilarities betw een f ossilized micr obial mats f ound on the tw o planets .\nSome pr okaryotes ar e able t o thriv e and gr ow under c onditions that w ould kil l a plant or animal . Bact eria and\narchaea that gr ow under e xtreme c onditions ar e cal ledextremophiles , meaning \u201clo vers o f extremes .\u201d\nExtr emophiles ha ve been f ound in e xtreme en vironments o f all kinds , including the dep ths o f the oc eans , hot\nsprings , the Ar ctic and the Antar ctic, v ery dry plac es, deep inside Ear th, harsh chemical en vironments , and high\nradiation en vironments . Extr emophiles giv e us a bet ter unders tanding o f prokaryotic div ersity and open up the\npossibility o f the disc overy of new ther apeutic drugs or indus trial applications . The y ha ve also opened up the\npossibility o f finding lif e in other plac es in the solar s ystem, which ha ve harsher en vironments than those typical ly\nfound on Ear th. Man y of these e xtremophiles cannot sur vive in moder ate en vironments .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nRead this transcrip t(https:/ /opens tax.org/l/extremophiles) of NASA scientis t Richar d Hoo ver discus sing the\nimplications that the e xistence extremophiles on Ear th ha ve on the pos sibility o f finding lif e on other planets in our\nsolar s ystem, such as Mars .\nBiofilms\nUntil a c ouple o f decades ag o, micr obiologis ts thought o f prokaryotes as isolat ed entities living apar t. This model ,\nhowever, does not r eflect the true ec olog y of prokaryotes, mos t of which pr efer to liv e in c ommunities wher e the y\ncan int eract. A biofilm is a micr obial c ommunity held t ogether in a g umm y-textur ed matrix, c onsis ting primaril y of\npolysaccharides secr eted b y the or ganisms , together with some pr oteins and nucleic acids . Bio films gr ow at tached\nto sur faces. Some o f the bes t-studied bio films ar e composed o f prokaryotes, although fung al bio films ha ve also\nbeen described.\nBiofilms ar e present almos t everywher e. The y cause the clog ging o f pipes and r eadil y coloniz e sur faces in indus trial\nsettings . The y ha ve pla yed roles in r ecent, lar ge-scale outbr eaks of bact erial c ontamination o f food. Bio films also\ncoloniz e household sur faces, such as kit chen c ount ers, cut ting boar ds, sink s, and t oilets .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3281, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "37ebcab2-f0e8-40f9-acab-a19e10f29eab": {"__data__": {"id_": "37ebcab2-f0e8-40f9-acab-a19e10f29eab", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "304", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "876158fa-58aa-4b79-b3a8-edc9139217c1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "304", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6428c4e323d9e3c0eedafe91c6ac947f230d12d0b83bec28de65d1e30a53f85e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "2da4fa0d-b2ec-400f-8aeb-e74f205e2240", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "304", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7487f5f59785a5099036c8ffc5503ad5c0dbf02026d3a5e61fdb80e8ad6ff33a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Bio films gr ow at tached\nto sur faces. Some o f the bes t-studied bio films ar e composed o f prokaryotes, although fung al bio films ha ve also\nbeen described.\nBiofilms ar e present almos t everywher e. The y cause the clog ging o f pipes and r eadil y coloniz e sur faces in indus trial\nsettings . The y ha ve pla yed roles in r ecent, lar ge-scale outbr eaks of bact erial c ontamination o f food. Bio films also\ncoloniz e household sur faces, such as kit chen c ount ers, cut ting boar ds, sink s, and t oilets .\nInteractions among the or ganisms that populat e a bio film, t ogether with their pr otectiv e en vironment, mak e these\ncommunities mor e robus t than ar e free-living , or plank tonic, pr okaryotes. Overall, bio films ar e very difficul t to\ndestroy, because the y are resistant t o man y of the c ommon f orms o f sterilization.\nChar acteristics o f Prokaryotes\nTher e are man y diff erences betw een pr okaryotic and euk aryotic c ells. Ho wever, all cells ha ve four c ommon\nstructur es: a plasma membr ane that functions as a barrier f or the c ell and separ ates the c ell from its en vironment;\ncytoplasm, a jel ly-like subs tanc e inside the c ell; genetic mat erial (DNA and RNA); and ribosomes , wher e protein\nsynthesis tak es plac e. Prokaryotes come in v arious shapes , but man y fal l into thr ee cat egories: c occi (spherical),\nbacil li (rod-shaped), and spiril la (spir al-shaped) ( Figure 13.4 ).\n290 13 \u2022 Div ersity of Micr obes , Fungi, and P rotists\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2764, "end_char_idx": 4288, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "714f6bb1-b980-4bc2-a864-e7510eee6fb4": {"__data__": {"id_": "714f6bb1-b980-4bc2-a864-e7510eee6fb4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "305", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0ded0a16-589e-4aaf-ae2e-a9f6b03dc870", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "305", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e6722ed59267f291b6aa4d15b97cec665b34e8843a88ffb4c3383c34123560ca", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 13.4 Man y prokaryotes fal l into thr ee basic cat egories based on their shape: (a) c occi, or spherical; (b) bacil li, or r od-shaped; and\n(c) spiril la, or spir al-shaped. (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Janic e Hane y Carr , Dr. Richar d Facklam, CDC; cr edit c: modification o f work\nby Dr. David Co x, CDC; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nThe P rokaryotic C ell\nRecal l that pr okaryotes (Figure 13.5 ) are unic ellular or ganisms that lack or ganel les surr ounded b y membr anes .\nTher efore, the y do not ha ve a nucleus but ins tead ha ve a single chr omosome \u2014a piec e of circular DNA locat ed in an\narea o f the c ell cal led the nucleoid. Mos t prokaryotes ha ve a c ell wall lying outside the plasma membr ane. The\ncomposition o f the c ell wall diff ers significantl y betw een the domains Bact eria and Ar chaea (and their c ell walls also\ndiffer fr om the euk aryotic c ell walls found in plants and fungi.) The c ell wall functions as a pr otectiv e layer and is\nresponsible f or the or ganism \u2019s shape . Some other s tructur es ar e present in some pr okaryotic species , but not in\nothers . For example , the capsule found in some species enables the or ganism t o attach t o sur faces and pr otects it\nfrom deh ydration. Some species ma y also ha ve flag ella (sing ular, flag ellum) used f or loc omotion, and pili (sing ular,\npilus) used f or at tachment t o sur faces and t o other bact eria f or conjug ation. Plasmids , which c onsis t of smal l,\ncircular piec es o f DNA outside o f the main chr omosome , are also pr esent in man y species o f bact eria.\nFIGURE 13.5 The f eatur es o f a typical bact erium c ell are sho wn.\nBoth Bact eria and Ar chaea ar e types o f prokaryotic c ells. The y diff er in the lipid c omposition o f their c ell membr anes\nand in the char acteristics o f their c ell walls. Both types o f prokaryotes ha ve the same basic s tructur es, but these ar e\nbuilt from diff erent chemical c omponents that ar e evidenc e of an ancient separ ation o f their lineag es. The ar chaeal\nplasma membr ane is chemical ly diff erent fr om the bact erial membr ane; some ar chaeal membr anes ar e lipid\nmonola yers ins tead o f phosopholipid bila yers.\nThe C ell W all\nThe c ell wall is a pr otectiv e layer that surr ounds some pr okaryotic c ells and giv es them shape and rigidity . It is\nlocat ed outside the c ell membr ane and pr events osmotic l ysis (burs ting caused b y incr easing v olume). The chemical\ncompositions o f the c ell walls vary betw een Ar chaea and Bact eria, as w ell as betw een bact erial species . Bact erial\ncell walls contain pep tidogl ycan, composed o f pol ysaccharide chains cr oss-link ed to pep tides . Bact eria ar e divided\ninto tw o major gr oups: Gram-positiv eand Gram-neg ative, based on their r eaction t o a pr ocedur e cal led Gr am13.1 \u2022 P rokaryotic Div ersity 291", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2876, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bd96caab-8bac-4254-b2c7-2e60f2ebb16d": {"__data__": {"id_": "bd96caab-8bac-4254-b2c7-2e60f2ebb16d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "306", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "bd074de7-86cb-4c03-8898-53cfcd242015", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "306", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4850c9fbbefa30937e88af461edd6685f11c9a1ab37ddeb5fbe4bbece8b41f84", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "a12342a2-d963-4a9a-a6e2-07b5b6986d97", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "174e951e2245189924310b55d0679c95510b99ce81da466219a3fdaba070ff50", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "staining . The diff erent bact erial r esponses t o the s taining pr ocedur e are caused b y cell wall structur e. Gram-positiv e\norganisms ha ve a thick w all consis ting o f man y layers o f pep tidogl ycan. Gr am-neg ative bact eria ha ve a thinner c ell\nwall composed o f a few la yers o f pep tidogl ycan and additional s tructur es, surr ounded b y an out er membr ane\n(Figure 13.6 ).\nVISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 13.6 Bact eria ar e divided int o tw o major gr oups: Gr am-positiv e and Gr am-neg ative. Both gr oups ha ve a c ell wall composed o f\npeptidogl ycans: In Gr am-positiv e bact eria, the w all is thick, wher eas in Gr am-neg ative bact eria, the w all is thin. In Gr am-neg ative bact eria,\nthe c ell wall is surr ounded b y an out er membr ane.\nWhich o f the f ollowing s tatements is true?\na.Gram-positiv e bact eria ha ve a single c ell wall formed fr om pep tidogl ycan.\nb.Gram-positiv e bact eria ha ve an out er membr ane.\nc.The c ell wall of Gram-neg ative bact eria is thick, and the c ell wall of Gram-positiv e bact eria is thin.\nd.Gram-neg ative bact eria ha ve a c ell wall made o f pep tidogl ycan, while Gr am-positiv e bact eria ha ve a c ell wall\nmade o f phospholipids .\nArchaeal c ell walls do not c ontain pep tidogl ycan. Ther e are four diff erent types o f archaeal c ell walls. One type is\ncomposed o fpseudopep tidogl ycan. The other thr ee types o f cell walls contain pol ysaccharides , glycoproteins , and\nsurface-layer pr oteins kno wn as S -layers.\nReproduc tion\nReproduction in pr okaryotes is primaril y ase xual and tak es plac e by binar y fis sion. R ecal l that the DNA o f a\nprokaryote exists usual ly as a single , circular chr omosome . Prokaryotes do not under go mit osis . Rather , the\nchromosome loop is r eplicat ed, and the tw o resul ting c opies at tached t o the plasma membr ane mo ve apar t as the\ncell grows in a pr ocess cal led binar y fis sion. The pr okaryote, now enlar ged, is pinched in ward at its equat or, and the\ntwo resul ting c ells, which ar e clones , separ ate. Binar y fis sion does not pr ovide an oppor tunity f or genetic\nrecombination, but pr okaryotes can al ter their g enetic mak eup in thr ee w ays.\nBinar y fis sion as a w ay of reproduction does not pr ovide an oppor tunity f or genetic r ecombination and incr eased\ngenetic v ariability . Ho wever, prokaryotes can al ter their g enetic mak eup b y thr ee mechanisms o f obtaining\nexogenous DNA . In a pr ocess cal ledtransforma tion , the c ell tak es in DNA f ound in its en vironment that is shed b y\nother pr okaryotes, aliv e or dead. A pathog enis an or ganism that causes a disease . If a nonpathog enic bact erium\ntakes up DNA fr om a pathog en and inc orpor ates the ne w DNA in its o wn chr omosome , it too ma y bec ome\npathog enic. In transduction , bact eriophag es, the viruses that inf ect bact eria, mo ve DNA fr om one bact erium t o\nanother . Archaea ha ve a diff erent set o f viruses that inf ect them and tr anslocat e genetic mat erial fr om one individual\nto another .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3039, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a12342a2-d963-4a9a-a6e2-07b5b6986d97": {"__data__": {"id_": "a12342a2-d963-4a9a-a6e2-07b5b6986d97", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "306", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "bd074de7-86cb-4c03-8898-53cfcd242015", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "306", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4850c9fbbefa30937e88af461edd6685f11c9a1ab37ddeb5fbe4bbece8b41f84", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "bd96caab-8bac-4254-b2c7-2e60f2ebb16d", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "306", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1a48673d5e1ad8939df0873cb678149eb14f28fccf43e1a8d8af9cbcb360f716", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In a pr ocess cal ledtransforma tion , the c ell tak es in DNA f ound in its en vironment that is shed b y\nother pr okaryotes, aliv e or dead. A pathog enis an or ganism that causes a disease . If a nonpathog enic bact erium\ntakes up DNA fr om a pathog en and inc orpor ates the ne w DNA in its o wn chr omosome , it too ma y bec ome\npathog enic. In transduction , bact eriophag es, the viruses that inf ect bact eria, mo ve DNA fr om one bact erium t o\nanother . Archaea ha ve a diff erent set o f viruses that inf ect them and tr anslocat e genetic mat erial fr om one individual\nto another . During conjug ation , DNA is tr ansferred fr om one pr okaryote to another b y means o f a pilus that brings\nthe or ganisms int o contact with one another . The DNA tr ansferred is usual ly a plasmid, but par ts of the chr omosome\ncan also be mo ved.\nCycles o f binar y fis sion can be v ery rapid, on the or der o f minut es for some species . This shor t gener ation time\ncoupled with mechanisms o f genetic r ecombination r esul t in the r apid e volution o f prokaryotes, allowing them t o\n292 13 \u2022 Div ersity of Micr obes , Fungi, and P rotists\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2445, "end_char_idx": 3623, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a1821832-f2fb-41f7-a313-04dc67391f7f": {"__data__": {"id_": "a1821832-f2fb-41f7-a313-04dc67391f7f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "307", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "824711bc-5229-4e23-abac-3d008cc931dd", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "307", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "42924dd318c430e7c6b9dd863fd7612d9754496f3a24cdae5b3014943ade8adb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "f8d40835-72dc-4519-9648-e8bfff245a5c", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "07a1f65164f247be3d638a60371dff9cbdcbb99db82a990d1ce4c1594d8da00a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "respond t o en vironmental chang es (such as the intr oduction o f an antibiotic) v ery quickl y.\nHow Prokaryotes Ob tain Ener gy and C arbon\nProkaryotes ar e metabolical ly div erse or ganisms . Prokaryotes fil l man y niches on Ear th, including being in volved in\nnutrient cy cles such as the nitr ogen and carbon cy cles , dec omposing dead or ganisms , and gr owing and mul tiplying\ninside living or ganisms , including humans . Diff erent pr okaryotes can use diff erent sour ces o f ener gy to as semble\nmacr omolecules fr om smal ler molecules . Phot otrophs ob tain their ener gy from sunlight. Chemotr ophs ob tain their\nener gy from chemical c ompounds .\nBacterial Diseases in Humans\nDevastating pathog en-borne diseases and plag ues, both vir al and bact erial in natur e, have aff ected and c ontinue t o\naffect humans . It is w orth noting that al l pathog enic pr okaryotes ar e Bact eria; ther e are no kno wn pathog enic\nArchaea in humans or an y other or ganism. P athog enic or ganisms e volved alongside humans . In the pas t, the true\ncause o f these diseases w as not unders tood, and some cul tures thought that diseases w ere a spiritual punishment\nor w ere mis taken about mat erial causes . Over time , people came t o realiz e that s taying apar t from afflict ed persons ,\nimpr oving sanitation, and pr operl y disposing o f the c orpses and personal belongings o f victims o f illnes s reduc ed\ntheir o wn chanc es o f getting sick.\nHistorical Perspec tive\nTher e are records o f infectious diseases as far back as 3,000 B .C. A number o f significant pandemics caused b y\nBact eria ha ve been document ed o ver se veral hundr ed y ears . Some o f the lar gest pandemics led t o the decline o f\ncities and cul tures. Man y were zoonoses that appear ed with the domes tication o f animals , as in the case o f\ntuber culosis . A z oonosis is a disease that inf ects animals but can be tr ansmit ted fr om animals t o humans .\nInfectious diseases r emain among the leading causes o f death w orldwide . Their impact is les s significant in man y\ndeveloped c ountries , but the y are impor tant det erminers o f mor tality in de veloping c ountries . The de velopment o f\nantibiotics did much t o les sen the mor tality r ates fr om bact erial inf ections , but ac cess to antibiotics is not univ ersal ,\nand the o veruse o f antibiotics has led t o the de velopment o f resistant s trains o f bact eria. Public sanitation eff orts\nthat dispose o f sewage and pr ovide clean drinking w ater ha ve done as much or mor e than medical adv ances to\nprevent deaths caused b y bact erial inf ections .\nIn 430 B .C., the plag ue o f Athens kil led one -quar ter of the A thenian tr oops that w ere fighting in the Gr eat\nPeloponnesian W ar. The disease kil led a quar ter of the population o f Athens in o ver 4 y ears and w eakened A thens\u2019\ndominanc e and po wer. The sour ce of the plag ue ma y ha ve been identified r ecently when r esear chers fr om the\nUniv ersity o f Athens w ere able t o anal yze DNA fr om t eeth r ecovered fr om a mas s grave. The scientis ts identified\nnucleotide sequenc es fr om a pathog enic bact erium that causes typhoid f ever.1\nFrom 541 t o 750 A .D., an outbr eak cal led the plag ue o f Jus tinian (lik ely a bubonic plag ue) eliminat ed, b y some\nestimat es, one -quar ter to one -half o f the human population.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3367, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f8d40835-72dc-4519-9648-e8bfff245a5c": {"__data__": {"id_": "f8d40835-72dc-4519-9648-e8bfff245a5c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "307", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "824711bc-5229-4e23-abac-3d008cc931dd", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "307", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "42924dd318c430e7c6b9dd863fd7612d9754496f3a24cdae5b3014943ade8adb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "a1821832-f2fb-41f7-a313-04dc67391f7f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "307", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ab71c8461da587426767866402a4ee4a70762b0431072ac2f15946ad58fa20a2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The disease kil led a quar ter of the population o f Athens in o ver 4 y ears and w eakened A thens\u2019\ndominanc e and po wer. The sour ce of the plag ue ma y ha ve been identified r ecently when r esear chers fr om the\nUniv ersity o f Athens w ere able t o anal yze DNA fr om t eeth r ecovered fr om a mas s grave. The scientis ts identified\nnucleotide sequenc es fr om a pathog enic bact erium that causes typhoid f ever.1\nFrom 541 t o 750 A .D., an outbr eak cal led the plag ue o f Jus tinian (lik ely a bubonic plag ue) eliminat ed, b y some\nestimat es, one -quar ter to one -half o f the human population. The population in Eur ope declined b y 50 per cent\nduring this outbr eak. Bubonic plag ue w ould decimat e Eur ope mor e than onc e.\nOne o f the mos t devastating pandemics w as the Black Dea th(1346 t o 1361), which is belie ved to ha ve been\nanother outbr eak o f bubonic plag ue caused b y the bact erium Yersinia pes tis. This bact erium is carried b y fleas living\non black r ats. The Black Death r educ ed the w orld\u2019 s population fr om an es timat ed 450 mil lion t o about 350 t o 375\nmillion. Bubonic plag ue s truck L ondon har d ag ain in the mid-1600s . Ther e are still appr oximat ely 1,000 t o 3,000\ncases o f plag ue global ly each y ear. Although c ontr acting bubonic plag ue bef ore antibiotics meant almos t certain\ndeath, the bact erium r esponds t o se veral types o f modern antibiotics , and mor tality r ates fr om plag ue ar e no w very\nlow.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch a video (http://opens tax.org/l/black _death2) on the modern unders tanding o f the Black Death (bubonic\n1Papagrig orakis M. J ., Synodinos P . N., Y apijakis C, \u201c Ancient typhoid epidemic r eveals pos sible anc estral strain o fSalmonel la ent erica\nserovar Typhi, Infect Genet Ev ol7 (2007): 126-7.13.1 \u2022 P rokaryotic Div ersity 293", "start_char_idx": 2759, "end_char_idx": 4595, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4f1316dd-2884-4f92-9f96-dbeef5a9053f": {"__data__": {"id_": "4f1316dd-2884-4f92-9f96-dbeef5a9053f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "308", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4e0d2012-fa09-4eb9-aae4-85c24f93946e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "308", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6457393c4019f4f327f162a6e6c21e8d3d6dc0e63e410fd37893ae3f9d8c40e1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "bc89a4bc-8a20-4264-87e5-a1bf2cb73a33", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "aeadf091f370abc14fb910327e4c3d2c09116527f94543fc10fd7b3dd6407be1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "plag ue) in Eur ope during the f ourteenth c entur y.\nOver the c enturies , Eur opeans de veloped r esistanc e to man y inf ectious diseases . Ho wever, Eur opean c onquer ors\nbrought disease -causing bact eria and viruses with them when the y reached the W estern hemispher e, trig gering\nepidemics that c omplet ely de vastated populations o f Nativ e Americans (who had no natur al resistanc e to man y\nEuropean diseases).\nThe Antibio tic Crisis\nThe w ord antibiotic c omes fr om the Gr eek anti, meaning \u201c agains t,\u201d and bios , meaning \u201clif e.\u201d An antibiotic is an\norganism-pr oduc ed chemical that is hos tile t o the gr owth o f other or ganisms . Today\u2019s ne ws and media o ften\naddr ess concerns about an antibiotic crisis . Are antibiotics that w ere used t o treat bact erial inf ections easil y\ntreatable in the pas t bec oming obsolet e? Ar e ther e ne w \u201csuperbugs\u201d \u2014bact eria that ha ve evolved to bec ome mor e\nresistant t o our arsenal o f antibiotics? Is this the beginning o f the end o f antibiotics? Al l of these ques tions chal leng e\nthe heal thcar e community .\nOne o f the main r easons f or resistant bact eria is the o veruse and inc orrect use o f antibiotics , such as not c ompleting\na ful l course o f prescribed antibiotics . The inc orrect use o f an antibiotic r esul ts in the natur al selection o f resistant\nforms o f bact eria. The antibiotic kil ls mos t of the inf ecting bact eria, and ther efore onl y the r esistant f orms r emain.\nThese r esistant f orms r eproduc e, resul ting in an incr ease in the pr opor tion o f resistant f orms o ver non-r esistant\nones .\nAnother pr oblem is the e xcessive use o f antibiotics in liv estock. The r outine use o f antibiotics in animal f eed\npromot es bact erial r esistanc e as w ell. In the Unit ed Stat es, 70 per cent o f the antibiotics pr oduc ed ar e fed to\nanimals . The antibiotics ar e not used t o prevent disease , but t o enhanc e production o f their pr oducts .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch an overview repor t(http://opens tax.org/l/antibiotics2) on the pr oblem o f routine antibiotic adminis tration t o\nlivestock and antibiotic-r esistant bact eria.\nStaph yloc occus aur eus, often cal led \u201c staph, \u201d is a c ommon bact erium that can liv e in and on the human body , which\nusual ly is easil y treatable with antibiotics . A v ery dang erous s train, ho wever, has made the ne ws over the pas t few\nyears ( Figure 13.7 ). This s train, methicil lin-r esis tant Staph yloc occus aur eus (MRSA) , is r esistant t o man y\ncommonl y used antibiotics , including methicil lin, amo xicil lin, penicil lin, and o xacil lin. While MRSA inf ections ha ve\nbeen c ommon among people in heal thcar e facilities , it is appearing mor e commonl y in heal thy people who liv e or\nwork in dense gr oups (lik e militar y personnel and prisoners). The Journal o f the American Medical As sociation\nrepor ted that, among MRSA -afflict ed persons in heal thcar e facilities , the a verage ag e is 68 y ears , while people with\n\u201ccommunity -associat ed MRSA \u201d (CA -MRSA) ha ve an a verage ag e of 23 y ears .2\nFIGURE 13.7 This scanning electr on micr ograph sho ws methicil lin-r esistant Staph yloc occus aur eus bact eria, commonl y kno wn as MRSA .\n(credit: modification o f work b y Janic e Hane y Carr , CDC; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\n2Naimi, T .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3339, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bc89a4bc-8a20-4264-87e5-a1bf2cb73a33": {"__data__": {"id_": "bc89a4bc-8a20-4264-87e5-a1bf2cb73a33", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "308", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4e0d2012-fa09-4eb9-aae4-85c24f93946e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "308", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6457393c4019f4f327f162a6e6c21e8d3d6dc0e63e410fd37893ae3f9d8c40e1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "4f1316dd-2884-4f92-9f96-dbeef5a9053f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "308", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2c564793bf206a0a7e7a15f66da00887986fee25b94ec0e6ee75a41693023a2b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The Journal o f the American Medical As sociation\nrepor ted that, among MRSA -afflict ed persons in heal thcar e facilities , the a verage ag e is 68 y ears , while people with\n\u201ccommunity -associat ed MRSA \u201d (CA -MRSA) ha ve an a verage ag e of 23 y ears .2\nFIGURE 13.7 This scanning electr on micr ograph sho ws methicil lin-r esistant Staph yloc occus aur eus bact eria, commonl y kno wn as MRSA .\n(credit: modification o f work b y Janic e Hane y Carr , CDC; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\n2Naimi, T . S., L eDel l, K. H., Como -Sabet ti, K., et al ., \u201cComparison o f community - and heal th car e-associat ed methicil lin-r esistant\nStaph yloc occus aur eus infection, \u201dJAMA 290 (2003): 2976-2984, doi: 10.1001/jama .290.22.2976.294 13 \u2022 Div ersity of Micr obes , Fungi, and P rotists\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2828, "end_char_idx": 3657, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "37b4f443-e824-4397-a9d5-4f2354001e58": {"__data__": {"id_": "37b4f443-e824-4397-a9d5-4f2354001e58", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "309", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "bf11686f-4c32-4a85-b83a-56a2f2739edd", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "309", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "42e93431b84742070ddfec02047248518c3e0386cba7eef4f30becd8059566a6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "1b7e884b-f726-4dcc-b214-4ba37fe51bb5", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "d3654488015dc11d3b7ebbd858701ce2ace02e8b7ccf8fb602cf8b567aa0d767", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In summar y, society is facing an antibiotic crisis . Some scientis ts belie ve that aft er years o f being pr otected fr om\nbact erial inf ections b y antibiotics , we ma y be r eturning t o a time in which a simple bact erial inf ection c ould ag ain\ndevastate the human population. R esear chers ar e working on de veloping ne w antibiotics , but f ew ar e in the drug\ndevelopment pipeline , and it tak es man y years t o gener ate an eff ectiv e and appr oved drug .\nFoodborne Diseases\nProkaryotes ar e everywher e: The y readil y coloniz e the sur face of any type o f mat erial , and f ood is not an e xception.\nOutbr eaks of bact erial inf ection r elated to food c onsump tion ar e common. A foodborne disease (colloquial ly cal led\n\u201cfood poisoning \u201d) is an il lnes s resul ting fr om the c onsump tion o f food c ontaminat ed with pathog enic bact eria,\nviruses , or other par asites. Although the Unit ed Stat es has one o f the saf est food supplies in the w orld, the Cent er\nfor Disease Contr ol and P revention (CDC) has r epor ted that \u201c76 mil lion people g et sick, mor e than 300,000 ar e\nhospitaliz ed, and 5,000 Americans die each y ear fr om f oodborne il lnes s.\u201d3\nThe char acteristics o f foodborne il lnes ses ha ve chang ed o ver time . In the pas t, it w as relativ ely common t o hear\nabout spor adic cases o fbotulism , the pot ential ly fatal disease pr oduc ed b y a t oxin fr om the anaer obic bact erium\nClos tridium botulinum . A can, jar , or pack age created a suitable anaer obic en vironment wher eClos tridium could\ngrow. Proper s terilization and canning pr ocedur es ha ve reduc ed the incidenc e of this disease .\nMos t cases o f foodborne il lnes ses ar e no w link ed to produc e contaminat ed b y animal w aste. For example , ther e\nhave been serious , produc e-related outbr eaks associat ed with r aw spinach in the Unit ed Stat es and with v egetable\nsprouts in German y (Figure 13.8 ). The r aw spinach outbr eak in 2006 w as pr oduc ed b y the bact erium E. colistrain\nO157:H7. Mos tE. colistrains ar e not par ticularl y dang erous t o humans , (indeed, the y live in our lar ge int estine), but\nO157:H7 is pot ential ly fatal .\nFIGURE 13.8 (a) L ocal ly grown v egetable spr outs w ere the cause o f a Eur opean E. colioutbr eak that kil led 31 people and sick ened about\n3,000 in 2010. (b) Escherichia c oliare sho wn her e in a scanning electr on micr ograph. The s train o fE. colithat caused a deadl y outbr eak in\nGerman y is a ne w one not in volved in an y previous E. colioutbr eaks. It has ac quired se veral antibiotic r esistanc e genes and specific g enetic\nsequenc es in volved in ag gregation ability and virulenc e. It has r ecently been sequenc ed. (cr edit b: R ocky Mountain L abor atories , NIAID ,\nNIH; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nAll types o f food can pot ential ly be c ontaminat ed with harmful bact eria o f diff erent species . Recent outbr eaks of\nSalmonel larepor ted b y the CDC oc curr ed in f oods as div erse as peanut but ter, alfalfa spr outs , and eg gs.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3049, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1b7e884b-f726-4dcc-b214-4ba37fe51bb5": {"__data__": {"id_": "1b7e884b-f726-4dcc-b214-4ba37fe51bb5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "309", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "bf11686f-4c32-4a85-b83a-56a2f2739edd", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "309", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "42e93431b84742070ddfec02047248518c3e0386cba7eef4f30becd8059566a6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "37b4f443-e824-4397-a9d5-4f2354001e58", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "309", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5024fc3e456ad125264bec9f6fd146abf15171fd7df3129e5e7acddefa13d510", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "colithat caused a deadl y outbr eak in\nGerman y is a ne w one not in volved in an y previous E. colioutbr eaks. It has ac quired se veral antibiotic r esistanc e genes and specific g enetic\nsequenc es in volved in ag gregation ability and virulenc e. It has r ecently been sequenc ed. (cr edit b: R ocky Mountain L abor atories , NIAID ,\nNIH; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nAll types o f food can pot ential ly be c ontaminat ed with harmful bact eria o f diff erent species . Recent outbr eaks of\nSalmonel larepor ted b y the CDC oc curr ed in f oods as div erse as peanut but ter, alfalfa spr outs , and eg gs.\nCAREER C ONNE CTION\nEpidemiologis t\nEpidemiolog y is the s tudy o f the oc curr ence, dis tribution, and det erminants o f heal th and disease in a population. It\nis, ther efore, related to public heal th. An epidemiologis t studies the fr equency and dis tribution o f diseases within\nhuman populations and en vironments .\nEpidemiologis ts collect data about a par ticular disease and tr ack its spr ead t o identif y the original mode o f\n3http://www .cdc.gov/ecoli/2006/sep tember , Cent ers f or Disease Contr ol and P revention, \u201cMul ti-state outbr eak o fE. coliO157:H7\ninfections fr om spinach, \u201d Sep tember -Oct ober (2006).13.1 \u2022 P rokaryotic Div ersity 295", "start_char_idx": 2430, "end_char_idx": 3716, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3d2bdd3e-813e-4d55-bc00-ca18c00ebc62": {"__data__": {"id_": "3d2bdd3e-813e-4d55-bc00-ca18c00ebc62", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "310", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "47a813df-4b6c-489b-9368-15f5f5af9b99", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "310", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4cdb75ece12f58d3615ee8e9fd31a7aed771d7b864ff926ad4f0c9a268bf330b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "transmis sion. The y sometimes w ork in close c ollabor ation with his torians t o try to unders tand the w ay a disease\nevolved g eogr aphical ly and o ver time , tracking the natur al his tory of pathog ens. The y gather inf ormation fr om\nclinical r ecords, patient int erviews, and an y other a vailable means . That inf ormation is used t o de velop s trategies\nand design public heal th policies t o reduc e the incidenc e of a disease or t o prevent its spr ead. Epidemiologis ts also\nconduct r apid in vestigations in case o f an outbr eak t o recommend immediat e measur es to contr ol it.\nEpidemiologis ts typical ly ha ve a gr aduat e-level education. An epidemiologis t often has a bachelor \u2019s degr ee in some\nfield and a mas ter\u2019s degr ee in public heal th (MPH). Man y epidemiologis ts ar e also ph ysicians (and ha ve an MD) or\nthey ha ve a PhD in an as sociat ed field, such as biolog y or epidemiolog y.\nBene ficial P rokaryotes\nNot al l prokaryotes ar e pathog enic. On the c ontr ary, pathog ens r epresent onl y a v ery smal l per centag e of the\ndiversity o f the micr obial w orld. In fact, our lif e and al l life on this planet w ould not be pos sible without pr okaryotes.\nProkaryotes, and F ood and Be verages\nAccording t o the Unit ed Nations Con vention on Biological Div ersity , biot echnolog y is \u201c any technological application\nthat uses biological s ystems , living or ganisms , or deriv atives ther eof, to mak e or modif y products or pr ocesses f or\nspecific use .\u201d4The c oncept of \u201cspecific use \u201d involves some sor t of commer cial application. Genetic engineering ,\nartificial selection, antibiotic pr oduction, and c ell cul ture are curr ent t opics o f study in biot echnolog y. Ho wever,\nhumans ha ve used pr okaryotes to create products bef ore the t erm biot echnolog y was e ven c oined. And some o f the\ngoods and ser vices ar e as simple as cheese , yogurt, sour cr eam, vineg ar, cur ed sausag e, sauerkr aut, and f erment ed\nseaf ood that c ontains both bact eria and ar chaea ( Figure 13.9 ).\nFIGURE 13.9 Some o f the pr oducts deriv ed fr om the use o f prokaryotes in earl y biot echnolog y include (a) cheese , (b) salami, (c) y ogurt,\nand (d) fish sauc e. (credit b: modification o f work b y Alisdair McDiarmid; cr edit c: modification o f work b y Kris Mil ler; cr edit d: modification\nof work b y Jane Whitne y)\nCheese pr oduction beg an ar ound 4,000 y ears ag o when humans s tarted to breed animals and pr ocess their milk.\nEvidenc e sug gests that cul tured milk pr oducts , like yogurt, ha ve existed for at leas t 4,000 y ears .\n4http://www .cbd.int/c onvention/ar ticles/?a=cbd-02ht tp://www .cbd.int/c onvention/ar ticles/?a=cbd-02, Unit ed Nations Con vention on\nBiological Div ersity , \u201cArticle 2: Use o f Terms .\u201d296 13 \u2022 Div ersity of Micr obes , Fungi, and P rotists\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2870, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6c4cf5b9-dc03-4583-b5f6-080e9fcd2042": {"__data__": {"id_": "6c4cf5b9-dc03-4583-b5f6-080e9fcd2042", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "311", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d4f09e0c-e529-4dd6-a4d6-53d7f11285b7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "311", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e12d160d801f9656b3ff00de0c0d66db25f769fa82e44288abd7bebf031d9ae5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "cc344f33-a08f-470a-8777-9bd696a238f7", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "cad1ef8acfba6e1dcb76aee1e17684d198fb0b368958572999a154f457291841", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Using P rokaryotes to Clean up Our Plane t: Bior emediation\nMicr obial bior emedia tion is the use o f prokaryotes (or micr obial metabolism) t o remo ve pol lutants . Bior emediation\nhas been used t o remo ve agricul tural chemicals (pes ticides and f ertilizers) that leach fr om soil int o groundw ater.\nCertain t oxic metals , such as selenium and arsenic c ompounds , can also be r emo ved fr om w ater by bior emediation.\nThe r eduction o f to and t o Se0(metal lic selenium) is a method used t o remo ve selenium ions fr om\nwater. Mer cury is an e xample o f a toxic metal that can be r emo ved fr om an en vironment b y bior emediation. Mer cury\nis an activ e ingr edient o f some pes ticides; it is used in indus try and is also a b yproduct o f certain indus tries , such as\nbattery production. Mer cury is usual ly present in v ery low concentr ations in natur al en vironments but it is highl y\ntoxic because it ac cumulat es in living tis sues . Several species o f bact eria can carr y out the biotr ansformation o f\ntoxic mer cury int o nont oxic f orms . These bact eria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa , can c onvert Hg2+to Hg0,\nwhich is nont oxic t o humans .\nProbabl y one o f the mos t useful and int eresting e xamples o f the use o f prokaryotes for bior emediation purposes is\nthe cleanup o f oil spil ls. The impor tanc e of prokaryotes to petr oleum bior emediation has been demons trated in\nseveral oil spil ls in r ecent y ears , such as the Exx on V alde z spil l in Alask a (1989) ( Figure 13.10 ), the P restige oil spil l\nin Spain (2002), the spil l into the Medit erranean fr om a L ebanon po wer plant (2006,) and mor e recently, the BP oil\nspill in the Gulf o f Me xico (2010). T o clean up these spil ls, bior emediation is pr omot ed b y adding inor ganic nutrients\nthat help bact eria alr eady pr esent in the en vironment t o grow. Hydrocarbon-degr ading bact eria f eed on the\nhydrocarbons in the oil dr oplet, br eaking them int o inor ganic c ompounds . Some species , such as Alcaniv orax\nbork umensis , produc e sur factants that solubiliz e the oil , while other bact eria degr ade the oil int o carbon dio xide . In\nthe case o f oil spil ls in the oc ean, ong oing , natur al bior emediation t ends t o oc cur, inasmuch as ther e are oil -\nconsuming bact eria in the oc ean prior t o the spil l. Under ideal c onditions , it has been r epor ted that up t o 80 per cent\nof the non volatile c omponents in oil can be degr aded within 1 y ear o f the spil l. Other oil fr actions c ontaining\naromatic and highl y branched h ydrocarbon chains ar e mor e difficul t to remo ve and r emain in the en vironment f or\nlong er periods o f time . Resear chers ha ve genetical ly engineer ed other bact eria t o consume petr oleum pr oducts;\nindeed, the firs t pat ent application f or a bior emediation application in the U .S. w as for a g enetical ly modified oil -\neating bact erium.\nFIGURE 13.10 (a) Cleaning up oil aft er the V alde z spil l in Alask a, the w orkers hosed oil fr om beaches and then used a floating boom t o\ncorral the oil , which w as final ly skimmed fr om the w ater sur face.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3135, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "cc344f33-a08f-470a-8777-9bd696a238f7": {"__data__": {"id_": "cc344f33-a08f-470a-8777-9bd696a238f7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "311", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d4f09e0c-e529-4dd6-a4d6-53d7f11285b7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "311", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e12d160d801f9656b3ff00de0c0d66db25f769fa82e44288abd7bebf031d9ae5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "6c4cf5b9-dc03-4583-b5f6-080e9fcd2042", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "311", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6a0182a4778dd51c771cce291e8c3d48e1b74fa8f8b28ce60476b17ecfe1443a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Resear chers ha ve genetical ly engineer ed other bact eria t o consume petr oleum pr oducts;\nindeed, the firs t pat ent application f or a bior emediation application in the U .S. w as for a g enetical ly modified oil -\neating bact erium.\nFIGURE 13.10 (a) Cleaning up oil aft er the V alde z spil l in Alask a, the w orkers hosed oil fr om beaches and then used a floating boom t o\ncorral the oil , which w as final ly skimmed fr om the w ater sur face. Some species o f bact eria ar e able t o solubiliz e and degr ade the oil . (b) One\nof the mos t catas trophic c onsequenc es o f oil spil ls is the damag e to fauna . (credit a: modification o f work b y NO AA; cr edit b: modification o f\nwork b y GOL UBENK OV, NGO: Sa ving T aman)\nProkaryotes in and on the Body\nHumans ar e no e xception when it c omes t o forming s ymbiotic r elationships with pr okaryotes. We are ac customed t o\nthinking o f oursel ves as single or ganisms , but in r eality , we are walking ec osystems . Ther e are 10 t o 100 times as\nman y bact erial and ar chaeal c ells inhabiting our bodies as w e ha ve cells in our bodies . Some o f these ar e in mutual ly\nbeneficial r elationships with us , in which both the human hos t and the bact erium benefit, while some o f the\nrelationships ar e clas sified as commensalism , a type o f relationship in which the bact erium benefits and the human\nhost is neither benefit ed nor harmed.\nHuman g ut flor a liv es in the lar ge int estine and c onsis ts of hundr eds o f species o f bact eria and ar chaea , with\ndifferent individuals c ontaining diff erent species mix es. The t erm \u201c flora,\u201d which is usual ly associat ed with plants , is\ntraditional ly used in this c ontext because bact eria w ere onc e clas sified as plants . The primar y functions o f these\nprokaryotes for humans appear t o be metabolism o f food molecules that w e cannot br eak do wn, as sistanc e with the13.1 \u2022 P rokaryotic Div ersity 297", "start_char_idx": 2681, "end_char_idx": 4625, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4acba4af-4ddd-4978-93c9-58925f2d2fac": {"__data__": {"id_": "4acba4af-4ddd-4978-93c9-58925f2d2fac", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "312", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c9772617-768a-4a66-9ec8-d01465a5638a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "312", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6b9743ec0ad718d9373139a0a141917a7c034dacd88398f99bc7512e266454f5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "5c487ca1-a478-4a0d-bca9-3dad9dfd58c0", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "299d69bbd464c96e2b9c5458ac157ccbf86e047cbc706ce1d184e092e9969713", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "absorp tion o f ions b y the c olon, s ynthesis o f vitamin K , training o f the infant immune s ystem, maint enanc e of the\nadul t immune s ystem, maint enanc e of the epithelium o f the lar ge int estine, and f ormation o f a pr otectiv e barrier\nagains t pathog ens.\nThe sur face of the skin is also c oated with pr okaryotes. The diff erent sur faces o f the skin, such as the under arms ,\nthe head, and the hands , provide diff erent habitats f or diff erent c ommunities o f prokaryotes. Unlik e with g ut flor a,\nthe pos sible beneficial r oles o f skin flor a ha ve not been w ell studied. Ho wever, the f ew studies c onduct ed so far\nhave identified bact eria that pr oduc e antimicr obial c ompounds as pr obabl y responsible f or pr eventing inf ections b y\npathog enic bact eria.\nAs the y would in an y ec osystem, the or ganisms in the micr obiome ar e subject t o selection and e volution. Simpl y to\nsurvive thr ough chang es in the human body r equir es a degr ee o f adap tability and r esistanc e. Because humans and\nother animals (such as liv estock) ing est mor e and mor e antibiotics , the bact eria within our bodies ar e bec oming\nresistant t o those medicines . Abig ail A . Sal yers, who pr ovided much o f the f oundational r esear ch on the human\nmicr obiome , focused much o f her earl y work on a type o f bact eria ( Bact eroides ) that c ould not onl y bec ome\nresistant t o antibiotics , but pas s on that r esistanc e to surr ounding bact eria. Sal yers w as among the firs t resear chers\nto sound the alarm about the dang ers o f antibiotic r esistanc e and its pot ential impact on heal th. R esear chers ar e\nactiv ely studying the r elationships betw een v arious diseases and al terations t o the c omposition o f human micr obial\nflora. Some o f this w ork is being carried out b y the Human Micr obiome P roject, funded in the Unit ed Stat es b y the\nNational Ins titut es o f Heal th.\n13.2 Eukaryotic Origins\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the endos ymbiotic theor y\n\u2022Explain the origin o f mit ochondria and chlor oplas ts\nThe f ossil record and g enetic e videnc e sug gest that pr okaryotic c ells were the firs t organisms on Ear th. These c ells\noriginat ed appr oximat ely 3.5 bil lion y ears ag o, which w as about 1 bil lion y ears aft er Ear th\u2019s formation, and w ere the\nonly life forms on the planet until euk aryotic c ells emer ged appr oximat ely 2.1 bil lion y ears ag o. During the\nprokaryotic r eign, phot osynthetic pr okaryotes e volved that w ere capable o f appl ying the ener gy from sunlight t o\nsynthesiz e organic mat erials (lik e carboh ydrates) fr om carbon dio xide and an electr on sour ce (such as h ydrogen,\nhydrogen sulfide , or w ater).\nPhot osynthesis using w ater as an electr on donor c onsumes carbon dio xide and r eleases molecular o xygen (O 2) as a\nbyproduct. The functioning o f phot osynthetic bact eria o ver mil lions o f years pr ogressively satur ated Ear th\u2019s water\nwith o xygen and then o xygenat ed the atmospher e, which pr eviousl y contained much gr eater concentr ations o f\ncarbon dio xide and much lo wer concentr ations o f oxygen.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3186, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5c487ca1-a478-4a0d-bca9-3dad9dfd58c0": {"__data__": {"id_": "5c487ca1-a478-4a0d-bca9-3dad9dfd58c0", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "312", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c9772617-768a-4a66-9ec8-d01465a5638a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "312", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6b9743ec0ad718d9373139a0a141917a7c034dacd88398f99bc7512e266454f5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "4acba4af-4ddd-4978-93c9-58925f2d2fac", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "312", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ef10bd5034902597b4a4341490eafa857efd7615d614fa13cc9187f95d1a432f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Phot osynthesis using w ater as an electr on donor c onsumes carbon dio xide and r eleases molecular o xygen (O 2) as a\nbyproduct. The functioning o f phot osynthetic bact eria o ver mil lions o f years pr ogressively satur ated Ear th\u2019s water\nwith o xygen and then o xygenat ed the atmospher e, which pr eviousl y contained much gr eater concentr ations o f\ncarbon dio xide and much lo wer concentr ations o f oxygen. Older anaer obic pr okaryotes o f the er a could not function\nin their ne w, aer obic en vironment. Some species perished, while others sur vived in the r emaining anaer obic\nenvironments left on Ear th. Stil l other earl y prokaryotes e volved mechanisms , such as aer obic r espir ation, t o exploit\nthe o xygenat ed atmospher e by using o xygen to store ener gy contained within or ganic molecules . Aer obic r espir ation\nis a mor e efficient w ay of obtaining ener gy from or ganic molecules , which c ontribut ed to the suc cess of these\nspecies (as e videnc ed b y the number and div ersity o f aer obic or ganisms living on Ear th today). The e volution o f\naerobic pr okaryotes w as an impor tant s tep toward the e volution o f the firs t euk aryote, but se veral other\ndistinguishing f eatur es had t o evolve as w ell.\nEndos ymbiosis\nThe origin o f euk aryotic c ells was lar gely a m ystery until a r evolutionar y hypothesis w as compr ehensiv ely examined\nin the 1960s b y Lynn Mar gulis. The endos ymbio tic theor ystates that euk aryotes ar e a pr oduct o f one pr okaryotic\ncell eng ulfing another , one living within another , and e volving t ogether o ver time until the separ ate cells were no\nlong er recognizable as such. This onc e-revolutionar y hypothesis had immediat e persuasiv enes s and is no w widel y\naccepted, with w ork pr ogressing on unc overing the s teps in volved in this e volutionar y process as w ell as the k ey\nplayers. It has bec ome clear that man y nuclear euk aryotic g enes and the molecular machiner y responsible f or\nreplicating and e xpressing those g enes appear closel y related to the Ar chaea . On the other hand, the metabolic\norganel les and the g enes r esponsible f or man y ener gy-har vesting pr ocesses had their origins in bact eria. Much298 13 \u2022 Div ersity of Micr obes , Fungi, and P rotists\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2768, "end_char_idx": 5080, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "673ea8b0-978f-43d6-a45b-67a70094990c": {"__data__": {"id_": "673ea8b0-978f-43d6-a45b-67a70094990c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "313", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "969b97fd-a220-427d-98dd-ec70ad9729ae", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "313", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7d4101fcfe9cd6e38c2484a9a4da1f861b148b04a6e0b76800aa01d72aa1c617", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "9c819d22-f9cf-43d8-bcc7-b8f34c078ec4", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "570a5b0103e8257ada4d8294ecde0639f4a4f348373eb2073e63ce38eeae5483", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "remains t o be clarified about ho w this r elationship oc curr ed; this c ontinues t o be an e xciting field o f disc overy in\nbiolog y. Several endos ymbiotic e vents lik ely contribut ed to the origin o f the euk aryotic c ell.\nMitochondria\nEukaryotic c ells ma y contain an ywher e from one t o se veral thousand mit ochondria , depending on the c ell\u2019s level of\nener gy consump tion. Each mit ochondrion measur es 1 t o 10 micr omet ers in length and e xists in the c ell as a mo ving ,\nfusing , and dividing oblong spher oid ( Figure 13.11 ). Ho wever, mit ochondria cannot sur vive outside the c ell. As the\natmospher e was o xygenat ed b y phot osynthesis , and as suc cessful aer obic pr okaryotes e volved, e videnc e sug gests\nthat an anc estral cell eng ulfed and k ept aliv e a fr ee-living , aer obic pr okaryote. This g ave the hos t cell the ability t o\nuse o xygen to release ener gy stored in nutrients . Several lines o f evidenc e suppor t that mit ochondria ar e deriv ed\nfrom this endos ymbiotic e vent. Mos t mit ochondria ar e shaped lik e a specific gr oup o f bact eria and ar e surr ounded\nby tw o membr anes . The mit ochondrial inner membr ane in volves subs tantial inf oldings or cris tae that r esemble the\ntextur ed out er sur face of certain bact eria.\nFIGURE 13.11 In this tr ansmis sion electr on micr ograph o f mit ochondria in a mammalian lung c ell, the cris tae, infoldings o f the\nmitochondrial inner membr ane, can be seen in cr oss-section. (cr edit: modification o f work b y Louisa Ho ward; scale -bar data fr om Mat t\nRussell)\nMitochondria divide on their o wn b y a pr ocess that r esembles binar y fis sion in pr okaryotes. Mit ochondria ha ve their\nown cir cular DNA chr omosome that carries g enes similar t o those e xpressed b y bact eria. Mit ochondria also ha ve\nspecial ribosomes and tr ansfer RNAs that r esemble these c omponents in pr okaryotes. These f eatur es al l suppor t\nthat mit ochondria w ere onc e free-living pr okaryotes.\nChlor oplas ts\nChlor oplas ts ar e one type o fplas tid, a gr oup o f related or ganel les in plant c ells that ar e involved in the s torage of\nstarches , fats , proteins , and pigments . Chlor oplas ts contain the gr een pigment chlor ophyll and pla y a r ole in\nphot osynthesis . Genetic and morphological s tudies sug gest that plas tids e volved fr om the endos ymbiosis o f an\nancestral cell that eng ulfed a phot osynthetic cy anobact erium. Plas tids ar e similar in siz e and shape t o cy anobact eria\nand ar e en veloped b y tw o or mor e membr anes , corresponding t o the inner and out er membr anes o f cyanobact eria.\nLike mit ochondria , plas tids also c ontain cir cular g enomes and divide b y a pr ocess reminisc ent o f prokaryotic c ell\ndivision. The chlor oplas ts of red and gr een alg ae e xhibit DNA sequenc es that ar e closel y related to phot osynthetic\ncyanobact eria, sug gesting that r ed and gr een alg ae ar e dir ect desc endants o f this endos ymbiotic e vent.\nMitochondria lik ely evolved bef ore plas tids because al l euk aryotes ha ve either functional mit ochondria or\nmitochondria -like organel les. In c ontr ast, plas tids ar e onl y found in a subset o f euk aryotes, such as t errestrial plants\nand alg ae.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3242, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9c819d22-f9cf-43d8-bcc7-b8f34c078ec4": {"__data__": {"id_": "9c819d22-f9cf-43d8-bcc7-b8f34c078ec4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "313", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "969b97fd-a220-427d-98dd-ec70ad9729ae", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "313", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7d4101fcfe9cd6e38c2484a9a4da1f861b148b04a6e0b76800aa01d72aa1c617", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "673ea8b0-978f-43d6-a45b-67a70094990c", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "313", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "45a18f42ecf9d46f0d1af21f35207d3658422e94ee802cbf24684685198cc4ec", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Like mit ochondria , plas tids also c ontain cir cular g enomes and divide b y a pr ocess reminisc ent o f prokaryotic c ell\ndivision. The chlor oplas ts of red and gr een alg ae e xhibit DNA sequenc es that ar e closel y related to phot osynthetic\ncyanobact eria, sug gesting that r ed and gr een alg ae ar e dir ect desc endants o f this endos ymbiotic e vent.\nMitochondria lik ely evolved bef ore plas tids because al l euk aryotes ha ve either functional mit ochondria or\nmitochondria -like organel les. In c ontr ast, plas tids ar e onl y found in a subset o f euk aryotes, such as t errestrial plants\nand alg ae. One h ypothesis o f the e volutionar y steps leading t o the firs t euk aryote is summariz ed in Figure 13.12 .13.2 \u2022 Euk aryotic Origins 299", "start_char_idx": 2624, "end_char_idx": 3384, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "747d107a-d50c-48a1-a0f3-15eebf68d002": {"__data__": {"id_": "747d107a-d50c-48a1-a0f3-15eebf68d002", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "314", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3560f123-8870-4346-99db-17ab14af6733", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "314", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3889a8ea1e08bffc34f15226bf627875cafd5db3d4d801da11015d3176a0fc15", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 13.12 The firs t euk aryote ma y ha ve originat ed fr om an anc estral pr okaryote that had under gone membr ane pr oliferation,\ncompar tmentalization o f cellular function (int o a nucleus , lysosomes , and an endoplasmic r eticulum), and the es tablishment o f\nendos ymbiotic r elationships with an aer obic pr okaryote and, in some cases , a phot osynthetic pr okaryote to form mit ochondria and\nchlor oplas ts, respectiv ely.\nThe e xact s teps leading t o the firs t euk aryotic c ell can onl y be h ypothesiz ed, and some c ontr oversy exists regarding\nwhich e vents actual ly took plac e and in what or der. Spir ochet e bact eria ha ve been h ypothesiz ed to ha ve giv en rise\nto micr otubules , and a flag ellated pr okaryote ma y ha ve contribut ed the r aw mat erials f or euk aryotic flag ella and\ncilia . Other scientis ts sug gest that membr ane pr oliferation and c ompar tmentalization, not endos ymbiotic e vents ,\nled t o the de velopment o f mit ochondria and plas tids. Ho wever, the v ast majority o f studies suppor t the\nendos ymbiotic h ypothesis o f euk aryotic e volution.\nThe earl y euk aryotes w ere unic ellular lik e mos t protists ar e today, but as euk aryotes became mor e comple x, the\nevolution o f mul ticellularity al lowed c ells to remain smal l while s till exhibiting specializ ed functions . The anc estors\nof today\u2019s mul ticellular euk aryotes ar e thought t o ha ve evolved about 1.5 bil lion y ears ag o.\n13.3 Protists\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the main char acteristics o f protists\n\u2022Describe impor tant pathog enic species o f protists\n\u2022Describe the r oles o f protists as f ood sour ces and as dec omposers\nFIGURE 13.13 Protists range from the micr oscopic, single -celled (a) Acanthocy stis tur faceaand the (b) ciliat eTetrahymena thermophila to\nthe enormous , mul ticellular (c) k elps (Chr omal veolata) that e xtend f or hundr eds o f feet in under water \u201cforests.\u201d (cr edit a: modification o f\nwork b y Yuiuji T sukii; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Richar d Robinson, Public Libr ary of Scienc e; cr edit c: modification o f work b y Kip\nEvans, NO AA; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)300 13 \u2022 Div ersity of Micr obes , Fungi, and P rotists\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2304, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3ea35c91-02f4-4620-ab50-537c87dd1a11": {"__data__": {"id_": "3ea35c91-02f4-4620-ab50-537c87dd1a11", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "315", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "35cb17d2-a58c-448b-83d0-831a0a5a1471", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "315", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "38e6c402c036f5a3bca1ee522705762cf0f52af860eb0b5d5266bb38ef29a303", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "5f32aa38-03ec-4e9d-bff5-bd9d15fc60be", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "452f156444c1308f06dea3c6b25d46c7d83a440274a5340d15f9e71a6aaf1cd6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Eukaryotic or ganisms that did not fit the crit eria f or the king doms Animalia , Fungi, or Plantae his torical ly were cal led\nprotists and w ere clas sified int o the king dom P rotista. Protists include the single -celled euk aryotes living in pond\nwater (Figure 13.13 ), although pr otist species liv e in a v ariety o f other aquatic and t errestrial en vironments , and\noccupy man y diff erent niches . Not al l protists ar e micr oscopic and single -celled; ther e exist some v ery lar ge\nmulticellular species , such as the k elps . During the pas t two decades , the field o f molecular g enetics has\ndemons trated that some pr otists ar e mor e related to animals , plants , or fungi than the y are to other pr otists. For this\nreason, pr otist lineag es original ly clas sified int o the king dom P rotista ha ve been r eassigned int o ne w king doms or\nother e xisting king doms . The e volutionar y lineag es o f the pr otists continue t o be e xamined and debat ed. In the\nmeantime , the t erm \u201c protist\u201d still is used inf ormal ly to describe this tr emendousl y div erse gr oup o f euk aryotes. As a\ncollectiv e group, protists displa y an as tounding div ersity o f morphologies , physiologies , and ec ologies .\nChar acteristics o f Protists\nTher e are over 100,000 described living species o f protists, and it is unclear ho w man y undescribed species ma y\nexist. Sinc e man y protists liv e in s ymbiotic r elationships with other or ganisms and these r elationships ar e often\nspecies specific, ther e is a hug e pot ential f or undescribed pr otist div ersity that mat ches the div ersity o f the hos ts. As\nthe cat chal l term f or euk aryotic or ganisms that ar e not animals , plants , fungi, or an y single ph ylog enetical ly related\ngroup, it is not surprising that f ew char acteristics ar e common t o all protists.\nNearl y all protists exist in some type o f aquatic en vironment, including fr eshwater and marine en vironments , damp\nsoil, and e ven sno w. Several pr otist species ar eparasitesthat inf ect animals or plants . A par asite is an or ganism\nthat liv es on or in another or ganism and f eeds on it, o ften without kil ling it. A f ew pr otist species liv e on dead\norganisms or their w astes, and c ontribut e to their deca y.\nProtist Structure\nThe c ells of protists ar e among the mos t elabor ate of all cells. Mos t protists ar e micr oscopic and unic ellular , but\nsome true mul ticellular f orms e xist. A f ew pr otists liv e as c olonies that beha ve in some w ays as a gr oup o f free-living\ncells and in other w ays as a mul ticellular or ganism. Stil l other pr otists ar e composed o f enormous , mul tinucleat e,\nsingle c ells that look lik e amorphous blobs o f slime or , in other cases , like ferns . In fact, man y protist cells ar e\nmultinucleat ed; in some species , the nuclei ar e diff erent siz es and ha ve dis tinct r oles in pr otist cell function.\nSingle pr otist cells range in siz e from les s than a micr omet er to the 3-met er lengths o f the mul tinucleat e cells of the\nseaweed Caulerpa . Protist cells ma y be en veloped b y animal -like cell membr anes or plant -like cell walls. Others ar e\nencased in glas sy silica -based shel ls or w ound with pellicles of interlocking pr otein s trips .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3275, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5f32aa38-03ec-4e9d-bff5-bd9d15fc60be": {"__data__": {"id_": "5f32aa38-03ec-4e9d-bff5-bd9d15fc60be", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "315", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "35cb17d2-a58c-448b-83d0-831a0a5a1471", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "315", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "38e6c402c036f5a3bca1ee522705762cf0f52af860eb0b5d5266bb38ef29a303", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "3ea35c91-02f4-4620-ab50-537c87dd1a11", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "315", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dec7bd29a964057e462eb802924756fb764758ae8bdb85f84d551bfbd2bf36fc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Stil l other pr otists ar e composed o f enormous , mul tinucleat e,\nsingle c ells that look lik e amorphous blobs o f slime or , in other cases , like ferns . In fact, man y protist cells ar e\nmultinucleat ed; in some species , the nuclei ar e diff erent siz es and ha ve dis tinct r oles in pr otist cell function.\nSingle pr otist cells range in siz e from les s than a micr omet er to the 3-met er lengths o f the mul tinucleat e cells of the\nseaweed Caulerpa . Protist cells ma y be en veloped b y animal -like cell membr anes or plant -like cell walls. Others ar e\nencased in glas sy silica -based shel ls or w ound with pellicles of interlocking pr otein s trips . The pel licle functions lik e\na fle xible c oat o f armor , preventing the pr otist from being t orn or pier ced without c ompr omising its r ange of motion.\nThe majority o f protists ar e motile , but diff erent types o f protists ha ve evolved v aried modes o f mo vement. Some\nprotists ha ve one or mor e flag ella, which the y rotat e or whip . Others ar e covered in r ows or tufts o f tiny cilia that\nthey beat in c oordination t o swim. Stil l others send out lobe -like pseudopodia fr om an ywher e on the c ell, anchor the\npseudopodium t o a subs trate, and pul l the r est of the c ell toward the anchor point. Some pr otists can mo ve toward\nlight b y coupling their loc omotion s trategy with a light -sensing or gan.\nHow Protists Ob tain Ener gy\nProtists exhibit man y forms o f nutrition and ma y be aer obic or anaer obic. Phot osynthetic pr otists (phot oaut otrophs)\nare char acterized b y the pr esenc e of chlor oplas ts. Other pr otists ar e het erotrophs and c onsume or ganic mat erials\n(such as other or ganisms) t o ob tain nutrition. Amoebas and some other het erotrophic pr otist species ing est\nparticles b y a pr ocess cal led phag ocyt osis , in which the c ell membr ane eng ulfs a f ood par ticle and brings it in ward,\npinching o ff an intr acellular membr anous sac, or v esicle , cal led a f ood v acuole ( Figure 13.14 ). This v esicle then\nfuses with a l ysosome , and the f ood par ticle is br oken do wn int o smal l molecules that can diffuse int o the cyt oplasm\nand be used in c ellular metabolism. Undig ested remains ul timat ely are expel led fr om the c ell thr ough e xocyt osis .13.3 \u2022 P rotists 301", "start_char_idx": 2605, "end_char_idx": 4922, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2c0d511d-5487-42af-9845-ae9e135dd026": {"__data__": {"id_": "2c0d511d-5487-42af-9845-ae9e135dd026", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "316", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9ae4de10-99cf-4f7f-bd7f-eb44b51a873a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "316", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "50293a30cb14875b6316ae27cd17cf3db12ddb94e589793c9045a3840ca728f8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 13.14 The s tages o f phag ocyt osis include the eng ulfment o f a food par ticle , the dig estion o f the par ticle using h ydrolytic enzymes\ncontained within a l ysosome , and the e xpulsion o f undig ested mat erial fr om the c ell.\nSome het erotrophs absorb nutrients fr om dead or ganisms or their or ganic w astes, and others ar e able t o use\nphot osynthesis or f eed on or ganic mat ter, depending on c onditions .\nReproduc tion\nProtists reproduc e by a v ariety o f mechanisms . Mos t are capable some f orm o f ase xual r eproduction, such as binar y\nfission t o produc e tw o daught er cells, or mul tiple fis sion t o divide simul taneousl y int o man y daught er cells. Others\nproduc e tin y buds that g o on t o divide and gr ow to the siz e of the par ental pr otist. Se xual r eproduction, in volving\nmeiosis and f ertilization, is c ommon among pr otists, and man y protist species can s witch fr om ase xual t o se xual\nreproduction when nec essary. Sexual r eproduction is o ften as sociat ed with periods when nutrients ar e deplet ed or\nenvironmental chang es oc cur. Sexual r eproduction ma y allow the pr otist to recombine g enes and pr oduc e ne w\nvariations o f progeny that ma y be bet ter suit ed to sur viving in the ne w en vironment. Ho wever, sexual r eproduction is\nalso o ften as sociat ed with cy sts that ar e a pr otectiv e, resting s tage. Depending on their habitat, the cy sts ma y be\nparticularl y resistant t o temper atur e extremes , desic cation, or lo w pH. This s trategy also al lows certain pr otists to\n\u201cwait out \u201d stressors until their en vironment bec omes mor e favorable f or sur vival or until the y are carried (such as b y\nwind, w ater, or tr anspor t on a lar ger or ganism) t o a diff erent en vironment because cy sts exhibit vir tually no c ellular\nmetabolism.\nProtist Div ersity\nWith the adv ent o f DNA sequencing , the r elationships among pr otist groups and betw een pr otist groups and other\neukaryotes ar e beginning t o bec ome clear er. Man y relationships that w ere based on morphological similarities ar e\nbeing r eplac ed b y ne w relationships based on g enetic similarities . Protists that e xhibit similar morphological\nfeatur es ma y ha ve evolved analog ous s tructur es because o f similar selectiv e pressures\u2014rather than because o f\nrecent c ommon anc estry. This phenomenon is cal led c onvergent e volution. It is one r eason wh y protist clas sification\nis so chal lenging . The emer ging clas sification scheme gr oups the entir e domain Euk aryota int o six \u201c super groups\u201d\nthat c ontain al l of the pr otists as w ell as animals , plants , and fungi ( Figure 13.15 ); these include the Excavata,\nChromal veola ta,Rhizaria ,Archaeplas tida ,Amoebo zoa, and Opis thok onta . The super groups ar e belie ved to be\nmonoph yletic; al l organisms within each super group ar e belie ved to ha ve evolved fr om a single c ommon anc estor,\nand thus al l members ar e mos t closel y related to each other than t o organisms outside that gr oup. Ther e is s till\nevidenc e lacking f or the monoph yly of some gr oups .302 13 \u2022 Div ersity of Micr obes , Fungi, and P rotists\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3191, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d5862b8f-fff9-40db-be7e-c437ab75c649": {"__data__": {"id_": "d5862b8f-fff9-40db-be7e-c437ab75c649", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "317", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "346d70f8-7679-49ee-adf0-ab22ca1109ca", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "317", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6f3f35a2e98c0874bb224d91a3bfd1ccc31df45cf2b97dd965737fe3b308e97b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 13.15 Protists appear in al l six euk aryotic super groups .\nHuman P athogens\nMan y protists ar e pathog enic par asites that mus t infect other or ganisms t o sur vive and pr opag ate. Protist par asites\ninclude the causativ e ag ents o f malaria , African sleeping sicknes s, and w aterborne g astroent eritis in humans . Other\nprotist pathog ens pr ey on plants , effecting mas sive des truction o f food cr ops.\nPlasmodium Species\nMembers o f the g enus Plasmodium mus t infect a mosquit o and a v ertebrate to complet e their lif e cy cle. In\nvertebrates, the par asite de velops in liv er cells and g oes on t o inf ect r ed blood c ells, burs ting fr om and des troying\nthe blood c ells with each ase xual r eplication cy cle ( Figure 13.16 ). Of the f ourPlasmodium species kno wn t o inf ect\nhumans ,P.falciparum accounts f or 50 per cent o f all malaria cases and is the primar y cause o f disease -related\nfatalities in tr opical r egions o f the w orld. In 2010, it w as es timat ed that malaria caused betw een 0.5 and 1 mil lion\ndeaths , mos tly in African childr en. During the c ourse o f malaria ,P.falciparum can inf ect and des troy mor e than one -\nhalf o f a human \u2019s cir culating blood c ells, leading t o se vere anemia . In r esponse t o waste products r eleased as the\nparasites burs t from inf ected blood c ells, the hos t immune s ystem mounts a mas sive inflammat ory response with\ndelirium-inducing f ever episodes , as par asites des troy red blood c ells, spil ling par asite waste int o the blood s tream.\nP.falciparum is transmit ted to humans b y the African malaria mosquit o,Anopheles g ambiae . Techniques t o kil l,13.3 \u2022 P rotists 303", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1681, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "eb91f3ce-e0ae-41de-aa26-7b90cb585782": {"__data__": {"id_": "eb91f3ce-e0ae-41de-aa26-7b90cb585782", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "318", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d74c4712-54a9-4cb9-879f-805144431b53", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "318", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dc8d540bbde837b3cd3b166382360d809c3dd5ae3884cf9be7585b56320aed5f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "steriliz e, or a void e xposur e to this highl y ag gressive mosquit o species ar e crucial t o malaria c ontr ol.\nFIGURE 13.16 This light micr ograph sho ws a 100\u00d7 magnification o f red blood c ells inf ected with P.falciparum (seen as purple). (cr edit:\nmodification o f work b y Michael Zahniser; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nThis movie(https:/ /www .animalplanet. com/tv -sho ws/mons ters-inside -me/videos/malaria -par asite )depicts the\npathog enesis o fPlasmodium falciparum , the causativ e ag ent o f malaria .\nTrypanosomes\nT.bruc ei, the par asite that is r esponsible f or African sleeping sicknes s, confounds the human immune s ystem b y\nchanging its thick la yer of sur face glycoproteins with each inf ectious cy cle ( Figure 13.17 ). The gl ycoproteins ar e\nidentified b y the immune s ystem as f oreign mat ter, and a specific antibody def ense is mount ed ag ains t the par asite.\nHowever,T.bruc eihas thousands o f pos sible antig ens, and with each subsequent g ener ation, the pr otist switches\nto a gl ycoprotein c oating with a diff erent molecular s tructur e. In this w ay,T.bruc eiis capable o f replicating\ncontinuousl y without the immune s ystem e ver suc ceeding in clearing the par asite. Without tr eatment, African\nsleeping sicknes s leads in variabl y to death because o f damag e it does t o the ner vous s ystem. During epidemic\nperiods , mor tality fr om the disease can be high. Gr eater sur veillanc e and c ontr ol measur es ha ve led t o a r eduction\nin repor ted cases; some o f the lo west numbers r epor ted in 50 y ears (f ewer than 10,000 cases in al l of sub -Sahar an\nAfrica) ha ve happened sinc e 2009.\nIn Latin America , another species in the g enus ,T.cruzi , is r esponsible f or Chag as disease .T.cruzi infections ar e\nmainl y caused b y a blood-sucking bug . The par asite inhabits hear t and dig estive system tis sues in the chr onic phase\nof infection, leading t o malnutrition and hear t failur e caused b y abnormal hear t rhythms . An es timat ed 10 mil lion\npeople ar e inf ected with Chag as disease , which caused 10,000 deaths in 2008.\n304 13 \u2022 Div ersity of Micr obes , Fungi, and P rotists\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2219, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "da875672-7400-4c68-9dfe-8216e2d9219d": {"__data__": {"id_": "da875672-7400-4c68-9dfe-8216e2d9219d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "319", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fecd3d9f-c593-4103-bb2f-b310ad75c502", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "319", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "99e50fc8878c882fbe62d0ae4f5749a4947e209a201cd25fc20c99bc6d5edca0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 13.17 Trypanosomes ar e sho wn in this light micr ograph among r ed blood c ells. (credit: modification o f work b y Myr on G. Schul tz,\nCDC; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nThis movie(https:/ /www .animalplanet. com/tv -sho ws/mons ters-inside -me/videos/african-sleeping-sicknes s)\ndiscus ses the pathog enesis o fTrypanosoma bruc ei, the causativ e ag ent o f African sleeping sicknes s.\nPlant P arasites\nProtist par asites o f terrestrial plants include ag ents that des troy food cr ops. The oom ycetePlasmopar a vitic ola\nparasitiz es gr ape plants , causing a disease cal led do wny milde w (Figure 13.18 a). Gr ape plants inf ected with P.\nvitic olaappear s tunt ed and ha ve disc olored wither ed lea ves. The spr ead o f downy milde w caused the near c ollapse\nof the F rench wine indus try in the ninet eenth c entur y.\nFIGURE 13.18 (a) The do wny and po wdery milde ws on this gr ape leaf ar e caused b y an inf ection o fP.vitic ola. (b) This potat o exhibits the\nresul ts of an inf ection with P.infestans , the potat o lat e blight. (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Da vid B . Langs ton, Univ ersity o f Geor gia,\nUSD A ARS; cr edit b: USD A ARS)\nPhytophthor a inf estans is an oom ycete responsible f or potat o lat e blight, which causes potat o stalks and s tems t o\ndeca y int o black slime ( Figure 13.18 b). Widespr ead potat o blight caused b yP.infestans precipitat ed the w ell-\nknown Irish potat o famine in the ninet eenth c entur y that claimed the liv es o f appr oximat ely 1 mil lion people and led\nto the emigr ation fr om Ir eland o f at leas t 1 mil lion mor e. Late blight c ontinues t o plag ue potat o crops in c ertain par ts\nof the Unit ed Stat es and Rus sia, wiping out as much as 70 per cent o f crops when no pes ticides ar e applied.\nBene ficial P rotists\nProtists pla y critical ly impor tant ec ological r oles as pr oduc ers par ticularl y in the w orld\u2019 s oc eans . The y are equal ly\nimpor tant on the other end o f food w ebs as dec omposers .\nProtists as F ood Sour ces\nProtists ar e es sential sour ces o f nutrition f or man y other or ganisms . In some cases , as in plank ton, pr otists ar e\nconsumed dir ectly. Alternativ ely, phot osynthetic pr otists ser ve as pr oduc ers o f nutrition f or other or ganisms b y\n13.3 \u2022 P rotists 305", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2327, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f10d9a94-6c4d-44a2-8e1f-8d83171108c3": {"__data__": {"id_": "f10d9a94-6c4d-44a2-8e1f-8d83171108c3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "320", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6f88c480-79d3-4b5b-92d3-0dd968f90847", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "320", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5ccbfa4ecb468d9f6f350b088605a3e3c441da46a187aaa795c12e079a65a5c0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "carbon fixation. F or ins tanc e, phot osynthetic dino flagellates cal led z ooxanthel lae pas s on mos t of their ener gy to the\ncoral pol yps that house them ( Figure 13.19 ). In this mutual ly beneficial r elationship , the pol yps pr ovide a pr otectiv e\nenvironment and nutrients f or the z ooxanthel lae. The pol yps secr ete the calcium carbonat e that builds c oral reefs .\nWithout dino flagellate symbionts , corals lose alg al pigments in a pr ocess cal led c oral bleaching , and the y eventual ly\ndie. This e xplains wh y reef-building c orals do not r eside in w aters deeper than 20 met ers: Not enough light r eaches\nthose dep ths f or dino flagellates to phot osynthesiz e.\nFIGURE 13.19 Coral pol yps ob tain nutrition thr ough a s ymbiotic r elationship with dino flagellates.\nProtists themsel ves and their pr oducts o f phot osynthesis ar e es sential \u2014directly or indir ectly\u2014to the sur vival of\norganisms r anging fr om bact eria t o mammals . As primar y produc ers, protists feed a lar ge propor tion o f the w orld\u2019 s\naquatic species . (On land, t errestrial plants ser ve as primar y produc ers.) In fact, appr oximat ely one -quar ter of the\nworld\u2019 s phot osynthesis is c onduct ed b y protists, par ticularl y dino flagellates, diat oms , and mul ticellular alg ae.\nProtists do not cr eate food sour ces onl y for sea -dwelling or ganisms . For ins tanc e, certain anaer obic species e xist in\nthe dig estive tracts o f termit es and w ood-eating c ockr oaches , wher e the y contribut e to dig esting c ellulose ing ested\nby these insects as the y bor e thr ough w ood. The actual enzyme used t o dig est the c ellulose is actual ly produc ed b y\nbact eria living within the pr otist cells. The t ermit e provides the f ood sour ce to the pr otist and its bact eria, and the\nprotist and bact eria pr ovide nutrients t o the t ermit e by breaking do wn the c ellulose .\nAgents o f Dec omposition\nMan y fung us-like protists ar esapr obes , organisms that f eed on dead or ganisms or the w aste mat ter pr oduc ed b y\norganisms (sapr ophyte is an equiv alent t erm), and ar e specializ ed to absorb nutrients fr om nonliving or ganic mat ter.\nFor ins tanc e, man y types o f oom ycetes gr ow on dead animals or alg ae. Sapr obic pr otists ha ve the es sential function\nof returning inor ganic nutrients t o the soil and w ater. This pr ocess allows for ne w plant gr owth, which in turn\ngener ates sus tenanc e for other or ganisms along the f ood chain. Indeed, without sapr obic species , such as pr otists,\nfungi, and bact eria, life would c ease t o exist as al l organic carbon became \u201c tied up \u201d in dead or ganisms .\n13.4 Fungi\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022List the char acteristics o f fungi\n\u2022Describe fung al par asites and pathog ens o f plants and inf ections in humans\n\u2022Describe the impor tanc e of fungi t o the en vironment\n\u2022Summariz e the beneficial r ole o f fungi in f ood and be verage prepar ation and in the chemical and\npharmac eutical indus try306 13 \u2022 Div ersity of Micr obes , Fungi, and P rotists\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3127, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "393752f4-a3c3-48b4-bee0-25631eed97fe": {"__data__": {"id_": "393752f4-a3c3-48b4-bee0-25631eed97fe", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "321", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "da81d188-470f-4406-859f-28ccf9f116f0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "321", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "22c26a3fe339f9f2d0fbeeccc8a6f7c103126bb85dd3a333937adde8ee3c586d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "85711354-23eb-443d-bfe4-cfc307a2a3cc", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "2dc4470650fcc1ff1a25e0312e10443ae5fc2f78299c0f5f39728f5e3c5ae480", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 13.20 The (a) familiar mushr oom is onl y one type o f fung us. The brightl y colored fruiting bodies o f this (b) c oral fung us ar e\ndispla yed. This (c) electr on micr ograph sho ws the spor e-bearing s tructur es o fAsper gillus, a type o f toxic fungi f ound mos tly in soil and\nplants . (credit a: modification o f work b y Chris W ee; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Cor y Zank er; cr edit c: modification o f work b y Janic e\nHane y Carr , Rober t Simmons , CDC; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nThe w ordfung uscomes fr om the L atin w ord for mushr oom. Indeed, the familiar mushr ooms ar e fungi, but ther e are\nman y other types o f fungi as w ell (Figure 13.20 ). The king dom F ungi includes an enormous v ariety o f living\norganisms . While scientis ts ha ve identified about 135,000 species o f fungi, this is onl y a fr action o f the mor e than\n1.5 mil lion species o f fung us lik ely present on Ear th. E dible mushr ooms , yeasts, black mold, and Penicil lium\nnotatum (the pr oduc er of the antibiotic penicil lin) ar e all members o f the king dom F ungi, which belongs t o the\ndomain Euk arya. As euk aryotes, a typical fung al cell contains a true nucleus and man y membr ane-bound or ganel les.\nFungi w ere onc e consider ed plant -like organisms; ho wever, DNA c omparisons ha ve sho wn that fungi ar e mor e\nclosel y related to animals than plants . Fungi ar e not capable o f phot osynthesis: The y use c omple x organic\ncompounds as sour ces o f ener gy and carbon. Some fung al or ganisms mul tiply onl y ase xual ly, wher eas others\nunder go both ase xual r eproduction and se xual r eproduction. Mos t fungi pr oduc e a lar ge number o f spor es that ar e\ndisseminat ed b y the wind. Lik e bact eria, fungi pla y an es sential r ole in ec osystems , because the y are dec omposers\nand par ticipat e in the cy cling o f nutrients b y breaking do wn or ganic mat erials int o simple molecules .\nFungi o ften int eract with other or ganisms , forming mutual ly beneficial or mutualis tic as sociations . Fungi also cause\nserious inf ections in plants and animals . For example , Dut ch elm disease is a par ticularl y de vastating fung al\ninfection that des troys man y nativ e species o f elm ( Ulmus spp.). The fung us inf ects the v ascular s ystem o f the tr ee.\nIt was ac cidental ly intr oduc ed to Nor th America in the 1900s and decimat ed elm tr ees acr oss the c ontinent. Dut ch\nelm disease is caused b y the fung usOphios toma ulmi . The elm bark beetle acts as a v ector and tr ansmits the\ndisease fr om tr ee to tree. Man y Eur opean and Asiatic elms ar e les s susc eptible than American elms .\nIn humans , fung al inf ections ar e gener ally consider ed chal lenging t o treat because , unlik e bact eria, the y do not\nrespond t o traditional antibiotic ther apy sinc e the y are also euk aryotes. These inf ections ma y prove deadl y for\nindividuals with a c ompr omised immune s ystem.\nFungi ha ve man y commer cial applications . The f ood indus try uses y easts in baking , brewing , and wine making . Man y\nindus trial c ompounds ar e byproducts o f fung al fermentation. F ungi ar e the sour ce of man y commer cial enzymes and\nantibiotics .\nCell Structure and F unction\nFungi ar e euk aryotes and as such ha ve a c omple x cellular or ganization.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3315, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "85711354-23eb-443d-bfe4-cfc307a2a3cc": {"__data__": {"id_": "85711354-23eb-443d-bfe4-cfc307a2a3cc", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "321", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "da81d188-470f-4406-859f-28ccf9f116f0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "321", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "22c26a3fe339f9f2d0fbeeccc8a6f7c103126bb85dd3a333937adde8ee3c586d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "393752f4-a3c3-48b4-bee0-25631eed97fe", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "321", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "11e5aa3b2acc4a047c338310826979afa8d3a596d2e63d7d96899c1bf6c03d53", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In humans , fung al inf ections ar e gener ally consider ed chal lenging t o treat because , unlik e bact eria, the y do not\nrespond t o traditional antibiotic ther apy sinc e the y are also euk aryotes. These inf ections ma y prove deadl y for\nindividuals with a c ompr omised immune s ystem.\nFungi ha ve man y commer cial applications . The f ood indus try uses y easts in baking , brewing , and wine making . Man y\nindus trial c ompounds ar e byproducts o f fung al fermentation. F ungi ar e the sour ce of man y commer cial enzymes and\nantibiotics .\nCell Structure and F unction\nFungi ar e euk aryotes and as such ha ve a c omple x cellular or ganization. As euk aryotes, fung al cells contain a\nmembr ane-bound nucleus . A few types o f fungi ha ve structur es compar able t o the plasmids (loops o f DNA) seen in\nbact eria. Fungal cells also c ontain mit ochondria and a c omple x system o f internal membr anes , including the\nendoplasmic r eticulum and Golgi appar atus .\nFungal cells do not ha ve chlor oplas ts. Although the phot osynthetic pigment chlor ophyll is absent, man y fungi\ndispla y bright c olors , ranging fr om r ed to green t o black. The poisonous Amanita muscaria (fly ag aric) is r ecognizable\nby its bright r ed cap with whit e pat ches ( Figure 13.21 ). Pigments in fungi ar e as sociat ed with the c ell wall and pla y a13.4 \u2022 F ungi 307", "start_char_idx": 2656, "end_char_idx": 4024, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "45fae95c-7570-4134-a81f-0b3b3cb2ed07": {"__data__": {"id_": "45fae95c-7570-4134-a81f-0b3b3cb2ed07", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "322", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b50b2196-3771-42e9-b415-cfcf024a45f2", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "322", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ad5ba184110786247d711c4718a4bb73726296e07289252d5cb109af3bab1d35", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "protectiv e role ag ains t ultraviolet r adiation. Some pigments ar e toxic.\nFIGURE 13.21 The poisonous Amanita muscaria is nativ e to the t emper ate and bor eal r egions o f Nor th America . (credit: Chris tine Majul)\nLike plant c ells, fung al cells ar e surr ounded b y a thick c ell wall; ho wever, the rigid la yers c ontain the c omple x\npolysaccharides chitin and glucan and not c ellulose that is used b y plants . Chitin, also f ound in the e xoskeleton o f\ninsects , giv es structur al strength t o the c ell walls of fungi. The w all provides s tructur al suppor t and pr otects the c ell\nfrom desic cation and some pr edat ors. Fungi ha ve plasma membr anes similar t o other euk aryotes, except that the\nstructur e is s tabiliz ed b y ergosterol, a steroid molecule that functions lik e the choles terol found in animal c ell\nmembr anes . Mos t members o f the king dom F ungi ar e nonmotile . Flag ella ar e produc ed onl y by the g amet es in the\nprimitiv e division Ch ytridiom ycota.\nGrowth and R eproduc tion\nThe v egetativ e body o f a fung us is cal led a thal lusand can be unic ellular or mul ticellular . Some fungi ar e dimorphic\nbecause the y can g o from being unic ellular t o mul ticellular depending on en vironmental c onditions . Unic ellular fungi\nare gener ally referred to as yeasts.Sacchar omyces cerevisiae (bak er\u2019s yeast) and Candida species (the ag ents o f\nthrush, a c ommon fung al inf ection) ar e examples o f unic ellular fungi.\nMos t fungi ar e mul ticellular or ganisms . The y displa y tw o dis tinct morphological s tages: v egetativ e and r eproductiv e.\nThe v egetativ e stage is char acterized b y a tangle o f slender thr ead-lik e structur es cal led h yphae (sing ular,hypha ),\nwher eas the r eproductiv e stage can be mor e conspicuous . A mas s of hyphae is cal led a mycelium (Figure 13.22 ). It\ncan gr ow on a sur face, in soil or deca ying mat erial , in a liquid, or e ven in or on living tis sue. Although individual\nhypha mus t be obser ved under a micr oscope, the m ycelium o f a fung us can be v ery lar ge with some species trul y\nbeing \u201c the fung us humong ous.\u201d The giant Armil laria os toyae(hone y mushr oom) is c onsider ed the lar gest organism\non Ear th, spr eading acr oss over 2,000 acr es o f under ground soil in eas tern Or egon; it is es timat ed to be at leas t\n2,400 y ears old.\nFIGURE 13.22 The m ycelium o f the fung usNeot estudina r osati can be pathog enic t o humans . The fung us ent ers thr ough a cut or scr ape\nand de velops int o a m ycetoma , a chr onic subcutaneous inf ection. (cr edit: CDC)308 13 \u2022 Div ersity of Micr obes , Fungi, and P rotists\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2676, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "15c35878-eeee-48c0-ac12-e8fd70e93a58": {"__data__": {"id_": "15c35878-eeee-48c0-ac12-e8fd70e93a58", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "323", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e4b2c0d8-6cb4-43c2-b793-f6faccba6b20", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "323", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9bfedc1410a6a0d9ed1785941a95167892179e4645d69cc566b4421808990911", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "a1b8dea5-e2bc-4888-9a20-e50a9b019f19", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "a5aa43aef071f79ef283e126084f350c5aa936ac74395c2e10237636ee7282c3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Mos t fung al hyphae ar e divided int o separ ate cells by end w alls cal led sep ta (sing ular,septum ). In mos t divisions\n(like plants , fung al ph yla ar e cal leddivisions by tradition) o f fungi, tin y holes in the sep ta al low for the r apid flo w of\nnutrients and smal l molecules fr om c ell to cell along the h yphae . The y are described as per forated sep ta. The\nhyphae in br ead molds (which belong t o the division Z ygomycota) ar e not separ ated b y sep ta. The y are formed o f\nlarge cells containing man y nuclei, an arr angement described as c oenocytic h yphae .\nFungi thriv e in en vironments that ar e mois t and slightl y acidic, and can gr ow in dark plac es or plac es e xposed t o\nlight. The y vary in their o xygen requir ements . Mos t fungi ar e oblig ate aer obes , requiring o xygen to sur vive. Other\nspecies , such as the Ch ytridiom ycota that r eside in the rumen o f cat tle, are oblig ate anaer obes , meaning that the y\ncannot gr ow and r eproduc e in an en vironment with o xygen. Y easts ar e int ermediat e: The y grow bes t in the pr esenc e\nof oxygen but can use f ermentation in the absenc e of oxygen. The alc ohol pr oduc ed fr om y east fermentation is used\nin wine and beer pr oduction, and the carbon dio xide the y produc e carbonat es beer and sparkling wine , and mak es\nbread rise .\nThe r eproductiv e stage could be se xual or ase xual . In both se xual and ase xual r eproduction, fungi pr oduc e spor es\nthat disperse fr om the par ent or ganism b y either floating in the wind or hit ching a ride on an animal . Fungal spor es\nare smal ler and light er than plant seeds , but the y are not usual ly released as high in the air . The giant puffbal l\nmushr oom burs ts open and r eleases tril lions o f spor es: The hug e number o f spor es released incr eases the\nlikelihood o f spor es landing in an en vironment that wil l suppor t growth ( Figure 13.23 ).\nFIGURE 13.23 The (a) giant puffbal l mushr oom r eleases (b) a cloud o f spor es when it r eaches maturity . (credit a: modification o f work b y\nRoger Griffith; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Pearson Sc ott Foresman, donat ed to the Wikimedia F oundation)\nHow Fungi Ob tain Nutrition\nLike animals , fungi ar e het erotrophs: The y use c omple x organic c ompounds as a sour ce of carbon r ather than fixing\ncarbon dio xide fr om the atmospher e, as some bact eria and mos t plants do . In addition, fungi do not fix nitr ogen\nfrom the atmospher e. Like animals , the y mus t obtain it fr om their diet. Ho wever, unlik e mos t animals that ing est\nfood and then dig est it int ernal ly in specializ ed or gans, fungi per form these s teps in the r everse or der. Dig estion\nprecedes ing estion. Firs t, exoenzymes , enzymes that catal yze reactions on c ompounds outside o f the c ell, are\ntranspor ted out o f the h yphae wher e the y break do wn nutrients in the en vironment. Then, the smal ler molecules\nproduc ed b y the e xternal dig estion ar e absorbed thr ough the lar ge sur face areas o f the m ycelium. As with animal\ncells, the fung al storage pol ysaccharide is gl ycogen rather than s tarch, as f ound in plants .\nFungi ar e mos tly sapr obes , organisms that deriv e nutrients fr om deca ying or ganic mat ter. The y ob tain their nutrients\nfrom dead or dec omposing or ganic mat ter, mainl y plant mat erial .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3350, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a1b8dea5-e2bc-4888-9a20-e50a9b019f19": {"__data__": {"id_": "a1b8dea5-e2bc-4888-9a20-e50a9b019f19", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "323", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e4b2c0d8-6cb4-43c2-b793-f6faccba6b20", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "323", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9bfedc1410a6a0d9ed1785941a95167892179e4645d69cc566b4421808990911", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "15c35878-eeee-48c0-ac12-e8fd70e93a58", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "323", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7bb7e66ce1a1d3b4c8e776438c22a0bdf5b103b8e4ec9bfd62223acb052fef11", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Dig estion\nprecedes ing estion. Firs t, exoenzymes , enzymes that catal yze reactions on c ompounds outside o f the c ell, are\ntranspor ted out o f the h yphae wher e the y break do wn nutrients in the en vironment. Then, the smal ler molecules\nproduc ed b y the e xternal dig estion ar e absorbed thr ough the lar ge sur face areas o f the m ycelium. As with animal\ncells, the fung al storage pol ysaccharide is gl ycogen rather than s tarch, as f ound in plants .\nFungi ar e mos tly sapr obes , organisms that deriv e nutrients fr om deca ying or ganic mat ter. The y ob tain their nutrients\nfrom dead or dec omposing or ganic mat ter, mainl y plant mat erial . Fungal exoenzymes ar e able t o break do wn\ninsoluble pol ysaccharides , such as the c ellulose and lignin o f dead w ood, int o readil y absorbable gluc ose molecules .\nDecomposers ar e impor tant c omponents o f ecosystems , because the y return nutrients lock ed in dead bodies t o a\nform that is usable f or other or ganisms . This r ole is discus sed in mor e detail lat er. Because o f their v aried metabolic\npath ways, fungi fulfil l an impor tant ec ological r ole and ar e being in vestigated as pot ential t ools in bior emediation.\nFor example , some species o f fungi can be used t o break do wn diesel oil and pol ycyclic ar omatic h ydrocarbons .\nOther species tak e up hea vy metals such as cadmium and lead.\nFungal Div ersity\nThe king dom F ungi c ontains f our major divisions that w ere es tablished ac cording t o their mode o f sexual13.4 \u2022 F ungi 309", "start_char_idx": 2687, "end_char_idx": 4223, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c1b8919f-d534-4cf0-abde-db4913475df3": {"__data__": {"id_": "c1b8919f-d534-4cf0-abde-db4913475df3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "324", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1487e64e-1898-4725-9ca3-27d342e930fa", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "324", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "437e69bf863d007ffcdb219b4f6182f8d28facddccced6a437e2658f865352f5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "reproduction. P olyphyletic, unr elated fungi that r eproduc e without a se xual cy cle, are plac ed for convenienc e in a\nfifth division, and a sixth major fung al gr oup that does not fit w ell with an y of the pr evious fiv e has r ecently been\ndescribed. Not al l mycologis ts agr ee with this scheme . Rapid adv ances in molecular biolog y and the sequencing o f\n18S rRNA (a c omponent o f ribosomes) c ontinue t o reveal ne w and diff erent r elationships betw een the v arious\ncategories o f fungi.\nThe tr aditional divisions o f Fungi ar e the Chytridiom ycota(chytrids), the Zygomycota(conjug ated fungi), the\nAscomycota(sac fungi), and the Basidiom ycota(club fungi). An older clas sification scheme gr ouped fungi that\nstrictl y use ase xual r eproduction int o Deut eromycota, a gr oup that is no long er in use . The Glomer omycotabelong\nto a ne wly described gr oup ( Figure 13.24 ).\nFIGURE 13.24 Divisions o f fungi include (a) ch ytrids , (b) c onjug ated fungi, (c) sac fungi, and (d) club fungi. (cr edit a: modification o f work b y\nUSD A APHIS PPQ; cr edit c: modification o f work b y \"ic elight\"/Flickr; cr edit d: modification o f work b y Cor y Zank er.)\nPathogenic F ungi\nMan y fungi ha ve neg ative impacts on other species , including humans and the or ganisms the y depend on f or food.\nFungi ma y be par asites, pathog ens, and, in a v ery few cases , predat ors.\nPlant P arasites and P athogens\nThe pr oduction o f enough g ood-quality cr ops is es sential t o our e xistence. Plant diseases ha ve ruined cr ops,\nbringing widespr ead famine . Mos t plant pathog ens ar e fungi that cause tis sue deca y and e ventual death o f the hos t\n(Figure 13.25 ). In addition t o des troying plant tis sue dir ectly, some plant pathog ens spoil cr ops b y producing pot ent\ntoxins . Fungi ar e also r esponsible f or food spoilag e and the r otting o f stored cr ops. For example , the fung us\nClaviceps purpur eacauses er got, a disease o f cereal cr ops (especial ly of rye). Al though the fung us reduc es the yield\nof cereals , the eff ects o f the er got\u2019s alk aloid t oxins on humans and animals ar e of much gr eater significanc e: In\nanimals , the disease is r eferred to as er gotism. The mos t common signs and s ymp toms ar e convulsions ,\nhallucination, g angr ene, and los s of milk in cat tle. The activ e ingr edient o f ergot is l ysergic acid, which is a pr ecursor\nof the drug LSD . Smuts , rus ts, and po wdery or do wny milde w ar e other e xamples o f common fung al pathog ens that\naffect cr ops.310 13 \u2022 Div ersity of Micr obes , Fungi, and P rotists\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2627, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "15972f3e-4b00-4a1c-90ac-2cfdedb6d26e": {"__data__": {"id_": "15972f3e-4b00-4a1c-90ac-2cfdedb6d26e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "325", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ca7a734e-3edf-4571-82cc-198d67ae47e3", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "325", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8fc8efa30ec2e708389dbcfd117f203fcaa171be981a091d467a52db7c182a2f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 13.25 Some fung al pathog ens include (a) gr een mold on gr apefruit, (b) fung us on gr apes , (c) po wdery milde w on a zinnia , and (d)\nstem rus t on a sheaf o f barle y. Notic e the br ownish c olor o f the fung us in (b) Botr ytis ciner ea, also r eferred to as the \u201c noble r ot,\u201d which\ngrows on gr apes and other fruit. Contr olled inf ection o f grapes b yBotr ytis is used t o produc e strong and much-priz ed des sert wines . (credit\na: modification o f work b y Sc ott Bauer , USD A ARS; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Stephen Ausmus , USD A ARS; cr edit c: modification o f\nwork b y Da vid Marshal l, USD A ARS; cr edit d: modification o f work b y Joseph Smilanick, USD A ARS)\nAflat oxins ar e toxic and car cinog enic c ompounds r eleased b y fungi o f the g enus Asper gillus. Periodical ly, har vests of\nnuts and gr ains ar e taint ed b y aflat oxins , leading t o mas sive recal l of produc e, sometimes ruining pr oduc ers, and\ncausing f ood shor tages in de veloping c ountries .\nAnimal and Human P arasites and P athogens\nFungi can aff ect animals , including humans , in se veral w ays. Fungi at tack animals dir ectly by colonizing and\ndestroying tis sues . Humans and other animals can be poisoned b y eating t oxic mushr ooms or f oods c ontaminat ed\nby fungi. In addition, individuals who displa y hypersensitivity t o molds and spor es de velop s trong and dang erous\nallergic r eactions . Fungal inf ections ar e gener ally very difficul t to treat because , unlik e bact eria, fungi ar e\neukaryotes. Antibiotics onl y tar get pr okaryotic c ells, wher eas c ompounds that kil l fungi also adv ersel y aff ect the\neukaryotic animal hos t.\nMan y fung al inf ections ( mycoses ) are super ficial and t ermed cutaneous (meaning \u201c skin \u201d) m ycoses . The y are usual ly\nvisible on the skin o f the animal . Fungi that cause the super ficial m ycoses o f the epidermis , hair , and nails r arely\nspread t o the underl ying tis sue ( Figure 13.26 ). These fungi ar e often misnamed \u201c dermat ophytes\u201d fr om the Gr eek\ndermis skin and phyteplant, but the y are not plants . Dermat ophytes ar e also cal led \u201c ringworms\u201d because o f the r ed\nring that the y cause on skin (al though the ring is caused b y fungi, not a w orm). These fungi secr ete extracellular\nenzymes that br eak do wn k eratin (a pr otein f ound in hair , skin, and nails), causing a number o f conditions such as\nathlet e\u2019s foot, jock it ch, and other cutaneous fung al inf ections . These c onditions ar e usual ly treated with o ver-the -\ncount er topical cr eams and po wders , and ar e easil y clear ed. Mor e persis tent, super ficial m ycoses ma y requir e\nprescrip tion or al medications .13.4 \u2022 F ungi 311", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2712, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7a2b9559-fee6-4289-bf88-abfd2a4b86df": {"__data__": {"id_": "7a2b9559-fee6-4289-bf88-abfd2a4b86df", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "326", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "84c9cca6-0850-4a92-a0dc-fc98568e58b0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "326", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dedd0ad4e6995b714c6b44f7b12ed5d08f6fa96b1046793642b5d37974eec455", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "a4b213ef-6386-4ca1-9ec8-07034e92a98d", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "bc10361a0943e91c8b5571d121223bbf7a87756cc6a256277706e4f3966d3170", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 13.26 (a) Ring worm pr esents as a r ed ring on the skin. (b) Trichoph yton violac eum is a fung us that causes super ficial m ycoses on\nthe scalp . (c) Histoplasma capsulatum , seen in this X -ray as speckling o f light ar eas in the lung , is a species o f Asc omycota that inf ects\nairways and causes s ymp toms similar t o the flu. (cr edit a , b: modification o f work b y Dr. Lucille K. Geor g, CDC; cr edit c: modification o f work\nby M R enz, CDC; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nSystemic m ycoses spr ead t o int ernal or gans, mos t commonl y ent ering the body thr ough the r espir atory system. F or\nexample , coccidioidom ycosis (v alley fever) is c ommonl y found in the south western Unit ed Stat es, wher e the fung us\nresides in the dus t. Onc e inhaled, the spor es de velop in the lungs and cause signs and s ymp toms similar t o those o f\ntuber culosis . His toplasmosis ( Figure 13.26 c) is caused b y the dimorphic fung usHistoplasma capsulatum ; it causes\npulmonar y inf ections and, in r are cases , swelling o f the membr anes o f the br ain and spinal c ord. Treatment o f man y\nfung al diseases r equir es the use o f antifung al medications that ha ve serious side eff ects .\nOppor tunis tic m ycoses ar e fung al inf ections that ar e either c ommon in al l environments or par t of the normal biota .\nThey aff ect mainl y individuals who ha ve a c ompr omised immune s ystem. P atients in the lat e stages o f AIDS suff er\nfrom oppor tunis tic m ycoses , such as Pneumocy stis, which can be lif e thr eatening . The y eastCandida spp., which is\na common member o f the natur al biota , can gr ow uncheck ed if the pH, the immune def enses , or the normal\npopulation o f bact eria is al tered, causing y east infections o f the v agina or mouth (or al thrush).\nFungi ma y even tak e on a pr edat ory lifestyle. In soil en vironments that ar e poor in nitr ogen, some fungi r esor t to\npredation o f nemat odes (smal l roundw orms). Species o fArthrobotr ysfungi ha ve a number o f mechanisms t o trap\nnemat odes . For example , the y ha ve constricting rings within their netw ork o f hyphae . The rings s well when the\nnemat ode t ouches it and closes ar ound the body o f the nemat ode, thus tr apping it. The fung us e xtends specializ ed\nhyphae that can penetr ate the body o f the w orm and slo wly dig est the haples s prey.\nBene ficial F ungi\nFungi pla y a crucial r ole in the balanc e of ecosystems . The y coloniz e mos t habitats on Ear th, pr eferring dark, mois t\nconditions . The y can thriv e in seemingl y hos tile en vironments , such as the tundr a, thank s to a mos t suc cessful\nsymbiosis with phot osynthetic or ganisms , like lichens . Fungi ar e not ob vious in the w ay that lar ge animals or tal l\ntrees ar e. Yet, lik e bact eria, the y are major dec omposers o f natur e. With their v ersatile metabolism, fungi br eak\ndown or ganic mat ter that is insoluble and w ould not be r ecycled other wise .\nImpor tanc e to Ecosystems\nFood w ebs w ould be inc omplet e without or ganisms that dec ompose or ganic mat ter and fungi ar e key par ticipants in\nthis pr ocess.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3132, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a4b213ef-6386-4ca1-9ec8-07034e92a98d": {"__data__": {"id_": "a4b213ef-6386-4ca1-9ec8-07034e92a98d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "326", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "84c9cca6-0850-4a92-a0dc-fc98568e58b0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "326", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dedd0ad4e6995b714c6b44f7b12ed5d08f6fa96b1046793642b5d37974eec455", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "7a2b9559-fee6-4289-bf88-abfd2a4b86df", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "326", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "81fad43428633bb361af74074b3d3e5d1bf925820c2b3704493a0ec4ceef9bca", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The y can thriv e in seemingl y hos tile en vironments , such as the tundr a, thank s to a mos t suc cessful\nsymbiosis with phot osynthetic or ganisms , like lichens . Fungi ar e not ob vious in the w ay that lar ge animals or tal l\ntrees ar e. Yet, lik e bact eria, the y are major dec omposers o f natur e. With their v ersatile metabolism, fungi br eak\ndown or ganic mat ter that is insoluble and w ould not be r ecycled other wise .\nImpor tanc e to Ecosystems\nFood w ebs w ould be inc omplet e without or ganisms that dec ompose or ganic mat ter and fungi ar e key par ticipants in\nthis pr ocess. Dec omposition al lows for cy cling o f nutrients such as carbon, nitr ogen, and phosphorus back int o the\nenvironment so the y are available t o living things , rather than being tr apped in dead or ganisms . Fungi ar e\nparticularl y impor tant because the y ha ve evolved enzymes t o break do wn c ellulose and lignin, c omponents o f plant\ncell walls that f ew other or ganisms ar e able t o dig est, releasing their carbon c ontent.312 13 \u2022 Div ersity of Micr obes , Fungi, and P rotists\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2532, "end_char_idx": 3658, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c44beaaf-ecf1-4883-b166-24924cc205bd": {"__data__": {"id_": "c44beaaf-ecf1-4883-b166-24924cc205bd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "327", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5e2d94f3-458a-4e95-819c-073e5a393c88", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "327", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7c577905958ea8ca88ad0b52c6efa4dbf5dbe1ec41f8a8d99cbfdf7b3aaf194c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "a86eb56c-1842-4972-809a-f95fea4edc05", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "75c9f8f2e9b3e862851e1a5f7d630f0fbae27b81ecdb987ba5fd8d57975c1f64", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Fungi ar e also in volved in ec ological ly impor tant c oevolved s ymbioses , both mutual ly beneficial and pathog enic with\norganisms fr om the other king doms .Mycorrhiza , a term c ombining the Gr eek r oots mycomeaning fung us and rhizo\nmeaning r oot, r efers t o the as sociation betw een v ascular plant r oots and their s ymbiotic fungi. Some wher e betw een\n80\u201390 per cent o f all plant species ha ve mycorrhizal par tners . In a m ycorrhizal as sociation, the fung al m ycelia use\ntheir e xtensiv e netw ork o f hyphae and lar ge sur face area in c ontact with the soil t o channel w ater and miner als fr om\nthe soil int o the plant. In e xchang e, the plant supplies the pr oducts o f phot osynthesis t o fuel the metabolism o f the\nfung us. Ectomycorrhizae (\u201c outside \u201d mycorrhiza) depend on fungi en veloping the r oots in a sheath (cal led a mantle)\nand a net o f hyphae that e xtends int o the r oots betw een c ells. In a sec ond type , the Glomer omycota fungi f orm\narbuscular m ycorrhiza . In these m ycorrhiza , the fungi f orm arbuscles , a specializ ed highl y branched h ypha , which\npenetr ate root c ells and ar e the sit es o f the metabolic e xchang es betw een the fung us and the hos t plant. Or chids\nrely on a thir d type o f mycorrhiza . Orchids f orm smal l seeds without much s torage to sus tain g ermination and\ngrowth. Their seeds wil l not g erminat e without a m ycorrhizal par tner (usual ly Basidiom ycota). Aft er nutrients in the\nseed ar e deplet ed, fung al symbionts suppor t the gr owth o f the or chid b y providing nec essary carboh ydrates and\nminer als. Some or chids c ontinue t o be m ycorrhizal thr oughout their lif ecycle.\nLichens blank et man y rocks and tr ee bark, displa ying a r ange of colors and t extur es. Lichens ar e impor tant pioneer\norganisms that c oloniz e rock sur faces in other wise lif eles s en vironments such as ar e created b y glacial r ecession.\nThe lichen is able t o leach nutrients fr om the r ocks and br eak them do wn in the firs t step to creating soil . Lichens ar e\nalso pr esent in matur e habitats on r ock sur faces or the trunk s of trees. The y are an impor tant f ood sour ce for\ncaribou. Lichens ar e not a single or ganism, but r ather a fung us (usual ly an Asc omycota or Basidiom ycota species)\nliving in close c ontact with a phot osynthetic or ganism (an alg a or cy anobact erium). The body o f a lichen, r eferred to\nas a thal lus, is f ormed o f hyphae wr apped ar ound the gr een par tner. The phot osynthetic or ganism pr ovides carbon\nand ener gy in the f orm o f carboh ydrates and r eceives pr otection fr om the elements b y the thal lus o f the fung al\npartner. Some cy anobact eria fix nitr ogen fr om the atmospher e, contributing nitr ogenous c ompounds t o the\nassociation. In r eturn, the fung us supplies miner als and pr otection fr om dr ynes s and e xcessive light b y encasing the\nalgae in its m ycelium. The fung us also at taches the s ymbiotic or ganism t o the subs trate.\nFungi ha ve evolved mutualis tic as sociations with numer ous ar thropods .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3076, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a86eb56c-1842-4972-809a-f95fea4edc05": {"__data__": {"id_": "a86eb56c-1842-4972-809a-f95fea4edc05", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "327", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5e2d94f3-458a-4e95-819c-073e5a393c88", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "327", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7c577905958ea8ca88ad0b52c6efa4dbf5dbe1ec41f8a8d99cbfdf7b3aaf194c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "c44beaaf-ecf1-4883-b166-24924cc205bd", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "327", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ad5ac2b17968db7ae26aa3f30b7f853cd42cfe11180704bc241cb7252e5ef5b8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "6acf04a6-855f-47ad-81d7-eec7cd3187a2", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "2de9330e69230ca26534aea92ec100ccfe76a34b6dfb2887e03cdd35f6ed1209", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The phot osynthetic or ganism pr ovides carbon\nand ener gy in the f orm o f carboh ydrates and r eceives pr otection fr om the elements b y the thal lus o f the fung al\npartner. Some cy anobact eria fix nitr ogen fr om the atmospher e, contributing nitr ogenous c ompounds t o the\nassociation. In r eturn, the fung us supplies miner als and pr otection fr om dr ynes s and e xcessive light b y encasing the\nalgae in its m ycelium. The fung us also at taches the s ymbiotic or ganism t o the subs trate.\nFungi ha ve evolved mutualis tic as sociations with numer ous ar thropods . The as sociation betw een species o f\nBasidiom ycota and scale insects is one e xample . The fung al m ycelium c overs and pr otects the insect c olonies . The\nscale insects f oster a flo w of nutrients fr om the par asitiz ed plant t o the fung us. In a sec ond e xample , leaf-cut ting\nants o f Centr al and South America lit erally farm fungi. The y cut disk s of lea ves fr om plants and pile them up in\ngardens . Fungi ar e cul tivated in these g ardens , dig esting the c ellulose that the ants cannot br eak do wn. Onc e\nsmal ler sug ar molecules ar e produc ed and c onsumed b y the fungi, the y in turn bec ome a meal f or the ants . The\ninsects also patr ol their g arden, pr eying on c ompeting fungi. Both ants and fungi benefit fr om the as sociation. The\nfung us receives a s teady suppl y of lea ves and fr eedom fr om c ompetition, while the ants f eed on the fungi the y\ncultivate.\nImpor tanc e to Humans\nAlthough w e often think o f fungi as or ganisms that cause diseases and r ot food, fungi ar e impor tant t o human lif e on\nman y levels. As w e ha ve seen, the y influenc e the w ell-being o f human populations on a lar ge scale because the y\nhelp nutrients cy cle in ec osystems . The y ha ve other ec osystem r oles as w ell. For example , as animal pathog ens,\nfungi help t o contr ol the population o f damaging pes ts. These fungi ar e very specific t o the insects the y attack and\ndo not inf ect other animals or plants . The pot ential t o use fungi as micr obial insecticides is being in vestigated, with\nseveral species alr eady on the mark et. F or example , the fung usBeauv eria bas siana is a pes ticide that is curr ently\nbeing t ested as a pos sible biological c ontr ol for the r ecent spr ead o f emer ald ash bor er. It has been r eleased in\nMichig an, Il linois , Indiana , Ohio , West Vir ginia , and Mar yland.\nThe m ycorrhizal r elationship betw een fungi and plant r oots is es sential f or the pr oductivity o f farmland. Without the\nfung al par tner in the r oot s ystems , 80\u201390% o f trees and gr asses w ould not sur vive. My corrhizal fung al inoculants\nare available as soil amendments fr om g ardening suppl y stores and ar e promot ed b y suppor ters o f organic\nagricul ture, but ther e is lit tle e videnc e as t o the eff ectiv enes s.\nWe also eat some types o f fungi. Mushr ooms fig ure prominentl y in the human diet. Mor els, shiitak e mushr ooms ,\nchant erelles, and truffles ar e consider ed delicacies ( Figure 13.27 ). The humble meado w mushr oom, Agaricus\ncampes tris, appears in man y dishes . Molds o f the g enus Penicil lium ripen man y cheeses .", "start_char_idx": 2498, "end_char_idx": 5696, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6acf04a6-855f-47ad-81d7-eec7cd3187a2": {"__data__": {"id_": "6acf04a6-855f-47ad-81d7-eec7cd3187a2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "327", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5e2d94f3-458a-4e95-819c-073e5a393c88", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "327", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7c577905958ea8ca88ad0b52c6efa4dbf5dbe1ec41f8a8d99cbfdf7b3aaf194c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "a86eb56c-1842-4972-809a-f95fea4edc05", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "327", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c93189ba10b472e344f96f28f7cce0b98b5b130d0b484851601b2a37f18a9a7f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "My corrhizal fung al inoculants\nare available as soil amendments fr om g ardening suppl y stores and ar e promot ed b y suppor ters o f organic\nagricul ture, but ther e is lit tle e videnc e as t o the eff ectiv enes s.\nWe also eat some types o f fungi. Mushr ooms fig ure prominentl y in the human diet. Mor els, shiitak e mushr ooms ,\nchant erelles, and truffles ar e consider ed delicacies ( Figure 13.27 ). The humble meado w mushr oom, Agaricus\ncampes tris, appears in man y dishes . Molds o f the g enus Penicil lium ripen man y cheeses . The y originat e in the\nnatur al en vironment such as the ca ves o f Roquef ort, France, wher e wheels o f sheep milk cheese ar e stack ed to13.4 \u2022 F ungi 313", "start_char_idx": 5152, "end_char_idx": 5855, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "352c4e48-e63d-4308-a7c3-48c5a017494d": {"__data__": {"id_": "352c4e48-e63d-4308-a7c3-48c5a017494d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "328", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "32ba748d-3316-45ba-9460-112a1b1b5047", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "328", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0d92378f2037db60d4a38e690d40bc8fa65d9123e983e56d00d6231d18b001e3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "capture the molds r esponsible f or the blue v eins and pung ent tas te of the cheese .\nFIGURE 13.27 The mor el mushr oom is an asc omycete that is much appr eciat ed for its delicat e tas te. (credit: Jason Hol linger)\nFermentation\u2014 of grains t o produc e beer , and o f fruits t o produc e wine \u2014is an ancient ar t that humans in mos t\ncultures ha ve practic ed for mil lennia . Wild y easts ar e ac quired fr om the en vironment and used t o ferment sug ars\ninto CO2and eth yl alc ohol under anaer obic c onditions . It is no w pos sible t o pur chase isolat ed s trains o f wild y easts\nfrom diff erent wine -making r egions . Pasteur w as ins trumental in de veloping a r eliable s train o f brewer\u2019s yeast,\nSacchar omyces cerevisiae , for the F rench br ewing indus try in the lat e 1850s . It w as one o f the firs t examples o f\nbiotechnolog y pat enting . Yeast is also used t o mak e breads that rise . The carbon dio xide the y produc e is\nresponsible f or the bubbles pr oduc ed in the dough that bec ome the air pock ets o f the bak ed br ead.\nMan y sec ondar y metabolit es o f fungi ar e of great c ommer cial impor tanc e. Antibiotics ar e natur ally produc ed b y\nfungi t o kil l or inhibit the gr owth o f bact eria, and limit c ompetition in the natur al en vironment. V aluable drugs\nisolat ed fr om fungi include the immunosuppr essant drug cy closporine (which r educ es the risk o f rejection aft er\norgan tr ansplant), the pr ecursors o f steroid hormones , and er got alk aloids used t o stop bleeding . In addition, as\neasil y cul tured euk aryotic or ganisms , some fungi ar e impor tant model r esear ch or ganisms including the r ed br ead\nmold Neur ospor a crassaand the y east,S.cerevisiae .314 13 \u2022 Div ersity of Micr obes , Fungi, and P rotists\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1811, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "02c2e46b-5b80-43b3-8e75-2f74e7593805": {"__data__": {"id_": "02c2e46b-5b80-43b3-8e75-2f74e7593805", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "329", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8fcf972e-82a1-42e3-a672-f469fe0c1845", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "329", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1085df8e766cb80ff29d92702d66118a63b1d77ded9c9b0f9fe77cc13320b71c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "7e363c82-0e11-4d7b-8f3f-d886017c2f5c", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "69c6b24d0ceeb6282a5db8dc7849bb96b31e6d61ad87e09d6381b53df4fb9863", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nAmoebo zoa the euk aryotic super group that c ontains\nthe amoebas and slime molds\nanaer obic refers t o organisms that gr ow without\noxygen\nanoxic without o xygen\nArchaeplas tida the euk aryotic super group that\ncontains land plants , green alg ae, and r ed alg ae\nAscomycota (sac fungi) a division o f fungi that s tore\nspor es in a sac cal led ascus\nbasidiom ycota (club fungi) a division o f fungi that\nproduc e club shaped s tructur es, basidia , which\ncontain spor es\nbiofilm a micr obial c ommunity that is held t ogether\nby a g umm y-textur ed matrix\nbior emedia tion the use o f micr obial metabolism t o\nremo ve pol lutants\nBlack Dea th a de vastating pandemic that is belie ved\nto ha ve been an outbr eak o f bubonic plag ue caused\nby the bact erium Yersinia pes tis\nbotulism a disease pr oduc e by the t oxin o f the\nanaer obic bact erium Clos tridium botulinum\ncapsule an e xternal s tructur e that enables a\nprokaryote to attach t o sur faces and pr otects it fr om\ndehydration\nChromal veola ta the euk aryotic super group that\ncontains the dino flagellates, ciliat es, the br own\nalgae, diat oms , and w ater molds\nChytridiom ycota (chytrids) a primitiv e division o f\nfungi that liv e in w ater and pr oduc e gamet es with\nflagella\ncommensalism a symbiotic r elationship in which one\nmember benefits while the other member is not\naffected\nconjug ation the pr ocess by which pr okaryotes mo ve\nDNA fr om one individual t o another using a pilus\ncyanobact eria bact eria that e volved fr om earl y\nphot otrophs and o xygenat ed the atmospher e; also\nknown as blue -green alg ae\nendos ymbiosis the eng ulfment o f one c ell by another\nsuch that the eng ulfed c ell sur vives and both c ells\nbenefit; the pr ocess responsible f or the e volution o f\nmitochondria and chlor oplas ts in euk aryotes\nepidemic a disease that oc curs in an unusual ly high\nnumber o f individuals in a population at the same\ntime\nExcavata the euk aryotic super group that c ontains\nflagellated single -celled or ganisms with a f eeding\ngroove\nextremophile an or ganism that gr ows under e xtreme\nor harsh c onditions\nfoodborne disease any illnes s resul ting fr om the\nconsump tion o f contaminat ed food, or o f thepathog enic bact eria, viruses ,", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2246, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7e363c82-0e11-4d7b-8f3f-d886017c2f5c": {"__data__": {"id_": "7e363c82-0e11-4d7b-8f3f-d886017c2f5c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "329", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8fcf972e-82a1-42e3-a672-f469fe0c1845", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "329", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1085df8e766cb80ff29d92702d66118a63b1d77ded9c9b0f9fe77cc13320b71c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "02c2e46b-5b80-43b3-8e75-2f74e7593805", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "329", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f2ecc763b0c944c3b8b9e4d416b97297be6608b1da8475d1796ecd5d7bcf6e2e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "also\nknown as blue -green alg ae\nendos ymbiosis the eng ulfment o f one c ell by another\nsuch that the eng ulfed c ell sur vives and both c ells\nbenefit; the pr ocess responsible f or the e volution o f\nmitochondria and chlor oplas ts in euk aryotes\nepidemic a disease that oc curs in an unusual ly high\nnumber o f individuals in a population at the same\ntime\nExcavata the euk aryotic super group that c ontains\nflagellated single -celled or ganisms with a f eeding\ngroove\nextremophile an or ganism that gr ows under e xtreme\nor harsh c onditions\nfoodborne disease any illnes s resul ting fr om the\nconsump tion o f contaminat ed food, or o f thepathog enic bact eria, viruses , or other par asites that\ncontaminat e food\nGlomer omycota a group o f fungi that f orm s ymbiotic\nrelationships with the r oots o f trees\nGram-neg ativedescribes a bact erium whose c ell\nwall contains lit tle pep tidogl ycan but has an out er\nmembr ane\nGram-positiv edescribes a bact erium that c ontains\nmainl y pep tidogl ycan in its c ell walls\nhydrothermal v ent a fis sure in Ear th\u2019s sur face that\nreleases g eothermal ly heat ed w ater\nhypha a fung al filament c omposed o f one or mor e\ncells\nlichen the close as sociation o f a fung us with a\nphot osynthetic alg a or bact erium that benefits both\npartners\nmicr obial ma ta mul ti-la yered sheet o f prokaryotes\nthat ma y include bact eria and ar chaea\nmold a tangle o f visible m ycelia with a fuzzy\nappear ance\nMRSA (methicil lin-r esistant Staph yloc occus aur eus) a\nvery dang erous Staph yloc occus aureus strain\nresistant t o antibiotics\nmycelium a mas s of fung al hyphae\nmycorrhiza a mutualis tic as sociation betw een fungi\nand v ascular plant r oots\nmycosis a fung al inf ection\nOpis thok onta the euk aryotic super group that\ncontains the fungi, animals , and choano flagellates\npandemic a widespr ead, usual ly worldwide , epidemic\ndisease\nparasitean or ganism that liv es on or in another\norganism and f eeds on it, o ften without kil ling it\npathog en an or ganism, or inf ectious ag ent, that\ncauses a disease\npellicle an out er cell covering c omposed o f\ninterlocking pr otein s trips that function lik e a\nflexible c oat o f armor , preventing c ells from being\ntorn or pier ced without c ompr omising their r ange of\nmotion\npep tidogl ycan a mat erial c omposed o f\npolysaccharide chains cr oss-link ed to unusual\npeptides\nphototroph an or ganism that uses ener gy from\nsunlight\nplas tid one o f a gr oup o f related or ganel les in plant\ncells that ar e involved in the s torage of starches ,\nfats, proteins , and pigments\npseudopep tidogl ycan a component o f some c ell\nwalls of Archaea\nRhizaria the euk aryotic super group that c ontains\norganisms that mo ve by amoeboid mo vement13 \u2022 K ey Terms 315", "start_char_idx": 1568, "end_char_idx": 4328, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "685b87a3-f098-4e30-8d19-46c29fb1c3ca": {"__data__": {"id_": "685b87a3-f098-4e30-8d19-46c29fb1c3ca", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "330", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fe4d1135-d5ba-4cc1-b0cb-bf7b47136a66", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "330", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "344e15ad4e002a4df6faef98753ef4966d37c09539280c391d5e6b338af0d44d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "4edc4b92-0119-4ab5-9eb1-add3733d05af", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "38e2e4765df30d20d20b56a6a6fb2930e08d2fecc777b10d2372ddcb46e8c092", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "sapr obe an or ganism that f eeds on dead or ganic\nmaterial\nseptum the c ell wall division betw een h yphae\nstroma tolitea layered sedimentar y structur e formed\nby precipitation o f miner als b y prokaryotes in\nmicr obial mats\nthal lus a vegetativ e body o f a fung us\ntransduction the pr ocess by which a bact eriophag e\nmoves DNA fr om one pr okaryote to anothertransforma tion a mechanism o f genetic chang e in\nprokaryotes in which DNA pr esent in the\nenvironment is tak en int o the c ell and inc orpor ated\ninto the g enome\nyeasta gener al term used t o describe unic ellular\nfungi\nZygomycota (conjug ated fungi) the division o f fungi\nthat f orm a zy gote contained in a zy gospor e\nChap ter Summar y\n13.1 Prokaryotic Div ersity\nProkaryotes e xisted for bil lions o f years bef ore plants\nand animals appear ed. Micr obial mats ar e thought t o\nrepresent the earlies t forms o f life on Ear th, and ther e\nis fossil e videnc e, cal led s tromat olites, of their\npresenc e about 3.5 bil lion y ears ag o. During the firs t 2\nbillion y ears , the atmospher e was ano xic and onl y\nanaer obic or ganisms w ere able t o liv e. Cyanobact eria\nbegan the o xygenation o f the atmospher e. The\nincrease in o xygen c oncentr ation al lowed the e volution\nof other lif e forms .\nProkaryotes (domains Ar chaea and Bact eria) ar e\nsingle -celled or ganisms lacking a nucleus . The y ha ve a\nsingle piec e of circular DNA in the nucleoid ar ea o f the\ncell. Mos t prokaryotes ha ve cell wall outside the\nplasma membr ane. Bact eria and Ar chaea diff er in the\ncompositions o f their c ell membr anes and the\nchar acteristics o f their c ell walls.\nBact erial c ell walls contain pep tidogl ycan. Ar chaean\ncell walls do not ha ve pep tidogl ycan. Bact eria can be\ndivided int o tw o major gr oups: Gr am-positiv e and\nGram-neg ative. Gram-positiv e organisms ha ve a thick\ncell wall. Gram-neg ative organisms ha ve a thin c ell wall\nand an out er membr ane. Prokaryotes use div erse\nsour ces o f ener gy to as semble macr omolecules fr om\nsmal ler molecules . Phot otrophs ob tain their ener gy\nfrom sunlight, wher eas chemotr ophs ob tain it fr om\nchemical c ompounds .\nInfectious diseases caused b y bact eria r emain among\nthe leading causes o f death w orldwide . The e xcessive\nuse o f antibiotics t o contr ol bact erial inf ections has\nresul ted in r esistant f orms o f bact eria being select ed.\nFoodborne diseases r esul t from the c onsump tion o f\ncontaminat ed food, pathog enic bact eria, viruses , or\nparasites that c ontaminat e food. P rokaryotes ar e used\nin human f ood pr oducts . Micr obial bior emediation is\nthe use o f micr obial metabolism t o remo ve pol lutants .\nThe human body c ontains a hug e community o f\nprokaryotes, man y of which pr ovide beneficial ser vices\nsuch as the de velopment and maint enanc e of theimmune s ystem, nutrition, and pr otection fr om\npathog ens.\n13.2 Eukaryotic Origins\nThe firs t euk aryotes e volved fr om anc estral\nprokaryotes b y a pr ocess that in volved membr ane\nproliferation, the los s of a c ell wall, the e volution o f a\ncytoskeleton, and the ac quisition and e volution o f\norganel les.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3155, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4edc4b92-0119-4ab5-9eb1-add3733d05af": {"__data__": {"id_": "4edc4b92-0119-4ab5-9eb1-add3733d05af", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "330", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fe4d1135-d5ba-4cc1-b0cb-bf7b47136a66", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "330", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "344e15ad4e002a4df6faef98753ef4966d37c09539280c391d5e6b338af0d44d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "685b87a3-f098-4e30-8d19-46c29fb1c3ca", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "330", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1cac12eb97af7523aa63390c789aea2f60e8884ea5ff7f5ce16a05b6bc31bf9c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "P rokaryotes ar e used\nin human f ood pr oducts . Micr obial bior emediation is\nthe use o f micr obial metabolism t o remo ve pol lutants .\nThe human body c ontains a hug e community o f\nprokaryotes, man y of which pr ovide beneficial ser vices\nsuch as the de velopment and maint enanc e of theimmune s ystem, nutrition, and pr otection fr om\npathog ens.\n13.2 Eukaryotic Origins\nThe firs t euk aryotes e volved fr om anc estral\nprokaryotes b y a pr ocess that in volved membr ane\nproliferation, the los s of a c ell wall, the e volution o f a\ncytoskeleton, and the ac quisition and e volution o f\norganel les. Nuclear euk aryotic g enes appear t o ha ve\nhad an origin in the Ar chaea , wher eas the ener gy\nmachiner y of euk aryotic c ells appears t o be bact erial in\norigin. The mit ochondria and plas tids originat ed fr om\nendos ymbiotic e vents when anc estral cells eng ulfed an\naerobic bact erium (in the case o f mit ochondria) and a\nphot osynthetic bact erium (in the case o f chlor oplas ts).\nThe e volution o f mit ochondria lik ely preceded the\nevolution o f chlor oplas ts. Ther e is e videnc e of\nsecondar y endos ymbiotic e vents in which plas tids\nappear t o be the r esul t of endos ymbiosis aft er a\nprevious endos ymbiotic e vent.\n13.3 Protists\nProtists ar e extremel y div erse in t erms o f biological\nand ec ological char acteristics due in lar ge par t to the\nfact that the y are an ar tificial as semblag e of\nphylog enetical ly unr elated gr oups . Protists displa y\nhighl y varied c ell structur es, several types o f\nreproductiv e strategies , virtually every pos sible type o f\nnutrition, and v aried habitats . Mos t single -celled\nprotists ar e motile , but these or ganisms use div erse\nstructur es for tr anspor tation.\nThe pr ocess of clas sifying pr otists int o meaningful\ngroups is ong oing , but g enetic data in the pas t 20 y ears\nhave clarified man y relationships that w ere previousl y\nunclear or mis taken. The majority vie w at pr esent is t o\norder al l euk aryotes int o six super groups . The g oal o f\nthis clas sification scheme is t o create clus ters o f\nspecies that al l are deriv ed fr om a c ommon anc estor.\n13.4 Fungi\nFungi ar e euk aryotic or ganisms that appear ed on land316 13 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2546, "end_char_idx": 4837, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a0c29149-56c7-4a89-842e-d397ffbc67c3": {"__data__": {"id_": "a0c29149-56c7-4a89-842e-d397ffbc67c3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "331", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "00e9c775-0a47-4ee0-8e5d-7cc820f25245", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "331", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ef4e434c9b990fbecad4ba27a660846b583bbcfc7742a2e7adfe91745af22ad3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "c5876326-9dbe-410e-8afa-29180f58fa4f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "5c8cf0ea5bacd20dc2ec55f334793ff868e434aef79f21a3043e09fa4859e53d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "over 450 mil lion y ears ag o. The y are het erotrophs and\ncontain neither phot osynthetic pigments such as\nchlor ophylls nor or ganel les such as chlor oplas ts.\nBecause the y feed on deca ying and dead mat ter, the y\nare sapr obes . Fungi ar e impor tant dec omposers and\nrelease es sential elements int o the en vironment.\nExternal enzymes dig est nutrients that ar e absorbed b y\nthe body o f the fung us cal led a thal lus. A thick c ell wall\nmade o f chitin surr ounds the c ell. Fungi can be\nunic ellular as y easts or de velop a netw ork o f filaments\ncalled a m ycelium, o ften described as mold. Mos t\nspecies mul tiply by ase xual and se xual r eproductiv e\ncycles , and displa y an al ternation o f gener ations .\nThe divisions o f fungi ar e the Ch ytridiom ycota,\nZygomycota, Asc omycota, Basidiom ycota, and\nGlomer omycota.\nFungi es tablish par asitic r elationships with plants and\nanimals . Fungal diseases can decimat e crops and spoil\nfood during s torage. Compounds pr oduc ed b y fungi can\nbe toxic t o humans and other animals . My coses ar e\ninfections caused b y fungi. Super ficial m ycoses aff ect\nthe skin, wher eas s ystemic m ycoses spr ead thr oughthe body . Fungal inf ections ar e difficul t to cur e.\nFungi ha ve coloniz ed al l environments on Ear th but ar e\nmos t often found in c ool, dark, mois t plac es with a\nsuppl y of deca ying mat erial . Fungi ar e impor tant\ndecomposers because the y are sapr obes . Man y\nsuccessful mutualis tic relationships in volve a fung us\nand another or ganism. The y establish c omple x\nmycorrhizal as sociations with the r oots o f plants .\nLichens ar e a s ymbiotic r elationship betw een a fung us\nand a phot osynthetic or ganism, usual ly an alg a or\ncyanobact erium.\nFungi ar e impor tant t o everyday human lif e. Fungi ar e\nimpor tant dec omposers in mos t ecosystems .\nMycorrhizal fungi ar e es sential f or the gr owth o f mos t\nplants . Fungi, as f ood, pla y a r ole in human nutrition in\nthe f orm o f mushr ooms and as ag ents o f fermentation\nin the pr oduction o f bread, cheeses , alc oholic\nbeverages, and numer ous other f ood pr epar ations .\nSecondar y metabolit es o f fungi ar e used in medicine as\nantibiotics and antic oagulants . Fungi ar e used in\nresear ch as model or ganisms f or the s tudy o f\neukaryotic g enetics and metabolism.\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 13.6 Which o f the f ollowing s tatements is\ntrue?\na.Gram-positiv e bact eria ha ve a single c ell wall\nformed fr om pep tidogl ycan.\nb.Gram-positiv e bact eria ha ve an out er\nmembr ane.\nc.The c ell wall of Gram-neg ative bact eria is thick,\nand the c ell wall of Gram-positiv e bact eria is\nthin.\nd.Gram-neg ative bact eria ha ve a c ell wall made\nof pep tidogl ycan, while Gr am-positiv e bact eria\nhave a c ell wall made o f phospholipids .\nReview Ques tions\n2.The firs t forms o f life on Ear th w ere thought t o\nbe_______.\na.single -celled plants\nb.prokaryotes\nc.insects\nd.large animals such as dinosaurs\n3.The firs t organisms that o xygenat ed the\natmospher e were _______.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3055, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c5876326-9dbe-410e-8afa-29180f58fa4f": {"__data__": {"id_": "c5876326-9dbe-410e-8afa-29180f58fa4f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "331", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "00e9c775-0a47-4ee0-8e5d-7cc820f25245", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "331", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ef4e434c9b990fbecad4ba27a660846b583bbcfc7742a2e7adfe91745af22ad3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "a0c29149-56c7-4a89-842e-d397ffbc67c3", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "331", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0cb71f08c9b58a021b5ef1cfc9e9ad1659a9558a1f2e60054abd3ffe45144c4f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "b.Gram-positiv e bact eria ha ve an out er\nmembr ane.\nc.The c ell wall of Gram-neg ative bact eria is thick,\nand the c ell wall of Gram-positiv e bact eria is\nthin.\nd.Gram-neg ative bact eria ha ve a c ell wall made\nof pep tidogl ycan, while Gr am-positiv e bact eria\nhave a c ell wall made o f phospholipids .\nReview Ques tions\n2.The firs t forms o f life on Ear th w ere thought t o\nbe_______.\na.single -celled plants\nb.prokaryotes\nc.insects\nd.large animals such as dinosaurs\n3.The firs t organisms that o xygenat ed the\natmospher e were _______.\na.cyanobact eria\nb.phot otrophic or ganisms\nc.anaer obic or ganisms\nd.all of the abo ve4.Which o f the f ollowing c onsis t of prokaryotic c ells?\na.bact eria and fungi\nb.archaea and fungi\nc.protists and animals\nd.bact eria and ar chaea\n5.Prokaryotes stain as Gr am-positiv e or Gr am-\nnegative because o f diff erences in the _______.\na.cell wall\nb.cytoplasm\nc.nucleus\nd.chromosome13 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions 317", "start_char_idx": 2507, "end_char_idx": 3477, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6d92c013-dab1-424b-8c30-3bc350d854cc": {"__data__": {"id_": "6d92c013-dab1-424b-8c30-3bc350d854cc", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "332", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a30eae88-d718-4a84-b0d5-170ee7f833ec", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "332", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fbb963d2c79f4b79e460ef00767ba31f79815acca76a191e49bb2eb8a9a5b818", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "6.Prokaryotes that ob tain their ener gy from chemical\ncompounds ar e cal led _____.\na.phot otrophs\nb.auxotrophs\nc.chemotr ophs\nd.lithotr ophs\n7.Bior emediation includes _____.\na.the use o f prokaryotes that can fix nitr ogen\nb.the use o f prokaryotes to clean up pol lutants\nc.the use o f prokaryotes as natur al fertilizers\nd.All of the abo ve\n8.What e vent is thought t o ha ve contribut ed to the\nevolution o f euk aryotes?\na.global w arming\nb.glaciation\nc.volcanic activity\nd.oxygenation o f the atmospher e\n9.Mitochondria mos t likely evolved fr om\n_____________.\na.a phot osynthetic cy anobact erium\nb.cytoskeletal elements\nc.aerobic bact eria\nd.membr ane pr oliferation10.Protists with the capabilities t o absorb nutrients\nfrom dead or ganisms ar e cal led_____________.\na.phot oaut otrophs\nb.autotrophs\nc.sapr obes\nd.heterotrophs\n11.Which par asitic pr otist evades the hos t immune\nsystem b y altering its sur face proteins with each\ngener ation?\na.Paramecium caudatum\nb.Trypanosoma bruc ei\nc.Plasmodium falciparum\nd.Phytophthor a inf estans\n12.Which pol ysaccharide is usual ly found in the c ell\nwalls of fungi?\na.starch\nb.glycogen\nc.chitin\nd.cellulose\n13.What t erm describes the close as sociation o f a\nfung us with the r oot o f a tr ee?\na.a rhiz oid\nb.a lichen\nc.a mycorrhiza\nd.an endoph yte\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n14.Explain the r eason wh y the imprudent and\nexcessive use o f antibiotics has r esul ted in a major\nglobal pr oblem.\n15.Your friend belie ves that pr okaryotes ar e always\ndetrimental and pathog enic. Ho w would y ou\nexplain t o them that the y are wr ong?\n16.Describe the h ypothesiz ed s teps in the origin o f\neukaryote cells.17.How does kil ling Anopheles mosquit oes aff ect the\nPlasmodium protists?\n18.Without tr eatment, wh y does African sleeping\nsicknes s invariabl y lead t o death?\n19.Why can super ficial m ycoses in humans lead t o\nbact erial inf ections?318 13 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1982, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2afa73b3-2771-43dd-aef7-8b98987f318c": {"__data__": {"id_": "2afa73b3-2771-43dd-aef7-8b98987f318c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "333", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f3bb9b7a-8829-4b16-ae2c-9ac52580def8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "333", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "684dbeb791cbd9be1cc10f3c003b3e4be30efcf9d99867f7b267211ee49e9dd3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "CHAP TER 14\nDiversit y of Plants\n14.1 The Plant King dom\n14.2 Seedles s Plants\n14.3 Seed Plants: Gymnosperms\n14.4 Seed Plants: AngiospermsFIGURE 14.1 Plants dominat e the landscape and pla y an int egral role in human societies . (a) P alm tr ees gr ow in\ntropical or sub tropical climat es; (b) wheat is a cr op in mos t of the w orld; the flo wer of (c) the c otton plant pr oduc es\nfibers that ar e woven int o fabric; the pot ent alk aloids o f (d) the beautiful opium popp y ha ve influenc ed human lif e\nboth as a medicinal r emedy and as a dang erousl y addictiv e drug . (credit a: modification o f work b y\n\u201c3Bo ysInSanDieg o\u201d/Wikimedia Commons\u201d ; credit b: modification o f work b y Stephen Ausmus , USD A ARS; cr edit c:\nmodification o f work b y Da vid Nanc e, USD A ARS; cr edit d: modification o f work b y Jol ly Janner)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 852, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a20d162b-9923-4e6b-87e3-6904883620d8": {"__data__": {"id_": "a20d162b-9923-4e6b-87e3-6904883620d8", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "334", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a7090dd0-e7f2-4b2c-b974-6b5e4f1b5074", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "334", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b5f028806785a798f7457783d7f8113d8c38946e7357ad143bd71f411bbb6599", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "4d14a083-f799-4448-a3eb-513536817cf0", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "ef93c80871a17c409273ca7490242f938ac9535cd717dcba7302e20cb7b27eff", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT ION Plants pla y an int egral role in al l aspects o f life on the planet, shaping the\nphysical t errain, influencing the climat e, and maintaining lif e as w e kno w it. F or mil lennia , human\nsocieties ha ve depended on plants f or nutrition and medicinal c ompounds , and f or man y indus trial\nby-products , such as timber , paper , dyes, and t extiles . Palms pr ovide mat erials including r attans ,\noils, and dat es. Wheat is gr own t o feed both human and animal populations . The c otton bol l flower\nis har vested and its fibers tr ansformed int o clothing or pulp f or paper . The sho wy opium popp y is\nvalued both as an ornamental flo wer and as a sour ce of pot ent opiat e compounds .\nCurr ent e volutionar y thought holds that al l plants ar e monoph yletic: that is , desc endants o f a\nsingle c ommon anc estor. The e volutionar y transition fr om w ater to land imposed se vere\nconstraints on the anc estors o f contempor ary plants . Plants had t o evolve strategies t o avoid\ndrying out, t o disperse r eproductiv e cells in air , for structur al suppor t, and t o filter sunlight. While\nseed plants de veloped adap tations that al lowed them t o populat e even the mos t arid habitats on\nEarth, ful l independenc e from w ater did not happen in al l plants , and mos t seedles s plants s till\nrequir e a mois t environment.\n14.1 The Plant Kingdom\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the major char acteristics o f the plant king dom\n\u2022Discus s the chal leng es to plant lif e on land\n\u2022Describe the adap tations that al lowed plants t o coloniz e land\nPlants ar e a lar ge and v aried gr oup o f organisms . Ther e are close t o 300,000 species o f\ncatalog ued plants .1Of these , about 260,000 ar e plants that pr oduc e seeds . Mos ses, ferns ,\nconifers, and flo wering plants ar e all members o f the plant king dom. The plant king dom c ontains\nmos tly phot osynthetic or ganisms; a f ew par asitic f orms ha ve los t the ability t o phot osynthesiz e.\nThe pr ocess of phot osynthesis uses chlor ophyll, which is locat ed in or ganel les cal led chlor oplas ts.\nPlants pos sess cell walls containing c ellulose . Mos t plants r eproduc e se xual ly, but the y also ha ve\ndiverse methods o f ase xual r eproduction. Plants e xhibit indet erminat e growth, meaning the y do\nnot ha ve a final body f orm, but c ontinue t o grow body mas s until the y die .\nPlant se x cells and se x organs ar e clas sified using the same s ystem as those o f animals . Plants\nreproduc e thr ough a union o f two se x cells or g amet es o f diff erent siz es. The lar ger gamet es,\ncalled eg gs, are clas sified as f emale g amet es; the or gans that pr oduc e them, cal led pis tils, are\nclas sified as f emale or gans. The smal ler g amet es, cal led sperm, ar e clas sified as male g amet es;\nthe or gans that pr oduc es them, cal led the s tamens , are clas sified as male or gans. In man y plants ,\npistils and s tamens ar e found on the same plant body , making the plant capable o f both self-\nfertilization or cr oss-fertilization with another individual .\nPlant A daptations t o Life on Land\nAs or ganisms adap t to life on land, the y ha ve to contend with se veral chal leng es in the t errestrial\nenvironment.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3286, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4d14a083-f799-4448-a3eb-513536817cf0": {"__data__": {"id_": "4d14a083-f799-4448-a3eb-513536817cf0", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "334", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a7090dd0-e7f2-4b2c-b974-6b5e4f1b5074", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "334", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b5f028806785a798f7457783d7f8113d8c38946e7357ad143bd71f411bbb6599", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "a20d162b-9923-4e6b-87e3-6904883620d8", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "334", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b2e744fae1a587da40f7a4ef9eccd98691947da4d3dadd8363c69dd8d1921bf2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The lar ger gamet es,\ncalled eg gs, are clas sified as f emale g amet es; the or gans that pr oduc e them, cal led pis tils, are\nclas sified as f emale or gans. The smal ler g amet es, cal led sperm, ar e clas sified as male g amet es;\nthe or gans that pr oduc es them, cal led the s tamens , are clas sified as male or gans. In man y plants ,\npistils and s tamens ar e found on the same plant body , making the plant capable o f both self-\nfertilization or cr oss-fertilization with another individual .\nPlant A daptations t o Life on Land\nAs or ganisms adap t to life on land, the y ha ve to contend with se veral chal leng es in the t errestrial\nenvironment. W ater has been described as \u201c the s tuff o f life.\u201d The c ell\u2019s int erior \u2014the medium in\nwhich mos t smal l molecules dis solve and diffuse , and in which the majority o f the chemical\nreactions o f metabolism tak e plac e\u2014is a w atery soup . Desic cation, or dr ying out, is a c onstant\ndang er for an or ganism e xposed t o air . Even when par ts of a plant ar e close t o a sour ce of water,\ntheir aerial s tructur es ar e lik ely to dry out. W ater pr ovides buo yancy t o organisms that liv e in\naquatic habitats . On land, plants need t o de velop s tructur al suppor t in air \u2014a medium that does\nnot giv e the same lift. Additional ly, the male and f emale g amet es mus t reach one another using\nnew strategies because s wimming is no long er pos sible . Final ly, both g amet es and zy gotes mus t\nbe pr otected fr om dr ying out. The suc cessful land plants e volved s trategies t o deal with al l of\n1A.D. Chapman (2009) Numbers o f Living Species in Aus tralia and the W orld . 2nd edition. A R epor t for the\nAustralian Biological R esour ces Study . Aus tralian Biodiv ersity Inf ormation Ser vices, Toowoomba , Aus tralia. Available\nonline at ht tp://www .environment. gov.au/biodiv ersity /abrs/publications/other /species -numbers/2009/\n04-03-gr oups -plants .html .320 14 \u2022 Div ersity of Plants\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2625, "end_char_idx": 4634, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "11876add-aeb0-4f27-b4ba-385367cb6077": {"__data__": {"id_": "11876add-aeb0-4f27-b4ba-385367cb6077", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "335", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a48ccf39-a8ab-47be-add9-036eaddfa83e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "335", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b456815f277a970fc30fcb4f455067ad1c67237746a3d851c2b0787d937eac75", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "d42a18c5-599a-4338-91b9-58f247322183", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "8ecc4840a105b682c1e2c3e471c0e21f5d2f41656e7c250a0ac55b353c91eb59", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "these chal leng es, although not al l adap tations appear ed at onc e. Some species did not mo ve far fr om an aquatic\nenvironment, wher eas others left the w ater and w ent on t o conquer the dries t environments on Ear th.\nTo balanc e these sur vival chal leng es, life on land o ffers se veral adv antag es. Firs t, sunlight is abundant. On land, the\nspectr al quality o f light absorbed b y the phot osynthetic pigment, chlor ophyll, is not fil tered out b y water or\ncompeting phot osynthetic species in the w ater column abo ve. Sec ond, carbon dio xide is mor e readil y available\nbecause its c oncentr ation is higher in air than in w ater. Additional ly, land plants e volved bef ore land animals;\nther efore, until dr y land w as coloniz ed b y animals , no pr edat ors thr eatened the w ell-being o f plants . This situation\nchang ed as animals emer ged fr om the w ater and f ound abundant sour ces o f nutrients in the es tablished flor a. In\nturn, plants e volved s trategies t o det er pr edation: fr om spines and thorns t o toxic chemicals .\nThe earl y land plants , like the earl y land animals , did not liv e far fr om an abundant sour ce of water and de veloped\nsurvival strategies t o combat dr ynes s. One o f these s trategies is dr ought t olerance. Mos ses, for example , can dr y out\nto a br own and brit tle mat, but as soon as r ain mak es w ater available , mos ses wil l soak it up and r egain their\nheal thy, green appear ance. Another s trategy is t o coloniz e en vironments with high humidity wher e droughts ar e\nuncommon. F erns , an earl y lineag e of plants , thriv e in damp and c ool plac es, such as the unders tory of temper ate\nforests. Later, plants mo ved a way from aquatic en vironments using r esistanc e to desic cation, r ather than t olerance.\nThese plants , like the cactus , minimiz e water los s to such an e xtent the y can sur vive in the dries t environments on\nEarth.\nIn addition t o adap tations specific t o life on land, land plants e xhibit adap tations that w ere responsible f or their\ndiversity and pr edominanc e in t errestrial ec osystems . Four major adap tations ar e found in man y terrestrial plants:\nthe al ternation o f gener ations , a spor angium in which spor es ar e formed, a g ametangium that pr oduc es haploid\ncells, and in v ascular plants , apical meris tem tis sue in r oots and shoots .\nAlternation o f Gener ations\nAlternation o f gener ations describes a lif e cy cle in which an or ganism has both haploid and diploid mul ticellular\nstages (Figure 14.2 ).\nFIGURE 14.2 Alternation o f gener ations betw een the haploid (1 n) gamet ophyte and diploid (2 n) spor ophyte is sho wn. (cr edit: modification\nof work b y Peter Co xhead)\nHaplontic refers t o a lif e cy cle in which ther e is a dominant haploid s tage.Diplontic refers t o a lif e cy cle in which the\ndiploid s tage is the dominant s tage, and the haploid chr omosome number is onl y seen f or a brief time in the lif e\ncycle during se xual r eproduction. Humans ar e diplontic, f or example . Mos t plants e xhibit al ternation o f gener ations ,\nwhich is described as haplodiplontic : the haploid mul ticellular f orm kno wn as a g amet ophyte is f ollowed in the\ndevelopment sequenc e by a mul ticellular diploid or ganism, the spor ophyte. The gamet ophytegives rise t o the\ngamet es, or r eproductiv e cells, by mit osis .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3375, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d42a18c5-599a-4338-91b9-58f247322183": {"__data__": {"id_": "d42a18c5-599a-4338-91b9-58f247322183", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "335", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a48ccf39-a8ab-47be-add9-036eaddfa83e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "335", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b456815f277a970fc30fcb4f455067ad1c67237746a3d851c2b0787d937eac75", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "11876add-aeb0-4f27-b4ba-385367cb6077", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "335", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "74c006bbe78cd7967e02d6ea8162b406070fee251d2bed301a35200c2b99405a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Humans ar e diplontic, f or example . Mos t plants e xhibit al ternation o f gener ations ,\nwhich is described as haplodiplontic : the haploid mul ticellular f orm kno wn as a g amet ophyte is f ollowed in the\ndevelopment sequenc e by a mul ticellular diploid or ganism, the spor ophyte. The gamet ophytegives rise t o the\ngamet es, or r eproductiv e cells, by mit osis . It can be the mos t obvious phase o f the lif e cy cle o f the plant, as in the\nmos ses, or it can oc cur in a micr oscopic s tructur e, such as a pol len gr ain in the higher plants (the c ollectiv e term f or\nthe v ascular plants). The spor ophyte stage is bar ely notic eable in lo wer plants (the c ollectiv e term f or the plant\ngroups o f mos ses, liverworts, and horn worts). T owering tr ees ar e the diplontic phase in the lif ecycles o f plants such\nas sequoias and pines .14.1 \u2022 The Plant Kingdom 321", "start_char_idx": 3004, "end_char_idx": 3887, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b4f755da-8046-4bc3-a7d3-93910abc2852": {"__data__": {"id_": "b4f755da-8046-4bc3-a7d3-93910abc2852", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "336", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "219a6cb6-45cd-49c0-9f5d-18bd39e9e6b9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "336", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "bdfd7e1d293c5108f9e2233a38ce730011790385868a3fe590cb3028b72394ac", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Spor angia in the Seedless Plants\nThe spor ophyte of seedles s plants is diploid and r esul ts fromsyngamyor the fusion o f two gamet es (Figure 14.2 ).\nThe spor ophyte bears the spor angia (sing ular, spor angium), or gans that firs t appear ed in the land plants . The t erm\n\u201cspor angia\u201d lit erally means \u201c spor e in a v essel,\u201d as it is a r eproductiv e sac that c ontains spor es. Inside the\nmulticellular spor angia , the diploid spor ocyt es, or mother c ells, produc e haploid spor es b y meiosis , which r educ es\nthe 2 nchromosome number t o 1n. The spor es ar e lat er released b y the spor angia and disperse in the en vironment.\nTwo diff erent types o f spor es ar e produc ed in land plants , resul ting in the separ ation o f sexes at diff erent points in\nthe lif e cy cle. Seedles s non vascular plants (mor e appr opriat ely referred to as \u201c seedles s non vascular plants with a\ndominant g amet ophyte phase \u201d) pr oduc e onl y one kind o f spor e, and ar e cal ledhomospor ous. Aft er germinating\nfrom a spor e, the g amet ophyte produc es both male and f emale gametangia , usual ly on the same individual . In\ncontr ast,heterospor ous plants pr oduc e tw o morphological ly diff erent types o f spor es. The male spor es ar e cal led\nmicr ospor es because o f their smal ler siz e; the c ompar atively lar ger meg aspor es wil l develop int o the f emale\ngamet ophyte. Het erospor y is obser ved in a f ew seedles s vascular plants and in al l seed plants .\nWhen the haploid spor e germinat es, it g ener ates a mul ticellular g amet ophyte by mit osis . The g amet ophyte suppor ts\nthe zy gote formed fr om the fusion o f gamet es and the r esul ting y oung spor ophyte or v egetativ e form, and the cy cle\nbegins ane w (Figure 14.3 and Figure 14.4 ).\nFIGURE 14.3 This lif e cy cle o f a fern sho ws alternation o f gener ations with a dominant spor ophyte stage. (credit \"f ern\": modification o f\nwork b y Cor y Zank er; cr edit \"g amet ophyte\": modification o f work b y \"Vlmas tra\"/Wikimedia Commons)322 14 \u2022 Div ersity of Plants\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2085, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "496d929b-3ef4-48b0-97a3-3cfbb5486997": {"__data__": {"id_": "496d929b-3ef4-48b0-97a3-3cfbb5486997", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "337", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "72b6cc4c-ecbd-47da-a0fd-e65ccea5b03d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "337", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "71425954ff92e3b295ef50858700be72445c7342676f67f328249e950db05372", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 14.4 This lif e cy cle o f a mos s sho ws alternation o f gener ations with a dominant g amet ophyte stage. (credit: modification o f work b y\nMariana Ruiz Vil lareal)\nThe spor es o f seedles s plants and the pol len o f seed plants ar e surr ounded b y thick c ell walls containing a t ough\npolymer kno wn as spor opol lenin. This subs tanc e is char acterized b y long chains o f organic molecules r elated to\nfatty acids and car otenoids , and giv es mos t pol len its y ellow color. Spor opol lenin is unusual ly resistant t o chemical\nand biological degr adation. Its t oughnes s explains the e xistence of well-preser ved fossils o f pol len. Spor opol lenin\nwas onc e thought t o be an inno vation o f land plants; ho wever, the gr een alg aeColeochaet esis no w kno wn t o form\nspor es that c ontain spor opol lenin.\nProtection o f the embr yo is a major r equir ement f or land plants . The vulner able embr yo mus t be shel tered fr om\ndesic cation and other en vironmental hazar ds. In both seedles s and seed plants , the f emale g amet ophyte provides\nnutrition, and in seed plants , the embr yo is also pr otected as it de velops int o the ne w gener ation o f spor ophyte.\nGame tangia in the Seedless Plants\nGametangia (sing ular, gametangium) ar e structur es on the g amet ophytes o f seedles s plants in which g amet es ar e\nproduc ed b y mit osis . The male g ametangium, the antheridium, r eleases sperm. Man y seedles s plants pr oduc e\nsperm equipped with flag ella that enable them t o swim in a mois t environment t o the ar cheg onia , the f emale\ngametangium. The embr yo de velops inside the ar cheg onium as the spor ophyte.\nApic al Meris tems\nThe shoots and r oots o f plants incr ease in length thr ough r apid c ell division within a tis sue cal led the apical\nmeris tem(Figure 14.5 ). The apical meris tem is a cap o f cells at the shoot tip or r oot tip made o f undiff erentiat ed\ncells that c ontinue t o proliferate thr oughout the lif e of the plant. Meris tematic c ells giv e rise t o all the specializ ed\ntissues o f the plant. Elong ation o f the shoots and r oots al lows a plant t o ac cess additional spac e and r esour ces: light\nin the case o f the shoot, and w ater and miner als in the case o f roots . A separ ate meris tem, cal led the lat eral\nmeris tem, pr oduc es cells that incr ease the diamet er of stems and tr ee trunk s. Apical meris tems ar e an adap tation\nto allow vascular plants t o grow in dir ections es sential t o their sur vival: up ward to greater availability o f sunlight,\nand do wnward int o the soil t o ob tain w ater and es sential miner als.14.1 \u2022 The Plant Kingdom 323", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2653, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8c9116ab-09cd-4e50-980a-b90d63699211": {"__data__": {"id_": "8c9116ab-09cd-4e50-980a-b90d63699211", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "338", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5b7fd27e-f02f-48ec-946f-59ff85102a63", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "338", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "353cbd191380dd6d3b3d46622c8a7aacb395bae179dcb754f7a4288c4505c113", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 14.5 This apple seedling is an e xample o f a plant in which the apical meris tem giv es rise t o ne w shoots and r oot gr owth.\nAdditional Land Plant A daptations\nAs plants adap ted to dry land and became independent o f the c onstant pr esenc e of water in damp habitats , new\norgans and s tructur es made their appear ance. Earl y land plants did not gr ow abo ve a f ew inches o ff the gr ound, and\non these lo w mats , the y compet ed for light. B y evolving a shoot and gr owing tal ler, individual plants cap tured mor e\nlight. Because air o ffers subs tantial ly les s suppor t than w ater, land plants inc orpor ated mor e rigid molecules in their\nstems (and lat er, tree trunk s). The e volution o f vascular tis sue f or the dis tribution o f water and solut es w as a\nnecessary prerequisit e for plants t o evolve lar ger bodies . The v ascular s ystem c ontains xylem and phloem tis sues .\nXylem c onducts w ater and miner als tak en fr om the soil up t o the shoot; phloem tr anspor ts food deriv ed fr om\nphot osynthesis thr oughout the entir e plant. The r oot s ystem that e volved to tak e up w ater and miner als also\nanchor ed the incr easingl y tal ler shoot in the soil .\nIn land plants , a w axy, waterpr oof cover cal led a cuticle c oats the aerial par ts of the plant: lea ves and s tems . The\ncuticle also pr events intak e of carbon dio xide needed f or the s ynthesis o f carboh ydrates thr ough phot osynthesis .\nStomata , or por es, that open and close t o regulate traffic o f gases and w ater vapor ther efore appear ed in plants as\nthey mo ved int o drier habitats .\nPlants cannot a void pr edat ory animals . Ins tead, the y synthesiz e a lar ge range of poisonous sec ondar y metabolit es:\ncomple x organic molecules such as alk aloids , whose no xious smel ls and unpleasant tas te det er animals . These\ntoxic c ompounds can cause se vere diseases and e ven death.\nAdditional ly, as plants c oevolved with animals , sweet and nutritious metabolit es w ere de veloped t o lur e animals\ninto providing v aluable as sistanc e in dispersing pol len gr ains , fruit, or seeds . Plants ha ve been c oevolving with\nanimal as sociat es for hundr eds o f mil lions o f years ( Figure 14.6 ).324 14 \u2022 Div ersity of Plants\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2290, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "769d8144-b961-43f4-b783-8129bf557caf": {"__data__": {"id_": "769d8144-b961-43f4-b783-8129bf557caf", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "339", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b93e267c-e077-494f-940d-e8341db84771", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "339", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e2b780e2c4fa709161675f33de86885931350e6aff6c0568e92639acca8fb011", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 14.6 Plants ha ve evolved v arious adap tations t o life on land. (a) Earl y plants gr ew close t o the gr ound, lik e this mos s, to avoid\ndesic cation. (b) L ater plants de veloped a w axy cuticle t o prevent desic cation. (c) T o grow tal ler, like these maple tr ees, plants had t o evolve\nnew structur al chemicals t o strengthen their s tems and v ascular s ystems t o transpor t water and miner als fr om the soil and nutrients fr om\nthe lea ves. (d) Plants de veloped ph ysical and chemical def enses t o avoid being eat en b y animals . (credit a , b: modification o f work b y Cor y\nZank er; cr edit c: modification o f work b y Chris tine Cimala; cr edit d: modification o f work b y Jo Na ylor)\nEVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nPaleobo tany\nHow or ganisms ac quired tr aits that al low them t o coloniz e ne w en vironments , and ho w the c ontempor ary\necosystem is shaped, ar e fundamental ques tions o f evolution. P aleobotan y addr esses these ques tions b y\nspecializing in the s tudy o f extinct plants . Paleobotanis ts anal yze specimens r etrie ved fr om field s tudies ,\nreconstituting the morpholog y of organisms that ha ve long disappear ed. The y trace the e volution o f plants b y\nfollowing the modifications in plant morpholog y, and shed light on the c onnection betw een e xisting plants b y\nidentif ying c ommon anc estors that displa y the same tr aits. This field seek s to find tr ansitional species that bridg e\ngaps in the path t o the de velopment o f modern or ganisms . Fossils ar e formed when or ganisms ar e trapped in\nsediments or en vironments wher e their shapes ar e preser ved (Figure 14.7 ). Paleobotanis ts det ermine the\ngeological ag e of specimens and the natur e of their en vironment using the g eological sediments and f ossil\norganisms surr ounding them. The activity r equir es gr eat car e to preser ve the int egrity o f the delicat e fossils and the\nlayers in which the y are found.\nOne o f the mos t exciting r ecent de velopments in paleobotan y is the use o f anal ytical chemis try and molecular\nbiolog y to study f ossils. Preser vation o f molecular s tructur es requir es an en vironment fr ee o f oxygen, sinc e\noxidation and degr adation o f mat erial thr ough the activity o f micr oorganisms depend on the pr esenc e of oxygen.\nOne e xample o f the use o f anal ytical chemis try and molecular biolog y is in the identification o f oleanane , a\ncompound that det ers pes ts and which, up t o this point, appears t o be unique t o flo wering plants . Oleanane w as\nrecovered fr om sediments dating fr om the P ermian, much earlier than the curr ent dat es giv en for the appear ance of\nthe firs t flowering plants . Fossilized nucleic acids \u2014DNA and RNA \u2014yield the mos t information. Their sequenc es ar e\nanal yzed and c ompar ed to those o f living and r elated or ganisms . Thr ough this anal ysis, evolutionar y relationships\ncan be buil t for plant lineag es.\nSome paleobotanis ts ar e sk eptical o f the c onclusions dr awn fr om the anal ysis o f molecular f ossils. For one , the\nchemical mat erials o f interest degr ade r apidl y during initial isolation when e xposed t o air , as w ell as in fur ther\n14.1 \u2022 The Plant Kingdom 325", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3210, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "704afbfa-4804-43fc-8db2-e51c2e9f1591": {"__data__": {"id_": "704afbfa-4804-43fc-8db2-e51c2e9f1591", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "340", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4c5e0626-b46f-4fe2-bbfc-5e81b82f274d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "340", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b6b618c9a50277fd80c386c3ee26b474d3aaf4b640d1baa2b2da0ffc0a3afd74", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "manipulations . Ther e is al ways a high risk o f contaminating the specimens with e xtraneous mat erial , mos tly from\nmicr oorganisms . Nevertheles s, as t echnolog y is r efined, the anal ysis o f DNA fr om f ossilized plants wil l provide\ninvaluable inf ormation on the e volution o f plants and their adap tation t o an e ver-changing en vironment.\nFIGURE 14.7 This f ossil o f a palm leaf ( Palmacit essp.) disc overed in Wy oming dat es to about 40 mil lion y ears ag o.\nThe Major Divisions o f Land Plants\nLand plants ar e clas sified int o tw o major gr oups ac cording t o the absenc e or pr esenc e of vascular tis sue, as detailed\ninFigure 14.8 . Plants that lack v ascular tis sue f ormed o f specializ ed c ells for the tr anspor t of water and nutrients\nare referred to as nonvascular plants . The br yophytes, liverworts, mos ses, and horn worts ar e seedles s and\nnonvascular , and lik ely appear ed earl y in land plant e volution. Vascular plants developed a netw ork o f cells that\nconduct w ater and solut es thr ough the plant body . The firs t vascular plants appear ed in the lat e Or dovician\n(461\u2013444 mil lion y ears ag o) and w ere probabl y similar t o lycophytes, which include club mos ses (not t o be\nconfused with the mos ses) and the p terophytes (f erns , horsetails , and whisk f erns). L ycophytes and p terophytes ar e\nreferred to as seedles s vascular plants . The y do not pr oduc e seeds , which ar e embr yos with their s tored food\nreser ves pr otected b y a har d casing . The seed plants f orm the lar gest group o f all existing plants and, henc e,\ndominat e the landscape . Seed plants include g ymnosperms , mos t notabl y conifers, which pr oduc e \u201cnaked seeds ,\u201d\nand the mos t suc cessful plants , the flo wering plants , or angiosperms , which pr otect their seeds inside chambers at\nthe c enter of a flo wer. The w alls of these chambers lat er de velop int o fruits .\nFIGURE 14.8 This table sho ws the major divisions o f plants .\n14.2 Seedless Plants\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the dis tinguishing tr aits o f the thr ee types o f bryophytes\n\u2022Identif y the ne w traits that firs t appear in seedles s vascular plants\n\u2022Describe the major clas ses o f seedles s vascular plants\nAn incr edible v ariety o f seedles s plants populat es the t errestrial landscape . Mos ses gr ow on tr ee trunk s, and\nhorsetails ( Figure 14.9 ) displa y their joint ed s tems and spindl y lea ves on the f orest floor . Yet, seedles s plants\nrepresent onl y a smal l fraction o f the plants in our en vironment. Thr ee hundr ed mil lion y ears ag o, seedles s plants\ndominat ed the landscape and gr ew in the enormous s wamp y forests of the Carbonif erous period. Their326 14 \u2022 Div ersity of Plants\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2823, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0714efc0-4b4d-4824-b4a4-082098b9bca2": {"__data__": {"id_": "0714efc0-4b4d-4824-b4a4-082098b9bca2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "341", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ec5e7420-9f3b-4e75-b28a-26c105d20bdb", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "341", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f88bb405dc3c0a9d780feb42be82f1a5cdc6f8c6f99531fbc73384d3e3f31e1b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "decomposing bodies cr eated lar ge deposits o f coal that w e mine t oday.\nFIGURE 14.9 Seedles s plants lik e these horsetails ( Equisetum sp.) thriv e in damp , shaded en vironments under the tr ee canop y wher e\ndrynes s is a r are oc curr ence. (credit: Jerr y Kirkhar t)\nBryophytes\nBryophytes, an inf ormal gr ouping o f the non vascular plants , are the closes t extant r elativ e of earl y terrestrial plants .\nThe firs t bryophytes mos t probabl y appear ed in the Or dovician period, about 490 mil lion y ears ag o. Because o f the\nlack o f lignin\u2014the t ough pol ymer in c ell walls in the s tems o f vascular plants \u2014and other r esistant s tructur es, the\nlikelihood o f bryophytes forming f ossils is r ather smal l, though some spor es made up o f spor opol lenin ha ve been\ndisc overed that ha ve been at tribut ed to earl y bryophytes. By the Silurian period (440 mil lion y ears ag o), ho wever,\nvascular plants had spr ead thr oughout the c ontinents . This fact is used as e videnc e that non vascular plants mus t\nhave preceded the Silurian period.\nTher e are about 18,000 species o f bryophytes, which thriv e mos tly in damp habitats , although some gr ow in\ndeser ts. The y constitut e the major flor a of inhospitable en vironments lik e the tundr a, wher e their smal l size and\ntolerance to desic cation o ffer dis tinct adv antag es. The y do not ha ve the specializ ed c ells that c onduct fluids f ound in\nthe v ascular plants , and g ener ally lack lignin. In br yophytes, water and nutrients cir culat e inside specializ ed\nconducting c ells. Although the name nontr acheoph yte is mor e ac curate, bryophytes ar e commonl y referred to as\nnonvascular plants .\nIn a br yophyte, all the c onspicuous v egetativ e organs belong t o the haploid or ganism, or g amet ophyte. The diploid\nspor ophyte is bar ely notic eable . The g amet es formed b y bryophytes swim using flag ella. The spor angium, the\nmulticellular se xual r eproductiv e structur e, is pr esent in br yophytes. The embr yo also r emains at tached t o the\nparent plant, which nourishes it. This is a char acteristic o f land plants .\nThe br yophytes ar e divided int o thr ee divisions (in plants , the tax onomic le vel \u201cdivision \u201d is used ins tead o f phylum):\nthe liv erworts, or Mar chantioph yta; the horn worts, or Anthoc erotophyta; and the mos ses, or true Br yophyta.\nLiverworts\nLiverworts(Mar chantioph yta) ma y be vie wed as the plants mos t closel y related to the anc estor that mo ved to land.\nLiverworts ha ve coloniz ed man y habitats on Ear th and div ersified t o mor e than 6,000 e xisting species ( Figure\n14.10 a). Some g amet ophytes form lobat e green s tructur es, as seen in Figure 14.10 b. The shape is similar t o the\nlobes o f the liv er and, henc e, provides the origin o f the c ommon name giv en to the division.14.2 \u2022 Seedless Plants 327", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2862, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "139fad69-5db1-4667-8279-dae2e7e93b71": {"__data__": {"id_": "139fad69-5db1-4667-8279-dae2e7e93b71", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "342", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c716002d-f3cf-4334-837f-bf399fa0864a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "342", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "db2e3b20d59d3be0df2b9f3efaa86aa452b18f0e90ef175cec7561cc1176de9e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 14.10 (a) A 1904 dr awing o f liverworts sho ws the v ariety o f their f orms . (b) A liv erwort,Lunularia cruciata , displa ys its lobat e, flat\nthallus. The or ganism in the phot ograph is in the g amet ophyte stage.\nHorn worts\nThe horn worts(Anthoc erotophyta) ha ve coloniz ed a v ariety o f habitats on land, al though the y are ne ver far fr om a\nsour ce of mois ture. Ther e are about 100 described species o f horn worts. The dominant phase o f the lif e cy cle o f\nhorn worts is the shor t, blue -green g amet ophyte. The spor ophyte is the defining char acteristic o f the gr oup. It is a\nlong and narr ow pipe -like structur e that emer ges fr om the par ent g amet ophyte and maintains gr owth thr oughout\nthe lif e of the plant ( Figure 14.11 ).\nFIGURE 14.11 Horn worts gr ow a tal l and slender spor ophyte. (credit: modification o f work b y Jason Hol linger)\nMosses\nMore than 12,000 species o fmos ses have been catalog ued. Their habitats v ary from the tundr a, wher e the y are the\nmain v egetation, t o the unders tory of tropical f orests. In the tundr a, their shal low rhiz oids al low them t o fas ten to a\nsubs trate without dig ging int o the fr ozen soil . The y slo w do wn er osion, s tore mois ture and soil nutrients , and\nprovide shel ter for smal l animals and f ood f or lar ger herbiv ores, such as the musk o x. Mos ses ar e very sensitiv e to\nair pol lution and ar e used t o monit or the quality o f air. The sensitivity o f mos ses t o copper sal ts mak es these sal ts a\ncommon ingr edient o f compounds mark eted to eliminat e mos ses in la wns ( Figure 14.12 ).328 14 \u2022 Div ersity of Plants\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1673, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5bef682e-fb62-4409-b336-801858884a55": {"__data__": {"id_": "5bef682e-fb62-4409-b336-801858884a55", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "343", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "22529767-6ed3-4539-b467-0ea957872813", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "343", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0d7826344d852e63bc9ee7264c0552825c941f41cbe08fc48632e1caf8b25ac6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "bc2d34ea-eeda-4886-9a80-591ad106423c", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "b6ccc1228944a29641803d79be57a1ab7ac393290f6f10fa96b85a7a03726214", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 14.12 This gr een f eather y mos s has r eddish-br own spor ophytes gr owing up ward. (cr edit: \"L ordgrunt\"/ Wikimedia Commons)\nVascular Plants\nThe v ascular plants ar e the dominant and mos t conspicuous gr oup o f land plants . Ther e are about 275,000 species\nof vascular plants , which r epresent mor e than 90 per cent o f Ear th\u2019s vegetation. Se veral evolutionar y inno vations\nexplain their suc cess and their spr ead t o so man y habitats .\nVascular Tissue: X ylem and Phloem\nThe firs t fossils that sho w the pr esenc e of vascular tis sue ar e dat ed to the Silurian period, about 430 mil lion y ears\nago. The simples t arr angement o f conductiv e cells sho ws a pat tern o f xylem at the c enter surr ounded b y phloem.\nXylem is the tis sue r esponsible f or long-dis tanc e transpor t of water and miner als, the tr ansfer of water-soluble\ngrowth fact ors fr om the or gans o f synthesis t o the tar get or gans, and s torage of water and nutrients .\nA sec ond type o f vascular tis sue is phloem , which tr anspor ts sug ars, proteins , and other solut es thr ough the plant.\nPhloem c ells ar e divided int o sie ve elements , or c onducting c ells, and suppor tive tis sue. Together , xylem and\nphloem tis sues f orm the v ascular s ystem o f plants .\nRoots: Suppor t for the Plant\nRoots ar e not w ell preser ved in the f ossil record; ne vertheles s, it seems that the y did appear lat er in e volution than\nvascular tis sue. The de velopment o f an e xtensiv e netw ork o f roots r epresent ed a significant ne w featur e of vascular\nplants . Thin rhiz oids at tached the br yophytes to the subs trate. Their r ather flims y filaments did not pr ovide a s trong\nanchor f or the plant; neither did the y absorb w ater and nutrients . In c ontr ast, roots , with their pr ominent v ascular\ntissue s ystem, tr ansfer w ater and miner als fr om the soil t o the r est of the plant. The e xtensiv e netw ork o f roots that\npenetr ates deep in the gr ound t o reach sour ces o f water also s tabiliz es tr ees b y acting as bal last and an anchor . The\nmajority o f roots es tablish a s ymbiotic r elationship with fungi, f orming m ycorrhizae . In the m ycorrhizae , fung al\nhyphae gr ow ar ound the r oot and within the r oot ar ound the c ells, and in some ins tanc es within the c ells. This\nbenefits the plant b y greatly incr easing the sur face area for absorp tion.\nLeaves, Spor ophylls, and S trobili\nA thir d adap tation mark s seedles s vascular plants . Accompan ying the pr ominenc e of the spor ophyte and the\ndevelopment o f vascular tis sue, the appear ance of true lea ves impr oved phot osynthetic efficiency . Leaves cap ture\nmor e sunlight with their incr eased sur face area.\nIn addition t o phot osynthesis , lea ves pla y another r ole in the lif e of the plants . Pinec ones , matur e fronds o f ferns ,\nand flo wers ar e allspor ophylls\u2014lea ves that w ere modified s tructur ally to bear spor angia .Strobili are structur es\nthat c ontain the spor angia . The y are prominent in c onifers and ar e kno wn c ommonl y as c ones: f or example , the pine\ncones o f pine tr ees.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3119, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bc2d34ea-eeda-4886-9a80-591ad106423c": {"__data__": {"id_": "bc2d34ea-eeda-4886-9a80-591ad106423c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "343", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "22529767-6ed3-4539-b467-0ea957872813", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "343", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0d7826344d852e63bc9ee7264c0552825c941f41cbe08fc48632e1caf8b25ac6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "5bef682e-fb62-4409-b336-801858884a55", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "343", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "93ba6d18440d3a733c3d5f20ef9ea61d14b2a25d75aa34941a261891d116a91b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Accompan ying the pr ominenc e of the spor ophyte and the\ndevelopment o f vascular tis sue, the appear ance of true lea ves impr oved phot osynthetic efficiency . Leaves cap ture\nmor e sunlight with their incr eased sur face area.\nIn addition t o phot osynthesis , lea ves pla y another r ole in the lif e of the plants . Pinec ones , matur e fronds o f ferns ,\nand flo wers ar e allspor ophylls\u2014lea ves that w ere modified s tructur ally to bear spor angia .Strobili are structur es\nthat c ontain the spor angia . The y are prominent in c onifers and ar e kno wn c ommonl y as c ones: f or example , the pine\ncones o f pine tr ees.\nSeedless V ascular Plants\nBy the L ate De vonian period (385 mil lion y ears ag o), plants had e volved v ascular tis sue, well-defined lea ves, and\nroot s ystems . With these adv antag es, plants incr eased in height and siz e. During the Carbonif erous period (359\u2013299\nmillion y ears ag o), s wamp f orests of club mos ses and horsetails , with some specimens r eaching mor e than 3014.2 \u2022 Seedless Plants 329", "start_char_idx": 2487, "end_char_idx": 3531, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ed193ffe-f92c-47ca-a71f-f162667fa4b8": {"__data__": {"id_": "ed193ffe-f92c-47ca-a71f-f162667fa4b8", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "344", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "54e88524-fb52-4e5f-927d-c9bcd4144830", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "344", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "38e847355e0380abd7b9bdc74669dc4400d12172ca4ca8912ddbc39f8c33f8aa", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "meters tal l, covered mos t of the land. These f orests gave rise t o the e xtensiv e coal deposits that g ave the\nCarbonif erous its name . In seedles s vascular plants , the spor ophyte became the dominant phase o f the lif ecycle.\nWater is s till requir ed for fertilization o f seedles s vascular plants , and mos t favor a mois t environment. Modern-da y\nseedles s vascular plants include club mos ses, horsetails , ferns , and whisk f erns .\nClub Mosses\nThe club mos ses, or L ycophyta, are the earlies t group o f seedles s vascular plants . The y dominat ed the landscape o f\nthe Carbonif erous period, gr owing int o tal l trees and f orming lar ge swamp f orests. Today\u2019s club mos ses ar e\ndiminutiv e, evergreen plants c onsis ting o f a s tem (which ma y be br anched) and smal l lea ves cal led micr ophylls\n(Figure 14.13 ). The division L ycophyta c onsis ts of close t o 1,000 species , including quil lworts (Isoetales ), club\nmos ses (L ycopodiales), and spik e mos ses (Selaginel lales): none o f which is a true mos s.\nFIGURE 14.13 Lycopodium cla vatum is a club mos s. (credit: Cor y Zank er)\nHorsetails\nFerns and whisk f erns belong t o the division Pt erophyta. A thir d group o f plants in the Pt erophyta, the horsetails , is\nsometimes clas sified separ ately from f erns .Horsetails have a single g enus ,Equisetum . The y are the sur vivors o f a\nlarge group o f plants , kno wn as Ar throphyta, which pr oduc ed lar ge trees and entir e swamp f orests in the\nCarbonif erous. The plants ar e usual ly found in damp en vironments and marshes ( Figure 14.14 ).\nFIGURE 14.14 Horsetails thriv e in a marsh. (cr edit: Myriam F eldman)\nThe s tem o f a horsetail is char acterized b y the pr esenc e of joints , or nodes: henc e the name Ar throphyta, which\nmeans \u201cjoint ed plant \u201d. Leaves and br anches c ome out as whorls fr om the e venly spac ed rings . The needle -shaped\nleaves do not c ontribut e greatly to phot osynthesis , the majority o f which tak es plac e in the gr een s tem ( Figure\n14.15 ).330 14 \u2022 Div ersity of Plants\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2089, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f16e32a4-57f2-4605-9225-687892111888": {"__data__": {"id_": "f16e32a4-57f2-4605-9225-687892111888", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "345", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7a8da268-9702-4524-a3f6-ee7f81f48a24", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "345", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2730c78fa72e58d668dc6e6a6a2dd091e386716721e518dd750e96aed9616821", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 14.15 Thin lea ves originating at the joints ar e notic eable on the horsetail plant. (cr edit: Myriam F eldman)\nFerns and Whisk F erns\nFerns ar e consider ed the mos t adv anced seedles s vascular plants and displa y char acteristics c ommonl y obser ved in\nseed plants . Ferns f orm lar ge lea ves and br anching r oots . In c ontr ast,whisk f erns , the psiloph ytes, lack both r oots\nand lea ves, which w ere probabl y los t by evolutionar y reduction. Ev olutionar y reduction is a pr ocess by which natur al\nselection r educ es the siz e of a s tructur e that is no long er fa vorable in a par ticular en vironment. Phot osynthesis\ntakes plac e in the gr een s tem o f a whisk f ern. Smal l yellow knobs f orm at the tip o f the br anch s tem and c ontain the\nspor angia . Whisk f erns ha ve been clas sified outside the true f erns; ho wever, recent c ompar ative anal ysis o f DNA\nsuggests that this gr oup ma y ha ve los t both v ascular tis sue and r oots thr ough e volution, and is actual ly closel y\nrelated to ferns .\nWith their lar ge fronds ,ferns are the mos t readil y recognizable seedles s vascular plants ( Figure 14.16 ). About\n12,000 species o f ferns liv e in en vironments r anging fr om tr opics t o temper ate forests. Although some species\nsurvive in dr y en vironments , mos t ferns ar e restrict ed to mois t and shaded plac es. The y made their appear ance in\nthe f ossil record during the De vonian period (416\u2013359 mil lion y ears ag o) and e xpanded during the Carbonif erous\nperiod, 359\u2013299 mil lion y ears ag o (Figure 14.17 ).\nFIGURE 14.16 Some specimens o f this shor t tree-fern species can gr ow very tal l. (credit: Adrian Pings tone)14.2 \u2022 Seedless Plants 331", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1707, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "31b474c5-4766-43bc-9963-f11bdb58f8fb": {"__data__": {"id_": "31b474c5-4766-43bc-9963-f11bdb58f8fb", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "346", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "394d54b6-c72d-47ff-9eeb-20233850c75e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "346", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a33b3d88a8147b3d0d07b64ddf88e488f5ac56162381476054b87242113104e1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 14.17 This char t sho ws the g eological time scale , beginning with the P re-Archean eon 3800 mil lion y ears ag o and ending with the\nQuat ernar y period in pr esent time . (credit: modification o f work b y USGS)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch this video (https:/ /www .youtube .com/w atch?v=Fhk -Y0duNjg )illustrating the lif e cy cle o f a fern and as sess\nyour kno wledg e.\nCAREER C ONNE CTION\nLandsc ape Designer\nLooking at the w ell-laid g ardens o f flowers and f ountains seen in r oyal cas tles and his toric houses o f Eur ope, it is\nclear that the cr eators o f those g ardens kne w mor e than ar t and design. The y were also familiar with the biolog y of\nthe plants the y chose . Landscape design also has s trong r oots in the Unit ed Stat es\u2019 tr adition. A prime e xample o f\nearly American clas sical design is Montic ello, Thomas Jeff erson \u2019s priv ate es tate; among his man y other int erests,\nJefferson maintained a pas sion f or botan y. Landscape la yout can enc ompas s a smal l priv ate spac e, like a backy ard\ngarden; public g athering plac es, like Centr al Park in Ne w York City; or an entir e city plan, lik e Pierr e L\u2019Enfant \u2019s design\nfor W ashingt on, DC.\nA landscape designer wil l plan tr aditional public spac es\u2014such as botanical g ardens , park s, college campuses ,\ngardens , and lar ger de velopments \u2014as w ell as natur al ar eas and priv ate gardens ( Figure 14.18 ). The r estoration o f\nnatur al plac es encr oached upon b y human int ervention, such as w etlands , also r equir es the e xper tise o f a\nlandscape designer .\nWith such an arr ay of requir ed skil ls, a landscape designer \u2019s education includes a solid back ground in botan y, soil\nscienc e, plant patholog y, ent omolog y, and hor ticul ture. Course work in ar chitectur e and design so ftware is also\nrequir ed for the c ompletion o f the degr ee. The suc cessful design o f a landscape r ests on an e xtensiv e kno wledg e of\nplant gr owth r equir ements , such as light and shade , mois ture levels, compatibility o f diff erent species , and\nsusc eptibility t o pathog ens and pes ts. For example , mos ses and f erns wil l thriv e in a shaded ar ea wher e fountains\nprovide mois ture; cacti, on the other hand, w ould not far e well in that en vironment. The futur e growth o f the\nindividual plants mus t be tak en int o ac count t o avoid cr owding and c ompetition f or light and nutrients . The\nappear ance of the spac e over time is also o f concern. Shapes , colors , and biolog y mus t be balanc ed for a w ell-\nmaintained and sus tainable gr een spac e. Art, architectur e, and biolog y blend in a beautiful ly designed and\n332 14 \u2022 Div ersity of Plants\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2712, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ea7c6f49-854a-49cb-9818-4057960ecb20": {"__data__": {"id_": "ea7c6f49-854a-49cb-9818-4057960ecb20", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "347", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "516f5358-0103-4429-88bd-e7265224e44a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "347", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5d91b238d7ba014d6e5c3613d4eec0dd1a24a08353ef464e5e37e61403d7552c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "e97232fd-6339-4db8-86dc-9573abdb24e5", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "7865c3951097b0f0eff09c843233b314d5d472bcfcabdc0252c18eb64909fc35", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "implement ed landscape .\nFIGURE 14.18 This campus g arden w as designed b y students in the hor ticul ture and landscaping depar tment o f the c ollege. (credit:\nMyriam F eldman)\n14.3 Seed Plants: Gymnosperms\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Discus s the type o f seeds pr oduc ed b y gymnosperms , as w ell as other char acteristics o f gymnosperms\n\u2022List the f our gr oups o f modern-da y gymnosperms and pr ovide e xamples o f each\nThe firs t plants t o coloniz e land w ere mos t likely closel y related to modern-da y mos ses (br yophytes) and ar e\nthought t o ha ve appear ed about 500 mil lion y ears ag o. The y were followed b y liverworts (also br yophytes) and\nprimitiv e vascular plants , the p terophytes, from which modern f erns ar e deriv ed. The lif e cy cle o f bryophytes and\npterophytes is char acterized b y the al ternation o f gener ations . The c ompletion o f the lif e cy cle r equir es w ater, as the\nmale g amet es mus t swim t o the f emale g amet es. The male g amet ophyte releases sperm, which mus t\nswim\u2014pr opel led b y their flag ella\u2014to reach and f ertilize the f emale g amet e or eg g. Aft er fertilization, the zy gote\nmatur es and gr ows int o a spor ophyte, which in turn wil l form spor angia , or \"spor e vessels ,\u201d in which mother c ells\nunder go meiosis and pr oduc e haploid spor es. The r elease o f spor es in a suitable en vironment wil l lead t o\ngermination and a ne w gener ation o f gamet ophytes.\nThe E volution o f Seed Plants\nIn seed plants , the e volutionar y trend led t o a dominant spor ophyte gener ation, in which the lar ger and mor e\necological ly significant g ener ation f or a species is the diploid plant. A t the same time , the tr end led t o a r eduction in\nthe siz e of the g amet ophyte, from a c onspicuous s tructur e to a micr oscopic clus ter of cells enclosed in the tis sues o f\nthe spor ophyte. Lower vascular plants , such as club mos ses and f erns , are mos tly homospor ous (pr oduc e onl y one\ntype o f spor e). In c ontr ast, all seed plants , or spermat ophytes, are het erospor ous, forming tw o types o f spor es:\nmeg aspor es (f emale) and micr ospor es (male). Meg aspor es de velop int o female g amet ophytes that pr oduc e eg gs,\nand micr ospor es matur e int o male g amet ophytes that g ener ate sperm. Because g amet ophyte matur ation depends\non w ater and nutrient suppl y from the dominant spor ophyte tis sue, the y are not fr ee-living , as ar e the g amet ophytes\nof seedles s vascular plants . Het erospor ous seedles s plants ar e seen as the e volutionar y forerunners o f seed plants .\nSeeds and pol len\u2014tw o adap tations t o drought \u2014distinguish seed plants fr om other (seedles s) vascular plants . Both\nadap tations w ere critical t o the c olonization o f land. F ossils plac e the earlies t dis tinct seed plants at about 350\nmillion y ears ag o. The earlies t reliable r ecord of gymnosperms dat es their appear ance to the Carbonif erous period\n(359\u2013299 mil lion y ears ag o). Gymnosperms w ere preceded b y the pr ogymnosperms (\u201c first nak ed seed plants\u201d).", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3114, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e97232fd-6339-4db8-86dc-9573abdb24e5": {"__data__": {"id_": "e97232fd-6339-4db8-86dc-9573abdb24e5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "347", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "516f5358-0103-4429-88bd-e7265224e44a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "347", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5d91b238d7ba014d6e5c3613d4eec0dd1a24a08353ef464e5e37e61403d7552c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "ea7c6f49-854a-49cb-9818-4057960ecb20", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "347", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "93d526f9e1f4149294e388a0e7e6eaf08e351f08ddd580de78e9a345ff8c7502", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Het erospor ous seedles s plants ar e seen as the e volutionar y forerunners o f seed plants .\nSeeds and pol len\u2014tw o adap tations t o drought \u2014distinguish seed plants fr om other (seedles s) vascular plants . Both\nadap tations w ere critical t o the c olonization o f land. F ossils plac e the earlies t dis tinct seed plants at about 350\nmillion y ears ag o. The earlies t reliable r ecord of gymnosperms dat es their appear ance to the Carbonif erous period\n(359\u2013299 mil lion y ears ag o). Gymnosperms w ere preceded b y the pr ogymnosperms (\u201c first nak ed seed plants\u201d).\nThis w as a tr ansitional gr oup o f plants that super ficial ly resembled c onifers (\u201c cone bear ers\u201d) because the y produc ed\nwood fr om the sec ondar y growth o f the v ascular tis sues; ho wever, the y still reproduc ed lik e ferns , releasing spor es\nto the en vironment. In the Meso zoic er a (251\u201365.5 mil lion y ears ag o), g ymnosperms dominat ed the landscape .\nAngiosperms t ook o ver by the middle o f the Cr etac eous period (145.5\u201365.5 mil lion y ears ag o) in the lat e Meso zoic\nera, and ha ve sinc e bec ome the mos t abundant plant gr oup in mos t terrestrial biomes .14.3 \u2022 Seed Plants: Gymnosperms 333", "start_char_idx": 2540, "end_char_idx": 3736, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "94897c78-f9d7-47ff-ab94-7a8963869963": {"__data__": {"id_": "94897c78-f9d7-47ff-ab94-7a8963869963", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "348", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5be71eae-ac85-4457-aacc-675a1bb67d56", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "348", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3e87daf8f48417eba2a01bddf3810021e5220782b5becbc6c1348a16db4705b5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The tw o inno vative structur es o f pol len and seed al lowed seed plants t o break their dependenc e on w ater for\nreproduction and de velopment o f the embr yo, and t o conquer dr y land. The pol len gr ains carr y the male g amet es o f\nthe plant. The smal l haploid (1 n) cells ar e encased in a pr otectiv e coat that pr events desic cation (dr ying out) and\nmechanical damag e. Pollen can tr avel far fr om the spor ophyte that bor e it, spr eading the plant \u2019s genes and a voiding\ncompetition with other plants . The seed o ffers the embr yo protection, nourishment and a mechanism t o maintain\ndormancy f or tens or e ven thousands o f years , allowing it t o sur vive in a harsh en vironment and ensuring\ngermination when gr owth c onditions ar e op timal . Seeds al low plants t o disperse the ne xt gener ation thr ough both\nspac e and time . With such e volutionar y adv antag es, seed plants ha ve bec ome the mos t suc cessful and familiar\ngroup o f plants .\nGymnosperms\nGymnosperms (\u201cnaked seed\u201d) ar e a div erse gr oup o f seed plants and ar e par aphyletic. P araphyletic gr oups do not\ninclude desc endants o f a single c ommon anc estor. Gymnosperm char acteristics include nak ed seeds , separ ate\nfemale and male g amet es, pol lination b y wind, and tr acheids , which tr anspor t water and solut es in the v ascular\nsystem.\nLife Cycle o f a C onifer\nPine tr ees ar e conifers and carr y both male and f emale spor ophylls on the same plant. Lik e all gymnosperms , pines\nare het erospor ous and pr oduc e male micr ospor es and f emale meg aspor es. In the male c ones , or s taminat e cones ,\nthemicr ospor ocyt esgive rise t o micr ospor es b y meiosis . The micr ospor es then de velop int o pol len gr ains . Each\npollen gr ain c ontains tw o cells: one g ener ative cell that wil l divide int o tw o sperm, and a sec ond c ell that wil l\nbecome the pol len tube c ell. In the spring , pine tr ees r elease lar ge amounts o f yellow pol len, which is carried b y the\nwind. Some g amet ophytes wil l land on a f emale c one. The pol len tube gr ows from the pol len gr ain slo wly, and the\ngener ative cell in the pol len gr ain divides int o tw o sperm c ells by mit osis . One o f the sperm c ells wil l final ly unit e its\nhaploid nucleus with the haploid nucleus o f an eg g cell in the pr ocess of fertilization.\nFemale cones , or o vulat e cones , contain tw o ovules per scale . One meg aspor ocyt eunder goes meiosis in each\novule . Onl y a single sur viving haploid c ell wil l develop int o a f emale mul ticellular g amet ophyte that encloses an eg g.\nOn f ertilization, the zy gote wil l giv e rise t o the embr yo, which is enclosed in a seed c oat o f tissue fr om the par ent\nplant. F ertilization and seed de velopment is a long pr ocess in pine tr ees\u2014it ma y tak e up t o tw o years aft er\npollination. The seed that is f ormed c ontains thr ee g ener ations o f tissues: the seed c oat that originat es fr om the\nparent plant tis sue, the f emale g amet ophyte that wil l provide nutrients , and the embr yo itself .Figure 14.19\nillustrates the lif e cy cle o f a c onifer.334 14 \u2022 Div ersity of Plants\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3182, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "63f9239d-03a9-4677-932d-6b2eaa0b0011": {"__data__": {"id_": "63f9239d-03a9-4677-932d-6b2eaa0b0011", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "349", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b3c76add-2cca-4f49-931c-2a7645816bc4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "349", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8435692a19e592a84c3304e6db433dfd0f8e0eb19e65e637aa94dfd5aa11b83a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 14.19 This imag e sho ws the lif ecycle o f a c onifer.\nAt what s tage does the diploid zy gote form?\na.when the f emale c one begins t o bud fr om the tr ee\nb.when the sperm nucleus and the eg g nucleus fuse\nc.when the seeds dr op fr om the tr ee\nd.when the pol len tube begins t o grow\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch this video (http://opens tax.org/l/gymnosperm) to see the pr ocess of seed pr oduction in g ymnosperms .\nDiversity of Gymnosperms\nModern g ymnosperms ar e clas sified int o four major divisions and c omprise about 1,000 described species .\nConif erophyta, Cycadoph yta, and Gink gophyta ar e similar in their pr oduction o f sec ondar y cambium (c ells that\ngener ate the v ascular s ystem o f the trunk or s tem) and their pat tern o f seed de velopment, but ar e not closel y\nrelated ph ylog enetical ly to each other . Gnet ophyta ar e consider ed the closes t group t o angiosperms because the y\nproduc e true xylem tis sue that c ontains both tr acheids and v essel elements .\nConifers\nConif ersare the dominant ph ylum o f gymnosperms , with the mos t variety o f species . Mos t are tal l trees that usual ly\nbear scale -like or needle -like lea ves. The thin shape o f the needles and their w axy cuticle limits w ater los s thr ough\ntranspir ation. Sno w slides easil y off needle -shaped lea ves, keeping the load light and decr easing br eaking o f\nbranches . These adap tations t o cold and dr y weather e xplain the pr edominanc e of conifers at high al titudes and in\ncold climat es. Conif ers include familiar e vergreen tr ees, such as pines , spruc es, firs , cedars , sequoias , and y ews\n(Figure 14.20 ). A f ew species ar e deciduous and lose their lea ves al l at onc e in fal l. The Eur opean lar ch and the\ntamar ack ar e examples o f deciduous c onifers. Man y coniferous tr ees ar e har vested for paper pulp and timber . The\nwood o f conifers is mor e primitiv e than the w ood o f angiosperms; it c ontains tr acheids , but no v essel elements , and\n14.3 \u2022 Seed Plants: Gymnosperms 335", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2053, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "cef091fd-43b4-452d-adb0-d45c06aa9ca4": {"__data__": {"id_": "cef091fd-43b4-452d-adb0-d45c06aa9ca4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "350", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e5721ddc-3f97-4cca-a4e8-070957e21045", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "350", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6aa2d3f109f728a7401955f9e4885e6f0f9c24e3d3d69cefed88eaf70f08575f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "is referred to as \u201c soft wood. \u201d\nFIGURE 14.20 Conif ers ar e the dominant f orm o f vegetation in c old or arid en vironments and at high al titudes . Sho wn her e are the (a)\nevergreen spruc e, (b) sequoia , (c) juniper , and (d) a deciduous g ymnosperm: the tamar ack Larix laricina . Notic e the y ellow lea ves o f the\ntamar ack. (cr edit b: modification o f work b y Alan L evine; cr edit c: modification o f work b y Wendy McCormac; cr edit d: modification o f work\nby Micky Zlimen)\nCycads\nCycads thriv e in mild climat es and ar e often mis taken for palms because o f the shape o f their lar ge, compound\nleaves. The y bear lar ge cones , and unusual ly for gymnosperms , ma y be pol linat ed b y beetles , rather than wind. The y\ndominat ed the landscape during the ag e of dinosaurs in the Meso zoic er a (251\u201365.5 mil lion y ears ag o). Onl y a\nhundr ed or so cy cad species persis ted to modern times . The y fac e pos sible e xtinction, and se veral species ar e\nprotected thr ough int ernational c onventions . Because o f their at tractiv e shape , the y are often used as ornamental\nplants in g ardens ( Figure 14.21 ).\nFIGURE 14.21 This Encephalar tos feroxcycad e xhibits lar ge cones . (credit: W endy Cutler)336 14 \u2022 Div ersity of Plants\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1291, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "beae4ec6-18bc-40b9-8fbd-08a03bfc722d": {"__data__": {"id_": "beae4ec6-18bc-40b9-8fbd-08a03bfc722d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "351", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "641c9a5f-1133-496b-86c6-d99986c9c441", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "351", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b04cbb7ee1e27a96e4dde5ce14a71fbc26e9714e63c3a80390ee0ed93d7581c4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Gingk ophytes\nThe single sur viving species o fginkg ophyteis the Gink go biloba (Figure 14.22 ). Its fan-shaped lea ves, unique\namong seed plants because the y featur e a dichot omous v enation pat tern, turn y ellow in autumn and fal l from the\nplant. F or centuries , Buddhis t monk s cul tivatedGink go biloba ,ensuring its pr eser vation. It is plant ed in public\nspac es because it is unusual ly resistant t o pol lution. Male and f emale or gans ar e found on separ ate plants . Usual ly,\nonly male tr ees ar e plant ed b y gardeners because the seeds pr oduc ed b y the f emale plant ha ve an o ff-put ting smel l\nof rancid but ter.\nFIGURE 14.22 This plat e from the 1870 book Flora Japonica , Sectio P rima ( Tafelband) depicts the lea ves and fruit o fGingk o biloba , as\ndrawn b y Philipp F ranz v on Siebold and Joseph Gerhar d Zuccarini.\nGnetophytes\nGnet ophytesare the closes t relativ es to modern angiosperms , and include thr ee dis similar g ener a of plants . Like\nangiosperms , the y ha ve broad lea ves.Gnetum species ar e mos tly vines in tr opical and sub tropical z ones . The single\nspecies o fWelwitschia is an unusual , low-growing plant f ound in the deser ts of Namibia and Ang ola. It ma y live for\nup to 2000 y ears . The g enus Ephedr ais represent ed in Nor th America in dr y areas o f the south western Unit ed\nStat es and Me xico (Figure 14.23 ).Ephedr a\u2019ssmal l, scale -like lea ves ar e the sour ce of the c ompound ephedrine ,\nwhich is used in medicine as a pot ent dec ongestant. Because ephedrine is similar t o amphetamines , both in\nchemical s tructur e and neur ological eff ects , its use is r estrict ed to prescrip tion drugs . Like angiosperms , but unlik e\nother g ymnosperms , all gnet ophytes pos sess vessel elements in their xylem.14.3 \u2022 Seed Plants: Gymnosperms 337", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1819, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "293eb75b-5831-41df-80cf-edc316688237": {"__data__": {"id_": "293eb75b-5831-41df-80cf-edc316688237", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "352", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f9a1fa32-d6fa-4c6a-9d21-16309661b73a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "352", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0590c22379d368f328f2dec84a946358858c8ae574484704bdc0b361d15d4f9e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 14.23 Ephedr a viridis , kno wn b y the c ommon name Mormon t ea, grows in the w estern Unit ed Stat es. (credit: US National P ark\nService, USD A-NRCS PL ANT S Database)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch this BBC video (http://opens tax.org/l/w elwitschia) describing the amazing s trangenes s of Welwitschia .\n14.4 Seed Plants: Angiosperms\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the main par ts of a flo wer and their purpose\n\u2022Detail the lif e cy cle o f an angiosperm\n\u2022Discus s the tw o main gr oups int o which flo wer plants ar e divided, as w ell as e xplain ho w basal\nangiosperms diff er fr om others\nFrom their humble and s till obscur e beginning during the earl y Jur assic period (202\u2013145.5 MY A), the angiosperms ,\nor flo wering plants , have suc cessfully evolved to dominat e mos t terrestrial ec osystems . Angiosperms include a\nstaggering number o f gener a and species; with mor e than 260,000 species , the division is sec ond onl y to insects in\nterms o f div ersification ( Figure 14.24 ).\nFIGURE 14.24 These flo wers gr ow in a botanical g arden bor der in Bel levue, WA. Flo wering plants dominat e terrestrial landscapes . The\nvivid c olors o f flowers ar e an adap tation t o pol lination b y insects and bir ds. (credit: Myriam F eldman)\nAngiosperm suc cess is a r esul t of two no vel structur es that ensur e reproductiv e suc cess: flo wers and fruit. Flo wers\nallowed plants t o form c ooper ative evolutionar y relationships with animals , in par ticular insects , to disperse their\n338 14 \u2022 Div ersity of Plants\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1621, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "388286f2-72cb-4420-99af-b9b5b8d182ab": {"__data__": {"id_": "388286f2-72cb-4420-99af-b9b5b8d182ab", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "353", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "498d1d35-57a3-4520-b287-57b5c1438ee6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "353", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d15e9c8c4efcec51c62e8f35612849097ad006e670429d359bc72c737717e3a3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "pollen t o female g amet ophytes in a highl y tar geted w ay. Fruit pr otect the de veloping embr yo and ser ve as an ag ent\nof dispersal . Diff erent s tructur es on fruit r eflect the dispersal s trategies that help with the spr eading o f seeds .\nFlowers\nFlowers ar e modified lea ves or spor ophylls or ganiz ed ar ound a c entr al stalk. Al though the y vary greatly in\nappear ance, all flowers c ontain the same s tructur es: sepals , petals , pis tils, and s tamens . A whorl o fsepals (the\ncalyx) is locat ed at the base o f the peduncle , or s tem, and encloses the flor al bud bef ore it opens . Sepals ar e usual ly\nphot osynthetic or gans, although ther e are some e xceptions . For example , the c orolla in lilies and tulips c onsis ts of\nthree sepals and thr ee petals that look vir tually identical \u2014this led botanis ts to coin the w ord tepal .Petals\n(collectiv ely the corolla) are locat ed inside the whorl o f sepals and usual ly displa y vivid c olors t o attract pol linat ors.\nFlowers pol linat ed b y wind ar e usual ly smal l and dul l. The se xual or gans ar e locat ed at the c enter of the flo wer.\nAs il lustrated in Figure 14.25 , the s tigma , style, and o vary constitut e the f emale or gan, the carpel orpistil, which is\nalso r eferred to as the gynoecium . A g ynoecium ma y contain one or mor e carpels within a single flo wer. The\nmeg aspor es and the f emale g amet ophytes ar e produc ed and pr otected b y the thick tis sues o f the carpel . A long ,\nthin s tructur e cal led a style leads fr om the s ticky stigma , wher e pol len is deposit ed, t o the ovaryenclosed in the\ncarpel . The o vary houses one or mor e ovules that wil l each de velop int o a seed upon f ertilization. The male\nreproductiv e organs, the andr oecium or stamens , surr ound the c entr al carpel . Stamens ar e composed o f a thin s talk\ncalled a filament and a sac-lik e structur e, the anther , in which micr ospor es ar e produc ed b y meiosis and de velop\ninto pol len gr ains . The filament suppor ts the anther .\nFIGURE 14.25 This imag e depicts the s tructur e of a per fect and c omplet e flo wer. Perfect flo wers carr y both male and f emale flor al or gans.\n(credit: modification o f work b y Mariana Ruiz Vil lareal)\nFruit\nThe seed f orms in an o vary, which enlar ges as the seeds gr ow. As the seed de velops , the w alls of the o vary also\nthick en and f orm the fruit. In botan y, a fruit is a f ertilized and ful ly grown, ripened o vary. Man y foods c ommonl y\ncalled v egetables ar e actual ly fruit. E ggplants , zuc chini, s tring beans , and bel l peppers ar e all technical ly fruit\nbecause the y contain seeds and ar e deriv ed fr om the thick o vary tis sue. Acorns and wing ed maple k eys, whose\nscientific name is a samar a, are also fruit.\nMatur e fruit can be described as flesh y or dr y. Flesh y fruit include the familiar berries , peaches , apples , grapes , and14.4 \u2022 Seed Plants: Angiosperms 339", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2947, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "69932701-4bbb-44ef-94e2-fb3c7767cc0c": {"__data__": {"id_": "69932701-4bbb-44ef-94e2-fb3c7767cc0c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "354", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "48c2d7de-010f-441e-a922-2aff0478905d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "354", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e0cc4782444649299a331835c5a7588a8b2ddde0353eee37279b8f54c4371222", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "tomat oes. Ric e, wheat, and nuts ar e examples o f dry fruit. Another dis tinction is that not al l fruits ar e deriv ed fr om\nthe o vary. Some fruits ar e deriv ed fr om separ ate ovaries in a single flo wer, such as the r aspberr y. Other fruits , such\nas the pineapple , form fr om clus ters o f flowers. Additional ly, some fruits , like watermelon and or ange, have rinds .\nRegardles s of how the y are formed, fruits ar e an ag ent o f dispersal . The v ariety o f shapes and char acteristics r eflect\nthe mode o f dispersal . The light, dr y fruits o f trees and dandelions ar e carried b y the wind. Floating c oconuts ar e\ntranspor ted b y water. Some fruits ar e colored, per fumed, s weet, and nutritious t o attract herbiv ores, which eat the\nfruit and disperse the t ough undig ested seeds in their f eces. Other fruits ha ve burs and hook s that cling t o fur and\nhitch rides on animals .\nThe Lif e Cycle o f an Angiosperm\nThe adul t, or spor ophyte, phase is the main phase in an angiosperm \u2019s life cy cle. Like gymnosperms , angiosperms ar e\nheterospor ous. The y produc e micr ospor es, which de velop int o pol len gr ains (the male g amet ophytes), and\nmeg aspor es, which f orm an o vule c ontaining the f emale g amet ophytes. Inside the anthers\u2019 micr ospor angia ( Figure\n14.26 ), male micr ospor ocyt es divide b y meiosis , gener ating haploid micr ospor es that under go mit osis and giv e rise\nto pol len gr ains . Each pol len gr ain c ontains tw o cells: one g ener ative cell that wil l divide int o tw o sperm, and a\nsecond c ell that wil l bec ome the pol len tube c ell.340 14 \u2022 Div ersity of Plants\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1666, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b75aa2e5-2c4e-4903-85e2-4908e50fcb51": {"__data__": {"id_": "b75aa2e5-2c4e-4903-85e2-4908e50fcb51", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "355", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fa6183b9-ebd3-43d3-a5eb-a337f318accf", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "355", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ed909283da39be507aab7744f026490c353da9c30fe152b6a9a98387bc74c797", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 14.26 This diagr am sho ws the lif ecycle o f an angiosperm. Anthers and o varies ar e structur es that shel ter the actual g amet ophytes:\nthe pol len gr ain and embr yo sac. Double f ertilization is a pr ocess unique t o angiosperms . (credit: modification o f work b y Mariana Ruiz\nVillareal)\nIf a flo wer lack ed a meg aspor angium, what type o f gamet e would it not be able t o form? If it lack ed a\nmicr ospor angium, what type o f gamet e would not f orm?\nIn the o vules , the f emale g amet ophyte is pr oduc ed when a meg aspor ocyt e under goes meiosis t o produc e four\nhaploid meg aspor es. One o f these is lar ger than the others and under goes mit osis t o form the f emale g amet ophyte\nor embr yo sac. Thr ee mit otic divisions pr oduc e eight nuclei in se ven c ells. The eg g and tw o cells mo ve to one end o f\nthe embr yo sac ( gamet ophyte) and thr ee c ells mo ve to the other end. T wo of the nuclei r emain in a single c ell and\nfuse t o form a 2 nnucleus; this c ell mo ves to the c enter of the embr yo sac.\nWhen a pol len gr ain r eaches the s tigma , a pol len tube e xtends fr om the gr ain, gr ows do wn the s tyle, and ent ers\n14.4 \u2022 Seed Plants: Angiosperms 341", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1223, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "72984388-23d4-49d0-9d05-682a9314e797": {"__data__": {"id_": "72984388-23d4-49d0-9d05-682a9314e797", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "356", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "445b7d00-9212-42c9-80e5-08f892afecd0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "356", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5d0bb2454c6bc1abeb2c04b7a5b4ae6efcd4bc5919fd4ddf54a87a2945526c1d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "through an opening in the int eguments o f the o vule . The tw o sperm c ells ar e deposit ed in the embr yo sac.\nWhat oc curs ne xt is cal led a double f ertilization e vent ( Figure 14.27 ) and is unique t o angiosperms . One sperm and\nthe eg g combine , forming a diploid zy gote\u2014the futur e embr yo. The other sperm fuses with the diploid nucleus in the\ncenter of the embr yo sac, f orming a triploid c ell that wil l develop int o the endosperm: a tis sue that ser ves as a f ood\nreser ve. The zy gote de velops int o an embr yo with a r adicle , or smal l root, and one or tw o leaf-lik e organs cal led\ncotyledons . Seed f ood r eser ves ar e stored outside the embr yo, and the c otyledons ser ve as c onduits t o transmit the\nbroken-do wn f ood r eser ves to the de veloping embr yo. The seed c onsis ts of a toughened la yer of integuments\nforming the c oat, the endosperm with f ood r eser ves and, at the c enter, the w ell-protected embr yo.\nFIGURE 14.27 Double f ertilization oc curs onl y in angiosperms . (credit: modification o f work b y Mariana Ruiz Vil lareal)\nMos t flowers carr y both s tamens and carpels; ho wever, a few species self-pol linat e. These ar e kno wn as \u201c perfect\u201d\nflowers because the y contain both types o f sex organs ( Figure 14.25 . Biochemical and anat omical barriers t o self-\npollination pr omot e cross-pol lination. Self-pol lination is a se vere form o f inbr eeding , and can incr ease the number\nof genetic def ects in o ffspring .\nA plant ma y ha ve per fect flo wers, and thus ha ve mul tiple se xes in each flo wer; or , it ma y ha ve imper fect flo wers o f\nboth kinds on one plant ( Figure 14.28 ). In each case , such species ar e cal led monoecious plants , meaning \u201c one\nhouse .\u201d Some botanis ts refer to plants with per fect flo wers simpl y as hermaphr oditic. (Not e: hermaphr odite is a\nscientific t erm f or bodies c ontaining tw o types o f sex organs in plants and non-human animals .) Some plants ar e\ndioecious , meaning \u201c two houses ,\u201d and ha ve male and f emale flo wers (\u201cimper fect flo wers\u201d) on diff erent plants . In\nthese species , cross-pol lination oc curs al l the time .\nFIGURE 14.28 Monoecious plants ha ve both male and f emale r eproductiv e structur es on the same flo wer or plant. In dioecious plants ,\nmales and f emales r eproductiv e structur es ar e on separ ate plants . (credit a: modification o f work b y Liz W est; credit c: modification o f work\nby Sc ott Zona)342 14 \u2022 Div ersity of Plants\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2520, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "288787a9-ac67-4d5e-8e53-0f964e8f315c": {"__data__": {"id_": "288787a9-ac67-4d5e-8e53-0f964e8f315c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "357", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "10784cd4-7121-4f3d-a161-26f5452a20ce", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "357", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "33395d9c6ddc12c707a0ee10092238f5b6b58bbc3386e955749cb7cc8534bbeb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Diversity of Angiosperms\nAngiosperms ar e clas sified in a single division, the Anthoph yta. Modern angiosperms appear t o be a monoph yletic\ngroup, which means that the y originat e from a single anc estor. Flo wering plants ar e divided int o tw o major gr oups ,\naccording t o the s tructur e of the c otyledons , the pol len gr ains , and other f eatur es:monoc ots, which include gr asses\nand lilies , and eudic otsordicots, a pol yphyletic gr oup.Basal angiosperms are a gr oup o f plants that ar e belie ved to\nhave branched o ff bef ore the separ ation int o monoc ots and eudic ots because the y exhibit tr aits fr om both gr oups .\nThey are cat egorized separ ately in man y clas sification schemes , and c orrespond t o a gr ouping kno wn as the\nMagnoliidae . The Magnoliidae gr oup is c omprised o f magnolia tr ees, laur els, water lilies , and the pepper famil y.\nBasal Angiosperms\nThe Magnoliidae ar e represent ed b y the magnolias: tal l trees that bear lar ge, fragrant flo wers with man y par ts, and\nare consider ed ar chaic ( Figure 14.29 d). Laurel trees pr oduc e fragrant lea ves and smal l inc onspicuous flo wers. The\nLaurales ar e smal l trees and shrubs that gr ow mos tly in w armer climat es. Familiar plants in this gr oup include the\nbay laur el, cinnamon, spic e bush ( Figure 14.29 a), and the a vocado tr ee. The Nymphaeales ar e comprised o f the\nwater lilies , lotus ( Figure 14.29 c), and similar plants . All species o f the Nymphaeales thriv e in fr eshwater biomes ,\nand ha ve lea ves that float on the w ater sur face or gr ow under water. Water lilies ar e par ticularl y priz ed b y gardeners ,\nand ha ve graced ponds and pools sinc e antiquity . The Piper ales ar e a gr oup o f herbs , shrubs , and smal l trees that\ngrow in tr opical climat es. The y ha ve smal l flowers without petals that ar e tightl y arr anged in long spik es. Man y\nspecies ar e the sour ce of priz ed fr agrances or spic es; f or example , the berries o fPiper nigrum (Figure 14.29 b) are\nthe familiar black pepper that is used t o fla vor man y dishes .\nFIGURE 14.29 The (a) southern spic ebush belongs t o the Laurales , the same famil y as cinnamon and ba y laur el. The fruit o f (b) the Piper\nnigrum plant is black pepper , the main pr oduct that w as tr aded along spic e routes. Notic e the smal l, unob trusiv e clus tered flo wers. (c)\nLotus flo wers,Nelumbo nucif era, have been cul tivated sinc e antiquity f or their ornamental v alue; the r oot o f the lotus flo wer is eat en as a\nvegetable . The (d) r ed berries o f a magnolia tr ee, char acteristic o f the final s tage, are jus t starting t o appear . (credit a: modification o f work\nby Cor y Zank er; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Franz Eug en K \u00f6hler; cr edit c: modification o f work b y \"ber duch wal\"/Flickr; cr edit d:\nmodification o f work b y \"Coas tside2\"/ Wikimedia Commons)\nMonoc ots\nPlants in the monoc ot gr oup ha ve a single c otyledon in the seedling , and also shar e other anat omical f eatur es. Veins14.4 \u2022 Seed Plants: Angiosperms 343", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3052, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d9cb274e-9ec3-4819-91e3-5dc31bc78290": {"__data__": {"id_": "d9cb274e-9ec3-4819-91e3-5dc31bc78290", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "358", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "148cfb1a-bc99-4757-8bfd-3e24e4281b60", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "358", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1f8a154de623cad2e595165feb1bb913dc80f3d6d0a4e41e0c0fd81a5b08dff4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "run par allel to the length o f the lea ves, and flo wer par ts ar e arr anged in a thr ee- or six -fold s ymmetr y. The pol len\nfrom the firs t angiosperms w as monosulcat e (containing a single furr ow or por e thr ough the out er la yer). This\nfeatur e is s till seen in the modern monoc ots. True w oody tis sue is r arely found in monoc ots, and the v ascular tis sue\nof the s tem is not arr anged in an y par ticular pat tern. The r oot s ystem is mos tly adv entitious (unusual ly positioned)\nwith no major tapr oot. The monoc ots include familiar plants such as the true lilies (not t o be c onfused with the\nwater lilies), or chids , grasses, and palms . Man y impor tant cr ops, such as ric e and other c ereals ( Figure 14.30 a),\ncorn, sug ar cane , and tr opical fruit, including bananas and pineapple , belong t o the monoc ots.\nFIGURE 14.30 The major cr ops in the w orld ar e flo wering plants . One s taple f ood, (a) ric e, is a monoc ot, as ar e other c ereals , while (b)\nbeans ar e eudic ots. Some popular flo wers, such as this (c) lil y are monoc ots; while others , such as this (d) dais y are eudic ots. (credit a:\nmodification o f work b y Da vid Nanc e; cr edit b: modification o f work b y USD A, ARS; cr edit c: modification o f work b y \u201clonghornda ve\u201d/Flickr;\ncredit d: modification o f work b y \u201cCellulaer \u201d/NinjaPhot o)\nEudic ots\nEudic ots, or true dic ots, are char acterized b y the pr esenc e of two cotyledons . Veins f orm a netw ork in lea ves. Flo wer\nparts come in f our, five, or man y whorls . Vascular tis sue f orms a ring in the s tem. (In monoc ots, vascular tis sue is\nscat tered in the s tem.) Eudic ots can be herbac eous (like dandelions or violets), or pr oduc e woody tis sues . Mos t\neudic ots pr oduc e pol len that is trisulcat e or tripor ate, with thr ee furr ows or por es. The r oot s ystem is usual ly\nanchor ed b y one main r oot de veloped fr om the embr yonic r adicle . Eudic ots c omprise tw o-thir ds o f all flowering\nplants . Man y species seem t o exhibit char acteristics that belong t o either gr oup; ther efore, the clas sification o f a\nplant as a monoc ot or a eudic ot is not al ways clearl y evident ( Table 14.1 ).\nComparison o f Structur al Char acteristics o f Monoc ots and Eudic ots\nChar acteristic Monoc ot Eudic ot\nCotyledon One Two\nVeins in lea ves Parallel Netw ork ( br anched)\nVascular tis sue Scat tered Arranged in ring pat tern\nRoots Netw ork o f adv entitious r oots Tap root with man y lat eral roots\nTABLE 14.1344 14 \u2022 Div ersity of Plants\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2567, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b1a59bb0-4f85-4aaa-a850-ecd594d8fb81": {"__data__": {"id_": "b1a59bb0-4f85-4aaa-a850-ecd594d8fb81", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "359", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "508f57f9-b243-4526-ac40-7f0bc79faae6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "359", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "44f106761d0c8f117747f78c71929adcc9243a49bc897a268c74508d35511e12", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "c767fa6f-dec2-41f3-8797-61709d91d517", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "7b97487db7e922bc2cd9a5e3daaa55665c701a5216079c0e2ec94be346b69c63", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Char acteristic Monoc ot Eudic ot\nPollen Monosulcat e Trisulcat e\nFlower par ts Three or mul tiple o f thr ee Four, five, mul tiple o f four or fiv e and whorls\nTABLE 14.1\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nExplor e this websit e(http://opens tax.org/l/pol linat ors) for mor e inf ormation on pol linat ors.\nThe R ole o f Seed Plants\nWithout seed plants , life as w e kno w it w ould not be pos sible . Plants pla y a k ey role in the maint enanc e of terrestrial\necosystems thr ough the s tabilization o f soils , cycling o f carbon, and climat e moder ation. L arge tropical f orests\nrelease o xygen and act as carbon dio xide \u201c sink s.\u201d Seed plants pr ovide shel ter to man y life forms , as w ell as f ood f or\nherbiv ores, ther eby indir ectly feeding carniv ores. Plant sec ondar y metabolit es ar e used f or medicinal purposes and\nindus trial pr oduction. Vir tually all animal lif e is dependent on plants f or sur vival.\nAnimals and Plants: Herbiv ory\nCoevolution o f flowering plants and insects is a h ypothesis that has r eceived much at tention and suppor t, especial ly\nbecause both angiosperms and insects div ersified at about the same time in the middle Meso zoic. Man y authors\nhave attribut ed the div ersity o f plants and insects t o both pol lination and herbiv ory, or the c onsump tion o f plants b y\ninsects and other animals . Herbiv ory is belie ved to ha ve been as much a driving f orce as pol lination. Coe volution o f\nherbiv ores and plant def enses is easil y and c ommonl y obser ved in natur e. Unlik e animals , mos t plants cannot\noutrun pr edat ors or use mimicr y to hide fr om hungr y animals (al though mimicr y has been used t o entic e\npollinat ors). A sor t of arms r ace exists betw een plants and herbiv ores. To \u201ccombat \u201d herbiv ores, some plant\nseeds \u2014such as ac orn and unripened persimmon\u2014ar e high in alk aloids and ther efore unsa vory to some animals .\nOther plants ar e protected b y bark, al though some animals de veloped specializ ed mouth piec es to tear and che w\nvegetal mat erial . Spines and thorns det er mos t animals , except for mammals with thick fur , and some bir ds ha ve\nspecializ ed beak s to get pas t such def enses .\nHerbiv ory has been e xploit ed b y seed plants f or their o wn benefit. The dispersal o f fruits b y herbiv orous animals is a\nstriking e xample o f mutualis tic relationships . The plant o ffers t o the herbiv ore a nutritious sour ce of food in r eturn\nfor spr eading the plant \u2019s genetic mat erial t o a wider ar ea.\nAnimals and Plants: P ollination\nMore than 80 per cent o f angiosperms depend on animals f or pol lination (t echnical ly the tr ansfer of pol len fr om the\nanther t o the s tigma). Consequentl y, plants ha ve de veloped man y adap tations t o attract pol linat ors. With o ver\n200,000 diff erent plants dependent on animal pol lination, the plant needs t o adv ertise t o its pol linat ors with some\nspecificity . The specificity o f specializ ed plant s tructur es that tar get animals can be v ery surprising . It is pos sible , for\nexample , to det ermine the g ener al type o f pol linat ors fa vored b y a plant b y obser ving the flo wer\u2019s ph ysical\nchar acteristics. Man y bir d or insect -pol linat ed flo wers secr ete nectar , which is a sug ary liquid.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3263, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c767fa6f-dec2-41f3-8797-61709d91d517": {"__data__": {"id_": "c767fa6f-dec2-41f3-8797-61709d91d517", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "359", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "508f57f9-b243-4526-ac40-7f0bc79faae6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "359", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "44f106761d0c8f117747f78c71929adcc9243a49bc897a268c74508d35511e12", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "b1a59bb0-4f85-4aaa-a850-ecd594d8fb81", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "359", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1fdcddcfb5208af04c3ff41f321b3a0c85c6ffdb268e5d75cc51517131b933c2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Consequentl y, plants ha ve de veloped man y adap tations t o attract pol linat ors. With o ver\n200,000 diff erent plants dependent on animal pol lination, the plant needs t o adv ertise t o its pol linat ors with some\nspecificity . The specificity o f specializ ed plant s tructur es that tar get animals can be v ery surprising . It is pos sible , for\nexample , to det ermine the g ener al type o f pol linat ors fa vored b y a plant b y obser ving the flo wer\u2019s ph ysical\nchar acteristics. Man y bir d or insect -pol linat ed flo wers secr ete nectar , which is a sug ary liquid. The y also pr oduc e\nboth f ertile pol len, f or reproduction, and s terile pol len rich in nutrients f or bir ds and insects . Man y but terflies and\nbees can det ect ul traviolet light, and flo wers that at tract these pol linat ors usual ly displa y a pat tern o f ultraviolet\nreflectanc e that helps them quickl y locat e the flo wer's center. In this manner , pol linating insects c ollect nectar while\nat the same time ar e dus ted with pol len. L arge, red flo wers with lit tle smel l and a long funnel shape ar e preferred b y\nhummingbir ds, who ha ve good c olor per ception, a poor sense o f smel l, and need a s trong per ch. Whit e flo wers that\nopen at night at tract moths . Other animals \u2014such as bats , lemurs , and lizar ds\u2014can also act as pol linating ag ents .\nAny disrup tion t o these int eractions , such as the disappear ance of bees , for example as a c onsequenc e of colon y\ncollapse disor ders , can lead t o disas ter for agricul tural indus tries that depend hea vily on pol linat ed cr ops.\nThe Impor tanc e of Seed Plants in Human Lif e\nSeed plants ar e the f oundation o f human diets acr oss the w orld. Man y societies eat almos t exclusiv ely vegetarian\n14.4 \u2022 Seed Plants: Angiosperms 345", "start_char_idx": 2681, "end_char_idx": 4489, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c8af4fcc-ceee-49e0-a706-144ef31b0ccd": {"__data__": {"id_": "c8af4fcc-ceee-49e0-a706-144ef31b0ccd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "360", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "57e188d7-429f-4707-aa60-1d025809c7a5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "360", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d5179d60f08f80ae3e5dfaca94471549243e3c8c7c1bf479b759c7c1628bcff3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "fare and depend solel y on seed plants f or their nutritional needs . A few cr ops (ric e, wheat, and potat oes) dominat e\nthe agricul tural landscape . Man y crops w ere de veloped during the agricul tural revolution, when human societies\nmade the tr ansition fr om nomadic hunt er\u2013gather ers t o hor ticul ture and agricul ture. Cer eals , rich in carboh ydrates,\nprovide the s taple o f man y human diets . Beans and nuts suppl y proteins . Fats ar e deriv ed fr om crushed seeds , as is\nthe case f or peanut and r apeseed (canola) oils , or fruits\nThe medicinal pr oper ties o f plants ha ve been kno wn t o human societies sinc e ancient times . Ther e are references to\nthe use o f plants\u2019 cur ative proper ties in E gyptian, Bab ylonian, and Chinese writings fr om 5,000 y ears ag o. Man y\nmodern s ynthetic ther apeutic drugs ar e deriv ed or s ynthesiz ed fr om plant sec ondar y metabolit es. Very often, the\nraw form o f the plant or plant -based subs tanc e ma y be unusable e ven if it demons trates help ful pr oper ties. For\nexample , chaulmoogr a oil w as some what eff ectiv e for tr eating lepr osy, but it w as difficul t to appl y and painful f or\npatients . In 1915, Alic e Bal l (at onl y 23 y ears old), cr eated a method f or extracting the activ e es ter compounds fr om\nthe oil so that it c ould be absorbed b y the body , creating a much mor e eff ectiv e treatment without the neg ative side\neffects . The \"Bal l Technique \" remained the pr eferred method until s ynthetic medicines r eplac ed it decades lat er. It\nis impor tant t o not e that the same plant e xtract can be a ther apeutic r emedy at lo w concentr ations , bec ome an\naddictiv e drug at higher doses , and can pot ential ly kil l at high c oncentr ations .Table 14.2 presents a f ew drugs , their\nplants o f origin, and their medicinal applications .\nPlant Origin o f Medicinal Compounds and Medical Applications\nPlant Compound Applic ation\nDeadl y nightshade (\nAtropa bel ladonna )Atropine Dilat e eye pupils f or eye exams\nFoxglo ve (Digitalis\npurpur ea)Digitalis Hear t disease , stimulat es hear t beat\nYam ( Diosc orea\nspp.)Steroids Steroid hormones: c ontr aceptive pil l and c ortisone\nEphedr a (Ephedr a\nspp.)Ephedrine Decongestant and br onchiole dilat or\nPacific y ew (Taxus\nbrevifolia )Taxol Canc er chemother apy; inhibits mit osis\nOpium popp y (\nPapaver\nsomnif erum )OpioidsAnalg esic (r educ es pain without los s of consciousnes s) and nar cotic\n(reduc es pain with dr owsines s and los s of consciousnes s) in higher doses\nQuinine tr ee (\nCinchona spp.)Quinine Antip yretic (lo wers body t emper atur e) and antimalarial\nWillow (Salix spp.)Salicylic\nacid\n(aspirin)Analg esic and antip yretic\nTABLE 14.2346 14 \u2022 Div ersity of Plants\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2777, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1b0dc2b7-cdbd-455f-a147-cfb7f011663f": {"__data__": {"id_": "1b0dc2b7-cdbd-455f-a147-cfb7f011663f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "361", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "428ba05f-9fb3-4e16-bf6f-c32f5cad350e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "361", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e18105b142687f8533ab7115dbdbbe130ad7dd459dc5f6950c3f6be56c90aa48", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "5c7f293e-1f45-4b9e-8dca-a008744774bd", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "ec6047ac87a4b525152c74faffd0f6812f675e3cdcf4d73665bfa119966ae6e1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nanther a sac-lik e structur e at the tip o f the s tamen in\nwhich pol len gr ains ar e produc ed\nAnthoph yta the division t o which angiosperms\nbelong\napical meris tem the gr owing point in a v ascular plant\nat the tip o f a shoot or r oot wher e cell division\noccurs\nbasal angiosperms a group o f plants that pr obabl y\nbranched o ff bef ore the separ ation o f monoc ots and\neudic ots\ncalyx the whorl o f sepals\ncarpel the f emale r eproductiv e par t of a flo wer\nconsis ting o f the s tigma , style, and o vary\nclub mos sthe earlies t group o f seedles s vascular\nplants\ncone the o vulat e strobilus on g ymnosperms that\ncontains o vules\nconif er the dominant division o f gymnosperms with\nthe mos t variety o f species\ncorolla the c ollection o f petals\ncotyledon the one (monoc ot) or tw o (dic ot) primitiv e\nleaves pr esent in a seed\ncycad a division o f gymnosperms that gr ow in tr opical\nclimat es and r esemble palm tr ees\ndicota group o f angiosperms whose embr yos\npossess tw o cotyledons; also kno wn as eudic ot\ndiplontic describes a lif e cy cle in which the diploid\nstage is the dominant s tage\neudic ots a group o f angiosperms whose embr yos\npossess tw o cotyledons; also kno wn as dic ot\nfern a seedles s vascular plant that pr oduc es lar ge\nfronds; the mos t adv anced gr oup o f seedles s\nvascular plants\nfilament the thin s talk that link s the anther t o the\nbase o f the flo wer\ngametangium (plur al: g ametangia) the s tructur e\nwithin which g amet es ar e produc ed\ngamet ophytethe haploid plant that pr oduc es\ngamet es\ngingk ophytea division o f gymnosperm with one\nliving species , the Gingk o biloba , a tr ee with fan-\nshaped lea ves\ngnet ophytea division o f gymnosperms with v aried\nmorphological f eatur es that pr oduc e vessel\nelements in their w oody tis sues\ngymnosperm a seed plant with nak ed seeds (seeds\nexposed on modified lea ves or in c ones)\ngynoecium the gr oup o f structur es that c onstitut e the\nfemale r eproductiv e organ; also cal led the pis til\nhaplodiplontic describes a lif e cy cle in which the\nhaploid and diploid s tages al ternat e; also kno wn as\nan al ternation o f gener ations lif e cy clehaplontic describes a lif e cy cle in which the haploid\nstage is the dominant s tage\nherbac eous describes a plant without w oody tis sue\nheterospor ous having tw o kinds o f spor es that giv e\nrise t o male and f emale g amet ophytes\nhomospor ous having one kind o f spor e that giv es rise\nto gamet ophytes that giv e rise t o both male and\nfemale g amet es\nhorn worta group o f non-v ascular plants in which\nstomata appear\nhorsetail a seedles s vascular plant char acterized b y a\njoint ed s tem\nliverwortthe mos t primitiv e group o f non-v ascular\nplants\nmeg aspor ocyt ea meg aspor e mother c ell;", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2771, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5c7f293e-1f45-4b9e-8dca-a008744774bd": {"__data__": {"id_": "5c7f293e-1f45-4b9e-8dca-a008744774bd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "361", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "428ba05f-9fb3-4e16-bf6f-c32f5cad350e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "361", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e18105b142687f8533ab7115dbdbbe130ad7dd459dc5f6950c3f6be56c90aa48", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "1b0dc2b7-cdbd-455f-a147-cfb7f011663f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "361", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3955b796fd699ac156dfe3e5cb4e635aa4d58e5f529d32764dc1bf96df67c72b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "lar ger\nspor e that g erminat es int o a f emale g amet ophyte in\na het erospor ous plant\nmicr ospor ocyt esmal ler spor e that pr oduc es a male\ngamet ophyte in a het erospor ous plant\nmonoc ota related gr oup o f angiosperms that\nproduc e embr yos with one c otyledon and pol len\nwith a single ridg e\nmos sa group o f plants in which a primitiv e\nconductiv e system appears\nnonvascular plant a plant that lack s vascular tis sue\nformed o f specializ ed c ells for the tr anspor t of water\nand nutrients\novarythe chamber that c ontains and pr otects the\novule or f emale meg aspor angium\npetal a modified leaf int erior t o the sepal; c olorful\npetals at tract animal pol linat or\nphloem the v ascular tis sue r esponsible f or tr anspor t\nof sug ars, proteins , and other solut es\npistil the gr oup o f structur es that c onstitut e the\nfemale r eproductiv e organ; also cal led the carpel\nsepal a modified leaf that encloses the bud;\noutermos t structur e of a flo wer\nspor angium (plur al: spor angia) the or gan within\nwhich spor es ar e produc ed\nspor ophylla leaf modified s tructur ally to bear\nspor angia\nspor ophytethe diploid plant that pr oduc es spor es\nstamen the gr oup o f structur es that c ontain the male\nreproductiv e organs\nstigma uppermos t structur e of the carpel wher e\npollen is deposit ed\nstrobili cone-like structur es that c ontain the\nspor angia\nstyle the long thin s tructur e that link s the s tigma t o\nthe o vary\nsyngamythe union o f two gamet es in f ertilization\nvascular plant a plant in which ther e is a netw ork o f14 \u2022 K ey Terms 347", "start_char_idx": 2772, "end_char_idx": 4346, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6cf6d822-0918-44bd-8b12-5049cd23b914": {"__data__": {"id_": "6cf6d822-0918-44bd-8b12-5049cd23b914", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "362", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "427aefb0-0fdc-408b-9ccd-006dab2a7fc7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "362", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3027f0b3e6f0c954b2f002b5f0b820cee83521920a84984ed78b50cdb84ac6fa", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "75f6fb42-78cf-491e-bcee-d8d518d2f16a", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "9409467866a38c6a7553335b5b83812f1a1f6c7d367ac1798e27b406e22298fb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "cells that c onduct w ater and solut es thr ough the\norganism\nwhisk f ern a seedles s vascular plant that los t rootsand lea ves b y evolutionar y reduction\nxylem the v ascular tis sue r esponsible f or long-\ndistanc e transpor t of water and nutrients\nChap ter Summar y\n14.1 The Plant Kingdom\nLand plants e volved tr aits that made it pos sible t o\ncoloniz e land and sur vive out o f water. Adap tations t o\nlife on land include v ascular tis sues , roots , lea ves,\nwaxy cuticles , and a t ough out er la yer that pr otects the\nspor es. Land plants include non vascular plants and\nvascular plants . Vascular plants , which include\nseedles s plants and plants with seeds , have apical\nmeris tems , and embr yos with nutritional s tores. All\nland plants shar e the f ollowing char acteristics:\nalternation o f gener ations , with the haploid plant cal led\na gamet ophyte and the diploid plant cal led a\nspor ophyte; formation o f haploid spor es in a\nspor angium; and f ormation o f gamet es in a\ngametangium.\n14.2 Seedless Plants\nSeedles s non vascular plants ar e smal l. The dominant\nstage of the lif e cy cle is the g amet ophyte. Without a\nvascular s ystem and r oots , the y absorb w ater and\nnutrients thr ough al l of their e xposed sur faces. Ther e\nare thr ee main gr oups: the liv erworts, the horn worts,\nand the mos ses. The y are collectiv ely kno wn as\nbryophytes.\nVascular s ystems c onsis t of xylem tis sue, which\ntranspor ts w ater and miner als, and phloem tis sue,\nwhich tr anspor ts sug ars and pr oteins . With the\nvascular s ystem, ther e appear ed lea ves\u2014lar ge\nphot osynthetic or gans\u2014and r oots t o absorb w ater fr om\nthe gr ound. The seedles s vascular plants include club\nmos ses, which ar e the mos t primitiv e; whisk f erns ,\nwhich los t lea ves and r oots b y reductiv e evolution;\nhorsetails , and f erns .\n14.3 Seed Plants: Gymnosperms\nGymnosperms ar e het erospor ous seed plants thatproduc e nak ed seeds . The y appear ed in the\nCarbonif erous period (359\u2013299 mil lion y ears ag o) and\nwere the dominant plant lif e during the Meso zoic er a\n(251\u201365.5 mil lion y ears ag o). Modern-da y\ngymnosperms belong t o four divisions . The division\nConif erophyta\u2014the c onifers\u2014are the pr edominant\nwoody plants at high al titudes and latitudes . Cycads\nresemble palm tr ees and gr ow in tr opical climat es.\nGingk o biloba is the onl y species o f the division\nGingk ophyta. The las t division, the Gnet ophytes, is a\ndiverse gr oup o f species that pr oduc e vessel elements\nin their w ood.\n14.4 Seed Plants: Angiosperms\nAngiosperms ar e the dominant f orm o f plant lif e in\nmos t terrestrial ec osystems , comprising about 90\npercent o f all plant species . Mos t crop and ornamental\nplants ar e angiosperms . Their suc cess resul ts, in par t,\nfrom tw o inno vative structur es: the flo wer and the fruit.\nFlowers ar e deriv ed e volutionaril y from modified\nleaves. The main par ts of a flo wer ar e the sepals and\npetals , which pr otect the r eproductiv e par ts: the\nstamens and the carpels . The s tamens pr oduc e the\nmale g amet es, which ar e pol len gr ains . The carpels\ncontain the f emale g amet es, which ar e the eg gs inside\novaries .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3186, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "75f6fb42-78cf-491e-bcee-d8d518d2f16a": {"__data__": {"id_": "75f6fb42-78cf-491e-bcee-d8d518d2f16a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "362", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "427aefb0-0fdc-408b-9ccd-006dab2a7fc7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "362", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3027f0b3e6f0c954b2f002b5f0b820cee83521920a84984ed78b50cdb84ac6fa", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "6cf6d822-0918-44bd-8b12-5049cd23b914", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "362", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ce8911be06f34fb60a2dfb9ab53f7bff4350caf4b315d753dcf2b633dbd15621", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Mos t crop and ornamental\nplants ar e angiosperms . Their suc cess resul ts, in par t,\nfrom tw o inno vative structur es: the flo wer and the fruit.\nFlowers ar e deriv ed e volutionaril y from modified\nleaves. The main par ts of a flo wer ar e the sepals and\npetals , which pr otect the r eproductiv e par ts: the\nstamens and the carpels . The s tamens pr oduc e the\nmale g amet es, which ar e pol len gr ains . The carpels\ncontain the f emale g amet es, which ar e the eg gs inside\novaries . The w alls of the o vary thick en aft er\nfertilization, ripening int o fruit that can facilitat e seed\ndispersal .\nAngiosperms\u2019 lif e cy cles ar e dominat ed b y the\nspor ophyte stage. Double f ertilization is an e vent\nunique t o angiosperms . The flo wering plants ar e\ndivided int o tw o main gr oups \u2014the monoc ots and\neudic ots\u2014ac cording t o the number o f cotyledons in the\nseedlings . Basal angiosperms belong t o a lineag e older\nthan monoc ots and eudic ots.\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 14.19 At what s tage does the diploid zy gote\nform?\na.When the f emale c one begins t o bud fr om the\ntree\nb.When the sperm nucleus and the eg g nucleus\nfuse\nc.When the seeds dr op fr om the tr ee\nd.When the pol len tube begins t o grow2.Figure 14.26 If a flo wer lack ed a meg aspor angium,\nwhat type o f gamet e would it not be able t o form? If\nit lack ed a micr ospor angium, what type o f gamet e\nwould not f orm?348 14 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2694, "end_char_idx": 4174, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b34ea96e-9409-4f9b-a3d6-384aaffa6aea": {"__data__": {"id_": "b34ea96e-9409-4f9b-a3d6-384aaffa6aea", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "363", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c149d958-4f2a-4830-a307-46d704b9dbc8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "363", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1bdc464be960458328dacb780312a74a7670e5e05a45f5a85f17f98ca4c5f242", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Review Ques tions\n3.The land plants ar e probabl y desc endants o f which\nof these gr oups?\na.green alg ae\nb.red alg ae\nc.brown alg ae\nd.angiosperms\n4.The e vent that leads fr om the haploid s tage to the\ndiploid s tage in al ternation o f gener ations is\n________.\na.meiosis\nb.mitosis\nc.fertilization\nd.germination\n5.Mos s is an e xample o f which type o f plant?\na.haplontic plant\nb.vascular plant\nc.diplontic plant\nd.seed plant\n6.Why do mos ses gr ow well in the Ar ctic tundr a?\na.They grow bet ter at c old t emper atur es.\nb.They do not r equir e mois ture.\nc.They do not ha ve true r oots and can gr ow on\nhard sur faces.\nd.Ther e are no herbiv ores in the tundr a.\n7.Which is the mos t div erse gr oup o f seedles s\nvascular plants?\na.the liv erworts\nb.the horsetails\nc.the club mos ses\nd.the f erns8.Which gr oup ar e vascular plants?\na.liverworts\nb.mos ses\nc.horn worts\nd.ferns\n9.Which o f the f ollowing tr aits char acterizes\ngymnosperms?\na.The plants carr y exposed seeds on modified\nleaves.\nb.Reproductiv e structur es ar e locat ed in a flo wer.\nc.After fertilization, the o vary thick ens and f orms\na fruit.\nd.The g amet ophyte is long est phase o f the lif e\ncycle.\n10.What adap tation do seed plants ha ve in addition\nto the seed that is not f ound in seedles s plants?\na.gamet ophytes\nb.vascular tis sue\nc.pollen\nd.chlor ophyll\n11.Pollen gr ains de velop in which s tructur e?\na.the anther\nb.the s tigma\nc.the filament\nd.the carpel\n12.Corn de velops fr om a seedling with a single\ncotyledon, displa ys par allel v eins on its lea ves,\nand pr oduc es monosulcat e pol len. It is mos t\nlikely:\na.a gymnosperm\nb.a monoc ot\nc.a eudic ot\nd.a basal angiosperm\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n13.What adap tations do plants ha ve that al low them\nto sur vive on land?\n14.What ar e the thr ee clas ses o f bryophytes?\n15.How did the de velopment o f a v ascular s ystem\ncontribut e to the incr ease in siz e of plants?\n16.What ar e the f our modern-da y groups o f\ngymnosperms?17.Cycads ar e consider ed endang ered species and\ntheir tr ade is se verely restrict ed. Cus toms o fficials\nstop suspect ed smug glers , who claim that the\nplants in their pos session ar e palm tr ees and not\ncycads . Ho w would a botanis t dis tinguish betw een\nthe tw o types o f plants?\n18.What ar e the tw o structur es that al low\nangiosperms t o be the dominant f orm o f plant lif e\nin mos t terrestrial ec osystems?14 \u2022 R eview Ques tions 349", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2439, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3cdf5477-1626-4de0-80b3-250210f56208": {"__data__": {"id_": "3cdf5477-1626-4de0-80b3-250210f56208", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "364", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4718353d-eb7d-485e-bd1b-44221a91981c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "364", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4839634547ed799aa2337e8310b81753dd1fde7c4ab63d1347b3cd48b0d8dee6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "350 14 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 72, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ae60c348-8edb-4797-94b0-f3ba71a23133": {"__data__": {"id_": "ae60c348-8edb-4797-94b0-f3ba71a23133", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "365", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5e60e67f-a14e-4ac3-910c-9d0422ecab4d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "365", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1eb4ede07809a06ea281931c03f6a12854b4726a93423db987afab2ef35d6b51", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 15\nDiversit y of Animals\n15.1 Features o f the Animal King dom\n15.2 Spong es and Cnidarians\n15.3 Flatworms , Nema todes , and Ar thropods\n15.4 Mollusk s and Annelids\n15.5 Echinoderms and Chor dates\n15.6 Vertebrates\nWhile w e can easil y identif y dogs , lizar ds, fish, spiders , and w orms as animals ,\nother animals , such as c orals and spong es, might be easil y mis taken as plants or some other f orm\nof life. Yet scientis ts ha ve recogniz ed a set o f common char acteristics shar ed b y all animals ,\nincluding spong es, jellyfish, sea ur chins , and humans .\nThe king dom Animalia is a gr oup o f mul ticellular Euk arya. Animal e volution beg an in the oc ean\nover 600 mil lion y ears ag o, with tin y creatur es that pr obabl y do not r esemble an y living or ganism\ntoday. Sinc e then, animals ha ve evolved int o a highl y div erse king dom. Al though o ver one mil lion\ncurr ently living species o f animals ha ve been identified, scientis ts ar e continual ly disc overing\nmor e species . The number o f described living animal species is es timat ed to be about 1.4\nmillion,1and ther e ma y be as man y as 6.8 mil lion.\nUnders tanding and clas sifying the v ariety o f living species helps us t o bet ter unders tand ho w to\nconser ve and benefit fr om this div ersity . The animal clas sification s ystem char acterizes animalsFIGURE 15.1 The leaf chameleon ( Brookesia micr a) was disc overed in nor thern Madag ascar in 2012. A t jus t over one\ninch long , it is the smal lest kno wn chameleon. (cr edit: modification o f work b y Frank Gla w, et al ., PL OS)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE\n1\u201cNumber o f Living Species in Aus tralia and the W orld, \u201d A.D. Chapman, Aus tralia Biodiv ersity Inf ormation Ser vices,\nlast modified Aug ust 26, 2010, ht tp://www .environment. gov.au/biodiv ersity /abrs/publications/other /species -\nnumbers/2009/03- exec-summar y.html .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1895, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3a0cad31-b3fd-4450-86e6-c8ce3df070e3": {"__data__": {"id_": "3a0cad31-b3fd-4450-86e6-c8ce3df070e3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "366", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "758afaad-3b56-4cc5-aa0c-3e0041afebcf", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "366", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "11f5d311f8a1e66b781a803dd33ec690a4a5de56509222876bca6e9ddc356586", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "based on their anat omy, featur es o f embr yological de velopment, and g enetic mak eup. Scientis ts\nare fac ed with the task o f clas sifying animals within a s ystem o f tax onom y that r eflects their\nevolutionar y his tory. Additional ly, the y mus t identif y traits that ar e common t o all animals as w ell\nas tr aits that can be used t o dis tinguish among r elated gr oups o f animals . Ho wever, animals v ary\nin the c omple xity o f their or ganization and e xhibit a hug e div ersity o f body f orms , so the\nclas sification scheme is c onstantl y changing as ne w inf ormation about species is learned.\n15.1 Featur es of the Animal Kingdom\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022List the f eatur es that dis tinguish the animal king dom fr om other king doms\n\u2022Explain the pr ocesses o f animal r eproduction and embr yonic de velopment\n\u2022Describe the hier archy of basic animal clas sification\n\u2022Compar e and c ontr ast the embr yonic de velopment o f protostomes and deut erostomes\nEven though members o f the animal king dom ar e incr edibl y div erse , animals shar e common\nfeatur es that dis tinguish them fr om or ganisms in other king doms . All animals ar e euk aryotic,\nmulticellular or ganisms , and almos t all animals ha ve specializ ed tis sues . Mos t animals ar e motile ,\nat leas t during c ertain lif e stages. Animals r equir e a sour ce of food t o grow and de velop . All\nanimals ar e het erotrophic, ing esting living or dead or ganic mat ter. This f orm o f obtaining ener gy\ndistinguishes them fr om aut otrophic or ganisms , such as mos t plants , which mak e their o wn\nnutrients thr ough phot osynthesis and fr om fungi that dig est their f ood e xternal ly. Animals ma y be\ncarniv ores, herbiv ores, omniv ores, or par asites (Figure 15.2 ). Mos t animals r eproduc e se xual ly:\nThe o ffspring pas s thr ough a series o f developmental s tages that es tablish a det ermined body\nplan, unlik e plants , for example , in which the e xact shape o f the body is indet erminat e. The body\nplan refers t o the shape o f an animal .\nFIGURE 15.2 All animals that deriv e ener gy from f ood ar e het erotrophs . The (a) black bear is an omniv ore, eating both\nplants and animals . The (b) hear tworm Dirofilaria immitis is a par asite that deriv es ener gy from its hos ts. It spends its\nlarval stage in mosquit os and its adul t stage inf esting the hear ts of dogs and other mammals , as sho wn her e. (credit a:\nmodification o f work b y USD A Forest Ser vice; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Clyde R obinson)\nComple x Tissue S tructure\nA hal lmark tr ait o f animals is specializ ed s tructur es that ar e diff erentiat ed to per form unique\nfunctions . As mul ticellular or ganisms , mos t animals de velop specializ ed c ells that gr oup t ogether\ninto tis sues with specializ ed functions . A tis sue is a c ollection o f similar c ells that had a c ommon\nembr yonic origin. Ther e are four main types o f animal tis sues: ner vous, muscle , connectiv e, and\nepithelial . Ner vous tis sue c ontains neur ons, or ner ve cells, which tr ansmit ner ve impulses . Muscle\ntissue c ontr acts t o cause al l types o f body mo vement fr om loc omotion o f the or ganism t o352 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3309, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4353ed30-f2d2-4a90-80a6-720030cfa5ad": {"__data__": {"id_": "4353ed30-f2d2-4a90-80a6-720030cfa5ad", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "367", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b642f620-7e32-4b45-9adc-abf90127166d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "367", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "15a3c164c7200c719420513edfff5ff3a5ea8b96e5ef4ed237fcfbd04325b5f4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "e4c73a16-213c-44b3-a3dc-c0fbb87989c5", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "ebdd5f5fd9b849406b6acca09bca652836a8d239f9c58fda0a64cd587c930a89", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "movements within the body itself . Animals also ha ve specializ ed c onnectiv e tis sues that pr ovide man y functions ,\nincluding tr anspor t and s tructur al suppor t. Examples o f connectiv e tis sues include blood and bone . Connectiv e\ntissue is c omprised o f cells separ ated b y extracellular mat erial made o f organic and inor ganic mat erials , such as the\nprotein and miner al deposits o f bone . Epithelial tis sue c overs the int ernal and e xternal sur faces o f organs inside the\nanimal body and the e xternal sur face of the body o f the or ganism.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nView this video (http://opens tax.org/l/sa ving _life2)to watch a pr esentation b y biologis t E.O. Wilson on the\nimpor tanc e of animal div ersity .\nAnimal R eproduc tion and De velopment\nMos t animals ha ve diploid body (somatic) c ells and a smal l number o f haploid r eproductiv e (gamet e) cells pr oduc ed\nthrough meiosis . Some e xceptions e xist: For example , in bees , wasps , and ants , the male is haploid because it\ndevelops fr om an unf ertilized eg g. Mos t animals under go se xual r eproduction, while man y also ha ve mechanisms o f\nasexual r eproduction.\nSexual R eproduc tion and Embr yonic De velopment\nAlmos t all animal species ar e capable o f reproducing se xual ly; for man y, this is the onl y mode o f reproduction\npossible . This dis tinguishes animals fr om fungi, pr otists, and bact eria, wher e ase xual r eproduction is c ommon or\nexclusiv e. During se xual r eproduction, the male and f emale g amet es o f a species c ombine in a pr ocess cal led\nfertilization. T ypical ly, the smal l, motile male sperm tr avels t o the much lar ger, ses sile f emale eg g. Sperm f orm is\ndiverse and includes c ells with flag ella or amoeboid c ells to facilitat e motility . Fertilization and fusion o f the g amet e\nnuclei pr oduc e a zy gote. Fertilization ma y be int ernal , especial ly in land animals , or e xternal , as is c ommon in man y\naquatic species .\nAfter fertilization, a de velopmental sequenc e ensues as c ells divide and diff erentiat e. Man y of the e vents in\ndevelopment ar e shar ed in gr oups o f related animal species , and these e vents ar e one o f the main w ays scientis ts\nclas sify high-le vel gr oups o f animals . During de velopment, animal c ells specializ e and f orm tis sues , det ermining\ntheir futur e morpholog y and ph ysiolog y. In man y animals , such as mammals , the y oung r esemble the adul t. Other\nanimals , such as some insects and amphibians , under go complet e metamorphosis in which individuals ent er one or\nmor e lar val stages. For these animals , the y oung and the adul t have diff erent diets and sometimes habitats . In other\nspecies , a pr ocess of inc omplet e metamorphosis oc curs in which the y oung some what r esemble the adul ts and g o\nthrough a series o f stages separ ated b y mol ts (shedding o f the skin) until the y reach the final adul t form.\nAsexual R eproduc tion\nAsexual r eproduction, unlik e se xual r eproduction, pr oduc es o ffspring g enetical ly identical t o each other and t o the\nparent. A number o f animal species \u2014especial ly those without backbones , but e ven some fish, amphibians , and\nreptiles \u2014are capable o f ase xual r eproduction. Ase xual r eproduction, e xcept for oc casional identical twinning , is\nabsent in bir ds and mammals .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3348, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e4c73a16-213c-44b3-a3dc-c0fbb87989c5": {"__data__": {"id_": "e4c73a16-213c-44b3-a3dc-c0fbb87989c5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "367", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b642f620-7e32-4b45-9adc-abf90127166d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "367", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "15a3c164c7200c719420513edfff5ff3a5ea8b96e5ef4ed237fcfbd04325b5f4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "4353ed30-f2d2-4a90-80a6-720030cfa5ad", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "367", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "730500884ce5ef4b6d7581a538b63980b6e7aa45aee5718b3239f22599047148", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In other\nspecies , a pr ocess of inc omplet e metamorphosis oc curs in which the y oung some what r esemble the adul ts and g o\nthrough a series o f stages separ ated b y mol ts (shedding o f the skin) until the y reach the final adul t form.\nAsexual R eproduc tion\nAsexual r eproduction, unlik e se xual r eproduction, pr oduc es o ffspring g enetical ly identical t o each other and t o the\nparent. A number o f animal species \u2014especial ly those without backbones , but e ven some fish, amphibians , and\nreptiles \u2014are capable o f ase xual r eproduction. Ase xual r eproduction, e xcept for oc casional identical twinning , is\nabsent in bir ds and mammals . The mos t common f orms o f ase xual r eproduction f or stationar y aquatic animals\ninclude budding and fr agmentation, in which par t of a par ent individual can separ ate and gr ow int o a ne w individual .\nIn contr ast, a f orm o f ase xual r eproduction f ound in c ertain in vertebrates and r are vertebrates is cal led\nparthenog enesis (or \u201c virgin beginning \u201d), in which unf ertilized eg gs de velop int o ne w offspring .\nClassific ation F eatur es of Animals\nAnimals ar e clas sified ac cording t o morphological and de velopmental char acteristics, such as a body plan. With the\nexception o f spong es, the animal body plan is s ymmetrical . This means that their dis tribution o f body par ts is\nbalanc ed along an axis . Additional char acteristics that c ontribut e to animal clas sification include the number o f\ntissue la yers f ormed during de velopment, the pr esenc e or absenc e of an int ernal body ca vity, and other f eatur es o f\nembr yological de velopment.\n15.1 \u2022 F eatur es of the Animal Kingdom 353", "start_char_idx": 2690, "end_char_idx": 4375, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2434d3ae-d6c0-40ed-bb66-98b60c0cda8c": {"__data__": {"id_": "2434d3ae-d6c0-40ed-bb66-98b60c0cda8c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "368", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "793f266d-c428-4ef7-a83f-8f440e380799", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "368", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1b5c367547def3af8003c954d940775126502dea58cfc03ac93f8bdc233328be", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 15.3 The ph ylog enetic tr ee o f animals is based on morphological , fossil, and g enetic e videnc e.\nWhich o f the f ollowing s tatements is false?\na.Eumetaz oa ha ve specializ ed tis sues and P arazoa do not.\nb.Both ac oelomat es and pseudoc oelomat es ha ve a body ca vity.\nc.Chor dates ar e mor e closel y related to echinoderms than t o rotifers ac cording t o the fig ure.\nd.Some animals ha ve radial s ymmetr y, and some animals ha ve bilat eral symmetr y.\nBody S ymme try\nAnimals ma y be as ymmetrical , radial , or bilat eral in f orm ( Figure 15.4 ).Asymmetrical animals ar e animals with no\npattern or s ymmetr y; an e xample o f an as ymmetrical animal is a spong e (Figure 15.4 a). An or ganism with radial\nsymmetr y(Figure 15.4 b) has a longitudinal (up -and-do wn) orientation: An y plane cut along this up \u2013down axis\nproduc es roughl y mirr or-imag e hal ves. An e xample o f an or ganism with r adial s ymmetr y is a sea anemone .\n354 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1041, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "af81ae95-54ce-4fbd-814f-a8dfe76eeca9": {"__data__": {"id_": "af81ae95-54ce-4fbd-814f-a8dfe76eeca9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "369", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3b9987fa-33b9-408e-9a95-008a989e657a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "369", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9c2f13ddcac15649b2af2e26a8a3d6f5d0e29a5c04d1a455dba0cbed87b53acf", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.4 Animals e xhibit diff erent types o f body s ymmetr y. The (a) spong e is as ymmetrical and has no planes o f symmetr y, the (b) sea\nanemone has r adial s ymmetr y with mul tiple planes o f symmetr y, and the (c) g oat has bilat eral symmetr y with one plane o f symmetr y.\nBila teral symmetr yis illustrated in Figure 15.4 cusing a g oat. The g oat also has upper and lo wer sides t o it, but the y\nare not s ymmetrical . A v ertical plane cut fr om fr ont t o back separ ates the animal int o roughl y mirr or-imag e right and\nleft sides . Animals with bilat eral symmetr y also ha ve a \u201chead\u201d and \u201c tail\u201d (ant erior v ersus pos terior) and a back and\nunderside (dorsal v ersus v entr al).\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch this video (http://opens tax.org/l/symmetr y2)to see a quick sk etch o f the diff erent types o f body s ymmetr y.\nLayers of Tissues\nMos t animal species under go a la yering o f earl y tis sues during embr yonic de velopment. These la yers ar e cal led\ngerm la yers. Each la yer de velops int o a specific set o f tissues and or gans. Animals de velop either tw o or thr ee\nembr yonic g erms la yers ( Figure 15.5 ). The animals that displa y radial s ymmetr y de velop tw o germ la yers, an inner\nlayer (endoderm) and an out er la yer (ect oderm). These animals ar e cal leddiploblas ts. Animals with bilat eral\nsymmetr y de velop thr ee g erm la yers: an inner la yer (endoderm), an out er la yer (ect oderm), and a middle la yer\n(mesoderm). Animals with thr ee g erm la yers ar e cal ledtriploblas ts.\nFIGURE 15.5 During embr yogenesis , diploblas ts de velop tw o embr yonic g erm la yers: an ect oderm and an endoderm. T riploblas ts de velop\na thir d layer\u2014the mesoderm\u2014betw een the endoderm and ect oderm.\nPresenc e or Absenc e of a C oelom\nTriploblas ts ma y de velop an int ernal body ca vity deriv ed fr om mesoderm, cal led a coelom (pr. see -L\u014cM). This\nepithelial -lined ca vity is a spac e, usual ly filled with fluid, which lies betw een the dig estive system and the body w all.\nIt houses or gans such as the kidne ys and spleen, and c ontains the cir culat ory system. T riploblas ts that do not\ndevelop a c oelom ar e cal ledacoeloma tes, and their mesoderm r egion is c omplet ely filled with tis sue, although the y\nhave a g ut ca vity. Examples o f acoelomat es include the flatw orms . Animals with a true c oelom ar e cal led\n15.1 \u2022 F eatur es of the Animal Kingdom 355", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2421, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9600c1ee-33a1-4707-9867-48f70b31b933": {"__data__": {"id_": "9600c1ee-33a1-4707-9867-48f70b31b933", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "370", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f46e4d72-8761-46a5-abb7-612de1e9ba48", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "370", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5caa0bba250aad97680c9be8b11711d5b68c5fe33ccddc32a8b0a5e7eb49277d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "eucoeloma tes(or c oelomat es) ( Figure 15.6 ). A true c oelom arises entir ely within the mesoderm g erm la yer.\nAnimals such as ear thworms , snails , insects , starfish, and v ertebrates ar e all euc oelomat es. A thir d group o f\ntriploblas ts has a body ca vity that is deriv ed par tly from mesoderm and par tly from endoderm tis sue. These animals\nare cal ledpseudoc oeloma tes. Roundw orms ar e examples o f pseudoc oelomat es. New data on the r elationships o f\npseudoc oelomat es sug gest that these ph yla ar e not closel y related and so the e volution o f the pseudoc oelom mus t\nhave oc curr ed mor e than onc e (Figure 15.3 ). True c oelomat es can be fur ther char acterized based on f eatur es o f\ntheir earl y embr yological de velopment.\nFIGURE 15.6 Triploblas ts ma y be ac oelomat es, euc oelomat es, or pseudoc oelomat es. Euc oelomat es ha ve a body ca vity within the\nmesoderm, cal led a c oelom, which is lined with mesoderm tis sue. Pseudoc oelomat es ha ve a similar body ca vity, but it is lined with\nmesoderm and endoderm tis sue. (credit a: modification o f work b y Jan Derk; cr edit b: modification o f work b y NO AA; cr edit c: modification\nof work b y USD A, ARS)\nProtostomes and Deut erostomes\nBilat erally symmetrical , triploblas tic euc oelomat es can be divided int o tw o groups based on diff erences in their\nearly embr yonic de velopment. Protostomes include ph yla such as ar thropods , mol lusk s, and annelids .\nDeut erostomes include the chor dates and echinoderms . These tw o groups ar e named fr om which opening o f the\ndigestive ca vity de velops firs t: mouth or anus . The w ordprotostome comes fr om Gr eek w ords meaning \u201c mouth\nfirst,\u201d and deut erostome originat es fr om w ords meaning \u201c mouth sec ond\u201d (in this case , the anus de velops firs t). This\ndifference reflects the fat e of a s tructur e cal led the blas topor e (Figure 15.7 ), which bec omes the mouth in\nprotostomes and the anus in deut erostomes . Other de velopmental char acteristics diff er betw een pr otostomes and\ndeut erostomes , including the mode o f formation o f the c oelom and the earl y cell division o f the embr yo.356 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2218, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8bd64bd7-9aba-404c-9599-1be565779f02": {"__data__": {"id_": "8bd64bd7-9aba-404c-9599-1be565779f02", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "371", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e056425e-5402-49da-b13a-959287f067ff", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "371", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6012920c536e6eeb123f8c86bed42797cb82174cc00cd7c61760b98f9c174ec8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.7 Eucoelomat es can be divided int o tw o groups , protostomes and deut erostomes , based on their earl y embr yonic\ndevelopment. T wo of these diff erences include the origin o f the mouth opening and the w ay in which the c oelom is f ormed.\n15.2 Sponges and Cnidarians\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the or ganizational f eatur es o f the simples t animals\n\u2022Describe the or ganizational f eatur es o f cnidarians\nThe king dom o f animals is inf ormal ly divided int o invertebrate animals , those without a backbone , and v ertebrate\nanimals , those with a backbone . Although in g ener al w e are mos t familiar with v ertebrate animals , the v ast majority\nof animal species , about 95 per cent, ar e invertebrates. Invertebrates include a hug e div ersity o f animals , mil lions o f\nspecies in about 32 ph yla, which w e can jus t begin t o touch on her e.\nThe spong es and the cnidarians r epresent the simples t of animals . Spong es appear t o represent an earl y stage of\nmulticellularity in the animal clade . Although the y ha ve specializ ed c ells for par ticular functions , the y lack true\ntissues in which specializ ed c ells ar e organiz ed int o functional gr oups . Spong es ar e similar t o what might ha ve been\nthe anc estor of animals: c olonial , flag ellated pr otists. The cnidarians , or the jel lyfish and their kin, ar e the simples t\nanimal gr oup that displa ys true tis sues , although the y pos sess onl y tw o tis sue la yers.\nSponges\nAnimals in subking dom P arazoa represent the simples t animals and include the spong es, or ph ylum Porifera(Figure\n15.8 ). All spong es ar e aquatic and the majority o f species ar e marine . Spong es liv e in intimat e contact with w ater,\nwhich pla ys a r ole in their f eeding , gas e xchang e, and e xcretion. Much o f the body s tructur e of the spong e is\ndedicat ed to mo ving w ater thr ough the body so it can fil ter out f ood, absorb dis solved o xygen, and eliminat e wastes.15.2 \u2022 Sponges and Cnidarians 357", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2057, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "91bb0b8f-f2d5-4b28-9da0-4b712fb3faca": {"__data__": {"id_": "91bb0b8f-f2d5-4b28-9da0-4b712fb3faca", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "372", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a3652cb8-12b7-41e5-81fe-46b4d37f99f1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "372", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e8e7c74ef2d8d5b780cffbd0fdc6b781768fdcc5a38ff1752bc737da2ae2fa7a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.8 Spong es ar e members o f the ph ylum P orifera, which c ontains the simples t animals . (credit: Andr ew Turner)\nThe body o f the simples t spong es tak es the shape o f a cylinder with a lar ge centr al ca vity, the spong ocoel. Water\nenters the spong ocoel fr om numer ous por es in the body w all. Water flo ws out thr ough a lar ge opening cal led the\nosculum (Figure 15.9 ). Ho wever, spong es e xhibit a div ersity o f body f orms , which v ary in the siz e and br anching o f\nthe spong ocoel, the number o f osculi, and wher e the c ells that fil ter food fr om the w ater ar e locat ed.\nSpong es consis t of an out er la yer of flat tened c ells and an inner la yer of cells cal led choanocyt es separ ated b y a\njelly-like subs tanc e cal ledmesoh yl. The mesoh yl contains embedded amoeboid c ells that secr ete tin y needles\ncalledspicules or pr otein fibers that help giv e the spong e its s tructur al strength. The c ell body o f the choanocyt eis\nembedded in mesoh yl but pr otruding int o the spong ocoel is a mesh-lik e collar surr ounding a single flag ellum. The\nbeating o f flag ella from al l choanocyt es mo ves w ater thr ough the spong e. Food par ticles ar e trapped in mucus\nproduc ed b y the sie ve-like collar o f the choanocyt es and ar e ing ested b y phag ocyt osis . This pr ocess is cal led\nintracellular dig estion .Amoebocyt estake up nutrients r epack aged in f ood v acuoles o f the choanocyt es and deliv er\nthem t o other c ells within the spong e.358 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1564, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6187c7b6-d17d-486a-bb2d-caf558199532": {"__data__": {"id_": "6187c7b6-d17d-486a-bb2d-caf558199532", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "373", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cd1ca108-e35e-447a-9fba-8e8951b1657a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "373", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b6a859e1b6f36d4aa750e8a0ed641fd6623da4cc41f7e0dd6b9d8b0b6fa793a5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.9 The spong e\u2019s basic body plan is sho wn.\nPhysiologic al Processes in Sponges\nDespit e their lack o f comple xity, spong es ar e clearl y suc cessful or ganisms , having persis ted on Ear th for mor e than\nhalf a bil lion y ears . Lacking a true dig estive system, spong es depend on the intr acellular dig estive processes o f their\nchoanocyt es for their ener gy intak e. The limit o f this type o f dig estion is that f ood par ticles mus t be smal ler than\nindividual c ells. Gas e xchang e, circulation, and e xcretion oc cur b y diffusion betw een c ells and the w ater.\nSpong es reproduc e both se xual ly and ase xual ly. Ase xual r eproduction is either b yfragmenta tion (in which a piec e\nof the spong e breaks off and de velops int o a ne w individual), or budding (an out growth fr om the par ent that\neventual ly detaches). A type o f ase xual r eproduction f ound onl y in fr eshwater spong es oc curs thr ough the f ormation\nofgemmules , clus ters o f cells surr ounded b y a t ough out er la yer. Gemmules sur vive hos tile en vironments and can\nattach t o a subs trate and gr ow int o a ne w spong e.\nSpong es ar emonoecious (or hermaphr oditic), meaning one individual can pr oduc e both eg gs and sperm. Spong es\nmay be sequential ly hermaphr oditic, pr oducing eg gs firs t and sperm lat er. Eggs arise fr om amoebocyt es and ar e\nretained within the spong ocoel, wher eas sperm arise fr om choanocyt es and ar e eject ed thr ough the osculum.\nSperm carried b y water curr ents f ertilize the eg gs o f other spong es. Earl y lar val de velopment oc curs within the\nspong e, and fr ee-swimming lar vae ar e then r eleased thr ough the osculum. This is the onl y time that spong es e xhibit\nmobility . Spong es ar e ses sile as adul ts and spend their liv es at tached t o a fix ed subs trate.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch this video (http://opens tax.org/l/spong e_feed) that demons trates the f eeding o f spong es.\nCnidarians\nThe ph ylum Cnidaria includes animals that sho w radial or bir adial s ymmetr y and ar e diploblas tic. Nearl y all (about\n99 per cent) cnidarians ar e marine species . Cnidarians ha ve specializ ed c ells kno wn as cnidocyt es(\u201cstinging c ells\u201d)\ncontaining or ganel les cal lednema tocysts. These c ells ar e concentr ated ar ound the mouth and t entacles o f the\nanimal and can immobiliz e prey with t oxins . Nemat ocysts contain c oiled thr eads that ma y bear barbs . The out er w all\nof the c ell has a hairlik e projection that is sensitiv e to touch. When t ouched, the c ells fir e the t oxin-c ontaining c oiled\nthreads that can penetr ate and s tun the pr edat or or pr ey (see Figure 15.10 ).\n15.2 \u2022 Sponges and Cnidarians 359", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2694, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5aa9b0ec-8a9b-4a49-8a10-dd9e5f12626a": {"__data__": {"id_": "5aa9b0ec-8a9b-4a49-8a10-dd9e5f12626a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "374", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7ccd4a02-a013-4d56-8f7c-6d8c2029b697", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "374", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3948488e25ce1c5b3d29036b1455801ee6491f6e4ff53ace25c083aa64bb5614", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.10 Animals fr om the ph ylum Cnidaria ha ve stinging c ells cal led cnidocyt es. Cnidocyt es contain lar ge organel les cal led (a)\nnemat ocysts that s tore a c oiled thr ead and barb . When hairlik e projections on the c ell sur face are touched, (b) the thr ead, barb , and a t oxin\nare fired fr om the or ganel le.\nCnidarians displa y tw o dis tinct body plans: polypor \u201cstalk\u201d and medusa or \u201cbel l\u201d (Figure 15.11 ). Examples o f the\npolyp form ar e freshwater species o f the g enus Hydra; perhaps the bes t-kno wn medusoid animals ar e the jel lies\n(jellyfish). P olyps ar e ses sile as adul ts, with a single opening t o the dig estive system (the mouth) facing up with\ntentacles surr ounding it. Medusae ar e motile , with the mouth and t entacles hanging fr om the bel l-shaped body . In\nother cnidarians , both a pol yp and medusa f orm e xist, and the lif e cy cle al ternat es betw een these f orms .\nFIGURE 15.11 Cnidarians ha ve tw o dis tinct body plans , the (a) medusa and the (b) pol yp. All cnidarians ha ve tw o tis sue la yers, with a jel ly-\nlike mesoglea betw een them.\nPhysiologic al Processes o f Cnidarians\nAll cnidarians ha ve tw o tis sue la yers. The out er la yer is cal led the epidermis , wher eas the inner la yer is cal led the\ngastrodermis and lines the dig estive ca vity. Betw een these tw o layers is a non-living , jelly-likemesoglea . Ther e are\ndifferentiat ed c ell types in each tis sue la yer, such as ner ve cells, enzyme -secr eting c ells, and nutrient -absorbing\ncells, as w ell as int ercellular c onnections betw een the c ells. Ho wever, organs and or gan s ystems ar e not pr esent in\nthis ph ylum.\nThe ner vous s ystem is primitiv e, with ner ve cells scat tered acr oss the body in a netw ork. The function o f the ner ve360 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1848, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "33f03d52-3fa4-4472-aff3-70ea44a0fc29": {"__data__": {"id_": "33f03d52-3fa4-4472-aff3-70ea44a0fc29", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "375", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "25b3be04-d370-4a7a-bb61-e816c94ca421", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "375", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "89a6ec025bc101fb8821dc4cf57e43a35c334b8e87770d579c963e65e2eb70ad", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "cells is t o carr y signals fr om sensor y cells and t o contr actile c ells. Groups o f cells in the ner ve net f orm ner ve cords\nthat ma y be es sential f or mor e rapid tr ansmis sion. Cnidarians per form extracellular dig estion , with dig estion\ncomplet ed b y intr acellular dig estive processes. Food is tak en int o the gastrovascular ca vity, enzymes ar e secr eted\ninto the ca vity, and the c ells lining the ca vity absorb the nutrient pr oducts o f the e xtracellular dig estive process. The\ngastrovascular ca vity has onl y one opening that ser ves as both a mouth and an anus (an inc omplet e dig estive\nsystem). Lik e the spong es, Cnidarian c ells exchang e oxygen, carbon dio xide , and nitr ogenous w astes b y diffusion\nbetw een c ells in the epidermis and g astrodermis with w ater.\nCnidarian Div ersity\nThe ph ylum Cnidaria c ontains about 10,000 described species divided int o four clas ses: Antho zoa, Scypho zoa,\nCubo zoa, and Hy drozoa.\nThe clas s Antho zoa includes al l cnidarians that e xhibit a ses sile pol yp body plan onl y; in other w ords, ther e is no\nmedusa s tage within their lif e cy cle. Examples include sea anemones , sea pens , and c orals, with an es timat ed\nnumber o f 6,100 described species . Sea anemones ar e usual ly brightl y colored and can at tain a siz e of 1.8 t o 10 cm\nin diamet er. These animals ar e usual ly cylindrical in shape and ar e attached t o a subs trate. A mouth opening is\nsurr ounded b y tentacles bearing cnidocyt es (Figure 15.12 ).\nFIGURE 15.12 Sea anemones ar e cnidarians o f clas s Antho zoa. (credit: \"Dancing With Ghos ts\"/Flickr)\nScypho zoans include al l the jel lies and ar e motile and e xclusiv ely marine with about 200 described species . The\nmedusa is the dominant s tage in the lif e cy cle, although ther e is also a pol yp s tage. Species r ange from 2 cm in\nlength t o the lar gest scypho zoan species ,Cyanea capil lata, at 2 m acr oss. Jel lies displa y a char acteristic bel l-like\nbody shape ( Figure 15.13 ).15.2 \u2022 Sponges and Cnidarians 361", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2041, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "92a21e42-f56f-4851-8676-18fc37be389e": {"__data__": {"id_": "92a21e42-f56f-4851-8676-18fc37be389e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "376", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "14b7b771-a823-457f-8b23-6151c0526b41", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "376", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9976d0c52b19933b88de30368ac8c0aef67651a952678cc81e37c1c72e8a80f9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.13 Scypho zoans include the jel lies. (credit: \" Jimg944\"/Flickr)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nUse this video (https:/ /opens tax.org/l/amazing _jelly2)to identif y the lif e cy cle s tages o f jellies.\nThe clas s Cubo zoa includes jel lies that ar e squar e in cr oss-section and so ar e kno wn as \u201cbo x jel lyfish. \u201d These\nspecies ma y achie ve siz es o f 15\u201325 cm. Cubo zoans ar e anat omical ly similar t o the jel lyfish. A pr ominent diff erence\nbetw een the tw o clas ses is the arr angement o f tentacles . Cubo zoans ha ve muscular pads cal led pedalia at the\ncorners o f the squar e bel l canop y, with one or mor e tentacles at tached t o each pedalium. In some cases , the\ndigestive system ma y extend int o the pedalia . Cubo zoans typical ly exist in a pol yp form that de velops fr om a lar va.\nThe pol yps ma y bud t o form mor e pol yps and then tr ansform int o the medusoid f orms .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch this video (http://opens tax.org/l/bo x_jellyfish) to learn mor e about the deadl y toxins o f the bo x jel lyfish.\nHydrozoa includes nearl y 3,500 species ,2mos t of which ar e marine . Mos t species in this clas s ha ve both pol yp and\nmedusa f orms in their lif e cy cle. Man y hydrozoans f orm c olonies c omposed o f branches o f specializ ed pol yps that\nshar e a g astrovascular ca vity. Colonies ma y also be fr ee-floating and c ontain both medusa and pol yp individuals in\nthe c olon y, as in the P ortuguese Man O \u2019War (Physalia ) or B y-the -Wind Sailor ( Velella). Other species ar e solitar y\npolyps or solitar y medusae . The char acteristic shar ed b y all of these species is that their g onads ar e deriv ed fr om\nepidermal tis sue, wher eas in al l other cnidarians , the y are deriv ed fr om g astrodermal tis sue ( Figure 15.14 ab).\n2\u201cThe Hy drozoa Dir ectory,\u201d Peter Schucher t, Mus\u00e9um Gen\u00e8 ve, las t updat ed No vember 2012, ht tp://www .ville-ge.ch/mhng /hydrozoa/\nhydrozoa-directory.htm.362 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2003, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f1e686c1-74d3-431e-bb75-38222cf94b04": {"__data__": {"id_": "f1e686c1-74d3-431e-bb75-38222cf94b04", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "377", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "be230dd2-a64a-48e9-880b-7794b665c25a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "377", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "006282a4d21f2e176738cae4905a78a8ca572ab09f72792f334fe3c06d4bd82c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.14 A (a) bo x jel ly is an e xample fr om clas s Cubo zoa. The (b) h ydra is fr om clas s Hy drozoa. (credit b: scale -bar data fr om Mat t\nRussell)\n15.3 Flatworms , Nemat odes , and Ar thropods\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the s tructur e and s ystems o f flatw orms\n\u2022Describe the s tructur al or ganization o f nemat odes\n\u2022Compar e the int ernal s ystems and the appendag e specialization o f arthropods\nThe animal ph yla o f this and subsequent modules ar e triploblas tic and ha ve an embr yonic mesoderm sandwiched\nbetw een the ect oderm and endoderm. These ph yla ar e also bilat erally symmetrical , meaning that a longitudinal\nsection wil l divide them int o right and left sides that ar e mirr or imag es o f each other . Associat ed with bilat eralism is\nthe beginning o f cephalization, the e volution o f a c oncentr ation o f ner vous tis sues and sensor y organs in the head o f\nthe or ganism, which is wher e the or ganism firs t enc ount ers its en vironment.\nThe flatw orms ar e ac oelomat e organisms that include fr ee-living and par asitic f orms . The nemat odes , or\nroundw orms , pos sess a pseudoc oelom and c onsis t of both fr ee-living and par asitic f orms . Final ly, the ar thropods ,\none o f the mos t suc cessful tax onomic gr oups on the planet, ar e coelomat e organisms with a har d exoskeleton and\njoint ed appendag es. The nemat odes and the ar thropods belong t o a clade with a c ommon anc estor, cal led\nEcdysozoa. The name c omes fr om the w ordecdysis, which r efers t o the periodic shedding , or mol ting, of the\nexoskeleton. The ec dysozoan ph yla ha ve a har d cuticle c overing their bodies that mus t be periodical ly shed and\nreplac ed for them t o incr ease in siz e.\nFlatworms\nThe r elationships among flatw orms , or ph ylum Platyhelminthes , is being r evised and the descrip tion her e wil l follow\nthe tr aditional gr oupings . Mos t flatw orms ar e par asitic, including impor tant par asites o f humans . Flatw orms ha ve\nthree embr yonic g erm la yers that giv e rise t o sur faces covering tis sues , internal tis sues , and the lining o f the\ndigestive system. The epidermal tis sue is a single la yer of cells or a la yer of fused c ells covering a la yer of circular\nmuscle abo ve a la yer of longitudinal muscle . The mesodermal tis sues include suppor t cells and secr etory cells that\nsecr ete mucus and other mat erials t o the sur face. The flatw orms ar e ac oelomat e, so their bodies c ontain no ca vities\nor spac es betw een the out er sur face and the inner dig estive tract.\nPhysiologic al Processes o f Flat worms\nFree-living species o f flatw orms ar e predat ors or sca vengers, wher eas par asitic f orms f eed fr om the tis sues o f their\nhosts. Mos t flatw orms ha ve an inc omplet e dig estive system with an opening , the \u201c mouth, \u201d that is also used t o expel\ndigestive system w astes. Some species also ha ve an anal opening . The g ut ma y be a simple sac or highl y branched.15.3 \u2022 Flat worms , Nemat odes , and Ar thropods 363", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3078, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f143f11a-ffc6-44eb-8cb5-d78d5a7edab0": {"__data__": {"id_": "f143f11a-ffc6-44eb-8cb5-d78d5a7edab0", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "378", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d479bf59-fe77-4fa4-a4bd-7890466199d7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "378", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b99f7eb3e0c66815653055d4dd8df95eee441b6233b687619847e2262639ab04", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Digestion is e xtracellular , with enzymes secr eted int o the spac e by cells lining the tr act, and dig ested mat erials\ntaken int o the same c ells by phag ocyt osis . One gr oup, the c estodes , does not ha ve a dig estive system, because their\nparasitic lif estyle and the en vironment in which the y live (suspended within the dig estive ca vity o f their hos t) allows\nthem t o absorb nutrients dir ectly acr oss their body w all. Flatw orms ha ve an e xcretory system with a netw ork o f\ntubules thr oughout the body that open t o the en vironment and nearb y flame c ells, whose cilia beat t o dir ect w aste\nfluids c oncentr ated in the tubules out o f the body . The s ystem is r esponsible f or regulation o f dis solved sal ts and\nexcretion o f nitr ogenous w astes. The ner vous s ystem c onsis ts of a pair o f ner ve cords running the length o f the body\nwith c onnections betw een them and a lar ge ganglion or c oncentr ation o f ner ve cells at the ant erior end o f the w orm;\nhere, ther e ma y also be a c oncentr ation o f phot osensor y and chemosensor y cells (Figure 15.15 ).\nFIGURE 15.15 This planarian is a fr ee-living flatw orm that has an inc omplet e dig estive system, an e xcretory system with a netw ork o f\ntubules thr oughout the body , and a ner vous s ystem made up o f ner ve cords running the length o f the body with a c oncentr ation o f ner ves\nand phot osensor y and chemosensor y cells at the ant erior end.\nSinc e ther e is no cir culat ory or r espir atory system, g as and nutrient e xchang e is dependent on diffusion and\nintercellular junctions . This nec essaril y limits the thicknes s of the body in these or ganisms , constraining them t o be\n\u201cflat\u201d worms . Mos t flatw orm species ar e monoecious (hermaphr oditic, pos sessing both sets o f sex organs), and\nfertilization is typical ly int ernal . Ase xual r eproduction is c ommon in some gr oups in which an entir e organism can be\nregener ated fr om jus t a par t of itself .\nDiversity of Flat worms\nFlatw orms ar e traditional ly divided int o four clas ses: T urbel laria , Monog enea , Tremat oda, and Ces toda ( Figure\n15.16 ). The turbel larians include mainl y free-living marine species , although some species liv e in fr eshwater or\nmois t terrestrial en vironments . The simple planarians f ound in fr eshwater ponds and aquaria ar e examples . The\nepidermal la yer of the underside o f turbel larians is ciliat ed, and this helps them mo ve. Some turbel larians ar e\ncapable o f remark able f eats o f regener ation in which the y ma y regrow the body , even fr om a smal l fragment.364 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2666, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "54b4734e-d1e9-4e37-9d62-f963f0ff883c": {"__data__": {"id_": "54b4734e-d1e9-4e37-9d62-f963f0ff883c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "379", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6b02269b-5018-483c-bb80-31e39c1761b1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "379", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a774a58dcb3df2a1f29089cb27376f734bff04dd09c0341065b955f25ec4050d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "0eca98b3-6baa-43c4-9586-7c10ffd3b0ec", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "2d88aa0ec80f5615b008c480bc7bd3d6df39c541f343383930414be7c0b3137f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.16 Phylum Platyhelminthes is divided int o four clas ses: (a) Bedf ord\u2019s Flatw orm ( Pseudobic eros bedf ordi) and the (b) planarian\nbelong t o clas s Turbel laria; (c) the T remat oda clas s includes about 20,000 species , mos t of which ar e par asitic; (d) clas s Ces toda includes\ntape worms such as this Taenia saginata ; and the par asitic clas s Monog enea (not sho wn). (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Jan Derk; cr edit\nc: modification o f work b y \u201cSahaquiel9102\u201d/ Wikimedia Commons; cr edit d: modification o f work b y CDC)\nThe monog eneans ar e external par asites mos tly of fish with lif e cy cles c onsis ting o f a fr ee-swimming lar va that\nattaches t o a fish t o begin tr ansformation t o the par asitic adul t form. The y ha ve onl y one hos t during their lif e,\ntypical ly of jus t one species . The w orms ma y produc e enzymes that dig est the hos t tissues or gr aze on sur face\nmucus and skin par ticles . Mos t monog eneans ar e hermaphr oditic, but the sperm de velop firs t, and it is typical f or\nthem t o mat e betw een individuals and not t o self-f ertilize.\nThe tr emat odes , or fluk es, are int ernal par asites o f mol lusk s and man y other gr oups , including humans . Tremat odes\nhave comple x life cy cles that in volve a primar y hos t in which se xual r eproduction oc curs and one or mor e sec ondar y\nhosts in which ase xual r eproduction oc curs . The primar y hos t is almos t always a mol lusk. T remat odes ar e\nresponsible f or serious human diseases including schis tosomiasis , caused b y a blood fluk e (Schis tosoma ). The\ndisease inf ects an es timat ed 200 mil lion people in the tr opics and leads t o organ damag e and chr onic s ymp toms\nincluding fatig ue. Inf ection oc curs when a human ent ers the w ater, and a lar va, released fr om the primar y snail hos t,\nlocat es and penetr ates the skin. The par asite inf ects v arious or gans in the body and f eeds on r ed blood c ells bef ore\nreproducing . Man y of the eg gs ar e released in f eces and find their w ay int o a w aterway wher e the y are able t o\nreinfect the primar y snail hos t.\nThe c estodes , or tape worms , are also int ernal par asites, mainl y of vertebrates. Tapeworms liv e in the int estinal tr act\nof the primar y hos t and r emain fix ed using a suck er on the ant erior end, or sc olex, of the tape worm body . The\nremaining body o f the tape worm is made up o f a long series o f units cal led pr oglot tids, each o f which ma y contain an\nexcretory system with flame c ells, but wil l contain r eproductiv e structur es, both male and f emale . Tapeworms do\nnot ha ve a dig estive system, the y absorb nutrients fr om the f ood mat ter pas sing them in the hos t\u2019s int estine.\nProglot tids ar e produc ed at the sc olex and ar e pushed t o the end o f the tape worm as ne w pr oglot tids f orm, at which\npoint, the y are \u201cmatur e\u201d and al l structur es e xcept fertilized eg gs ha ve deg ener ated. Mos t reproduction oc curs b y\ncross-fertilization.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3007, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0eca98b3-6baa-43c4-9586-7c10ffd3b0ec": {"__data__": {"id_": "0eca98b3-6baa-43c4-9586-7c10ffd3b0ec", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "379", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6b02269b-5018-483c-bb80-31e39c1761b1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "379", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a774a58dcb3df2a1f29089cb27376f734bff04dd09c0341065b955f25ec4050d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "54b4734e-d1e9-4e37-9d62-f963f0ff883c", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "379", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5a95789a0c748384a51d10c9657b6481c4afb52f1476d085742931a8cd6a2946", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The\nremaining body o f the tape worm is made up o f a long series o f units cal led pr oglot tids, each o f which ma y contain an\nexcretory system with flame c ells, but wil l contain r eproductiv e structur es, both male and f emale . Tapeworms do\nnot ha ve a dig estive system, the y absorb nutrients fr om the f ood mat ter pas sing them in the hos t\u2019s int estine.\nProglot tids ar e produc ed at the sc olex and ar e pushed t o the end o f the tape worm as ne w pr oglot tids f orm, at which\npoint, the y are \u201cmatur e\u201d and al l structur es e xcept fertilized eg gs ha ve deg ener ated. Mos t reproduction oc curs b y\ncross-fertilization. The pr oglot tid detaches and is r eleased in the f eces o f the hos t. The f ertilized eg gs ar e eat en b y\nan int ermediat e hos t. The juv enile w orms emer ge and inf ect the int ermediat e hos t, taking up r esidenc e, usual ly in\nmuscle tis sue. When the muscle tis sue is eat en b y the primar y hos t, the cy cle is c omplet ed. Ther e are se veral\ntape worm par asites o f humans that ar e ac quired b y eating unc ooked or poorl y cooked pork, beef , and fish.15.3 \u2022 Flat worms , Nemat odes , and Ar thropods 365", "start_char_idx": 2367, "end_char_idx": 3531, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3b6a2ab9-ec79-4139-ab4e-1a4bb385c5d5": {"__data__": {"id_": "3b6a2ab9-ec79-4139-ab4e-1a4bb385c5d5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "380", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d6fb5a02-6b87-47d7-9d3c-d5adce082424", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "380", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7bcbc768e81d61ec37c7258db3590cfb0db0f337177265adc9cf8559aafbfae7", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Nemat odes\nThe ph ylum Nema toda, or r oundw orms , includes mor e than 28,000 species with an es timat ed 16,000 par asitic\nspecies . The name Nemat oda is deriv ed fr om the Gr eek w ord \u201cnemos ,\u201d which means \u201c thread. \u201d Nemat odes ar e\npresent in al l habitats and ar e extremel y common, al though the y are usual ly not visible ( Figure 15.17 ).\nFIGURE 15.17 (a) An scanning electr on micr ograph o f the nemat ode Heteroder a glycines and (b) a schematic r epresentation o f the\nanat omy of a nemat ode ar e sho wn. (cr edit a: modification o f work b y USD A, ARS; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nMos t nemat odes look similar t o each other: slender tubes , taper ed at each end ( Figure 15.17 ). Nemat odes ar e\npseudoc oelomat es and ha ve acomplet e dig estive systemwith a dis tinct mouth and anus .\nThe nemat ode body is encased in a cuticle , a fle xible but t ough e xoskeleton, or e xternal sk eleton, which o ffers\nprotection and suppor t. The cuticle c ontains a carboh ydrate-protein pol ymer cal ledchitin . The cuticle also lines the\nphar ynx and r ectum. Al though the e xoskeleton pr ovides pr otection, it r estricts gr owth, and ther efore mus t be\ncontinual ly shed and r eplac ed as the animal incr eases in siz e.\nA nemat ode\u2019s mouth opens at the ant erior end with thr ee or six lips and, in some species , teeth in the f orm o f\ncuticular e xtensions . Ther e ma y also be a sharp s tylet that can pr otrude fr om the mouth t o stab pr ey or pier ce plant\nor animal c ells. The mouth leads t o a muscular phar ynx and int estine, leading t o the r ectum and anal opening at the\nposterior end.\nPhysiologic al Processes o f Nemat odes\nIn nemat odes , the e xcretory system is not specializ ed. Nitr ogenous w astes ar e remo ved b y diffusion. In marine\nnemat odes , regulation o f water and sal t is achie ved b y specializ ed glands that r emo ve un wanted ions while366 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1967, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "604e5ce3-2a1f-4097-aaf8-570faec7f64c": {"__data__": {"id_": "604e5ce3-2a1f-4097-aaf8-570faec7f64c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "381", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e4f6a373-a5a8-4f0c-ae8e-574d3c9c7bd7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "381", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b41fa87eaadef648bcef4b0e9d711569be69d7b8eea25f8a00ee6445e4f58758", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "maintaining int ernal body fluid c oncentr ations .\nMos t nemat odes ha ve four ner ve cords that run along the length o f the body on the t op, bot tom, and sides . The\nnerve cords fuse in a ring ar ound the phar ynx, t o form a head g anglion or \u201cbr ain\u201d of the w orm, as w ell as at the\nposterior end t o form the tail g anglion. Beneath the epidermis lies a la yer of longitudinal muscles that permits onl y\nside -to-side , wave-like undulation o f the body .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nView this video (http://opens tax.org/l/nemat ode) to see nemat odes mo ve about and f eed on bact eria.\nNemat odes emplo y a div ersity o f sexual r eproductiv e strategies depending on the species; the y ma y be\nmonoecious ,dioecious (separ ate se xes), or ma y reproduc e ase xual ly by par thenog enesis .Caenorhabditis eleg ans is\nnearl y unique among animals in ha ving both self-f ertilizing hermaphr odites and a male se x that can mat e with the\nhermaphr odite.\nArthropoda\nThe name \u201c arthropoda\u201d means \u201cjoint ed legs ,\u201d which ap tly describes each o f the enormous number o f species\nbelonging t o this ph ylum. Arthropoda dominat e the animal king dom with an es timat ed 85 per cent o f kno wn\nspecies , with man y still undisc overed or undescribed. The principal char acteristics o f all the animals in this ph ylum\nare functional segmentation o f the body and the pr esenc e of joint ed appendag es (Figure 15.18 ). As members o f\nEcdysozoa, arthropods also ha ve an e xoskeleton made principal ly of chitin. Ar thropoda is the lar gest phylum in the\nanimal w orld in t erms o f numbers o f species , and insects f orm the single lar gest group within this ph ylum.\nArthropods ar e true c oelomat e animals and e xhibit pr ostostomic de velopment.\nFIGURE 15.18 Trilobit es, like the one in this f ossil, are an e xtinct gr oup o f arthropods . (credit: K evin W alsh)\nPhysiologic al Processes o f Arthropods\nA unique f eatur e of arthropods is the pr esenc e of a segment ed body with fusion o f certain sets o f segments t o giv e\nrise t o functional segments . Fused segments ma y form a head, thor ax, and abdomen, or a c ephalothor ax and\nabdomen, or a head and trunk. The c oelom tak es the f orm o f ahemoc oel(or blood ca vity). The open cir culat ory\nsystem, in which blood bathes the int ernal or gans r ather than cir culating in v essels , is r egulated b y a tw o-\nchamber ed hear t. Respir atory systems v ary, depending on the gr oup o f arthropod: Insects and m yriapods use a\nseries o f tubes ( tracheae ) that br anch thr oughout the body , open t o the outside thr ough openings cal ledspir acles ,\nand per form g as e xchang e dir ectly betw een the c ells and air in the tr acheae . Aquatic crus taceans use gil ls,\narachnids emplo y \u201cbook lungs ,\u201d and aquatic chelic erates use \u201cbook gil ls.\u201d The book lungs o f arachnids ar e int ernal\nstack s of alternating air pock ets and hemoc oel tis sue shaped lik e the pag es o f a book. The book gil ls of crus taceans\nare external s tructur es similar t o book lungs with s tack s of leaf-lik e structur es that e xchang e gases with the\nsurr ounding w ater (Figure 15.19 ).\n15.3 \u2022 Flat worms , Nemat odes , and Ar thropods 367", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3190, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a7460e4e-321c-4675-bbee-25cc666b5a94": {"__data__": {"id_": "a7460e4e-321c-4675-bbee-25cc666b5a94", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "382", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b37b8d55-e7e9-470a-a6b8-685bd8c582bb", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "382", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5c8892fdcef2c3edfedce5d5a9377db08fe97e4619582c7930a72c1ea3069eee", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.19 The book lungs o f (a) ar achnids ar e made up o f alternating air pock ets and hemoc oel tis sue shaped lik e a s tack o f book s.\nThe book gil ls of (b) crus taceans ar e similar t o book lungs but ar e external so that g as e xchang e can oc cur with the surr ounding w ater.\n(credit a: modification o f work b y Ryan Wilson based on original w ork b y John Henr y Coms tock; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Ang el\nSchatz)\nArthropod Div ersity\nPhylum Ar thropoda includes animals that ha ve been suc cessful in c olonizing t errestrial , aquatic, and aerial habitats .\nThe ph ylum is fur ther clas sified int o fiv e subph yla: T rilobit omorpha (trilobit es), He xapoda (insects and r elativ es),\nMyriapoda (mil lipedes , centipedes , and r elativ es), Crus tacea (cr abs, lobs ters, crayfish, isopods , barnacles , and\nsome z ooplank ton), and Chelic erata (horseshoe cr abs, arachnids , scorpions , and daddy longlegs). T rilobit es ar e an\nextinct gr oup o f arthropods f ound fr om the Cambrian period (540\u2013490 mil lion y ears ag o) until the y became e xtinct\nin the P ermian (300\u2013251 mil lion y ears ag o) that ar e probabl y mos t closel y related to the Chelic erata. The 17,000\ndescribed species ha ve been identified fr om f ossils ( Figure 15.18 ).\nThe He xapoda ha ve six legs (thr ee pairs) as their name sug gests. Hexapod segments ar e fused int o a head, thor ax,\nand abdomen ( Figure 15.20 ). The thor ax bears the wings and thr ee pairs o f legs . The insects w e enc ount er on a\ndaily basis \u2014such as ants , cockr oaches , but terflies , and bees \u2014are examples o f He xapoda .\nFIGURE 15.20 In this basic anat omy of a he xapod, not e that insects ha ve a de veloped dig estive system ( yellow), a r espir atory system\n(blue), a cir culat ory system (r ed), and a ner vous s ystem (purple).\nSubph ylum Myriapoda includes ar thropods with legs that ma y vary in number fr om 10 t o 750. This subph ylum\nincludes 13,000 species; the mos t commonl y found e xamples ar e mil lipedes and c entipedes . All myriapods ar e\nterrestrial animals and pr efer a humid en vironment ( Figure 15.21 ).368 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2191, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "129961ac-136e-4398-bacf-528b101f9a59": {"__data__": {"id_": "129961ac-136e-4398-bacf-528b101f9a59", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "383", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7ec913cb-d894-4546-9b1f-1c25d302920e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "383", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f76db7a4d85027d4d57ccea304b8121ac6ad669425057e5cc3a0e20523c03da2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "709f7bbb-9f25-4e8c-9a1b-f632f2618b43", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "4cfe47bec92e68e08b5c1eb5118759021dbd13efef04a55c10b30c67a30faee2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.21 (a) The c entipede Scutig era coleop tratahas up t o 15 pairs o f legs . (b) This Nor th American mil lipede ( Narceus americanus)\nbears man y legs , although not one thousand, as its name might sug gest. (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Bruc e Marlin; cr edit b:\nmodification o f work b y Cor y Zank er)\nCrus taceans , such as shrimp , lobs ters, crabs, and cr ayfish, ar e the dominant aquatic ar thropods . A few crus taceans\nare terrestrial species lik e the pil l bugs or so w bugs . The number o f described crus tacean species s tands at about\n47,000.3\nAlthough the basic body plan in crus taceans is similar t o the He xapoda \u2014head, thor ax, and abdomen\u2014the head and\nthor ax ma y be fused in some species t o form a cephalo thor ax, which is c overed b y a plat e cal led the car apac e\n(Figure 15.22 ). The e xoskeleton o f man y species is also infused with calcium carbonat e, which mak es it e ven\nstronger than in other ar thropods . Crus taceans ha ve an open cir culat ory system in which blood is pumped int o the\nhemoc oel b y the dorsal hear t. Mos t crus taceans typical ly ha ve separ ate se xes, but some , like barnacles , ma y be\nhermaphr oditic. Serial hermaphr oditism, in which the g onad can s witch fr om pr oducing sperm t o ova, is also f ound\nin some crus tacean species . Larval stages ar e seen in the earl y de velopment o f man y crus taceans . Mos t\ncrus taceans ar e carniv orous, but detritiv ores and fil ter feeders ar e also c ommon.\nFIGURE 15.22 The cr ayfish is an e xample o f a crus tacean. It has a car apac e around the c ephalothor ax and the hear t in the dorsal thor ax\narea. (credit: Jane Whitne y)\nSubph ylum Chelic erata includes animals such as spiders , scorpions , horseshoe cr abs, and sea spiders . This\nsubph ylum is pr edominantl y terrestrial , although some marine species also e xist. An es timat ed 103,0004described\nspecies ar e included in subph ylum Chelic erata.\nThe body o f chelic erates ma y be divided int o tw o par ts and a dis tinct \u201chead\u201d is not al ways disc ernible . The ph ylum\nderiv es its name fr om the firs t pair o f appendag es: the chelic erae(Figure 15.23 a), which ar e specializ ed\nmouthpar ts. The chelic erae ar e mos tly used f or feeding , but in spiders , the y are typical ly modified t o inject v enom\ninto their pr ey (Figure 15.23 b). As in other members o f Arthropoda , chelic erates also utiliz e an open cir culat ory\nsystem, with a tube -like hear t that pumps blood int o the lar ge hemoc oel that bathes the int ernal or gans. Aquatic\nchelic erates utiliz e gil l respir ation, wher eas t errestrial species use either tr acheae or book lungs f or gaseous\nexchang e.\n3\u201cNumber o f Living Species in Aus tralia and the W orld, \u201d A.D. Chapman, Aus tralia Biodiv ersity Inf ormation Ser vices, las t modified Aug ust\n26, 2010, ht tp://www .environment. gov.au/biodiv ersity /abrs/publications/other /species -numbers/2009/03- exec-summar y.html .\n4\u201cNumber o f Living Species in Aus tralia and the W orld, \u201d A.D. Chapman, Aus tralia Biodiv ersity Inf ormation Ser vices, las t modified Aug ust\n26, 2010, ht tp://www .environment.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3147, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "709f7bbb-9f25-4e8c-9a1b-f632f2618b43": {"__data__": {"id_": "709f7bbb-9f25-4e8c-9a1b-f632f2618b43", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "383", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7ec913cb-d894-4546-9b1f-1c25d302920e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "383", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f76db7a4d85027d4d57ccea304b8121ac6ad669425057e5cc3a0e20523c03da2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "129961ac-136e-4398-bacf-528b101f9a59", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "383", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dbc3b6a3c35e1d968206c74da2dc1ffe9ed8f37d448b49d17236565ce73a2eef", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Aquatic\nchelic erates utiliz e gil l respir ation, wher eas t errestrial species use either tr acheae or book lungs f or gaseous\nexchang e.\n3\u201cNumber o f Living Species in Aus tralia and the W orld, \u201d A.D. Chapman, Aus tralia Biodiv ersity Inf ormation Ser vices, las t modified Aug ust\n26, 2010, ht tp://www .environment. gov.au/biodiv ersity /abrs/publications/other /species -numbers/2009/03- exec-summar y.html .\n4\u201cNumber o f Living Species in Aus tralia and the W orld, \u201d A.D. Chapman, Aus tralia Biodiv ersity Inf ormation Ser vices, las t modified Aug ust\n26, 2010, ht tp://www .environment. gov.au/biodiv ersity /abrs/publications/other /species -numbers/2009/03- exec-summar y.html .15.3 \u2022 Flat worms , Nemat odes , and Ar thropods 369", "start_char_idx": 2550, "end_char_idx": 3293, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "63187598-0192-4f82-8299-a96f86eb0129": {"__data__": {"id_": "63187598-0192-4f82-8299-a96f86eb0129", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "384", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "90893edf-74ae-44b9-90dd-47078f6e030b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "384", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6dc4e8f44f530049f22cae9f2e6f84d552367f14aa5f3f178f4eb346e5011d60", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.23 (a) The chelic erae (firs t set o f appendag es, circled) ar e well developed in the Chelic erata, which includes sc orpions (a) and\nspiders (b). (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Kevin W alsh; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Marshal Hedin)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nClick thr ough (http://opens tax.org/l/ar thropod2) this les son on ar thropods t o explor e int eractiv e habitat maps and\nmor e.\n15.4 Mollusk s and Annelids\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the unique anat omical f eatur es o f mol lusk s\n\u2022Describe the f eatur es o f an animal clas sified in ph ylum Annelida\nThe mol lusk s are a div erse gr oup (85,000 described species) o f mos tly marine species . The y ha ve a v ariety o f forms ,\nranging fr om lar ge predat ory squid and oct opus , some o f which sho w a high degr ee o f intelligence, to smal l grazing\nforms with elabor ately sculp ted and c olored shel ls. The annelids tr aditional ly include the olig ochaet es, which\ninclude the ear thworms and leeches , the pol ychaet es, which ar e a marine gr oup, and tw o other smal ler clas ses.\nThe ph yla Mol lusca and Annelida belong t o a clade cal led the Lopho trocho zoa, which also includes the ph ylum\nNemer tea, or ribbon w orms ( Figure 15.3 ). The y are dis tinct fr om the E cdysozoa (nemat odes and ar thropods) based\non e videnc e from anal ysis o f their DNA , which has chang ed our vie ws of the r elationships among in vertebrates.\nPhylum Mollusc a\nMollusca is the pr edominant ph ylum in marine en vironments , wher e it is es timat ed that 23 per cent o f all kno wn\nmarine species belong t o this ph ylum. It is the sec ond mos t div erse ph ylum o f animals with o ver 75,000 described\nspecies . The name \u201c mollusca\u201d signifies a so ft body , as the earlies t descrip tions o f mol lusk s came fr om obser vations\nof unshel led, so ft-bodied cut tlefish (squid r elativ es). Al though mol lusk body f orms v ary, the y shar e key\nchar acteristics, such as a v entr al, muscular f oot that is typical ly used f or loc omotion; the visc eral mas s, which\ncontains mos t of the int ernal or gans o f the animal; and a dorsal mantle , which is a flap o f tissue o ver the visc eral\nmas s that cr eates a spac e cal led the mantle ca vity. The mantle ma y or ma y not secr ete a shel l of calcium carbonat e.\nIn addition, man y mol lusk s ha ve a scr aping s tructur e at the mouth, cal led a radula (Figure 15.24 ).\n370 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2539, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6d36b7e5-a195-443a-b463-18cc056cfbc2": {"__data__": {"id_": "6d36b7e5-a195-443a-b463-18cc056cfbc2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "385", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a5f66313-5632-4e4a-acd3-49acf891385f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "385", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "555b0c3e3895dea7bdbd84980f5270d6504f36a25669fb23e3cdfc814965b7b7", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The muscular f oot v aries in shape and function, depending on the type o f mol lusk (described belo w in the section on\nmollusk div ersity). It is a r etractable as w ell as e xtendable or gan, used f or loc omotion and anchor age. Mol lusk s are\neucoelomat es, but the c oelomic ca vity is r estrict ed to a ca vity ar ound the hear t in adul t animals . The mantle ca vity,\nformed inside the mantle , develops independentl y of the c oelomic ca vity. It is a mul ti-purpose spac e, housing the\ngills, the anus , organs f or sensing f ood par ticles in the w ater, and an outlet f or gamet es. Mos t mol lusk s ha ve an open\ncirculat ory system with a hear t that cir culat es the hemol ymph in open spac es ar ound the or gans. The oct opuses and\nsquid ar e an e xception t o this and ha ve a closed cir culat ory system with tw o hear ts that mo ve blood thr ough the\ngills and a thir d, systemic hear t that pumps blood thr ough the r est of the body .\nVISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 15.24 Ther e are man y species and v ariations o f mol lusk s; the g astropod mol lusk anat omy is sho wn her e, which shar es man y\nchar acteristics c ommon with other gr oups .\nWhich o f the f ollowing s tatements about the anat omy of a mol lusk is false?\na.Mollusk s ha ve a r adula f or scr aping f ood.\nb.Mollusk s ha ve ventr al ner ve cords.\nc.The tis sue beneath the shel l is cal led the mantle .\nd.The mantle ca vity c ontains hemol ymph.\nMollusk Div ersity\nThis ph ylum is c omprised o f seven clas ses: Aplac ophor a, Monoplac ophor a, Polyplac ophor a, Biv alvia, Gas tropoda ,\nCephalopoda , and Scaphopoda .\nClas s Aplac ophor a (\u201cbearing no plat es\u201d) includes w orm-lik e animals living mos tly on deep oc ean bot toms . These\nanimals lack a shel l but ha ve aragonite spicules on their skin. Members o f clas s Monoplac ophor a (\u201cbearing one\nplate\u201d) ha ve a single , cap -like shel l enclosing the body . The monoplac ophor ans w ere belie ved e xtinct and onl y\nknown as f ossils until the disc overy ofNeopilina g alatheae in 1952. T oday, scientis ts ha ve identified nearl y tw o\ndozen living species .\nAnimals in the clas s Polyplac ophor a (\u201cbearing man y plat es\u201d) ar e commonl y kno wn as \u201c chitons\u201d and bear an armor -\nlike, eight -plat ed shel l (Figure 15.25 ). These animals ha ve a br oad, v entr al foot that is adap ted for at tachment t o\nrocks and a mantle that e xtends be yond the shel l in the f orm o f a gir dle. The y breathe with ctenidia (gills) pr esent\nventr ally. These animals ha ve a r adula modified f or scr aping . A single pair o f nephridia f or excretion is pr esent.\n15.4 \u2022 Mollusk s and Annelids 371", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2640, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6ad89c53-0655-436c-b50d-1485896aeecd": {"__data__": {"id_": "6ad89c53-0655-436c-b50d-1485896aeecd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "386", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b2adc2cb-1eda-48df-b8eb-85fd5fe2c8ba", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "386", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "df4ee415e8df94ac0c2e863c6d679aa793bde44307ec011c73e07232a1fa95da", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.25 This chit on fr om the clas s Polyplac ophor a has the eight -plat ed shel l indicativ e of its clas s. (credit: Jerr y Kirkhar t)\nClas s Biv alvia (\u201c two shel ls\u201d) includes clams , oysters, mus sels , scal lops , and g eoduck s. The y are found in marine and\nfreshwater habitats . As the name sug gests, biv alves ar e enclosed in a pair o f shel ls (or v alves) that ar e hing ed at the\ndorsal side . The body is flat tened on the sides . The y feed b y filtering par ticles fr om w ater and a r adula is absent.\nThey exchang e gases using a pair o f ctenidia , and e xcretion and osmor egulation ar e carried out b y a pair o f\nnephridia . In some species , the pos terior edg es o f the mantle ma y fuse t o form tw o siphons that inhale and e xhale\nwater. Some biv alves lik e oysters and mus sels ha ve the unique ability t o secr ete and deposit a calcar eous nacr eor\n\u201cmother o f pearl \u201d around f oreign par ticles that ent er the mantle ca vity. This pr oper ty is c ommer cially exploit ed to\nproduc e pearls .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch animations o fclams (http://opens tax.org/l/clams2) and mus sels (http://opens tax.org/l/mus sels2) feeding t o\nunders tand mor e about biv alves.\nGastropods (\u201c stomach f oot\u201d) include w ell-kno wn mol lusk s like snails , slugs , conchs , sea har es, and sea but terflies .\nGastropods include shel l-bearing species as w ell as species with a r educ ed shel l. These animals ar e as ymmetrical\nand usual ly present a c oiled shel l (Figure 15.26 ).\nFIGURE 15.26 (a) Lik e man y gastropods , this snail has a s tomach f oot and a c oiled shel l. (b) This slug , which is also a g astropod, lack s a\nshel l. (credit a: modification o f work b y Murr ay Stevenson; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Rosendahl)\nThe visc eral mas s in the shel led species is char acteristical ly twis ted and the f oot is modified f or cr awling . Mos t\ngastropods bear a head with t entacles that suppor t eyes. A c omple x radula is used t o scr ape f ood par ticles fr om the\nsubs trate. The mantle ca vity encloses the ct enidia as w ell as a pair o f nephridia .\n372 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2174, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9da07932-08a5-4b88-845c-c1bb902f669f": {"__data__": {"id_": "9da07932-08a5-4b88-845c-c1bb902f669f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "387", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "235d5209-1177-4f1e-b84c-e84370db6856", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "387", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ffa2a60534491784e5003c83cde0f3fc417be0d12b3e9f853297b883a477055d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The clas s Cephalopoda (\u201chead f oot\u201d animals) includes oct opuses , squids , cut tlefish, and nautilus . Cephalopods\ninclude shel led and r educ ed-shel l groups . The y displa y vivid c oloration, typical ly seen in squids and oct opuses ,\nwhich is used f or camouflag e. The ability o f some oct opuses t o rapidl y adjus t their c olors t o mimic a back ground\npattern or t o startle a pr edat or is one o f the mor e awe-inspiring f eats o f these animals . All animals in this clas s are\npredat ors and ha ve beak -like jaws. All cephalopods ha ve a w ell-developed ner vous s ystem, c omple x eyes, and a\nclosed cir culat ory system. The f oot is lobed and de veloped int o tentacles and a funnel , which is used f or loc omotion.\nSuck ers ar e present on the t entacles in oct opuses and squid. Ct enidia ar e enclosed in a lar ge mantle ca vity and ar e\nserviced b y lar ge blood v essels , each with its o wn hear t.\nCephalopods ( Figure 15.27 ) are able t o mo ve quickl y via jet pr opulsion b y contr acting the mantle ca vity t o forcefully\neject a s tream o f water. Cephalopods ha ve separ ate se xes, and the f emales o f some species car e for the eg gs for an\nextended period o f time . Although the shel l is much r educ ed and int ernal in squid and cut tlefish, and absent\naltogether in oct opus , nautilus liv e inside a spir al, mul ti-chamber ed shel l that is fil led with g as or w ater to regulate\nbuoyancy .\nFIGURE 15.27 The (a) nautilus , (b) giant cut tlefish, (c) r eef squid, and (d) blue -ring oct opus ar e all members o f the clas s Cephalopoda .\n(credit a: modification o f work b y J. Baeck er; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Adrian Mohedano; cr edit c: modification o f work b y Silk e\nBaron; cr edit d: modification o f work b y Ang ell Wil liams)\nMembers o f the clas s Scaphopoda (\u201cboat f eet\u201d) ar e kno wn c olloquial ly as \u201c tusk shel ls\u201d or \u201c tooth shel ls.\u201d Tooth\nshel ls ar e open at both ends and usual ly lie buried in sand with the fr ont opening e xposed t o water and the r educ ed\nhead end pr ojecting fr om the back o f the shel l. Tooth shel ls ha ve a r adula and a f oot modified int o tentacles , each\nwith a bulbous end that cat ches and manipulat es pr ey (Figure 15.28 ).15.4 \u2022 Mollusk s and Annelids 373", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2270, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ba3a78e1-297d-4c93-9fd4-46ca01640bde": {"__data__": {"id_": "ba3a78e1-297d-4c93-9fd4-46ca01640bde", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "388", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0c4119fa-d05a-4aaa-87cf-ad02beb71509", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "388", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b7df5bccc468860e61a1fd6a4df1372335f522a3f214b3cb6bf40f435d38d2ca", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.28 Antalis vulg aris shows the clas sic Dentaliidae shape that giv es these animals their c ommon name o f \u201ctusk shel l.\u201d (cr edit:\nGeor ges Jansoone)\nAnnelida\nPhylum Annelida are segment ed w orms f ound in marine , terrestrial , and fr eshwater habitats , but the pr esenc e of\nwater or humidity is a critical fact or for their sur vival in t errestrial habitats . The name o f the ph ylum is deriv ed fr om\nthe L atin w ordannel lus, which means a smal l ring . Appr oximat ely 16,500 species ha ve been described. The ph ylum\nincludes ear thworms , pol ychaet e worms , and leeches . Like mol lusk s, annelids e xhibit pr otostomic de velopment.\nAnnelids ar e bilat erally symmetrical and ha ve a w orm-lik e appear ance. Their par ticular segment ed body plan r esul ts\nin repetition o f internal and e xternal f eatur es in each body segment. This type o f body plan is cal ledmetamerism .\nThe e volutionar y benefit o f such a body plan is thought t o be the capacity it al lows for the e volution o f independent\nmodifications in diff erent segments that per form diff erent functions . The o verall body can then be divided int o head,\nbody , and tail .\nPhysiologic al Processes o f Annelida\nThe skin o f annelids is pr otected b y a cuticle that is thinner than the cuticle o f the ec dysozoans and does not need t o\nbe mol ted for gr owth. Chitinous hairlik e extensions , anchor ed in the skin and pr ojecting fr om the cuticle , cal led\nchaetae , are present in e very segment in mos t groups . The chaetae ar e a defining char acter of annelids . Polychaet e\nworms ha ve pair ed, unjoint ed limbs cal led par apodia on each segment used f or loc omotion and br eathing . Beneath\nthe cuticle ther e are tw o layers o f muscle , one running ar ound its cir cumf erence (cir cular) and one running the\nlength o f the w orm (longitudinal). Annelids ha ve a true c oelom in which or gans ar e dis tribut ed and bathed in\ncoelomic fluid. Annelids pos sess a w ell-developed c omplet e dig estive system with specializ ed or gans: mouth,\nmuscular phar ynx, esophag us, and cr op. A cr oss-sectional vie w of a body segment o f an ear thworm is sho wn in\nFigure 15.29 ; each segment is limit ed b y a membr ane that divides the body ca vity int o compar tments .\nAnnelids ha ve a closed cir culat ory system with muscular pumping \u201chear ts\u201d in the ant erior segments , dorsal and\nventr al blood v essels that run the length o f the body with c onnections in each segment, and capil laries that ser vice\nindividual tis sues . Gas e xchang e oc curs acr oss the mois t body sur face. Excretion is carried out b y pairs o f primitiv e\n\u201ckidne ys\u201d cal led metanephridia that c onsis t of a c onvoluted tubule and an open, ciliat ed funnel pr esent in e very\nsegment. Annelids ha ve a w ell-developed ner vous s ystem with tw o ventr al ner ve cords and a ner ve ring o f fused\nganglia pr esent ar ound the phar ynx.374 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2989, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5f8c15ae-1731-48f8-af8a-c26564ba883d": {"__data__": {"id_": "5f8c15ae-1731-48f8-af8a-c26564ba883d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "389", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "58311491-c717-4983-9490-905c1ee00e03", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "389", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "041d0ef0068c07e519652be0fbdc5dedd69ee7af92c88aed24c127f1851dda10", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.29 In this schematic sho wing the basic anat omy of annelids , the dig estive system is indicat ed in gr een, the ner vous s ystem is\nindicat ed in y ellow, and the cir culat ory system is indicat ed in r ed.\nAnnelids ma y be either monoecious with permanent g onads (as in ear thworms and leeches) or dioecious with\ntempor ary or seasonal g onads (as in pol ychaet es).\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nThis video and animation (http://opens tax.org/l/annelid2) provides a close -up look at annelid anat omy.\nAnnelid Div ersity\nPhylum Annelida includes the clas ses P olychaeta and Clit ellata ( Figure 15.30 ); the lat ter contains subclas ses\nOligochaeta , Hirudinoidea , and Br anchiobdel lida.\nEarthworms ar e the mos t abundant members o f the subclas s Olig ochaeta , dis tinguished b y the pr esenc e of the\nclitellum , a ring s tructur e in the skin that secr etes mucus t o bind mating individuals and f orms a pr otectiv e cocoon\nfor the eg gs. The y also ha ve a f ew, reduc ed chaetae (olig o- = \u201c few\u201d; -chaetae = \u201chairs\u201d). The number and siz e of\nchaetae is gr eatly diminished in olig ochaet es as c ompar ed to the pol ychaet es (pol y- = \u201c man y\u201d; -chaetae = \u201chairs\u201d).\nThe chaetae o f pol ychaet es ar e also arr anged within flesh y, flat, pair ed appendag es on each segment cal led\nparapodia .\nThe subclas s Hirudinoidea includes leeches . Significant diff erences betw een leeches and other annelids include the\ndevelopment o f suck ers at the ant erior and pos terior ends , and the absenc e of chaetae . Additional ly, the\nsegmentation o f the body w all ma y not c orrespond t o int ernal segmentation o f the c oelomic ca vity. This adap tation\nmay allow leeches t o swell when ing esting blood fr om hos t vertebrates. The subclas s Branchiobdel lida includes\nabout 150 species that sho w similarity t o leeches as w ell as olig ochaet es. All species ar e oblig ate symbionts ,\nmeaning that the y can onl y sur vive as sociat ed with their hos t, mainl y with fr eshwater cr ayfish. The y feed on the\nalgae that gr ows on the car apac e of the cr ayfish.\n15.4 \u2022 Mollusk s and Annelids 375", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2112, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a01e8c10-6ac3-4644-a9c1-8626e3923367": {"__data__": {"id_": "a01e8c10-6ac3-4644-a9c1-8626e3923367", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "390", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9dfe5b2a-aae1-406b-90bf-cb37bea809ca", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "390", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b2817f1a946c980ce11536489839e9f0dc8a6d1c7d26a3109b0411a58d05cd5b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.30 The (a) ear thworm and (b) leech ar e both annelids . (credit a: modification o f work b y \"schiz oform \"/Flickr; cr edit b:\nmodification o f work b y \"Sar ah G... \"/Flickr)\n15.5 Echinoderms and Chor dates\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the dis tinguishing char acteristics o f echinoderms\n\u2022Describe the dis tinguishing char acteristics o f chor dates\nDeut erostomes include the ph yla E chinodermata and Chor data (which includes the v ertebrates) and tw o smal ler\nphyla. Deut erostomes shar e similar pat terns o f earl y de velopment.\nEchinoderms\nEchinodermata ar e named f or their spin y skin (fr om the Gr eek \u201c echinos\u201d meaning \u201c spin y\u201d and \u201c dermos\u201d meaning\n\u201cskin \u201d). The ph ylum includes about 7,0005described living species , such as sea s tars, sea cucumbers , sea ur chins ,\nsand dol lars, and brit tle s tars.Echinoderma taare exclusiv ely marine .\nAdul t echinoderms e xhibit pentar adial s ymmetr y and ha ve a calcar eous endosk eleton made o f ossicles ( Figure\n15.31 ), although the earl y lar val stages o f all echinoderms ha ve bilat eral symmetr y. The endosk eleton is de veloped\nby epidermal c ells, which ma y also pos sess pigment c ells, giving vivid c olors t o these animals , as w ell as c ells laden\nwith t oxins . These animals ha ve a true c oelom, a por tion o f which is modified int o a unique cir culat ory system cal led\nawater vascular s ystem. An int eresting f eatur e of these animals is their po wer to regener ate, even when o ver 75\npercent o f their body mas s is los t.\nPhysiologic al Processes o f Echinoderms\nEchinoderms ha ve a unique s ystem f or gas e xchang e, nutrient cir culation, and loc omotion cal led the w ater vascular\nsystem. The s ystem c onsis ts of a c entr al ring canal and r adial canals e xtending along each arm. W ater cir culat es\nthrough these s tructur es al lowing f or gas, nutrient, and w aste exchang e. A s tructur e on t op o f the body , cal led the\nmadr eporit e, regulates the amount o f water in the w ater vascular s ystem. \u201c Tube f eet,\u201d which pr otrude thr ough\nopenings in the endosk eleton, ma y be e xpanded or c ontr acted using the h ydrostatic pr essure in the s ystem. The\nsystem al lows for slo w mo vement, but a gr eat deal o f power, as witnes sed when the tube f eet lat ch on t o opposit e\nhalves o f a biv alve mol lusk, lik e a clam, and slo wly, but sur ely pul l the shel ls apar t, exposing the flesh within.\n5\u201cNumber o f Living Species in Aus tralia and the W orld, \u201d A.D. Chapman, Aus tralia Biodiv ersity Inf ormation Ser vices, las t modified Aug ust\n26, 2010, ht tp://www .environment. gov.au/biodiv ersity /abrs/publications/other /species -numbers/2009/03- exec-summar y.html .376 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2823, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3331cbf5-d501-4865-b16b-7bf07f4166a4": {"__data__": {"id_": "3331cbf5-d501-4865-b16b-7bf07f4166a4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "391", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "53240d0f-ad7d-4fac-a7fd-309ebbeff6c2", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "391", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "befc4b05f85f6604f1a5650127d5526a33ae9de2ccb8927ae265c2950deacfd4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.31 This diagr am sho ws the anat omy of a sea s tar.\nThe echinoderm ner vous s ystem has a ner ve ring at the c enter and fiv e radial ner ves e xtending outw ard along the\narms . Ther e is no c entr alized ner vous c ontr ol. Echinoderms ha ve separ ate se xes and r elease their g amet es int o the\nwater wher e fertilization tak es plac e. Echinoderms ma y also r eproduc e ase xual ly thr ough r egener ation fr om body\nparts.\nEchinoderm Div ersity\nThis ph ylum is divided int o fiv e clas ses: As teroidea (sea s tars), Ophiur oidea (brit tle s tars), Echinoidea (sea ur chins\nand sand dol lars), Crinoidea (sea lilies or f eather s tars), and Holothur oidea (sea cucumbers) ( Figure 15.32 ).\nPerhaps the bes t-kno wn echinoderms ar e members o f the clas s As teroidea , or sea s tars. The y come in a lar ge\nvariety o f shapes , colors , and siz es, with mor e than 1,800 species kno wn. The char acteristics o f sea s tars that set\nthem apar t from other echinoderm clas ses include thick arms that e xtend fr om a c entr al disk wher e organs\npenetr ate int o the arms . Sea s tars use their tube f eet not onl y for gripping sur faces but also f or gr asping pr ey. Sea\nstars ha ve tw o stomachs , one o f which the y can e vert thr ough their mouths t o secr ete dig estive juic es int o or ont o\nprey bef ore ing estion. This pr ocess can es sential ly liquef y the pr ey and mak e dig estion easier .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nView this video (http://opens tax.org/l/echinoderm2) to explor e a sea s tar\u2019s body plan up close , watch one mo ve\nacross the sea floor , and see it de vour a mus sel.\nBrittle s tars ha ve long , thin arms that do not c ontain an y organs. Sea ur chins and sand dol lars do not ha ve arms but\nare hemispherical or flat tened with fiv e rows of tube f eet, which help them in slo w mo vement. Sea lilies and f eather\nstars ar e stalked suspension f eeders . Sea cucumbers ar e so ft-bodied and elong ate with fiv e rows of tube f eet and a\nseries o f tube f eet ar ound the mouth that ar e modified int o tentacles used in f eeding .\n15.5 \u2022 E chinoderms and Chor dates 377", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2115, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "50967f34-2a2a-4021-8f72-675189163933": {"__data__": {"id_": "50967f34-2a2a-4021-8f72-675189163933", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "392", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b8d3fbd3-6292-42d9-9fbc-f9530844c9c3", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "392", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "692c9a5f1d9d385d7525a85229a2847b4a8d8c37f9ed2f46a2f46d89e835c3bd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "88f4f34b-5064-48be-8808-b7aac8df0279", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "ff83b231da57d8bf4daf6758a01988b5cf3bd7516966197cbe05fa0c2773d45e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.32 Different members o f Echinodermata include the (a) sea s tar in clas s As teroidea , (b) the brit tle s tar in clas s Ophiur oidea , (c)\nthe sea ur chins o f clas s Echinoidea , (d) the sea lilies belonging t o clas s Crinoidea , and (e) sea cucumbers r epresenting clas s Holothur oidea .\n(credit a: modification o f work b y Adrian Pings tone; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Joshua Ganderson; cr edit c: modification o f work b y\nSamuel Cho w; cr edit d: modification o f work b y Sar ah Depper; cr edit e: modification o f work b y Ed Bierman)\nChor dates\nThe majority o f species in the ph ylum Chor data ar e found in the subph ylum V ertebrata, which include man y species\nwith which w e are familiar . The v ertebrates contain mor e than 60,000 described species , divided int o major\ngroupings o f the lampr eys, fishes , amphibians , reptiles , birds, and mammals .\nAnimals in the ph ylum Chor datashar e four k ey featur es that appear at some s tage of their de velopment: a\nnotochor d, a dorsal hol low ner ve cord, phar yngeal slits , and a pos t-anal tail ( Figure 15.33 ). In c ertain gr oups , some\nof these tr aits ar e present onl y during embr yonic de velopment.\nThe chor dates ar e named f or the notochor d, which is a fle xible , rod-shaped s tructur e that is f ound in the embr yonic\nstage of all chor dates and in the adul t stage of some chor date species . It is locat ed betw een the dig estive tube and\nthe ner ve cord, and pr ovides sk eletal suppor t thr ough the length o f the body . In some chor dates, the not ochor d acts\nas the primar y axial suppor t of the body thr oughout the animal \u2019s lifetime . In v ertebrates, the not ochor d is pr esent\nduring embr yonic de velopment, at which time it induc es the de velopment o f the neur al tube and ser ves as a suppor t\nfor the de veloping embr yonic body . The not ochor d, ho wever, is not f ound in the pos tnatal s tage of vertebrates; at\nthis point, it has been r eplac ed b y the vertebral column (the spine).\nThe dorsal hol low ner ve cordis deriv ed fr om ect oderm that sink s belo w the sur face of the skin and r olls int o a\nhollow tube during de velopment. In chor dates, it is locat ed dorsal ly to the not ochor d. In c ontr ast, other animal\nphyla pos sess solid ner ve cords that ar e locat ed either v entr ally or lat erally. The ner ve cord found in mos t chor date\nembr yos de velops int o the br ain and spinal c ord, which c ompose the c entr al ner vous s ystem.\nPhar yngeal slits are openings in the phar ynx, the r egion jus t pos terior t o the mouth, that e xtend t o the outside\nenvironment. In or ganisms that liv e in aquatic en vironments , phar yngeal slits al low for the e xit o f water that ent ers\nthe mouth during f eeding . Some in vertebrate chor dates use the phar yngeal slits t o filter food fr om the w ater that\nenters the mouth. In fishes , the phar yngeal slits ar e modified int o gil l suppor ts, and in ja wed fishes , jaw suppor ts. In\ntetrapods , the slits ar e fur ther modified int o components o f the ear and t onsils , sinc e ther e is no long er an y need f or\ngill suppor ts in these air -breathing animals .Tetrapod means \u201c four-footed,\u201d and this gr oup includes amphibians ,\nreptiles , birds, and mammals .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3272, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "88f4f34b-5064-48be-8808-b7aac8df0279": {"__data__": {"id_": "88f4f34b-5064-48be-8808-b7aac8df0279", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "392", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b8d3fbd3-6292-42d9-9fbc-f9530844c9c3", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "392", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "692c9a5f1d9d385d7525a85229a2847b4a8d8c37f9ed2f46a2f46d89e835c3bd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "50967f34-2a2a-4021-8f72-675189163933", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "392", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6694ec14c5f28e0379e61d80dcbae5d907652849a958fd17691cfc30ea5c51e9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In or ganisms that liv e in aquatic en vironments , phar yngeal slits al low for the e xit o f water that ent ers\nthe mouth during f eeding . Some in vertebrate chor dates use the phar yngeal slits t o filter food fr om the w ater that\nenters the mouth. In fishes , the phar yngeal slits ar e modified int o gil l suppor ts, and in ja wed fishes , jaw suppor ts. In\ntetrapods , the slits ar e fur ther modified int o components o f the ear and t onsils , sinc e ther e is no long er an y need f or\ngill suppor ts in these air -breathing animals .Tetrapod means \u201c four-footed,\u201d and this gr oup includes amphibians ,\nreptiles , birds, and mammals . (Bir ds ar e consider ed tetrapods because the y evolved fr om t etrapod anc estors.)\nThe post-anal tail is a pos terior elong ation o f the body e xtending be yond the anus . The tail c ontains sk eletal378 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2626, "end_char_idx": 3541, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "398abd75-c667-4075-91d6-50876b048ab7": {"__data__": {"id_": "398abd75-c667-4075-91d6-50876b048ab7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "393", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "86b526b1-abb5-488a-a786-d659f36dd3f5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "393", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3e1cf71f7b556ead0848a4716819cf7e1eb94f0295a613865bec42e3ccf4e768", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "elements and muscles , which pr ovide a sour ce of loc omotion in aquatic species , such as fishes . In some t errestrial\nvertebrates, the tail ma y also function in balanc e, loc omotion, c ourting, and signaling when dang er is near . In man y\nspecies , the tail is absent or r educ ed; f or example , in apes , including humans , it is pr esent in the embr yo, but\nreduc ed in siz e and nonfunctional in adul ts.\nVISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 15.33 In chor dates, four c ommon f eatur es appear at some point in de velopment: a not ochor d, a dorsal hol low ner ve cord,\nphar yngeal slits , and a pos t-anal tail . The anat omy of a c ephalochor date sho wn her e illustrates al l of these f eatur es.\nWhich o f the f ollowing s tatements about c ommon f eatur es o f chor dates is true?\na.The dorsal hol low ner ve cord is par t of the chor date centr al ner vous s ystem.\nb.In vertebrate fishes , the phar yngeal slits bec ome the gil ls.\nc.Humans ar e not chor dates because humans do not ha ve a tail .\nd.Vertebrates do not ha ve a not ochor d at an y point in their de velopment; ins tead, the y ha ve a v ertebral column.\nInvertebrate Chor dates\nIn addition t o the v ertebrates, the ph ylum Chor data c ontains tw o clades o f invertebrates:Urochor data(tunicat es)\nand Cephalochor data(lanc elets). Members o f these gr oups pos sess the f our dis tinctiv e featur es o f chor dates at\nsome point during their de velopment.\nThe tunica tes(Figure 15.34 ) are also cal led sea squir ts. The name tunicat e deriv es fr om the c ellulose -like\ncarboh ydrate mat erial , cal led the tunic, which c overs the out er body . Although tunicat es ar e clas sified as chor dates,\nthe adul t forms ar e much modified in body plan and do not ha ve a not ochor d, a dorsal hol low ner ve cord, or a pos t-\nanal tail , although the y do ha ve phar yngeal slits . The lar val form pos sesses al l four s tructur es. Mos t tunicat es ar e\nhermaphr odites. Tunicat e lar vae hat ch fr om eg gs inside the adul t tunicat e\u2019s body . Aft er hat ching , a tunicat e lar va\nswims f or a f ew da ys until it finds a suitable sur face on which it can at tach, usual ly in a dark or shaded location. It\nthen at taches b y the head t o the subs trate and under goes metamorphosis int o the adul t form, at which point the\nnotochor d, ner ve cord, and tail disappear .\nFIGURE 15.34 (a) This phot ograph sho ws a c olon y of the tunicat eBotr ylloides violac eus. In the (b) lar val stage, the tunicat e can s wim\nfreely until it at taches t o a subs trate to bec ome (c) an adul t. (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Dr. Dw ayne Meado ws, NO AA/NMFS /OPR)\n15.5 \u2022 E chinoderms and Chor dates 379", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2678, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "19174523-7116-49ba-92a4-9d8be65dd8a2": {"__data__": {"id_": "19174523-7116-49ba-92a4-9d8be65dd8a2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "394", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "956119c3-8b55-435c-a0d9-ff8b61ba10c9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "394", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "381f560395d72a60570221530cf25d864d0dd60eeb909795f8be546f622edbf9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Mos t tunicat es liv e a ses sile e xistence in shal low oc ean w aters and ar e suspension f eeders . The primar y foods o f\ntunicat es ar e plank ton and detritus . Sea water ent ers the tunicat e\u2019s body thr ough its incurr ent siphon. Suspended\nmaterial is fil tered out o f this w ater by a mucus net (phar yngeal slits) and is pas sed int o the int estine thr ough the\naction o f cilia . The anus emp ties int o the e xcurr ent siphon, which e xpels w astes and w ater.\nLancelets possess a not ochor d, dorsal hol low ner ve cord, phar yngeal slits , and a pos t-anal tail in the adul t stage\n(Figure 15.35 ). The not ochor d extends int o the head, which giv es the subph ylum its name (Cephalochor data).\nExtinct f ossils o f this subph ylum dat e to the middle o f the Cambrian period (540\u2013488 m ya).The living f orms , the\nlanc elets , are named f or their blade -like shape . Lancelets ar e onl y a f ew centimet ers long and ar e usual ly found\nburied in sand at the bot tom o f warm t emper ate and tr opical seas . Like tunicat es, the y are suspension f eeders .\nFIGURE 15.35 Adul t lanc elets r etain the f our k ey featur es o f chor dates: a not ochor d, a dorsal hol low ner ve cord, phar yngeal slits , and a\npost-anal tail .\n15.6 Vertebrates\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the diff erence betw een ja wles s and ja wed fishes\n\u2022Explain the main char acteristics o f amphibians , reptiles , and bir ds\n\u2022Describe the deriv ed char acteristics in bir ds that facilitat e flight\n\u2022Name and describe the dis tinguishing f eatur es o f the thr ee main gr oups o f mammals\n\u2022Describe the deriv ed featur es that dis tinguish primat es fr om other animals\nVertebrates ar e among the mos t recognizable or ganisms o f the animal king dom ( Figure 15.36 ). Mor e than 62,000\nvertebrate species ha ve been identified. The v ertebrate species no w living r epresent onl y a smal l por tion o f the\nvertebrates that ha ve existed. The bes t-kno wn e xtinct v ertebrates ar e the dinosaurs , a unique gr oup o f reptiles ,\nreaching siz es not seen bef ore or sinc e in t errestrial animals . The y were the dominant t errestrial animals f or 150\nmillion y ears , until the y died out near the end o f the Cr etac eous period in a mas s extinction. A gr eat deal is kno wn\nabout the anat omy of the dinosaurs , giv en the pr eser vation o f their sk eletal elements in the f ossil record.380 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2508, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "451e8c86-ad8a-4a9a-9e34-cfbd9eaeb1e9": {"__data__": {"id_": "451e8c86-ad8a-4a9a-9e34-cfbd9eaeb1e9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "395", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ceff3a04-2a30-4d0e-a886-9b5c8f2f56fe", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "395", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8831862c48f9111e3b89347bd40187e7d3717b82898f23a817ad5f2314c42b63", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.36 Examples o f critical ly endang ered v ertebrate species include (a) the Siberian tig er(Panther a tigris al taica ), (b) the\nPanamanian g olden fr og (Atelopus z eteki), and (c) the Philippine eagle ( Pithec ophag a jeff eryi). (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Da ve Pape;\ncredit b: modification o f work b y Brian Gr atwick e; cr edit c: modification o f work b y \"cuatr ok77\"/Flickr)\nFishes\nModern fishes include an es timat ed 31,000 species . Fishes w ere the earlies t vertebrates, and ja wles s fishes w ere\nthe earlies t of these . Jawles s fishes \u2014the pr esent da y hagfishes and lampr eys\u2014ha ve a dis tinct cr anium and c omple x\nsense or gans including e yes, dis tinguishing them fr om the in vertebrate chor dates. The ja wed fishes e volved lat er\nand ar e extraordinaril y div erse t oday. Fishes ar e activ e feeders , rather than ses sile, suspension f eeders .\nJawless Fishes\nJawles s fishes ar ecrania tes(which includes al l the chor date groups e xcept the tunicat es and lanc elets) that\nrepresent an ancient v ertebrate lineag e that ar ose o ver one half-bil lion y ears ag o. Some o f the earlies t jawles s\nfishes w ere the ostracoderms (which tr anslat es as \u201c shel l-skin \u201d). Os tracoderms , now extinct, w ere vertebrate fishes\nencased in bon y armor , unlik e present -day jawles s fishes , which lack bone in their scales .\nThe clade Myxini includes 67 species o f hagfishes .Hagfishes are eel -like sca vengers that liv e on the oc ean floor\nand f eed on dead in vertebrates, other fishes , and marine mammals ( Figure 15.37 a). Hagfishes ar e entir ely marine\nand ar e found in oc eans ar ound the w orld e xcept for the polar r egions . A unique f eatur e of these animals is the slime\nglands beneath the skin that ar e able t o release an e xtraordinar y amount o f mucus thr ough sur face por es. This\nmucus ma y allow the hagfish t o escape fr om the grip o f predat ors. Hagfish ar e kno wn t o ent er the bodies o f dead or\ndying or ganisms t o de vour them fr om the inside .\nFIGURE 15.37 (a) P acific hagfishes ar e sca vengers that liv e on the oc ean floor . (b) These par asitic sea lampr eys attach t o their lak e trout\nhost by suction and use their r ough t ongues t o rasp a way flesh in or der t o feed on the tr out\u2019s blood. (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Linda\nSnook, NO AA/CBNMS; cr edit b: modification o f work b y USGS)\nThe sk eleton o f a hagfish is c omposed o f car tilag e, which includes a car tilaginous not ochor d, which runs the length\nof the body , and a sk ull. This not ochor d provides suppor t to the fish \u2019s body . Although the y are craniat es, hagfishes\nare not v ertebrates, sinc e the y do not r eplac e the not ochor d with a v ertebral column during de velopment, as do the\nvertebrates.\nThe clade Petromyzontidae includes appr oximat ely 40 species o f lampr eys.Lampr eysare similar t o hagfishes in\nsize and shape; ho wever, lampr eys ha ve a br ain case and inc omplet e vertebrae. Lampr eys lack pair ed appendag es15.6 \u2022 V ertebrates 381", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3043, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d676782a-a760-4e7b-83d9-d55450fc59a8": {"__data__": {"id_": "d676782a-a760-4e7b-83d9-d55450fc59a8", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "396", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c39fda84-bae8-4ec0-a8d1-2188b8d43ebf", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "396", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e9746dd283813a25e7d7f3c2638ae3e23d71de27dc397db1dd0086eb1b92c10c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "1027adc6-4a55-4a3f-b837-aacef13d199a", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "37371dca604d41f6a2467513ea70b622612eae3c330546c2c0d15911c2d37868", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "and bone , as do the hagfishes . As adul ts, lampr eys are char acterized b y a t oothed, funnel -like sucking mouth. Some\nspecies ar e par asitic as adul ts, attaching t o and f eeding on the body fluids o f fish ( Figure 15.37 b). Mos t species ar e\nfree-living .\nLampr eys live primaril y in c oastal and fr esh w aters and ha ve a w orldwide t emper ate region dis tribution. Al l species\nspawn in fr esh w aters. Eggs ar e fertilized e xternal ly, and the lar vae ar e dis tinctl y diff erent fr om the adul t form,\nspending 3 t o 15 y ears as suspension f eeders . Onc e the y attain se xual maturity , the adul ts reproduc e and die within\ndays. Lampr eys ha ve a not ochor d as adul ts.\nJawed Fishes\nGna thos tomes or \u201cja w-mouths\u201d ar e vertebrates that ha ve jaws and include both car tilaginous and bon y fishes . One\nof the mos t significant de velopments in earl y vertebrate evolution w as the origin o f the ja w, which is a hing ed\nstructur e attached t o the cr anium that al lows an animal t o grasp and t ear its f ood. The e volution o f jaws allowed\nearly gnathos tomes t o exploit f ood r esour ces that w ere una vailable t o jawles s fishes .\nThe clade Chondrichth yes, the car tilaginous fishes , is div erse , consis ting o f shark s (Figure 15.38 a), rays, and\nskates, together with sa wfishes and a f ew do zen species o f fishes cal ledchimaer as, or ghos t shark s. Chondrichth yes\nhave pair ed fins and a sk eleton made o f car tilag e. This clade ar ose appr oximat ely 370 mil lion y ears ag o in the\nmiddle De vonian. The y are thought t o ha ve desc ended fr om an e xtinct gr oup that had a sk eleton made o f bone;\nthus , the car tilaginous sk eleton o f Chondrichth yes is a lat er de velopment. P arts of the shark sk eleton ar e\nstrengthened b y granules o f calcium carbonat e, but this is not the same as bone .\nMos t car tilaginous fishes liv e in marine habitats , with a f ew species living in fr esh w ater for some or al l of their liv es.\nMos t shark s are carniv ores that f eed on liv e prey, either s wallowing it whole or using their ja ws and t eeth t o tear it\ninto smal ler piec es. Shark t eeth lik ely evolved fr om the jag ged scales that c over their skin. Some species o f shark s\nand r ays are suspension f eeders that f eed on plank ton.\nFIGURE 15.38 (a) This hammerhead shark is an e xample o f a pr edat ory car tilaginous fish. (b) This s tingr ay blends int o the sandy bot tom o f\nthe oc ean floor when it is f eeding or a waiting pr ey. (credit a: modification o f work b y Masashi Sug awara; cr edit b: modification o f work b y\n\"Sailn1\"/Flickr)\nShark s ha ve well-developed sense or gans that aid them in locating pr ey, including a k een sense o f smel l and\nelectr oreception, the lat ter being perhaps the mos t sensitiv e of any animal . Organs cal ledampul lae o f Lorenzini\nallow shark s to det ect the electr omagnetic fields that ar e produc ed b y all living things , including their pr ey.\nElectr oreception has onl y been obser ved in aquatic or amphibious animals .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3046, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1027adc6-4a55-4a3f-b837-aacef13d199a": {"__data__": {"id_": "1027adc6-4a55-4a3f-b837-aacef13d199a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "396", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c39fda84-bae8-4ec0-a8d1-2188b8d43ebf", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "396", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e9746dd283813a25e7d7f3c2638ae3e23d71de27dc397db1dd0086eb1b92c10c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "d676782a-a760-4e7b-83d9-d55450fc59a8", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "396", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "75a95a16c8a131b0fee13ce8a62c3b3c59a493b514ed16dd050f48e2c31b3073", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "(b) This s tingr ay blends int o the sandy bot tom o f\nthe oc ean floor when it is f eeding or a waiting pr ey. (credit a: modification o f work b y Masashi Sug awara; cr edit b: modification o f work b y\n\"Sailn1\"/Flickr)\nShark s ha ve well-developed sense or gans that aid them in locating pr ey, including a k een sense o f smel l and\nelectr oreception, the lat ter being perhaps the mos t sensitiv e of any animal . Organs cal ledampul lae o f Lorenzini\nallow shark s to det ect the electr omagnetic fields that ar e produc ed b y all living things , including their pr ey.\nElectr oreception has onl y been obser ved in aquatic or amphibious animals . Shark s, together with mos t fishes , also\nhave a sense or gan cal led the lateralline, which is used t o det ect mo vement and vibr ation in the surr ounding w ater,\nand a sense that is o ften c onsider ed homolog ous t o \u201chearing \u201d in t errestrial v ertebrates. The lat eral line is visible as\na dark er stripe that runs along the length o f the fish \u2019s body .\nShark s reproduc e se xual ly and eg gs ar e fertilized int ernal ly. Mos t species ar e ovovivipar ous, that is , the f ertilized\negg is r etained in the o viduct o f the mother \u2019s body , and the embr yo is nourished b y the eg g yolk. The eg gs hat ch in\nthe ut erus and y oung ar e born aliv e and ful ly functional . Some species o f shark s are ovipar ous: The y lay eg gs that\nhatch outside o f the mother \u2019s body . Embr yos ar e protected b y a shark eg g case or \u201c mermaid\u2019 s purse \u201d that has the\nconsis tency o f leather . The shark eg g case has t entacles that snag in sea weed and giv e the ne wborn shark c over. A\nfew species o f shark s are vivipar ous, that is , the y oung de velop within the mother \u2019s body , and she giv es liv e bir th.382 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2392, "end_char_idx": 4229, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "65dc0792-f9ca-4930-872f-3738393bedca": {"__data__": {"id_": "65dc0792-f9ca-4930-872f-3738393bedca", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "397", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1ab0b332-7137-443b-ad79-e2ea3fd396b4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "397", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9018208b85f1cee88703ef9d8296a9c9a85d1a8a9ab006a36b6ad55c00bfad67", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "f699dd4b-6353-45e2-9a34-cb706dae764e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "016de02e1b0870ceedce16fa049cd9af82912e53862c993101335fda18981185", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Rays and sk ates include mor e than 500 species and ar e closel y related to shark s. The y can be dis tinguished fr om\nshark s by their flat tened bodies , pect oral fins that ar e enlar ged and fused t o the head, and gil l slits on their v entr al\nsurface (Figure 15.38 b). Lik e shark s, rays and sk ates ha ve a car tilaginous sk eleton. Mos t species ar e marine and liv e\non the sea floor , with nearl y a w orldwide dis tribution.\nBony Fishes\nMembers o f the clade Osteichth yes, or bon y fishes , are char acterized b y a bon y skeleton. The v ast majority o f\npresent -day fishes belong t o this gr oup, which c onsis ts of appr oximat ely 30,000 species , making it the lar gest clas s\nof vertebrates in e xistence today.\nNearl y all bon y fishes ha ve an os sified sk eleton with specializ ed bone c ells (os teocyt es) that pr oduc e and maintain a\ncalcium phosphat e matrix. This char acteristic has onl y reverted in a f ew gr oups o f Osteichth yes, such as s turgeons\nand paddlefish, which ha ve primaril y car tilaginous sk eletons. The skin o f bon y fishes is o ften c overed in o verlapping\nscales , and glands in the skin secr ete mucus that r educ es dr ag when s wimming and aids the fish in osmor egulation.\nLike shark s, bon y fishes ha ve a lat eral line s ystem that det ects vibr ations in w ater. Unlik e shark s, some bon y fish\ndepend on their e yesight t o locat e prey. Bon y fish ar e also unusual in pos sessing tas te cells in the head and trunk\nregion o f the body that al low them t o det ect e xtremel y smal l concentr ations o f molecules in the w ater.\nAll bon y fishes , like the car tilaginous fishes , use gil ls to breathe . Water is dr awn o ver gil ls that ar e locat ed in\nchambers c overed and v entilat ed b y a pr otectiv e, muscular flap cal led the oper culum. Unlik e shark s, bon y fishes\nhave aswim bladder , a g as-filled or gan that helps t o contr ol the buo yancy o f the fish. Bon y fishes ar e fur ther\ndivided int o tw o clades with living members: Actinop terygii(ray-finned fishes) and Sarcopterygii(lobe -finned\nfishes).\nThe r ay-finned fishes include man y familiar fishes \u2014tuna , bas s, trout, and salmon ( Figure 15.39 a), among others .\nRay-finned fishes ar e named f or the f orm o f their fins \u2014webs o f skin suppor ted b y bon y spines cal led r ays. In\ncontr ast, the fins o f lobe -finned fishes ar e flesh y and suppor ted b y bone ( Figure 15.39 b). Living members o f lobe -\nfinned fishes include the les s familiar lungfishes and c oelacanth.\nFIGURE 15.39 The (a) sock eye salmon and (b) c oelacanth ar e both bon y fishes o f the Os teichth yes clade . The c oelacanth, sometimes\ncalled a lobe -finned fish, w as thought t o ha ve gone e xtinct in the L ate Cretac eous period 100 mil lion y ears ag o until one w as disc overed in\n1938 betw een Africa and Madag ascar . (credit a: modification o f work b y Timoth y Knepp , USFWS; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Robbie\nCada)\nAmphibians\nAmphibians ar e vertebrate tetrapods .Amphibia includes fr ogs, salamanders , and caecilians .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3069, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f699dd4b-6353-45e2-9a34-cb706dae764e": {"__data__": {"id_": "f699dd4b-6353-45e2-9a34-cb706dae764e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "397", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1ab0b332-7137-443b-ad79-e2ea3fd396b4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "397", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9018208b85f1cee88703ef9d8296a9c9a85d1a8a9ab006a36b6ad55c00bfad67", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "65dc0792-f9ca-4930-872f-3738393bedca", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "397", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a7b25779933098b9b26d801e365765f215ff1a7f50b0254263d1e4c41f33abd7", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.39 The (a) sock eye salmon and (b) c oelacanth ar e both bon y fishes o f the Os teichth yes clade . The c oelacanth, sometimes\ncalled a lobe -finned fish, w as thought t o ha ve gone e xtinct in the L ate Cretac eous period 100 mil lion y ears ag o until one w as disc overed in\n1938 betw een Africa and Madag ascar . (credit a: modification o f work b y Timoth y Knepp , USFWS; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Robbie\nCada)\nAmphibians\nAmphibians ar e vertebrate tetrapods .Amphibia includes fr ogs, salamanders , and caecilians . The t erm amphibian\nmeans \u201c dual lif e,\u201d which is a r eference to the metamorphosis that man y frogs under go from a tadpole t o an adul t\nand the mixtur e of aquatic and t errestrial en vironments in their lif e cy cle. Amphibians e volved in the De vonian\nperiod and w ere the earlies t terrestrial t etrapods .\nAs tetrapods , mos t amphibians ar e char acterized b y four w ell-developed limbs , although some species o f\nsalamanders and al l caecilians pos sess onl y vestigial limbs . An impor tant char acteristic o f extant amphibians is a\nmois t, permeable skin, achie ved b y mucus glands . The mois t skin al lows oxygen and carbon dio xide e xchang e with\nthe en vironment, a pr ocess cal ledcutaneous r espir ation . All living adul t amphibian species ar e carniv orous, and\nsome t errestrial amphibians ha ve a s ticky t ongue that is used t o cap ture prey.\nAmphibian Div ersity\nAmphibia c omprise an es timat ed 6,500 e xtant species that inhabit tr opical and t emper ate regions ar ound the w orld.\nAmphibians can be divided int o thr ee clades: Urodela (\u201ctailed-ones\u201d), the salamanders and ne wts; Anur a(\u201ctail-less\nones\u201d), the fr ogs and t oads; and Apoda (\u201clegles s ones\u201d), the caecilians .\nLiving salamanders (Figure 15.40 a) include appr oximat ely 500 species , some o f which ar e aquatic, others15.6 \u2022 V ertebrates 383", "start_char_idx": 2524, "end_char_idx": 4414, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "45860254-192a-4bf1-acd4-a0a55e9e336e": {"__data__": {"id_": "45860254-192a-4bf1-acd4-a0a55e9e336e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "398", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1a0eb92b-554d-4b7e-806d-246158be79e5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "398", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "50667c8cbd78a907f1930d7e6445e6523a127005b02704d8ecb90f49f5eb4094", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "terrestrial , and some that liv e on land onl y as adul ts. Adul t salamanders usual ly ha ve a g ener alized tetrapod body\nplan with f our limbs and a tail . Some salamanders ar e lungles s, and r espir ation oc curs thr ough the skin or e xternal\ngills. Some t errestrial salamanders ha ve primitiv e lungs; a f ew species ha ve both gil ls and lungs .\nFIGURE 15.40 (a) Mos t salamanders ha ve legs and a tail , but r espir ation v aries among species . (b) The Aus tralian gr een tr ee fr og is a\nnocturnal pr edat or that liv es in the canopies o f trees near a w ater sour ce. (credit a: modification o f work b y Valentina St orti; cr edit b:\nmodification o f work b y Ev an Pick ett)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch this video (https:/ /www .youtube .com/w atch?v=P _kyeHZjR J4)about an unusual ly lar ge salamander species .\nFrogs (Figure 15.40 b) are the mos t div erse gr oup o f amphibians , with appr oximat ely 5,000 species that liv e on al l\ncontinents e xcept Antar ctica . Frogs ha ve a body plan that is mor e specializ ed than the salamander body plan f or\nmovement on land. Adul t frogs use their hind limbs t o jump man y times their body length on land. F rogs ha ve a\nnumber o f modifications that al low them t o avoid pr edat ors, including skin that acts as camouflag e and def ensiv e\nchemicals that ar e poisonous t o predat ors secr eted fr om glands in the skin.\nFrog eg gs ar e fertilized e xternal ly, as the y are laid in mois t environments . Frogs demons trate a r ange of par ental\nbeha viors , with some species e xhibiting lit tle car e, to species that carr y eg gs and tadpoles on their hind legs or\nback s. The lif e cy cle c onsis ts of two stages: the lar val stage followed b y metamorphosis t o an adul t stage. The lar val\nstage of a fr og, the tadpole , is o ften a fil ter-feeding herbiv ore. Tadpoles usual ly ha ve gil ls, a lat eral line s ystem, long-\nfinned tails , but no limbs . At the end o f the tadpole s tage, frogs under go a gr adual metamorphosis int o the adul t\nform. During this s tage, the gil ls and lat eral line s ystem disappear , and f our limbs de velop . The ja ws bec ome lar ger\nand ar e suit ed for carniv orous f eeding , and the dig estive system tr ansforms int o the typical shor t gut of a pr edat or.\nAn ear drum and air -breathing lungs also de velop . These chang es during metamorphosis al low the lar vae to mo ve\nonto land in the adul t stage (Figure 15.41 ).\nFIGURE 15.41 A frog begins as a (a) tadpole and under goes metamorphosis t o bec ome (b) a juv enile and final ly (c) an adul t. (cr edit:\nmodification o f work b y Brian Gr atwick e)\nCaecilians comprise an es timat ed 185 species . The y lack e xternal limbs and r esemble giant ear thworms . The y\ninhabit soil and ar e found primaril y in the tr opics o f South America , Africa , and southern Asia wher e the y are\nadap ted for a soil -burr owing lif estyle and ar e nearl y blind. Unlik e mos t of the other amphibians that br eed in or near\nwater, reproduction in a drier soil habitat means that caecilians mus t utiliz e int ernal f ertilization, and mos t species\ngive bir th to liv e young ( Figure 15.42 ).\n384 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3221, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bc8b9067-241c-4717-bd4e-a9fa470ace2b": {"__data__": {"id_": "bc8b9067-241c-4717-bd4e-a9fa470ace2b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "399", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0373cd25-d652-4ed5-8792-819603f28a44", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "399", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "547c65d6f8e09e51d817919350d5d5ba3029c2c3924b5f6272e88670c645c11a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "21cfddc7-11f3-4c17-9134-3b88c34cc24d", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "5c80dee0cc0b75d90276b5bfc5446f1a222277eb2c2feae0733afa75b2234a30", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.42 Caecilians lack e xternal limbs and ar e well adap ted for a soil -burr owing lif estyle. (credit: modification o f work b y\n\"cliff1066\"/Flickr)\nReptiles and Bir ds\nThe amnio tes\u2014reptiles , birds, and mammals \u2014are dis tinguished fr om amphibians b y their t errestrially adap ted\n(shel led) eg g and an embr yo protected b y amniotic membr anes . The e volution o f amniotic membr anes meant that\nthe embr yos o f amniot es could de velop within an aquatic en vironment inside the eg g. This led t o les s dependenc e\non a w ater en vironment f or de velopment and al lowed the amniot es to invade drier ar eas. This w as a significant\nevolutionar y chang e that dis tinguished them fr om amphibians , which w ere restrict ed to mois t environments due t o\ntheir shel l-less eg gs. Although the shel ls of various amniotic species v ary significantl y, the y all allow retention o f\nwater. The membr anes o f the amniotic eg g also al lowed g as e xchang e and seques tering o f wastes within the\nenclosur e of an eg gshel l. The shel ls of bird eg gs ar e composed o f calcium carbonat e and ar e har d and brit tle, but\npossess por es for gas and w ater exchang e. The shel ls of reptile eg gs ar e mor e leather y and pliable . Mos t mammals\ndo not la y eg gs; ho wever, even with int ernal g estation, amniotic membr anes ar e still present.\nIn the pas t, the mos t common division o f amniot es has been int o clas ses Mammalia , Reptilia, and A ves. Bir ds ar e\ndesc ended, ho wever, from dinosaurs , so this clas sical scheme r esul ts in gr oups that ar e not true clades . We wil l\ndiscus s bir ds as a gr oup dis tinct fr om r eptiles with the unders tanding that this does not r eflect e volutionar y his tory.\nReptiles\nReptiles ar e tetrapods . Limbles s reptiles \u2014snak es\u2014ma y ha ve vestigial limbs and, lik e caecilians , are clas sified as\ntetrapods because the y are desc ended fr om f our-limbed anc estors. Reptiles la y shel led eg gs on land. Ev en aquatic\nreptiles , like sea tur tles, return t o the land t o lay eg gs. The y usual ly reproduc e se xual ly with int ernal f ertilization.\nSome species displa y ovoviviparity , with the eg gs remaining in the mother \u2019s body until the y are ready t o hat ch. Other\nspecies ar e vivipar ous, with the o ffspring born aliv e.\nOne o f the k ey adap tations that permit ted reptiles t o liv e on land w as the de velopment o f their scal y skin, c ontaining\nthe pr otein k eratin and w axy lipids , which pr evented w ater los s from the skin. This oc clusiv e skin means that\nreptiles cannot use their skin f or respir ation, lik e amphibians , and thus al l mus t breathe with lungs . In addition,\nreptiles c onser ve valuable body w ater by excreting nitr ogen in the f orm o f uric acid pas te. These char acteristics,\nalong with the shel led, amniotic eg g, were the major r easons wh y reptiles became so suc cessful in c olonizing a\nvariety o f terrestrial habitats far fr om w ater.\nReptiles ar e ect otherms , that is , animals whose main sour ce of body heat c omes fr om the en vironment.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3078, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "21cfddc7-11f3-4c17-9134-3b88c34cc24d": {"__data__": {"id_": "21cfddc7-11f3-4c17-9134-3b88c34cc24d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "399", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0373cd25-d652-4ed5-8792-819603f28a44", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "399", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "547c65d6f8e09e51d817919350d5d5ba3029c2c3924b5f6272e88670c645c11a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "bc8b9067-241c-4717-bd4e-a9fa470ace2b", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "399", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6f7492d5481e9ec89a8722c8187f56bfe7057358f02f127cf59c7289b6838b25", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "This oc clusiv e skin means that\nreptiles cannot use their skin f or respir ation, lik e amphibians , and thus al l mus t breathe with lungs . In addition,\nreptiles c onser ve valuable body w ater by excreting nitr ogen in the f orm o f uric acid pas te. These char acteristics,\nalong with the shel led, amniotic eg g, were the major r easons wh y reptiles became so suc cessful in c olonizing a\nvariety o f terrestrial habitats far fr om w ater.\nReptiles ar e ect otherms , that is , animals whose main sour ce of body heat c omes fr om the en vironment. Beha vioral\nmaneuv ers, like basking t o heat themsel ves, or seeking shade or burr ows to cool o ff, help them r egulate their body\ntemper atur e,\nClas s Reptilia includes div erse species clas sified int o four living clades . These ar e the Cr ocodilia , Sphenodontia ,\nSquamata , and T estudines .\nThe Crocodilia (\u201csmal l lizar d\u201d) ar ose appr oximat ely 84 mil lion y ears ag o, and living species include al ligators,\ncrocodiles , and caimans . Crocodilians ( Figure 15.43 a) live thr oughout the tr opics o f Africa , South America , the\nsoutheas tern Unit ed Stat es, Asia , and Aus tralia. The y are found in fr eshwater habitats , such as riv ers and lak es, and\nspend mos t of their time in w ater. Some species ar e able t o mo ve on land due t o their semi-er ect pos ture.15.6 \u2022 V ertebrates 385", "start_char_idx": 2523, "end_char_idx": 3888, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a8b9da22-d074-4e0e-b391-a156a36b15a9": {"__data__": {"id_": "a8b9da22-d074-4e0e-b391-a156a36b15a9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "400", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "97cffd75-7237-4f94-a6bb-27b51a07ca86", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "400", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b5b41958254da9aef3cb9ae1e60a2421e194b457868a0dc1867e0a3689b00b86", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 15.43 (a) Cr ocodilians , such as this Siamese cr ocodile , provide par ental car e for their o ffspring . (b) This Jack son\u2019s chameleon\nblends in with its surr oundings . (c) The g arter snak e belongs t o the g enus Thamnophis , the mos t widel y dis tribut ed reptile g enus in Nor th\nAmerica . (d) The African spurr ed tortoise liv es at the southern edg e of the Sahar a Deser t. It is the thir d lar gest tortoise in the w orld. (cr edit\na: modification o f work b y Kesha v Muk und K andhadai; cr edit c: modification o f work b y Steve Jur vetson; cr edit d: modification o f work b y\nJim Bo wen)\nThe Sphenodontia (\u201cwedge tooth \u201d) ar ose in the Meso zoic Er a and includes onl y one living g enus ,Tuatar a, with tw o\nspecies that ar e found in Ne w Zealand. Ther e are man y fossil species e xtending back t o the T riassic period\n(250\u2013200 mil lion y ears ag o). Al though the tuatar as resemble lizar ds, the y are anat omical ly dis tinct and shar e\nchar acteristics that ar e found in bir ds and tur tles.\nSquama ta(\u201cscal y\u201d) ar ose in the lat e Permian; living species include lizar ds and snak es, which ar e the lar gest extant\nclade o f reptiles ( Figure 15.43 b). Lizar ds diff er fr om snak es b y ha ving f our limbs , eyelids , and e xternal ears , which\nare lacking in snak es. Lizar d species r ange in siz e from chameleons and g eckos that ar e a f ew centimet ers in length\nto the K omodo dr agon, which is about 3 met ers in length.\nSnak es ar e thought t o ha ve desc ended fr om either burr owing lizar ds or aquatic lizar ds o ver 100 mil lion y ears ag o\n(Figure 15.43 c). Snak es comprise about 3,000 species and ar e found on e very continent e xcept Antar ctica . The y\nrange in siz e from 10 c entimet er-long thr ead snak es to 7.5 met er-long p ythons and anac ondas . All snak es ar e\ncarniv orous and eat smal l animals , birds, eggs, fish, and insects .\nTurtles ar e members o f the clade Testudines (\u201cha ving a shel l\u201d) (Figure 15.43 d). Turtles ar e char acterized b y a bon y\nor car tilaginous shel l, made up o f the car apac e on the back and the plas tron on the v entr al sur face, which de velops\nfrom the ribs . Turtles ar ose appr oximat ely 200 mil lion y ears ag o, predating cr ocodiles , lizar ds, and snak es. Turtles\nlay eg gs on land, al though man y species liv e in or near w ater. Turtles r ange in siz e from the speckled padloper\ntortoise at 8 c entimet ers (3.1 inches) t o the leatherback sea tur tle at 200 c entimet ers (o ver 6 f eet). The t erm\n\u201cturtle\u201d is sometimes used t o describe onl y those species o f Testudines that liv e in the sea , with the t erms\n\u201ctortoise \u201d and \u201c terrapin \u201d used t o refer to species that liv e on land and in fr esh w ater, respectiv ely.\nBirds\nData no w sug gest that bir ds belong within the r eptile clade , but the y displa y a number o f unique adap tations that\nset them apar t. Unlik e the r eptiles , birds ar e endothermic, meaning the y gener ate their o wn body heat thr ough386 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3056, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e166b932-e4df-462e-8e8d-d76d4fc8a6c5": {"__data__": {"id_": "e166b932-e4df-462e-8e8d-d76d4fc8a6c5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "401", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7095d264-10d5-4da1-b522-de489e3d70ad", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "401", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "bcab4d5c794c35f28f4cf2cba0fca91837ab3f936aa3e0c0d57173fb9edece8d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "8d08f4ef-e7eb-40a5-83c3-3d84ab6394bf", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "bef332c407cd28c45c7ba4c8f0b3355f1ee20660fbe7cd1314474bd25df0b45b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "metabolic pr ocesses. The mos t dis tinctiv e char acteristic o f birds is their f eathers , which ar e modified r eptilian\nscales . Bir ds ha ve se veral diff erent types o f feathers that ar e specializ ed for specific functions , like contour f eathers\nthat s treamline the bir d\u2019s exterior and loosel y structur eddown f eathers that insulat e (Figure 15.44 a).\nFeathers not onl y permit ted the earlies t bir ds to glide , and ul timat ely eng age in flapping flight, but the y insulat ed the\nbird\u2019s body , assisting the maint enanc e of endotherm y, even in c ooler t emper atur es. Powering a fl ying animal\nrequir es ec onomizing on the amount o f weight carried. As body w eight incr eases , the muscle output and ener getic\ncost requir ed for flying incr ease . Bir ds ha ve made se veral modifications t o reduc e body w eight, including hol low or\npneuma ticbones (Figure 15.44 b) with air spac es that ma y be c onnect ed to air sacs and cr oss-link ed s truts within\ntheir bones t o provide s tructur al reinforcement. P arts of the v ertebral sk eleton and br aincase ar e fused t o incr ease\nits s trength while light ening its w eight. Mos t species o f bird onl y pos sess one o vary rather than tw o, and no living\nbirds ha ve teeth in their ja w, fur ther r educing body mas s.\nFIGURE 15.44 (a) P rimar y feathers ar e locat ed at the wing tip and pr ovide thrus t; sec ondar y feathers ar e locat ed close t o the body and\nprovide lift. (b) Man y bir ds ha ve hol low pneumatic bones , which mak e flight easier .\nBirds pos sess a s ystem o f air sacs br anching fr om their primar y air way that div ert the path o f air so that it pas ses\nunidir ectional ly thr ough the lung , during both inspir ation and e xpiration. Unlik e mammalian lungs in which air flo ws\nin tw o dir ections as it is br eathed in and out, air flo ws continuousl y thr ough the bir d\u2019s lung t o provide a mor e\nefficient s ystem o f gas e xchang e.\nMammals\nMammals are vertebrates that ha ve hair and mammar y glands used t o provide nutrition f or their y oung . Cer tain\nfeatur es o f the ja w, skeleton, skin, and int ernal anat omy are also unique t o mammals . The pr esenc e of hair is one o f\nthe k ey char acteristics o f a mammal . Although it is not v ery extensiv e in some gr oups , such as whales , hair has\nman y impor tant functions f or mammals . Mammals ar e endothermic, and hair pr ovides insulation b y trapping a la yer\nof air close t o the body t o retain metabolic heat. Hair also ser ves as a sensor y mechanism thr ough specializ ed hairs\ncalled vibris sae, bet ter kno wn as whisk ers. These at tach t o ner ves that tr ansmit t ouch inf ormation, which is\nparticularl y useful t o nocturnal or burr owing mammals . Hair can also pr ovide pr otectiv e coloration.\nMammalian skin includes secr etory glands with v arious functions .Sebac eous glands produc e a lipid mixtur e cal led\nsebum that is secr eted ont o the hair and skin f or w ater resistanc e and lubrication. Sebac eous glands ar e locat ed\nover mos t of the body .Sudorif erous glands produc e sweat and sc ent, which function in thermor egulation and\ncommunication, r espectiv ely.Mammar y glands produc e milk that is used t o feed ne wborns . While male and f emale\nmonotr emes and eutherians pos sess mammar y glands , some male marsupials do not.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3339, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8d08f4ef-e7eb-40a5-83c3-3d84ab6394bf": {"__data__": {"id_": "8d08f4ef-e7eb-40a5-83c3-3d84ab6394bf", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "401", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7095d264-10d5-4da1-b522-de489e3d70ad", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "401", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "bcab4d5c794c35f28f4cf2cba0fca91837ab3f936aa3e0c0d57173fb9edece8d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "e166b932-e4df-462e-8e8d-d76d4fc8a6c5", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "401", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c53ef39c9e960d483a8ec081264eba62df21e6c0c78fada0ecce314dee2167ff", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Hair can also pr ovide pr otectiv e coloration.\nMammalian skin includes secr etory glands with v arious functions .Sebac eous glands produc e a lipid mixtur e cal led\nsebum that is secr eted ont o the hair and skin f or w ater resistanc e and lubrication. Sebac eous glands ar e locat ed\nover mos t of the body .Sudorif erous glands produc e sweat and sc ent, which function in thermor egulation and\ncommunication, r espectiv ely.Mammar y glands produc e milk that is used t o feed ne wborns . While male and f emale\nmonotr emes and eutherians pos sess mammar y glands , some male marsupials do not.\nThe sk eletal s ystem o f mammals pos sesses unique f eatur es that diff erentiat e them fr om other v ertebrates. Mos t\nmammals ha veheterodont t eeth , meaning the y ha ve diff erent types and shapes o f teeth that al low them t o feed on15.6 \u2022 V ertebrates 387", "start_char_idx": 2740, "end_char_idx": 3603, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "41061ce7-67cc-422b-a61c-1c6d43306331": {"__data__": {"id_": "41061ce7-67cc-422b-a61c-1c6d43306331", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "402", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c52241a9-f2b8-4149-b271-a0306adc6250", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "402", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "59aec743c65d1b37fa98e0abaccb28df2459fe69d0d5272bd55f84b7b3cfdc80", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "different kinds o f foods . These diff erent types o f teeth include the incisors , the canines , premolars , and molars . The\nfirst two types ar e for cut ting and t earing , wher eas the lat ter tw o types ar e for crushing and grinding . Diff erent\ngroups ha ve diff erent pr opor tions o f each type , depending on their diet. Mos t mammals ar e also diph yodonts ,\nmeaning the y ha ve tw o sets o f teeth in their lif etime: deciduous or \u201cbab y\u201d teeth, and permanent t eeth. In other\nvertebrates, the t eeth can be r eplac ed thr oughout lif e.\nModern mammals ar e divided int o thr ee br oad gr oups: monotr emes , marsupials , and eutherians (or plac ental\nmammals). The eutherians , or plac ental mammals , and the marsupials c ollectiv ely are cal led therian mammals ,\nwher eas monotr emes ar e cal led pr ototherians .\nTher e are thr ee living species o fmono tremes : the platypus and tw o species o f echidnas , or spin y ant eaters ( Figure\n15.45 ). The platypus and one species o f echidna ar e found in Aus tralia, wher eas the other species o f echidna is\nfound in Ne w Guinea . Monotr emes ar e unique among mammals , as the y lay leather y eg gs, similar t o those o f\nreptiles , rather than giving bir th to liv e young . Ho wever, the eg gs ar e retained within the mother \u2019s reproductiv e tract\nuntil the y are almos t ready t o hat ch. Onc e the y oung hat ch, the f emale begins t o secr ete milk fr om por es in a ridg e\nof mammar y tis sue along the v entr al side o f her body . Like other mammals , monotr emes ar e endothermic but\nregulate body t emper atur es some what lo wer (90 \u00b0F , 32 \u00b0C) than plac ental mammals do (98 \u00b0F , 37 \u00b0C). Lik e reptiles ,\nmonotr emes ha ve one pos terior opening f or urinar y, fecal , and r eproductiv e products , rather than thr ee separ ate\nopenings lik e plac ental mammals do . Adul t monotr emes lack t eeth.\nFIGURE 15.45 The platypus (left), a monotr eme , pos sesses a leather y beak and la ys eg gs rather than giving bir th to liv e young . An echidna ,\nanother monotr eme , is sho wn in the right phot o. (credit \u201c echidna\u201d : modification o f work b y Barr y Thomas)\nMarsupials are found primaril y in Aus tralia and nearb y islands , although about 100 species o f opos sums and a f ew\nspecies o f two other families ar e found in the Americas . Aus tralian marsupials number o ver 230 species and include\nthe k angaroo, koala , bandic oot, and T asmanian de vil (Figure 15.46 ). Mos t species o f marsupials pos sess a pouch in\nwhich the y oung r eside aft er bir th, r eceiving milk and c ontinuing t o de velop . Bef ore bir th, marsupials ha ve a les s\ncomple x plac ental c onnection, and the y oung ar e born much les s de veloped than in plac ental mammals .\nFIGURE 15.46 The T asmanian de vil is one o f several marsupials nativ e to Aus tralia. (credit: W ayne McL ean)388 15 \u2022 Div ersity of Animals\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2917, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "25bea8fc-5ea2-4aea-8c2d-6afe0569a5c7": {"__data__": {"id_": "25bea8fc-5ea2-4aea-8c2d-6afe0569a5c7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "403", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "edc66fc4-5588-40fe-91c8-6ce8742c2875", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "403", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4a40100f29f476b210a602ca0633331c7a867eeb7f85abcc5ec426de83e8af64", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "8861e58f-3804-43f0-9c2e-0b319ebdd01e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "afc4af18be523e2ec457da0f2ccd9aef7a82700de2f598126c18607de52d0152", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Eutherians ar e the mos t widespr ead o f the mammals , occurring thr oughout the w orld. Ther e are se veral gr oups o f\neutherians , including Insectiv ora, the insect eat ers; E dentata , the t oothles s ant eaters; R odentia , the r odents;\nChir optera, the bats; Cetac ea, the aquatic mammals including whales; Carniv ora, carniv orous mammals including\ndogs , cats , and bears; and P rimat es, which includes humans .Eutherian mammals are sometimes cal led plac ental\nmammals , because al l species ha ve a c omple x plac enta that c onnects a f etus t o the mother , allowing f or gas, fluid,\nwaste, and nutrient e xchang e. While other mammals ma y pos sess a les s comple x plac enta or briefl y ha ve a\nplac enta , all eutherians ha ve a c omple x plac enta during g estation.\nPrimat es\nOrderPrima tesof clas s Mammalia includes lemurs , tarsiers , monk eys, and the apes , which include humans . Non-\nhuman primat es liv e primaril y in tr opical or sub tropical r egions o f South America , Africa , and Asia . The y range in siz e\nfrom the mouse lemur at 30 gr ams (1 ounc e) to the mountain g orilla at 200 kilogr ams (441 pounds). The\nchar acteristics and e volution o f primat es ar e of par ticular int erest to us as the y allow us t o unders tand the e volution\nof our o wn species .\nAll primat e species ha ve adap tations f or climbing tr ees, as the y all desc ended fr om tr ee-dwellers, although not al l\nspecies ar e arbor eal. This arbor eal heritag e of primat es resul ted in hands and f eet that ar e adap ted forbrachia tion ,\nor climbing and s winging thr ough tr ees. These adap tations include , but ar e not limit ed to 1) a r otating shoulder joint,\n2) a big t oe that is widel y separ ated fr om the other t oes and thumbs that ar e widel y separ ated fr om fing ers (e xcept\nhumans), which al low for gripping br anches , and 3) stereosc opic vision , two overlapping visual fields , which al lows\nfor the dep th per ception nec essary to gauge dis tanc e. Other char acteristics o f primat es ar e brains that ar e lar ger\nthan those o f man y other mammals , cla ws that ha ve been modified int o flat tened nails , typical ly onl y one o ffspring\nper pr egnancy , and a tr end t oward holding the body upright.\nOrder P rimat es is divided int o tw o groups: pr osimians and anthr opoids .Prosimians include the bush babies o f\nAfrica , the lemurs o f Madag ascar , and the lorises , pot tos, and tarsiers o f Southeas t Asia .Anthr opoids include\nmonk eys, les ser apes , and gr eat apes ( Figure 15.47 ). In g ener al, prosimians t end t o be nocturnal , smal ler in siz e\nthan anthr opoids , and ha ve relativ ely smal ler br ains c ompar ed to anthr opoids .\nFIGURE 15.47 Primat es can be divided int o prosimians , such as the (a) lemur , and anthr opoids . Anthr opoids include monk eys, such as the\n(b) ho wler monk ey; les ser apes , such as the (c) gibbon; and gr eat apes , such as the (d) chimpanz ee, (e) bonobo , (f) gorilla, and ( g)\norangutan.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2997, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8861e58f-3804-43f0-9c2e-0b319ebdd01e": {"__data__": {"id_": "8861e58f-3804-43f0-9c2e-0b319ebdd01e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "403", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "edc66fc4-5588-40fe-91c8-6ce8742c2875", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "403", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4a40100f29f476b210a602ca0633331c7a867eeb7f85abcc5ec426de83e8af64", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "25bea8fc-5ea2-4aea-8c2d-6afe0569a5c7", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "403", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b6febc969eef3942b910b3cf5bca6ceaec596c782e47561eef2d5b6040378a4e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In g ener al, prosimians t end t o be nocturnal , smal ler in siz e\nthan anthr opoids , and ha ve relativ ely smal ler br ains c ompar ed to anthr opoids .\nFIGURE 15.47 Primat es can be divided int o prosimians , such as the (a) lemur , and anthr opoids . Anthr opoids include monk eys, such as the\n(b) ho wler monk ey; les ser apes , such as the (c) gibbon; and gr eat apes , such as the (d) chimpanz ee, (e) bonobo , (f) gorilla, and ( g)\norangutan. (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Frank V assen; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Xavi Talleda; cr edit d: modification o f work b y\nAaron L ogan; cr edit e: modification o f work b y Trisha Shears; cr edit f: modification o f work b y Da ve Proffer; cr edit g: modification o f work b y\nJulie L angf ord)15.6 \u2022 V ertebrates 389", "start_char_idx": 2546, "end_char_idx": 3334, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "83779550-0393-41a8-9575-3e7b098be2e8": {"__data__": {"id_": "83779550-0393-41a8-9575-3e7b098be2e8", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "404", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ea5b8a6c-b707-4bc5-9b6d-5b37ce9b1187", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "404", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "270ea19c25673e44b97bb9f3e142e2b34c273a746f638d23b73cfe10f4a06a8e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "c241db2f-6e3a-4115-8983-0ccd5f44193b", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "793d1bc478da15391ec806a3cdd8aac97ff658506b6d28b4f2a48e8cd5855273", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nacoeloma tewithout a body ca vity\nActinop terygii ray-finned fishes\namnio tea clade o f animals that pos sesses an\namniotic eg g; includes r eptiles (including bir ds) and\nmammals\namoebocyt ean amoeba -like cell of spong es whose\nfunctions include dis tribution o f nutrients t o other\ncells in the spong e\nAmphibia frogs, salamanders , and caecilians\nampul la of Lorenzini a sensor y organ that al lows\nshark s to det ect electr omagnetic fields pr oduc ed b y\nliving things\nAnnelida a ph ylum o f worm-lik e animals with\nmetamerism\nanthr opoids a clade c onsis ting o f monk eys, apes , and\nhumans\nAnur afrogs\nApoda caecilians\nArthropoda a ph ylum o f Ecdysozoa with joint ed\nappendag es and segment ed bodies\nasymmetrical having no plane o f symmetr y\nbilateral symmetr ya type o f symmetr y in which\nther e is onl y one plane o f symmetr y that cr eates\ntwo mirr or-imag e sides\nbody plan the shape and s ymmetr y of an or ganism\nbrachia tion swinging thr ough tr ees\nbudding a form o f ase xual r eproduction that oc curs\nthrough the gr owth o f a ne w or ganism as a br anch\non an adul t organism that br eaks off and bec omes\nindependent; f ound in plants , spong es, cnidarians ,\nand some other in vertebrates\ncaecilian a legles s amphibian that belongs t o clade\nApoda\nCephalochor data a chor date clade whose members\npossess a not ochor d, dorsal hol low ner ve cord,\nphar yngeal slits , and a pos t-anal tail in the adul t\nstage\ncephalo thor ax a fused head and thor ax\nchaeta a chitinous pr ojection fr om the cuticle f ound\nin annelids\nchelic erae a modified firs t pair o f appendag es in\nsubph ylum Chelic erata\nchitin a tough nitr ogen-c ontaining pol ysaccharide\nfound in the cuticles o f arthropods and the c ell walls\nof fungi\nchoanocyt ea cell type unique t o spong es with a\nflagellum surr ounded b y a c ollar used t o maintain\nwater flo w thr ough the spong e, and cap ture and\ndigest food par ticles\nChondrichth yes jawed fishes with pair ed fins and a\nskeleton made o f car tilag e\nChor data a ph ylum o f animals dis tinguished b y theirpossession o f a not ochor d, a dorsal hol low ner ve\ncord, phar yngeal slits , and a pos t-anal tail at some\npoint during their de velopment\nclitellum a specializ ed band o f fused segments in\nsome annelids , which aids in r eproduction\nCnidaria a ph ylum o f animals that ar e diploblas tic\nand ha ve radial s ymmetr y and s tinging c ells\ncnidocyt ea specializ ed s tinging c ell found in Cnidaria\ncoelom a lined body ca vity deriv ed fr om mesodermal\nembr yonic tis sue\ncomplet e dig estive system a dig estive system that\nopens at one end, the mouth, and e xits at the other\nend, the anus , and thr ough which f ood normal ly\nmoves in one dir ection\ncrania tea proposed clade o f chor dates that includes\nall groups e xcept the tunicat es and lanc elets\nCrocodilia crocodiles and al ligators\nctenidia specializ ed gil ls in mol lusk s\ncutaneous r espir ation gas e xchang e thr ough the skin\ndeut erostome describing an animal in which the\nblas topor e de velops int o the anus ,", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3057, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c241db2f-6e3a-4115-8983-0ccd5f44193b": {"__data__": {"id_": "c241db2f-6e3a-4115-8983-0ccd5f44193b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "404", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ea5b8a6c-b707-4bc5-9b6d-5b37ce9b1187", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "404", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "270ea19c25673e44b97bb9f3e142e2b34c273a746f638d23b73cfe10f4a06a8e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "83779550-0393-41a8-9575-3e7b098be2e8", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "404", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ad8072577cd9394be885e9c0022b09706a722c347000e7c45e89fe60a7a9eec9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "the mouth, and e xits at the other\nend, the anus , and thr ough which f ood normal ly\nmoves in one dir ection\ncrania tea proposed clade o f chor dates that includes\nall groups e xcept the tunicat es and lanc elets\nCrocodilia crocodiles and al ligators\nctenidia specializ ed gil ls in mol lusk s\ncutaneous r espir ation gas e xchang e thr ough the skin\ndeut erostome describing an animal in which the\nblas topor e de velops int o the anus , with the sec ond\nopening de veloping int o the mouth\ndioecious having separ ate male and f emale se xes\ndiph yodont refers t o the pos session o f two sets o f\nteeth in a lif etime\ndiploblas tan animal that de velops fr om tw o\nembr yonic g erm la yers\ndorsal hol low ner ve corda hol low, tubular s tructur e\nderiv ed fr om ect oderm, which is locat ed dorsal t o\nthe not ochor d in chor dates\ndown f eather feather specializ ed for insulation\nEchinoderma ta a ph ylum o f deut erostomes with\nspin y skin; e xclusiv ely marine or ganisms\nepidermis the la yer of cells that lines the out er\nsurface of an animal\neucoeloma tedescribing animals with a body ca vity\ncomplet ely lined with mesodermal tis sue\neutherian mammal a mammal with a c omple x\nplac enta , which c onnects a f etus t o the mother;\nsometimes cal led plac ental mammals\nextracellular dig estion a form o f dig estion, the\nbreakdown o f food, which oc curs outside o f cells\nwith the aid o f enzymes r eleased b y cells\nfragmenta tion a form o f ase xual r eproduction in\nwhich a por tion o f the body o f an or ganism br eaks\noff and de velops int o a living independent or ganism;\nfound in plants , spong es, and some other\ninvertebrates\nfrog a tail -less amphibian that belongs t o clade Anur a\ngastrodermis the la yer of cells that lines the\ngastrovascular ca vity o f cnidarians\ngastrovascular ca vity the c entr al ca vity bounded b y390 15 \u2022 K ey Terms\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2618, "end_char_idx": 4518, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3c4b5896-994e-4350-a9c9-c86838818db6": {"__data__": {"id_": "3c4b5896-994e-4350-a9c9-c86838818db6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "405", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4d7492cd-e58c-43d1-8a2c-07ed0fd637e1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "405", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ff0a27ba1c5c2887305f4793bf5f529396eb1dd04b9d950a23d16a0a12c42c13", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "4363615d-1f8b-47eb-a368-d3aafdd583c5", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "e96a6345e358155fe75484e33dc193da189c72f12fb2d2f27c8508d4c3a3a68b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "the g astrodermis in cnidarians\ngemmule a structur e produc ed b y ase xual\nreproduction in fr eshwater spong es that is able t o\nsurvive harsh c onditions\ngerm la yer a collection o f cells formed during\nembr yogenesis that wil l giv e rise t o futur e body\ntissues\ngnathos tome a jawed fish\nhagfish an eel -like jawles s fish that liv es on the\nocean floor and is a sca venger\nhemoc oel the int ernal body ca vity seen in ar thropods\nheterodont t eeth different types o f teeth modified b y\ndifferent purposes\nintracellular dig estion the dig estion o f mat ter\nbrought int o a c ell by phag ocyt osis\nlampr eya jawles s fish char acterized b y a t oothed,\nfunnel -like, sucking mouth\nlanc elet a member o f Cephalochor data; named f or its\nblade -like shape\nlateral line the sense or gan that runs the length o f a\nfish\u2019s body , used t o det ect vibr ation in the w ater\nLopho trocho zoa a clade o f invertebrate organisms\nthat is a sis ter gr oup t o the E cdysozoa\nmadr eporit ea por e for regulating entr y and e xit o f\nwater int o the w ater vascular s ystem\nmammal one o f the gr oups o f endothermic\nvertebrates that pos sess hair and mammar y glands\nmammar y gland in female mammals , a gland that\nproduc es milk f or ne wborns\nmantle a specializ ed epidermis that encloses al l\nvisceral or gans and secr etes shel ls in mol lusk s\nmarsupial one o f the gr oups o f mammals that\nincludes the k angaroo, koala , bandic oot, T asmanian\ndevil, and se veral other species; y oung de velop\nwithin a pouch\nmedusa a free-floating cnidarian body plan with a\nmouth on the underside and t entacles hanging\ndown fr om a bel l\nmesoglea the non-living , gel-like matrix pr esent in\nbetw een ect oderm and endoderm in cnidarians\nmesoh ylthe c ollagen-lik e gel containing suspended\ncells that per form v arious functions in spong es\nmetamerism having a series o f body s tructur es that\nare similar int ernal ly and e xternal ly, such as\nsegments\nMollusca a ph ylum o f protostomes with so ft bodies\nand no segmentation\nmonoecious having both se xes in one body ,\nhermaphr oditic\nmono treme an eg g-laying mammal\nMyxini hagfishes\nnacr ea calcar eous secr etion pr oduc ed b y biv alve\nmollusk s to line the inner side o f shel ls as w ell as t ocoat f oreign par ticulat e mat ter\nnema tocystthe harpoon-lik e organel le within a\ncnidocyt e with a point ed pr ojectile and poison t o\nstun and entangle pr ey\nNema toda a ph ylum o f worms in E cdysozoa\ncommonl y cal led r oundw orms c ontaining both fr ee-\nliving and par asitic f orms\nnotochor da fle xible , rod-shaped s tructur e that is\nfound in the embr yonic s tage of all chor dates and in\nthe adul t stage of some chor dates\nosculum the lar ge opening in a spong e body thr ough\nwhich w ater lea ves\nOsteichth yes bony fishes\nostracoderm one o f the earlies t jawles s fishes\ncovered in bone\nPetromyzontidae the clade o f lampr eys\nphar yngeal slit an opening in the phar ynx\npneuma tic bone an air -filled bone\npolyp the s talk-like, ses sile lif e form o f a cnidarians\nwith mouth and t entacles facing up ward,", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3068, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4363615d-1f8b-47eb-a368-d3aafdd583c5": {"__data__": {"id_": "4363615d-1f8b-47eb-a368-d3aafdd583c5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "405", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4d7492cd-e58c-43d1-8a2c-07ed0fd637e1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "405", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ff0a27ba1c5c2887305f4793bf5f529396eb1dd04b9d950a23d16a0a12c42c13", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "3c4b5896-994e-4350-a9c9-c86838818db6", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "405", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f1bf22ffe9a3ed77060216800caaa7d3d15939ac28685a7ffe59029e115828a4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "rod-shaped s tructur e that is\nfound in the embr yonic s tage of all chor dates and in\nthe adul t stage of some chor dates\nosculum the lar ge opening in a spong e body thr ough\nwhich w ater lea ves\nOsteichth yes bony fishes\nostracoderm one o f the earlies t jawles s fishes\ncovered in bone\nPetromyzontidae the clade o f lampr eys\nphar yngeal slit an opening in the phar ynx\npneuma tic bone an air -filled bone\npolyp the s talk-like, ses sile lif e form o f a cnidarians\nwith mouth and t entacles facing up ward, usual ly\nsessile but ma y be able t o glide along a sur face\nPoriferaa ph ylum o f animals with no true tis sues , but\na por ous body with a rudimentar y endosk eleton\npost-anal tail a muscular , pos terior elong ation o f the\nbody e xtending be yond the anus in chor dates\nPrima tes includes lemurs , tarsiers , monk eys, apes ,\nand humans\nprosimians a group o f primat es that includes bush\nbabies o f Africa , lemurs o f Madag ascar , and lorises ,\npottos, and tarsiers o f southeas t Asia\nprotostome describing an animal in which the mouth\ndevelops firs t during embr yogenesis and a sec ond\nopening de veloping int o the anus\npseudoc oeloma tean animal with a c oelom that is\nnot c omplet ely lined with tis sues deriv ed fr om the\nmesoderm as in euc oelomat e animals\nradial s ymmetr ya type o f symmetr y with mul tiple\nplanes o f symmetr y all cross at an axis thr ough the\ncenter of the or ganism\nradula a tongue-like scr aping or gan with chitinous\nornamentation f ound in mos t mol lusk s\nsalamander a tailed amphibian that belongs t o the\nclade Ur odela\nSarcopterygii lobe -finned fishes\nsebac eous gland in mammals , a skin gland that\nproduc e a lipid mixtur e cal led sebum\nSphenodontia the r eptilian clade that includes the\ntuatar as\nspicule a shor t sliv er or spik e-like structur e, in\nspong es, the y are formed o f silic on dio xide , calcium\ncarbonat e, or pr otein, and ar e found in the mesoh yl\nspir acle a respir atory openings in insects that al low\nair int o the tr acheae15 \u2022 K ey Terms 391", "start_char_idx": 2557, "end_char_idx": 4588, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "cab8daa1-eb0d-4493-9d3b-6d265bf2f6dd": {"__data__": {"id_": "cab8daa1-eb0d-4493-9d3b-6d265bf2f6dd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "406", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "06fe680d-9dca-4b53-a73e-4b3c7f746586", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "406", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "eb8d40e30902874db6c1467839e9fa789cfb87a8969f307492435b7afa4564e2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "7274d840-0e1e-4fc1-9640-d1b3a5369eb2", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "3f5b3a9596039f7a8a356db0fd6e068d6561c452d389bbf82f54dcc9393e6db5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "spong ocoel the c entr al ca vity within the body o f\nsome spong es\nSquama ta the r eptilian clade o f lizar ds and snak es\nstereosc opic vision two overlapping fields o f vision\nfrom the e yes that pr oduc es dep th per ception\nsudorif erous gland a gland in mammals that\nproduc es sweat and sc ent molecules\nswim bladder in fishes , a g as fil led or gan that helps\nto contr ol the buo yancy o f the fish\ntadpole the lar val stage of a fr og\nTestudines turtles\ntetrapod a four-footed animal; includes amphibians ,\nreptiles , birds, and mammalstrachea in some ar thropods , such as insects , a\nrespir atory tube that c onducts air fr om the spir acles\nto the tis sues\ntriploblas tan animal that de velops fr om thr ee g erm\nlayers\ntunica tea ses sile chor date that is a member o f\nUrochor data\nUrochor data the clade c omposed o f the tunicat es\nUrodela salamanders\nvertebral column a series o f separ ate bones that\nsurr ound the spinal c ord in v ertebrates\nwater vascular s ystem a system in echinoderms in\nwhich w ater is the cir culat ory fluid\nChap ter Summar y\n15.1 Featur es of the Animal Kingdom\nAnimals c onstitut e a div erse king dom o f organisms .\nAlthough animals r ange in c omple xity fr om simple sea\nspong es to human beings , mos t members shar e\ncertain f eatur es. Animals ar e euk aryotic, mul ticellular ,\nheterotrophic or ganisms that ing est their f ood and\nusual ly de velop int o motile cr eatur es with a fix ed body\nplan. Mos t members o f the animal king dom ha ve\ndifferentiat ed tis sues o f four main clas ses\u2014ner vous,\nmuscular , connectiv e, and epithelial \u2014that ar e\nspecializ ed to per form diff erent functions . Mos t\nanimals r eproduc e se xual ly, leading t o a\ndevelopmental sequenc e that is r elativ ely similar\nacross the animal king dom.\nOrganisms in the animal king dom ar e clas sified based\non their body morpholog y and de velopment. T rue\nanimals ar e divided int o those with r adial v ersus\nbilat eral symmetr y. Animals with thr ee g erm la yers,\ncalled triploblas ts, are fur ther char acterized b y the\npresenc e or absenc e of an int ernal body ca vity cal led a\ncoelom. Animals with a body ca vity ma y be either\ncoelomat es or pseudoc oelomat es, depending on which\ntissue giv es rise t o the c oelom. Coelomat es ar e fur ther\ndivided int o tw o groups cal led pr otostomes and\ndeut erostomes , based on a number o f developmental\nchar acteristics.\n15.2 Sponges and Cnidarians\nAnimals included in ph ylum P orifera are par azoans and\ndo not pos sess true tis sues . These or ganisms sho w a\nsimple or ganization. Spong es ha ve mul tiple c ell types\nthat ar e geared toward executing v arious metabolic\nfunctions .\nCnidarians ha ve out er and inner tis sue la yers\nsandwiching a nonc ellular mesoglea . Cnidarians\npossess a w ell-formed dig estive system and carr y out\nextracellular dig estion. The cnidocyt e is a specializ edcell for deliv ering t oxins t o prey and pr edat ors.\nCnidarians ha ve separ ate se xes. The y ha ve a lif e cy cle\nthat in volves morphological ly dis tinct f orms \u2014medusoid\nand pol ypoid\u2014at v arious s tages in their lif e cy cle.\n15.3 Flatworms , Nemat odes , and\nArthropods\nFlatw orms ar e ac oelomat e, triploblas tic animals .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3223, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7274d840-0e1e-4fc1-9640-d1b3a5369eb2": {"__data__": {"id_": "7274d840-0e1e-4fc1-9640-d1b3a5369eb2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "406", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "06fe680d-9dca-4b53-a73e-4b3c7f746586", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "406", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "eb8d40e30902874db6c1467839e9fa789cfb87a8969f307492435b7afa4564e2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "cab8daa1-eb0d-4493-9d3b-6d265bf2f6dd", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "406", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8a682f99c3201036e41689c38449ab5feea588f83edf64047c722232e95794b8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Cnidarians ha ve out er and inner tis sue la yers\nsandwiching a nonc ellular mesoglea . Cnidarians\npossess a w ell-formed dig estive system and carr y out\nextracellular dig estion. The cnidocyt e is a specializ edcell for deliv ering t oxins t o prey and pr edat ors.\nCnidarians ha ve separ ate se xes. The y ha ve a lif e cy cle\nthat in volves morphological ly dis tinct f orms \u2014medusoid\nand pol ypoid\u2014at v arious s tages in their lif e cy cle.\n15.3 Flatworms , Nemat odes , and\nArthropods\nFlatw orms ar e ac oelomat e, triploblas tic animals . The y\nlack cir culat ory and r espir atory systems , and ha ve a\nrudimentar y excretory system. The dig estive system is\nincomplet e in mos t species . Ther e are four tr aditional\nclas ses o f flatw orms , the lar gely free-living\nturbel larians , the ect opar asitic monog eneans , and the\nendopar asitic tr emat odes and c estodes . Tremat odes\nhave comple x life cy cles in volving a sec ondar y mol lusk\nhost and a primar y hos t in which se xual r eproduction\ntakes plac e. Ces todes , or tape worms , infect the\ndigestive systems o f primar y vertebrate hos ts.\nNemat odes ar e pseudoc oelomat e members o f the\nclade E cdysozoa. The y ha ve a c omplet e dig estive\nsystem and a pseudoc oelomic body ca vity. This ph ylum\nincludes fr ee-living as w ell as par asitic or ganisms .\nThey include dioecious and hermaphr oditic species .\nNemat odes ha ve a poorl y de veloped e xcretory system.\nEmbr yonic de velopment is e xternal and pr oceeds\nthrough lar val stages separ ated b y mol ts.\nArthropods r epresent the mos t suc cessful ph ylum o f\nanimals on Ear th, in t erms o f number o f species as w ell\nas the number o f individuals . The y are char acterized b y\na segment ed body and joint ed appendag es. In the\nbasic body plan, a pair o f appendag es is pr esent per\nbody segment. Within the ph ylum, clas sification is\nbased on mouthpar ts, number o f appendag es, and\nmodifications o f appendag es. Arthropods bear a\nchitinous e xoskeleton. Gil ls, tracheae , and book lungs\nfacilitat e respir ation. Embr yonic de velopment ma y\ninclude mul tiple lar val stages.392 15 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2678, "end_char_idx": 4861, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "760659da-e946-49b2-bba5-75778d7d7b90": {"__data__": {"id_": "760659da-e946-49b2-bba5-75778d7d7b90", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "407", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6e905f5d-0d48-47cc-8482-a8205052ecc1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "407", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ecf5c0ea7aa974ee330bd2054e9428c4fcd526fa8596c8f2079bc466bdf94c00", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "28562def-4536-4d90-9d9c-aea1aed97aa7", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "b56c814c105a840648408bf16c438b62b7fad74b7fa4fde9a9ebea945b183fc3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "15.4 Mollusk s and Annelids\nThe ph ylum Mol lusca is a lar ge, mainl y marine gr oup o f\ninvertebrates. Mol lusk s sho w a v ariety o f\nmorphologies . Man y mol lusk s secr ete a calcar eous\nshel l for pr otection, but in other species , the shel l is\nreduc ed or absent. Mol lusk s are protostomes . The\ndorsal epidermis in mol lusk s is modified t o form the\nmantle , which encloses the mantle ca vity and visc eral\norgans. This ca vity is dis tinct fr om the c oelomic ca vity,\nwhich the adul t animal r etains , surr ounding the hear t.\nRespir ation is facilitat ed b y gil ls kno wn as ct enidia . A\nchitinous scr aper cal led the r adula is pr esent in mos t\nmollusk s. Mol lusk s are mos tly dioecious and ar e\ndivided int o se ven clas ses.\nThe ph ylum Annelida includes w orm-lik e, segment ed\nanimals . Segmentation is both e xternal and int ernal ,\nwhich is cal led metamerism. Annelids ar e\nprotostomes . The pr esenc e of chitinous hairs cal led\nchaetae is char acteristic o f mos t members . These\nanimals ha ve well-developed ner vous and dig estive\nsystems . Polychaet e annelids ha ve par apodia that\nparticipat e in loc omotion and r espir ation. Suck ers ar e\nseen in the or der Hirudinea . Breeding s ystems include\nsepar ate se xes and hermaphr oditism.\n15.5 Echinoderms and Chor dates\nEchinoderms ar e deut erostome marine or ganisms . This\nphylum o f animals bear a calcar eous endosk eleton\ncomposed o f ossicles c overed b y a spin y skin.\nEchinoderms pos sess a w ater-based cir culat ory\nsystem. The madr eporit e is the point o f entr y and e xit\nfor w ater for the w ater vascular s ystem.\nThe char acteristic featur es o f Chor data ar e a\nnotochor d, a dorsal hol low ner ve cord, phar yngeal slits ,\nand a pos t-anal tail . Chor data c ontains tw o clades o f\ninvertebrates: Ur ochor data (tunicat es) and\nCephalochor data (lanc elets), t ogether with the\nvertebrates. Mos t tunicat es liv e on the oc ean floor and\nare suspension f eeders . Lancelets ar e suspension\nfeeders that f eed on ph ytoplank ton and other\nmicr oorganisms .\n15.6 Vertebrates\nThe earlies t vertebrates that div erged fr om the\ninvertebrate chor dates w ere the ja wles s fishes .\nHagfishes ar e eel -like sca vengers that f eed on dead\ninvertebrates and other fishes . Lampr eys are\nchar acterized b y a t oothed, funnel -like sucking mouth,and some species ar e par asitic on other fishes .\nGnathos tomes include the ja wed fishes (car tilaginous\nand bon y fishes) as w ell as al l other t etrapods .\nCartilaginous fishes include shark s, rays, skates, and\nghos t shark s. Bon y fishes can be fur ther divided int o\nray-finned and lobe -finned fishes .\nAs tetrapods , mos t amphibians ar e char acterized b y\nfour w ell-developed limbs , although some species o f\nsalamanders and al l caecilians ar e limbles s.\nAmphibians ha ve a mois t, permeable skin used f or\ncutaneous r espir ation. Amphibia can be divided int o\nthree clades: salamanders (Ur odela), fr ogs (Anur a),\nand caecilians (Apoda).", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3005, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "28562def-4536-4d90-9d9c-aea1aed97aa7": {"__data__": {"id_": "28562def-4536-4d90-9d9c-aea1aed97aa7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "407", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6e905f5d-0d48-47cc-8482-a8205052ecc1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "407", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ecf5c0ea7aa974ee330bd2054e9428c4fcd526fa8596c8f2079bc466bdf94c00", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "760659da-e946-49b2-bba5-75778d7d7b90", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "407", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "da939850c7715e6426f180f709bc404b5f3bea513553081d6f1905415c3a788b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Gnathos tomes include the ja wed fishes (car tilaginous\nand bon y fishes) as w ell as al l other t etrapods .\nCartilaginous fishes include shark s, rays, skates, and\nghos t shark s. Bon y fishes can be fur ther divided int o\nray-finned and lobe -finned fishes .\nAs tetrapods , mos t amphibians ar e char acterized b y\nfour w ell-developed limbs , although some species o f\nsalamanders and al l caecilians ar e limbles s.\nAmphibians ha ve a mois t, permeable skin used f or\ncutaneous r espir ation. Amphibia can be divided int o\nthree clades: salamanders (Ur odela), fr ogs (Anur a),\nand caecilians (Apoda). The lif e cy cle o f amphibians\nconsis ts of two dis tinct s tages: the lar val stage and\nmetamorphosis t o an adul t stage.\nThe amniot es ar e dis tinguished fr om amphibians b y\nthe pr esenc e of a terrestrially adap ted eg g protected\nby amniotic membr anes . The amniot es include\nreptiles , birds, and mammals . A k ey adap tation that\npermit ted reptiles t o liv e on land w as the de velopment\nof scal y skin. R eptilia includes f our living clades:\nCrocodilia (cr ocodiles and al ligators), Sphenodontia\n(tuatar as), Squamata (lizar ds and snak es), and\nTestudines (tur tles).\nBirds ar e endothermic amniot es. Feathers act as\ninsulation and al low for flight. Bir ds ha ve pneumatic\nbones that ar e hol low rather than tis sue-filled. Air flow\nthrough bir d lungs tr avels in one dir ection. Bir ds\nevolved fr om dinosaurs .\nMammals ha ve hair and mammar y glands . Mammalian\nskin includes v arious secr etory glands . Mammals ar e\nendothermic, lik e bir ds. Ther e are thr ee gr oups o f\nmammals living t oday: monotr emes , marsupials , and\neutherians . Monotr emes ar e unique among mammals\nas the y lay eg gs, rather than giving bir th to liv e young .\nEutherian mammals ha ve a c omple x plac enta .\nTher e are 16 e xtant (living ) orders o f eutherian\nmammals . Humans ar e mos t closel y related to\nPrimat es, all of which ha ve adap tations f or climbing\ntrees, although not al l species ar e arbor eal. Other\nchar acteristics o f primat es ar e brains that ar e lar ger\nthan those o f other mammals , cla ws that ha ve been\nmodified int o flat tened nails , and typical ly one y oung\nper pr egnancy , stereosc opic vision, and a tr end t oward\nholding the body upright. P rimat es ar e divided int o tw o\ngroups: pr osimians and anthr opoids .15 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y393", "start_char_idx": 2399, "end_char_idx": 4792, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "89ffbba9-9a6f-44ab-87d8-f9f22de5453b": {"__data__": {"id_": "89ffbba9-9a6f-44ab-87d8-f9f22de5453b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "408", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4524f972-3952-4d60-9035-ee9ac3bd6f94", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "408", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7263c63e70bf48c3975bbe7a4ab027ff8f71fd84d8f6bf14147bae8acd870efe", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Visual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 15.3 Which o f the f ollowing s tatements is\nfalse?\na.Eumetaz oa ha ve specializ ed tis sues and\nParazoa do not.\nb.Both ac oelomat es and pseudoc oelomat es ha ve\na body ca vity.\nc.Chor dates ar e mor e closel y related to\nechinoderms than t o rotifers ac cording t o the\nfigure.\nd.Some animals ha ve radial s ymmetr y, and some\nanimals ha ve bilat eral symmetr y.\n2.Figure 15.24 Which o f the f ollowing s tatements\nabout the anat omy of a mol lusk is false?\na.Mollusk s ha ve a r adula f or scr aping f ood.\nb.Mollusk s ha ve ventr al ner ve cords.\nc.The tis sue beneath the shel l is cal led the\nmantle .\nd.The mantle ca vity c ontains hemol ymph.3.Figure 15.33 Which o f the f ollowing s tatements\nabout c ommon f eatur es o f chor dates is true?\na.The dorsal hol low ner ve cord is par t of the\nchor date centr al ner vous s ystem.\nb.In vertebrate fishes , the phar yngeal slits\nbecome the gil ls.\nc.Humans ar e not chor dates because humans do\nnot ha ve a tail .\nd.Vertebrates do not ha ve a not ochor d at an y\npoint in their de velopment; ins tead, the y ha ve\na vertebral column.\nReview Ques tions\n4.Which o f the f ollowing is not a f eatur e common t o\nmos tanimals?\na.development int o a fix ed body plan\nb.asexual r eproduction\nc.specializ ed tis sues\nd.heterotrophic nutrient sour cing\n5.Which o f the f ollowing does not oc cur?\na.radial ly symmetrical diploblas t\nb.diploblas tic euc oelomat e\nc.protostomic c oelomat e\nd.bilat erally symmetrical deut erostome\n6.The lar ge centr al opening in the porif eran body is\ncalled the _____.\na.emmule\nb.picule\nc.stia\nd.osculum\n7.Cnidocyt es ar e found in _____.\na.phylum P orifera\nb.phylum Nemer tea\nc.phylum Nemat oda\nd.phylum Cnidaria8.Cubo zoans ar e ________.\na.polyps\nb.medusoids\nc.polymorphs\nd.spong es\n9.Which gr oup o f flatw orms ar e primaril y external\nparasites o f fish?\na.monog eneans\nb.tremat odes\nc.cestodes\nd.turbel larians\n10.Crus taceans ar e _____.\na.ecdysozoans\nb.nemat odes\nc.arachnids\nd.parazoans\n11.A mantle and mantle ca vity ar e present in _____.\na.clas s Olig ochaeta\nb.clas s Biv alvia\nc.clas s Polychaeta\nd.clas s Hirudinea\n12.Annelids ha ve a _____.\na.pseudoc oelom\nb.a true c oelom\nc.no c oelom\nd.none o f the abo ve394 15 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2320, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "874e8842-a6bb-40d5-93c0-6f738b31cace": {"__data__": {"id_": "874e8842-a6bb-40d5-93c0-6f738b31cace", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "409", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b13df1ae-0dd7-4c8c-a788-9aa58082761a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "409", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "24aea8a8e6807a9c455113f45f5e954634b2eaa07f4eeb202969a46f007190a8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "13.Echinoderms in their lar val state ha ve _____.\na.triang ular s ymmetr y\nb.radial s ymmetr y\nc.hexagonal s ymmetr y\nd.bilat eral symmetr y\n14.The cir culat ory fluid in echinoderms is _____.\na.blood\nb.mesoh yl\nc.water\nd.saline\n15.Which o f the f ollowing is nota member o f the\nphylum Chor data?\na.Cephalochor data\nb.Echinodermata\nc.Urochor data\nd.Vertebrata16.Members o f Chondrichth yes diff er fr om members\nof Osteichth yes b y ha ving a ________.\na.jaw\nb.bony skeleton\nc.cartilaginous sk eleton\nd.two sets o f pair ed fins\n17.Squamata includes _____.\na.crocodiles and al ligators\nb.turtles\nc.tuatar as\nd.lizar ds and snak es\n18.Sudorif erous glands pr oduc e ________.\na.sweat\nb.lipids\nc.sebum\nd.milk\n19.Which o f the f ollowing is a Monotr eme?\na.kangaroo\nb.koala\nc.bandic oot\nd.platypus\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n20.How ar e specializ ed tis sues impor tant f or animal\nfunction and c omple xity?\n21.Using the f ollowing t erms , explain what\nclas sifications and gr oups humans fal l into, from\nthe mos t gener al to the mos t specific: s ymmetr y,\ngerm la yers, coelom, embr yological de velopment.\n22.Describe the f eeding mechanism o f spong es and\nidentif y ho w it is diff erent fr om other animals .\n23.Compar e the s tructur al diff erences betw een\nPorifera and Cnidaria .\n24.Speculat e as t o what adv antag e(s) a c omplet e\ndigestive system has o ver an inc omplet e dig estive\nsystem?\n25.Describe a pot ential adv antag e and disadv antag e\nof the cuticle o f ecdysozoans .26.Describe the morpholog y and anat omy of\nmollusk s.\n27.Sessile adul t tunicat es lose the not ochor d; what\ndoes this sug gest about one function o f this\nstructur e?\n28.During embr yonic de velopment, what f eatur es do\nwe shar e with tunicat es or lanc elets?\n29.What can be inf erred about the e volution o f the\ncranium and the v ertebral column fr om e xamining\nhagfishes and lampr eys?\n30.Explain wh y frogs ar e restrict ed to a mois t\nenvironment.\n31.Describe thr ee adap tations that al low for flight in\nbirds.15 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions 395", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2061, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2d1baf91-3f0d-4202-9978-d4a1ef99710f": {"__data__": {"id_": "2d1baf91-3f0d-4202-9978-d4a1ef99710f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "410", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "62a19eed-7a77-481a-8fbd-6d679b5fec3a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "410", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9f571ade02e8ff40a5ea180e565bd9e020c16165500ba0b558d442a10287bb65", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "396 15 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 72, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "963b2aa1-df72-4368-8e6e-63e90caaab99": {"__data__": {"id_": "963b2aa1-df72-4368-8e6e-63e90caaab99", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "411", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f06c5bd6-4a83-47aa-8ff2-50561b2f9d6b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "411", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fe25c4e5f2f19032f585514893a924d993daae837f03677e38ea593e35bb04f2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 16\nThe Body \u2019s Systems\n16.1 Homeos tasis and Osmor egulation\n16.2 Digestive Sy stem\n16.3 Circula tory and R espir atory Sy stems\n16.4 Endocrine Sy stem\n16.5 Musculosk eletal Sy stem\n16.6 Nervous Sy stem\nThe ar ctic f ox, a c omple x animal that has adap ted to its en vironment, il lustrates\nthe r elationships betw een an animal \u2019s form and function. The mul ticellular bodies o f animals\nconsis t of tissues that mak e up mor e comple x organs and or gan s ystems . The or gan s ystems o f an\nanimal maintain homeos tasis within the mul ticellular body . These s ystems ar e adap ted to ob tain\nthe nec essary nutrients and other r esour ces needed b y the c ells of the body , to remo ve the\nwastes those c ells pr oduc e, to coordinat e the activities o f the c ells, tissues , and or gans\nthroughout the body , and t o coordinat e the man y responses o f the individual or ganism t o its\nenvironment.FIGURE 16.1 An ar ctic f ox is a c omple x animal , well adap ted to its en vironment. (cr edit: K eith Mor ehouse , USFWS)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1068, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6ab0b2a5-ae75-4fec-9709-5d909514801c": {"__data__": {"id_": "6ab0b2a5-ae75-4fec-9709-5d909514801c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "412", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "23de5d90-50e2-4d00-8e52-4f45e2d49c24", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "412", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "03c960ef4902d738a0e059abfe3ea9e257a4655515bbc7303f8c3cdb2ff830f6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "60c066b9-309f-4e8b-b702-78dcab784c96", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "4a4b8968f57e4e1e0380dc4049376dc358bf182645b4be1bb7e644938a35ea0c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "16.1 Homeos tasis and Osmor egulation\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain the c oncept of homeos tasis\n\u2022Describe thermor egulation o f endothermic and ect othermic animals\n\u2022Explain ho w the kidne ys ser ve as the main osmor egulatory organs in the human body\nHomeos tasis r efers t o the r elativ ely stable s tate inside the body o f an animal . Animal or gans and\norgan s ystems c onstantl y adjus t to int ernal and e xternal chang es in or der t o maintain this s teady\nstate. Examples o f internal c onditions maintained homeos tatical ly are the le vel of blood gluc ose,\nbody t emper atur e, blood calcium le vel. These c onditions r emain s table because o f physiologic\nprocesses that r esul t in neg ative feedback r elationships . If the blood gluc ose or calcium rises , this\nsends a signal t o organs r esponsible f or lo wering blood gluc ose or calcium. The signals that\nrestore the normal le vels ar e examples o f neg ative feedback. When homeos tatic mechanisms fail ,\nthe r esul ts can be unfa vorable f or the animal . Homeos tatic mechanisms k eep the body in dynamic\nequilibrium b y constantl y adjus ting t o the chang es that the body \u2019s systems enc ount er. Even an\nanimal that is appar ently inactiv e is maintaining this homeos tatic equilibrium. T wo examples o f\nfactors that ar e regulated homeos tatical ly are temper atur e and w ater content. The pr ocesses that\nmaintain homeos tasis o f these tw o fact ors ar e cal led thermor egulation and osmor egulation.\nHomeos tasis\nThe g oal o f homeos tasis is the maint enanc e of equilibrium ar ound a specific v alue o f some aspect\nof the body or its c ells cal led a set point . While ther e are normal fluctuations fr om the set point,\nthe body \u2019s systems wil l usual ly attemp t to go back t o this point. A chang e in the int ernal or\nexternal en vironment is cal led a s timulus and is det ected b y a r eceptor; the r esponse o f the\nsystem is t o adjus t the activities o f the s ystem so the v alue mo ves back t oward the set point. F or\ninstanc e, if the body bec omes t oo w arm, adjus tments ar e made t o cool the animal . If gluc ose\nlevels in the blood rise aft er a meal , adjus tments ar e made t o lower them and t o get the nutrient\ninto tis sues that need it or t o store it f or lat er use .\nWhen a chang e oc curs in an animal \u2019s en vironment, an adjus tment mus t be made so that the\ninternal en vironment o f the body and c ells remains s table . The r eceptor that senses the chang e in\nthe en vironment is par t of a feedback mechanism. The s timulus \u2014temper atur e, gluc ose, or calcium\nlevels\u2014is det ected b y the r eceptor. The r eceptor sends inf ormation t o a c ontr ol center, often the\nbrain, which r elays appr opriat e signals t o an eff ector or gan that is able t o cause an appr opriat e\nchang e, either up or do wn, depending on the inf ormation the sensor w as sending .\nThermor egulation\nAnimals can be divided int o tw o groups: those that maintain a c onstant body t emper atur e in the\nface of diff ering en vironmental t emper atur es, and those that ha ve a body t emper atur e that is the\nsame as their en vironment and thus v aries with the en vironmental t emper atur e. Animals that do\nnot ha ve int ernal c ontr ol of their body t emper atur e are cal ledectotherms .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3347, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "60c066b9-309f-4e8b-b702-78dcab784c96": {"__data__": {"id_": "60c066b9-309f-4e8b-b702-78dcab784c96", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "412", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "23de5d90-50e2-4d00-8e52-4f45e2d49c24", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "412", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "03c960ef4902d738a0e059abfe3ea9e257a4655515bbc7303f8c3cdb2ff830f6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "6ab0b2a5-ae75-4fec-9709-5d909514801c", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "412", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a85c1c1dfad297e38fd7d4230c9f299622bcad3acbeec7e02bf1b1cc74adcf23", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The r eceptor sends inf ormation t o a c ontr ol center, often the\nbrain, which r elays appr opriat e signals t o an eff ector or gan that is able t o cause an appr opriat e\nchang e, either up or do wn, depending on the inf ormation the sensor w as sending .\nThermor egulation\nAnimals can be divided int o tw o groups: those that maintain a c onstant body t emper atur e in the\nface of diff ering en vironmental t emper atur es, and those that ha ve a body t emper atur e that is the\nsame as their en vironment and thus v aries with the en vironmental t emper atur e. Animals that do\nnot ha ve int ernal c ontr ol of their body t emper atur e are cal ledectotherms . The body t emper atur e\nof these or ganisms is g ener ally similar t o the t emper atur e of the en vironment, al though the\nindividual or ganisms ma y do things that k eep their bodies slightl y belo w or abo ve the\nenvironmental t emper atur e. This can include burr owing under ground on a hot da y or r esting in the\nsunlight on a c old da y. The ect otherms ha ve been cal led c old-blooded, a t erm that ma y not appl y\nto an animal in the deser t with a v ery warm body t emper atur e.\nAn animal that maintains a c onstant body t emper atur e in the fac e of environmental chang es is\ncalled an endo therm . These animals ar e able t o maintain a le vel of activity that an ect othermic\nanimal cannot because the y gener ate int ernal heat that k eeps their c ellular pr ocesses oper ating\noptimal ly even when the en vironment is c old.398 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2681, "end_char_idx": 4254, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "27202f73-557a-4261-bac7-dff5b9973df4": {"__data__": {"id_": "27202f73-557a-4261-bac7-dff5b9973df4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "413", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "161fc95b-c69d-4d88-bb91-a4eda15a4e88", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "413", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "71fddf5d4e95ae1338a5d18424f7fb660c1bfc9266939fe7610fa38a0f978ebf", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "6ab6c16c-0eba-4011-9c01-ba95822b643e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "29a268658fde6bc1dcf24e2543fc84a5b3b57a10da982051e0ff346f31afdf24", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "LINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch this Disc overy Channel video (http://opens tax.org/l/thermor egulate2)on thermor egulation t o see il lustrations\nof the pr ocess in a v ariety o f animals .\nAnimals c onser ve or dis sipat e heat in a v ariety o f ways. Endothermic animals ha ve some f orm o f insulation. The y\nhave fur , fat, or f eathers . Animals with thick fur or f eathers cr eate an insulating la yer of air betw een their skin and\ninternal or gans. Polar bears and seals liv e and s wim in a sub freezing en vironment and y et maintain a c onstant,\nwarm, body t emper atur e. The ar ctic f ox, for example , uses its fluff y tail as e xtra insulation when it curls up t o sleep\nin cold w eather . Mammals can incr ease body heat pr oduction b y shiv ering , which is an in voluntar y incr ease in\nmuscle activity . In addition, arr ector pili muscles can c ontr act causing individual hairs t o stand up when the\nindividual is c old. This incr eases the insulating eff ect o f the hair . Humans r etain this r eaction, which does not ha ve\nthe int ended eff ect on our r elativ ely hairles s bodies; it causes \u201c goose bumps\u201d ins tead. Mammals use la yers o f fat as\ninsulation also . Loss of significant amounts o f body fat wil l compr omise an individual \u2019s ability t o conser ve heat.\nEctotherms and endotherms use their cir culat ory systems t o help maintain body t emper atur e. Vasodilation, the\nopening up o f arteries t o the skin b y relaxation o f their smooth muscles , brings mor e blood and heat t o the body\nsurface, facilitating r adiation and e vapor ative heat los s, cooling the body . Vasoc onstriction, the narr owing o f blood\nvessels t o the skin b y contr action o f their smooth muscles , reduc es blood flo w in peripher al blood v essels , forcing\nblood t oward the c ore and vital or gans, conser ving heat. Some animals ha ve adap tions t o their cir culat ory system\nthat enable them t o transfer heat fr om ar teries t o veins that ar e flo wing ne xt to each other , warming blood r eturning\nto the hear t. This is cal led a c ount ercurr ent heat e xchang e; it pr events the c old v enous blood fr om c ooling the hear t\nand other int ernal or gans. The c ount ercurr ent adap tation is f ound in dolphins , shark s, bon y fish, bees , and\nhummingbir ds.\nSome ect othermic animals use chang es in their beha vior t o help r egulate body t emper atur e. The y simpl y seek\ncooler ar eas during the hot test par t of the da y in the deser t to keep fr om g etting t oo w arm. The same animals ma y\nclimb ont o rocks in the e vening t o cap ture heat on a c old deser t night bef ore ent ering their burr ows.\nThermor egulation is c oordinat ed b y the ner vous s ystem ( Figure 16.2 ). The pr ocesses o f temper atur e contr ol ar e\ncentered in the h ypothalamus o f the adv anced animal br ain. The h ypothalamus maintains the set point f or body\ntemper atur e thr ough r eflexes that cause v asodilation or v asoc onstriction and shiv ering or s weating . The\nsympathetic ner vous s ystem under c ontr ol of the h ypothalamus dir ects the r esponses that eff ect the chang es in\ntemper atur e los s or g ain that r eturn the body t o the set point. The set point ma y be adjus ted in some ins tanc es.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3237, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6ab6c16c-0eba-4011-9c01-ba95822b643e": {"__data__": {"id_": "6ab6c16c-0eba-4011-9c01-ba95822b643e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "413", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "161fc95b-c69d-4d88-bb91-a4eda15a4e88", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "413", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "71fddf5d4e95ae1338a5d18424f7fb660c1bfc9266939fe7610fa38a0f978ebf", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "27202f73-557a-4261-bac7-dff5b9973df4", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "413", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "235dd83c1801cdd951a628b0b70e960a8bb9eb62350e80167cb5eb013e11e875", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Thermor egulation is c oordinat ed b y the ner vous s ystem ( Figure 16.2 ). The pr ocesses o f temper atur e contr ol ar e\ncentered in the h ypothalamus o f the adv anced animal br ain. The h ypothalamus maintains the set point f or body\ntemper atur e thr ough r eflexes that cause v asodilation or v asoc onstriction and shiv ering or s weating . The\nsympathetic ner vous s ystem under c ontr ol of the h ypothalamus dir ects the r esponses that eff ect the chang es in\ntemper atur e los s or g ain that r eturn the body t o the set point. The set point ma y be adjus ted in some ins tanc es.\nDuring an inf ection, c ompounds cal led p yrogens ar e produc ed and cir culat e to the h ypothalamus r eset ting the\nthermos tat t o a higher v alue . This al lows the body \u2019s temper atur e to incr ease t o a ne w homeos tatic equilibrium point\nin what is c ommonl y cal led a f ever. The incr ease in body heat mak es the body les s op timal f or bact erial gr owth and\nincreases the activities o f cells so the y are bet ter able t o fight the inf ection.\n16.1 \u2022 Homeos tasis and Osmor egulation 399", "start_char_idx": 2643, "end_char_idx": 3741, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2b41b36e-9bfa-4f34-bf49-5fec3ab00f71": {"__data__": {"id_": "2b41b36e-9bfa-4f34-bf49-5fec3ab00f71", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "414", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "58807598-f462-4713-99f8-fd6f5f7a2ba4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "414", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ab3072fb525acec813b2a839a2a444fb6934f2b38fa3d14b970f3b1dd2128281", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 16.2 The body is able t o regulate temper atur e in r esponse t o signals fr om the ner vous s ystem.\nWhen bact eria ar e des troyed b y leuk ocyt es, pyrogens ar e released int o the blood. Pyr ogens r eset the body \u2019s\nthermos tat t o a higher t emper atur e, resul ting in f ever. Ho w might p yrogens cause the body t emper atur e to rise?\nOsmor egulation\nOsmor egulation is the pr ocess of maintaining sal t and w ater balanc e (osmo tic balanc e) acr oss membr anes within\nthe body . The fluids inside and surr ounding c ells ar e composed o f water, electr olytes, and nonelectr olytes. An\nelectr olyte is a c ompound that dis sociat es int o ions when dis solved in w ater. A nonelectr olyte, in c ontr ast, does not\ndissociat e int o ions in w ater. The body \u2019s fluids include blood plasma , fluid that e xists within c ells, and the\ninterstitial fluid that e xists in the spac es betw een c ells and tis sues o f the body . The membr anes o f the body (both\nthe membr anes ar ound c ells and the \u201c membr anes\u201d made o f cells lining body ca vities) ar e semipermeable\nmembr anes . Semipermeable membr anes ar e permeable t o certain types o f solut es and t o water, but typical ly cell\nmembr anes ar e impermeable t o solut es.\nThe body does not e xist in isolation. Ther e is a c onstant input o f water and electr olytes int o the s ystem. Ex cess\nwater, electr olytes, and w astes ar e transpor ted to the kidne ys and e xcreted, helping t o maintain osmotic balanc e.\nInsufficient fluid intak e resul ts in fluid c onser vation b y the kidne ys. Biological s ystems c onstantl y int eract and\nexchang e water and nutrients with the en vironment b y way of consump tion o f food and w ater and thr ough e xcretion\nin the f orm o f sweat, urine , and f eces. Without a mechanism t o regulate osmotic pr essure, or when a disease\ndamag es this mechanism, ther e is a t endency t o ac cumulat e toxic w aste and w ater, which can ha ve dir e\nconsequenc es.\nMammalian s ystems ha ve evolved to regulate not onl y the o verall osmotic pr essure acr oss membr anes , but also\nspecific c oncentr ations o f impor tant electr olytes in the thr ee major fluid c ompar tments: blood plasma , interstitial\nfluid, and intr acellular fluid. Sinc e osmotic pr essure is r egulated b y the mo vement o f water acr oss membr anes , the\nvolume o f the fluid c ompar tments can also chang e tempor arily. Sinc e blood plasma is one o f the fluid c omponents ,\nosmotic pr essures ha ve a dir ect bearing on blood pr essure.\nExcretory System\nThe human e xcretory system functions t o remo ve waste from the body thr ough the skin as s weat, the lungs in the\nform o f exhaled carbon dio xide , and thr ough the urinar y system in the f orm o f urine . All thr ee o f these s ystems\nparticipat e in osmor egulation and w aste remo val. Her e we focus on the urinar y system, which is c omprised o f the\n400 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2983, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5800190d-7cc6-4d36-97ea-40073a96ae67": {"__data__": {"id_": "5800190d-7cc6-4d36-97ea-40073a96ae67", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "415", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "83cf058b-1d8c-4a1f-96a7-20f265d7313c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "415", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "87b1da444b73dd6153e183b81d87d555ac8079b6526d4eef4d8a628a21f8c5fd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "8ce4f0ca-61d3-4dfa-96a1-ecd39d73f9b2", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "5a31bf16aed976838273e18ac7ba25839e44e9e83d03d8ccd3c562e9d49e46c1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "paired kidne ys, the ur eter, urinar y bladder and ur ethr a (Figure 16.3 ). The kidne ysare a pair o f bean-shaped\nstructur es that ar e locat ed jus t belo w the liv er in the body ca vity. Each o f the kidne ys contains mor e than a mil lion\ntiny units cal led nephr ons that fil ter blood c ontaining the metabolic w astes fr om c ells. All the blood in the human\nbody is fil tered about 60 times a da y by the kidne ys. The nephr ons r emo ve wastes, concentr ate them, and f orm\nurine that is c ollected in the bladder .\nInternal ly, the kidne y has thr ee regions \u2014an out er cortex, a medul la in the middle , and the r enal pel vis, which is the\nexpanded end o f the ur eter. The r enal c ortex contains the nephr ons\u2014the functional unit o f the kidne y. The r enal\npelvis c ollects the urine and leads t o the ureteron the outside o f the kidne y. The ur eters ar e urine -bearing tubes\nthat e xit the kidne y and emp ty int o the urinar y bladder .\nFIGURE 16.3 The human e xcretory system is made up o f the kidne ys, ureter, urinar y bladder , and ur ethr a. The kidne ys filter blood and f orm\nurine , which is s tored in the bladder until it is eliminat ed thr ough the ur ethr a. On the right, the int ernal s tructur e of the kidne y is sho wn.\n(credit: modification o f work b y NCI, NIH)\nBlood ent ers each kidne y from the aor ta, the main ar tery suppl ying the body belo w the hear t, thr ough a renal\nartery. It is dis tribut ed in smal ler v essels until it r eaches each nephr on in capil laries . Within the nephr on the blood\ncomes in intimat e contact with the w aste-collecting tubules in a s tructur e cal led the glomerulus . Water and man y\nsolut es pr esent in the blood, including ions o f sodium, calcium, magnesium, and others; as w ell as w astes and\nvaluable subs tanc es such as amino acids , gluc ose and vitamins , lea ve the blood and ent er the tubule s ystem o f the\nnephr on. As mat erials pas s thr ough the tubule much o f the w ater, requir ed ions , and useful c ompounds ar e\nreabsorbed back int o the capil laries that surr ound the tubules lea ving the w astes behind. Some o f this r eabsorp tion\nrequir es activ e transpor t and c onsumes A TP. Some w astes, including ions and some drugs r emaining in the blood,\ndiffuse out o f the capil laries int o the int erstitial fluid and ar e tak en up b y the tubule c ells. These w astes ar e then\nactiv ely secr eted int o the tubules . The blood then c ollects in lar ger and lar ger vessels and lea ves the kidne y in the\nrenal v ein. The renal v einjoins the inf erior v ena ca va, the main v ein that r eturns blood t o the hear t from the lo wer\nbody . The amounts o f water and ions r eabsorbed int o the cir culat ory system ar e car efully regulated and this is an\nimpor tant w ay the body r egulates its w ater content and ion le vels. The w aste is c ollected in lar ger tubules and then\nleaves the kidne y in the ur eter, which leads t o the bladder wher e urine , the c ombination o f waste mat erials and\nwater, is s tored.\nThe bladder c ontains sensor y ner ves, stretch receptors that signal when it needs t o be emp tied. These signals\ncreate the ur ge to urinat e, which can be v oluntaril y suppr essed up t o a limit.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3234, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8ce4f0ca-61d3-4dfa-96a1-ecd39d73f9b2": {"__data__": {"id_": "8ce4f0ca-61d3-4dfa-96a1-ecd39d73f9b2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "415", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "83cf058b-1d8c-4a1f-96a7-20f265d7313c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "415", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "87b1da444b73dd6153e183b81d87d555ac8079b6526d4eef4d8a628a21f8c5fd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "5800190d-7cc6-4d36-97ea-40073a96ae67", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "415", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fefd64ff1792dcb576a0e8c9b74a9b04f38987967cc84963014a329f7c43e0b1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The amounts o f water and ions r eabsorbed int o the cir culat ory system ar e car efully regulated and this is an\nimpor tant w ay the body r egulates its w ater content and ion le vels. The w aste is c ollected in lar ger tubules and then\nleaves the kidne y in the ur eter, which leads t o the bladder wher e urine , the c ombination o f waste mat erials and\nwater, is s tored.\nThe bladder c ontains sensor y ner ves, stretch receptors that signal when it needs t o be emp tied. These signals\ncreate the ur ge to urinat e, which can be v oluntaril y suppr essed up t o a limit. The c onscious decision t o urinat e sets\nin pla y signals that open the sphinct ers, rings o f smooth muscle that close o ff the opening , to the urethr athat\nallows urine t o flo w out o f the bladder and the body .16.1 \u2022 Homeos tasis and Osmor egulation 401", "start_char_idx": 2656, "end_char_idx": 3495, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d9fa1724-2560-4f60-95fd-ad347102ba77": {"__data__": {"id_": "d9fa1724-2560-4f60-95fd-ad347102ba77", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "416", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cd6c1f1b-6d83-43d8-91fa-96a2d2a15d63", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "416", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d4b423bfac2b12fba6a2229f871da6fa5aaef83a85843d66b9e62b24ca787331", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "39b86a3a-c230-4e1b-b41f-08252b565a00", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "58db20f1a107a9614c4f89bf3470c45370cd1bc06887ae004cbe634bd6ea9e2f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "CAREER C ONNE CTION\nDialy sis T echnician\nDialysis is a medical pr ocess of remo ving w astes and e xcess water fr om the blood b y diffusion and ul trafiltration.\nWhen kidne y function fails , dial ysis mus t be done t o artificial ly rid the body o f wastes and fluids . This is a vital\nprocess to keep patients aliv e. In some cases , the patients under go artificial dial ysis until the y are eligible f or a\nkidne y transplant. In others who ar e not candidat es for kidne y transplants , dial ysis is a lif elong nec essity.\nDialysis t echnicians typical ly work in hospitals and clinics . While some r oles in this field include equipment\ndevelopment and maint enanc e, mos t dial ysis t echnicians w ork in dir ect patient car e. Their on-the -job duties , which\ntypical ly oc cur under the dir ect super vision o f a regis tered nurse , focus on pr oviding dial ysis tr eatments . This can\ninclude r eviewing patient his tory and curr ent c ondition, as sessing and r esponding t o patient needs bef ore and\nduring tr eatment, and monit oring the dial ysis pr ocess. Treatment ma y include taking and r epor ting a patient \u2019s vital\nsigns , preparing solutions and equipment t o ensur e ac curate and s terile pr ocedur es.\n16.2 Diges tive System\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain the pr ocesses o f dig estion and absorp tion\n\u2022Explain the specializ ed functions o f the or gans in volved in pr ocessing f ood in the body\n\u2022Describe the w ays in which or gans w ork t ogether t o dig est food and absorb nutrients\n\u2022Describe the es sential nutrients r equir ed for cellular function that cannot be s ynthesiz ed b y the animal\nbody\n\u2022Describe ho w excess carboh ydrates and ener gy are stored in the body\nAll living or ganisms need nutrients t o sur vive. While plants can ob tain nutrients fr om their r oots and the ener gy\nmolecules r equir ed for cellular function thr ough the pr ocess of phot osynthesis , animals ob tain their nutrients b y the\nconsump tion o f other or ganisms . At the c ellular le vel, the biological molecules nec essary for animal function ar e\namino acids , lipid molecules , nucleotides , and simple sug ars. Ho wever, the f ood c onsumed c onsis ts of protein, fat,\nand c omple x carboh ydrates. Animals mus t convert these macr omolecules int o the simple molecules r equir ed for\nmaintaining c ellular function. The c onversion o f the f ood c onsumed t o the nutrients r equir ed is a mul tistep pr ocess\ninvolving dig estion and absorp tion. During dig estion, f ood par ticles ar e broken do wn t o smal ler c omponents , which\nare lat er absorbed b y the body . This happens b y both ph ysical means , such as che wing , and b y chemical means .\nOne o f the chal leng es in human nutrition is maintaining a balanc e betw een f ood intak e, storage, and ener gy\nexpenditur e. Taking in mor e food ener gy than is used in activity leads t o storage of the e xcess in the f orm o f fat\ndeposits . The rise in obesity and the r esul ting diseases lik e type 2 diabet es mak es unders tanding the r ole o f diet\nand nutrition in maintaining g ood heal th al l the mor e impor tant.\nThe Human Diges tive System\nThe pr ocess of dig estion begins in the mouth with the intak e of food ( Figure 16.4 ). The t eeth pla y an impor tant r ole\nin mas ticating (che wing ) or ph ysical ly breaking f ood int o smal ler par ticles . The enzymes pr esent in saliv a also begin\nto chemical ly break do wn f ood.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3487, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "39b86a3a-c230-4e1b-b41f-08252b565a00": {"__data__": {"id_": "39b86a3a-c230-4e1b-b41f-08252b565a00", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "416", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cd6c1f1b-6d83-43d8-91fa-96a2d2a15d63", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "416", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d4b423bfac2b12fba6a2229f871da6fa5aaef83a85843d66b9e62b24ca787331", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "d9fa1724-2560-4f60-95fd-ad347102ba77", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "416", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d4d9cb8beb1ce8a5b36af823ac8c80115220a1eecad1ff4643488c7e40b5d48f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The rise in obesity and the r esul ting diseases lik e type 2 diabet es mak es unders tanding the r ole o f diet\nand nutrition in maintaining g ood heal th al l the mor e impor tant.\nThe Human Diges tive System\nThe pr ocess of dig estion begins in the mouth with the intak e of food ( Figure 16.4 ). The t eeth pla y an impor tant r ole\nin mas ticating (che wing ) or ph ysical ly breaking f ood int o smal ler par ticles . The enzymes pr esent in saliv a also begin\nto chemical ly break do wn f ood. The f ood is then s wallowed and ent ers the esophag us\u2014a long tube that c onnects\nthe mouth t o the s tomach. Using peris talsis , or w ave-like smooth-muscle c ontr actions , the muscles o f the\nesophag us push the f ood t oward the s tomach. The s tomach c ontents ar e extremel y acidic, with a pH betw een 1.5\nand 2.5. This acidity kil ls micr oorganisms , breaks do wn f ood tis sues , and activ ates dig estive enzymes . Further\nbreakdown o f food tak es plac e in the smal l intestine wher e bile pr oduc ed b y the liv er, and enzymes pr oduc ed b y the\nsmal l intestine and the pancr eas, continue the pr ocess of dig estion. The smal ler molecules ar e absorbed int o the\nblood s tream thr ough the epithelial c ells lining the w alls of the smal l intestine. The w aste mat erial tr avels on t o the\nlarge int estine wher e water is absorbed and the drier w aste mat erial is c ompact ed int o feces; it is s tored until it is\nexcreted thr ough the anus .\n402 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2987, "end_char_idx": 4518, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7e5d1084-1998-41ba-a40e-75d8feb00c22": {"__data__": {"id_": "7e5d1084-1998-41ba-a40e-75d8feb00c22", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "417", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "12e83349-132c-412c-90e6-723757bb403d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "417", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1d489f0acdd6f2ae3bd1ee599bbd639925a17036916397c1340661d5e6900558", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 16.4 The c omponents o f the human dig estive system ar e sho wn.\nOral Cavity\nBoth ph ysical and chemical dig estion begin in the mouth or oral ca vity, which is the point o f entr y of food int o the\ndigestive system. The f ood is br oken int o smal ler par ticles b y mas tication, the che wing action o f the t eeth. Al l\nmammals ha ve teeth and can che w their f ood t o begin the pr ocess of physical ly breaking it do wn int o smal ler\nparticles .\nThe chemical pr ocess of dig estion begins during che wing as f ood mix es with saliv a, produc ed b y the saliv ary glands\n(Figure 16.5 ). Saliv a contains mucus that mois tens f ood and buff ers the pH o f the f ood. Saliv a also c ontains\nlysozyme , which has antibact erial action. It also c ontains an enzyme cal led saliv aryamylase that begins the pr ocess\nof converting s tarches in the f ood int o a disac charide cal led mal tose. Another enzyme cal led lipase is pr oduc ed b y\ncells in the t ongue to break do wn fats . The che wing and w etting action pr ovided b y the t eeth and saliv a prepar e the\nfood int o a mas s cal led the bolus for swallowing . The t ongue helps in s wallowing\u2014mo ving the bolus fr om the mouth\ninto the phar ynx. The phar ynx opens t o tw o pas sageways: the esophag us and the tr achea . The esophag us leads t o\nthe s tomach and the tr achea leads t o the lungs . The epiglot tis is a flap o f tissue that c overs the tr acheal opening\nduring s wallowing t o prevent f ood fr om ent ering the lungs .16.2 \u2022 Diges tive System 403", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1533, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "86608f0f-c8c7-41c3-abff-07122d00d976": {"__data__": {"id_": "86608f0f-c8c7-41c3-abff-07122d00d976", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "418", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fd343be7-a025-4599-8360-85b3ea03faa9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "418", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "41b029e11984b19c361ffd083db80a8d973b1a81ddff07d6fc6e907f6e0eb7cf", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "dd15cb69-59dc-4827-a3c1-501dd4777c4f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "292c6d641f28734822c42e71ba23543f4ced97cf7d239d6373d8c5730e7202ed", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 16.5 (a) Dig estion o f food begins in the mouth. (b) F ood is mas ticat ed b y teeth and mois tened b y saliv a secr eted fr om the saliv ary\nglands . Enzymes in the saliv a begin t o dig est starches and fats . With the help o f the t ongue, the r esul ting bolus is mo ved int o the esophag us\nby swallowing . (credit: modification o f work b y Mariana Ruiz Vil lareal)\nEsophagus\nThe esophag us is a tubular or gan that c onnects the mouth t o the s tomach. The che wed and so ftened f ood pas ses\nthrough the esophag us aft er being s wallowed. The smooth muscles o f the esophag us under go peris talsis that\npushes the f ood t oward the s tomach. The peris taltic w ave is unidir ectional \u2014it mo ves food fr om the mouth the\nstomach, and r everse mo vement is not pos sible , except in the case o f the v omit r eflex. The peris taltic mo vement o f\nthe esophag us is an in voluntar y reflex; it tak es plac e in r esponse t o the act o f swallowing .\nRing-lik e muscles cal led sphinct ers f orm v alves in the dig estive system. The g astro-esophag eal sphinct er (or car diac\nsphinct er) is locat ed at the s tomach end o f the esophag us. In r esponse t o swallowing and the pr essure exerted b y\nthe bolus o f food, this sphinct er opens , and the bolus ent ers the s tomach. When ther e is no s wallowing action, this\nsphinct er is shut and pr events the c ontents o f the s tomach fr om tr aveling up the esophag us. Acid r eflux or\n\u201chear tburn \u201d occurs when the acidic dig estive juic es escape int o the esophag us.\nStomach\nA lar ge par t of protein dig estion oc curs in the s tomach ( Figure 16.7 ). The stomach is a saclik e organ that secr etes\ngastric dig estive juic es.\nProtein dig estion is carried out b y an enzyme cal ledpepsin in the s tomach chamber . The highl y acidic en vironment\nkills man y micr oorganisms in the f ood and, c ombined with the action o f the enzyme pepsin, r esul ts in the\ncatabolism o f protein in the f ood. Chemical dig estion is facilitat ed b y the churning action o f the s tomach caused b y\ncontr action and r elaxation o f smooth muscles . The par tially dig ested food and g astric juic e mixtur e is cal ledchyme .\nGastric emp tying oc curs within tw o to six hours aft er a meal . Onl y a smal l amount o f chyme is r eleased int o the\nsmal l intestine at a time . The mo vement o f chyme fr om the s tomach int o the smal l intestine is r egulated b y\nhormones , stomach dis tension and muscular r eflexes that influenc e the p yloric sphinct er.\nThe s tomach lining is unaff ected b y pepsin and the acidity because pepsin is r eleased in an inactiv e form and the\nstomach has a thick mucus lining that pr otects the underl ying tis sue.\nSmall Int estine\nChyme mo ves fr om the s tomach t o the smal l intestine. The smal l int estine is the or gan wher e the dig estion o f\nprotein, fats , and carboh ydrates is c omplet ed. The smal l intestine is a long tube -like organ with a highl y folded\nsurface containing fing er-like projections cal led the vil li. The t op sur face of each vil lus has man y micr oscopic\nprojections cal led micr ovilli.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3120, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "dd15cb69-59dc-4827-a3c1-501dd4777c4f": {"__data__": {"id_": "dd15cb69-59dc-4827-a3c1-501dd4777c4f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "418", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fd343be7-a025-4599-8360-85b3ea03faa9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "418", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "41b029e11984b19c361ffd083db80a8d973b1a81ddff07d6fc6e907f6e0eb7cf", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "86608f0f-c8c7-41c3-abff-07122d00d976", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "418", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "68ac38f87e7793fe1431b13f524cdbec671924422c406d150a6ddf064ff38d1a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The s tomach lining is unaff ected b y pepsin and the acidity because pepsin is r eleased in an inactiv e form and the\nstomach has a thick mucus lining that pr otects the underl ying tis sue.\nSmall Int estine\nChyme mo ves fr om the s tomach t o the smal l intestine. The smal l int estine is the or gan wher e the dig estion o f\nprotein, fats , and carboh ydrates is c omplet ed. The smal l intestine is a long tube -like organ with a highl y folded\nsurface containing fing er-like projections cal led the vil li. The t op sur face of each vil lus has man y micr oscopic\nprojections cal led micr ovilli. The epithelial c ells of these s tructur es absorb nutrients fr om the dig ested food and\nrelease them t o the bloods tream on the other side . The vil li and micr ovilli, with their man y folds , incr ease the\nsurface area o f the smal l intestine and incr ease absorp tion efficiency o f the nutrients .\nThe human smal l intestine is o ver 6 m (19.6 ft) long and is divided int o thr ee par ts: the duodenum, the jejunum and404 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2517, "end_char_idx": 3609, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "86ce423e-7832-4b2e-888a-d4cb9114eec3": {"__data__": {"id_": "86ce423e-7832-4b2e-888a-d4cb9114eec3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "419", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e64db4de-dd6a-414e-b923-ece6ad8a655a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "419", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fe168843fc99ae99102b0f8b88e4f07a7228902b196ab2b80ecd198c55d3bb53", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "0163e464-f3ff-49d9-9545-c256bbb1c281", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "a1f48c753d304dff82ad4508c25f408fd79706981d44d5ffc478cba8b774bf30", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "the ileum. The duodenum is separ ated fr om the s tomach b y the p yloric sphinct er. The ch yme is mix ed with\npancr eatic juic es, an alk aline solution rich in bicarbonat e that neutr alizes the acidity o f chyme fr om the s tomach.\nPancr eatic juic es contain se veral dig estive enzymes that br eak do wn s tarches , disac charides , proteins , and fats .\nBile is pr oduc ed in the liv er and s tored and c oncentr ated in the g allbladder; it ent ers the duodenum thr ough the bile\nduct. Bile c ontains bile sal ts, which mak e lipids ac cessible t o the w ater-soluble enzymes . The monosac charides ,\namino acids , bile sal ts, vitamins , and other nutrients ar e absorbed b y the c ells of the int estinal lining .\nThe undig ested food is sent t o the c olon fr om the ileum via peris taltic mo vements . The ileum ends and the lar ge\nintestine begins at the ileoc ecal v alve. The v ermif orm, \u201c worm-lik e,\u201d appendix is locat ed at the ileoc ecal v alve. The\nappendix o f humans has a minor r ole in immunity .\nLarge Int estine\nThe large int estine reabsorbs the w ater fr om indig estible f ood mat erial and pr ocesses the w aste mat erial ( Figure\n16.6 ). The human lar ge int estine is much smal ler in length c ompar ed to the smal l intestine but lar ger in diamet er. It\nhas thr ee par ts: the c ecum, the c olon, and the r ectum. The c ecum joins the ileum t o the c olon and is the r eceiving\npouch f or the w aste mat ter. The c olon is home t o man y bact eria or \u201cint estinal flor a\u201d that aid in the dig estive\nprocesses. The colon has f our r egions , the asc ending c olon, the tr ansverse c olon, the desc ending c olon and the\nsigmoid c olon. The main functions o f the c olon ar e to extract the w ater and miner al sal ts from undig ested food, and\nto store waste mat erial .\nFIGURE 16.6 The lar ge int estine r eabsorbs w ater fr om undig ested food and s tores w aste until it is eliminat ed. (cr edit: modification o f work\nby Mariana Ruiz Vil lareal)\nThe rectum (Figure 16.6 ) stores feces until def ecation. The f eces ar e propel led using peris taltic mo vements during\nelimination. The anus is an opening at the far -end o f the dig estive tract and is the e xit point f or the w aste mat erial .\nTwo sphinct ers r egulate the e xit o f feces, the inner sphinct er is in voluntar y and the out er sphinct er is v oluntar y.\nAccessor y Organs\nThe or gans discus sed abo ve are the or gans o f the dig estive tract thr ough which f ood pas ses. Accessory organs add\nsecr etions and enzymes that br eak do wn f ood int o nutrients . Accessory organs include the saliv ary glands , the liv er,\nthe pancr eas, and the g all bladder . The secr etions o f the liv er, pancr eas, and g allbladder ar e regulated b y hormones\nin response t o food c onsump tion.\nThe liveris the lar gest internal or gan in humans and it pla ys an impor tant r ole in dig estion o f fats and det oxifying\nblood. The liv er pr oduc es bile , a dig estive juic e that is r equir ed for the br eakdown o f fats in the duodenum. The liv er\nalso pr ocesses the absorbed vitamins and fat ty acids and s ynthesiz es man y plasma pr oteins .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3143, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0163e464-f3ff-49d9-9545-c256bbb1c281": {"__data__": {"id_": "0163e464-f3ff-49d9-9545-c256bbb1c281", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "419", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e64db4de-dd6a-414e-b923-ece6ad8a655a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "419", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fe168843fc99ae99102b0f8b88e4f07a7228902b196ab2b80ecd198c55d3bb53", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "86ce423e-7832-4b2e-888a-d4cb9114eec3", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "419", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "30b5614bea5a8101c0a921dd5e4153d6d891facbd58dca49197e31ec9a11e77a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Accessory organs add\nsecr etions and enzymes that br eak do wn f ood int o nutrients . Accessory organs include the saliv ary glands , the liv er,\nthe pancr eas, and the g all bladder . The secr etions o f the liv er, pancr eas, and g allbladder ar e regulated b y hormones\nin response t o food c onsump tion.\nThe liveris the lar gest internal or gan in humans and it pla ys an impor tant r ole in dig estion o f fats and det oxifying\nblood. The liv er pr oduc es bile , a dig estive juic e that is r equir ed for the br eakdown o f fats in the duodenum. The liv er\nalso pr ocesses the absorbed vitamins and fat ty acids and s ynthesiz es man y plasma pr oteins . The gallbladder is a\nsmal l organ that aids the liv er by storing bile and c oncentr ating bile sal ts.\nThe pancr eas secr etes bicarbonat e that neutr alizes the acidic ch yme and a v ariety o f enzymes f or the dig estion o f\nprotein and carboh ydrates.16.2 \u2022 Diges tive System 405", "start_char_idx": 2480, "end_char_idx": 3427, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1c6ea3cc-d0b6-4436-9233-cb9f227e74c8": {"__data__": {"id_": "1c6ea3cc-d0b6-4436-9233-cb9f227e74c8", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "420", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "62e6b08a-0852-40b0-b890-4b5ae01a2272", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "420", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f6d059cb7ff2298ade7b8e54b5daa24828ec7496dfcd2b9831caed3dc6933b3a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 16.7 The s tomach has an e xtremel y acidic en vironment wher e mos t of the pr otein g ets dig ested. (cr edit: modification o f work b y\nMariana Ruiz Vil lareal)\nWhich o f the f ollowing s tatements about the dig estive system is false?\na.Chyme is a mixtur e of food and dig estive juic es that is pr oduc ed in the s tomach.\nb.Food ent ers the lar ge int estine bef ore the smal l intestine.\nc.In the smal l intestine, chyme mix es with bile , which emulsifies fats .\nd.The s tomach is separ ated fr om the smal l intestine b y the p yloric sphinct er.\nNutrition\nThe human diet should be w ell balanc ed to provide nutrients r equir ed for bodil y function and the miner als and\nvitamins r equir ed for maintaining s tructur e and r egulation nec essary for good heal th and r eproductiv e capability\n(Figure 16.8 ).\n406 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 910, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3a6e75e2-e3b6-4729-80a3-3c32500665ac": {"__data__": {"id_": "3a6e75e2-e3b6-4729-80a3-3c32500665ac", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "421", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8c625d80-6384-4cd4-b921-2054bbed3471", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "421", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ebf9d2ba84edc55ff3dd83029f9a1d1521f8fdf428880aa567a63f024cf68897", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 16.8 For humans , a balanc ed diet includes fruits , vegetables , grains , protein, and dair y. (credit: USD A)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nExplor e this interactiv e Unit ed Stat es Depar tment o f Agricul ture websit e(http://opens tax.org/l/food_ groups2) to\nlearn mor e about each f ood gr oup and the r ecommended dail y amounts .\nThe or ganic molecules r equir ed for building c ellular mat erial and tis sues mus t come fr om f ood. During dig estion,\ndigestible carboh ydrates ar e ultimat ely broken do wn int o gluc ose and used t o provide ener gy within the c ells of the\nbody . Comple x carboh ydrates, including pol ysaccharides , can be br oken do wn int o gluc ose thr ough biochemical\nmodification; ho wever, humans do not pr oduc e the enzyme nec essary to dig est cellulose (fiber). The int estinal flor a\nin the human g ut ar e able t o extract some nutrition fr om these plant fibers . These plant fibers ar e kno wn as dietar y\nfiber and ar e an impor tant c omponent o f the diet. The e xcess sug ars in the body ar e converted int o glycogen and\nstored for lat er use in the liv er and muscle tis sue. Glycogen s tores ar e used t o fuel pr olong ed e xertions , such as\nlong-dis tanc e running , and t o provide ener gy during f ood shor tage. Fats ar e stored under the skin o f mammals f or\ninsulation and ener gy reser ves.\nProteins in f ood ar e broken do wn during dig estion and the r esul ting amino acids ar e absorbed. Al l of the pr oteins in\nthe body mus t be f ormed fr om these amino -acid c onstituents; no pr oteins ar e ob tained dir ectly from f ood.\nFats add fla vor to food and pr omot e a sense o f satiety or ful lnes s. Fatty foods ar e also significant sour ces o f ener gy,\nand fat ty acids ar e requir ed for the c onstruction o f lipid membr anes . Fats ar e also r equir ed in the diet t o aid the\nabsorp tion o f fat-soluble vitamins and the pr oduction o f fat-soluble hormones .\nWhile the animal body can s ynthesiz e man y of the molecules r equir ed for function fr om pr ecursors , ther e are some\nnutrients that mus t be ob tained fr om f ood. These nutrients ar e termed essential nutrients , meaning the y mus t be\neaten, because the body cannot pr oduc e them.\nThe fat ty acids omeg a-3 alpha -linolenic acid and omeg a-6 linoleic acid ar e es sential fat ty acids needed t o mak e\nsome membr ane phospholipids .Vitamins are another clas s of essential or ganic molecules that ar e requir ed in\nsmal l quantities . Man y of these as sist enzymes in their function and, f or this r eason, ar e cal led c oenzymes . Absenc e\nor lo w le vels o f vitamins can ha ve a dr amatic eff ect on heal th.Miner alsare another set o f inor ganic es sential\nnutrients that mus t be ob tained fr om f ood. Miner als per form man y functions , from muscle and ner ve function, t o\nacting as enzyme c ofactors. Cer tain amino acids also mus t be pr ocur ed fr om f ood and cannot be s ynthesiz ed b y the\nbody . These amino acids ar e the \u201c essential \u201d amino acids . The human body can s ynthesiz e onl y 11 o f the 20 r equir ed\namino acids; the r est mus t be ob tained fr om f ood.\n16.2 \u2022 Diges tive System 407", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3156, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7f0c9247-0c96-4ee0-be92-b982c2d4cb6b": {"__data__": {"id_": "7f0c9247-0c96-4ee0-be92-b982c2d4cb6b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "422", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f5d1e132-c294-4f58-bf41-104d2149d599", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "422", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "05102b28c6cf07d32f095f9259b65bfabb591e091bdb279e60832b51c4f45d68", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "96f45ff2-547e-430c-ad6b-337d58aa5d65", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "41e082a69adc46706b1cc67f626c0714b76ccfc5fb0b420cdbe84e87e6d96051", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "16.3 Circulat ory and R espir atory Systems\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the pas sage of air fr om the outside en vironment t o the lungs\n\u2022Describe the function o f the cir culat ory system\n\u2022Describe the car diac cy cle\n\u2022Explain ho w blood flo ws thr ough the body\nAnimals ar e comple x mul ticellular or ganisms that r equir e a mechanism f or tr anspor ting nutrients thr oughout their\nbodies and r emo ving w astes. The human cir culat ory system has a c omple x netw ork o f blood v essels that r each al l\nparts of the body . This e xtensiv e netw ork supplies the c ells, tissues , and or gans with o xygen and nutrients , and\nremo ves carbon dio xide and w aste compounds .\nThe medium f or tr anspor t of gases and other molecules is the blood, which c ontinual ly cir culat es thr ough the\nsystem. P ressure diff erences within the s ystem cause the mo vement o f the blood and ar e created b y the pumping o f\nthe hear t.\nGas e xchang e betw een tis sues and the blood is an es sential function o f the cir culat ory system. In humans , other\nmammals , and bir ds, blood absorbs o xygen and r eleases carbon dio xide in the lungs . Thus the cir culat ory and\nrespir atory system, whose function is t o ob tain o xygen and dischar ge carbon dio xide , work in tandem.\nThe R espir atory System\nTake a br eath in and hold it. W ait se veral sec onds and then let it out. Humans , when the y are not e xerting\nthemsel ves, breathe appr oximat ely 15 times per minut e on a verage. This equat es to about 900 br eaths an hour or\n21,600 br eaths per da y. With e very inhalation, air fil ls the lungs , and with e very exhalation, it rushes back out. That\nair is doing mor e than jus t inflating and deflating the lungs in the ches t cavity. The air c ontains o xygen that cr osses\nthe lung tis sue, ent ers the bloods tream, and tr avels t o organs and tis sues . Ther e, oxygen is e xchang ed for carbon\ndioxide , which is a c ellular w aste mat erial . Carbon dio xide e xits the c ells, ent ers the bloods tream, tr avels back t o the\nlungs , and is e xpired out o f the body during e xhalation.EVERYDAY CONNE CTION\nObesity\nWith obesity at high r ates in the Unit ed Stat es, ther e is a public heal th focus on r educing obesity and as sociat ed\nheal th risk s, which include diabet es, colon and br east canc er, and car diovascular disease . Ho w does the f ood\nconsumed c ontribut e to obesity?\nFatty foods ar e calorie -dense , meaning that the y ha ve mor e calories per unit mas s than carboh ydrates or\nproteins . One gr am o f carboh ydrates has f our calories , one gr am o f protein has f our calories , and one gr am o f fat\nhas nine calories . Animals t end t o seek lipid-rich f ood f or their higher ener gy content. Gr eater amounts o f food\nener gy tak en in than the body \u2019s requir ements wil l resul t in s torage of the e xcess in fat deposits .\nExcess carboh ydrate is used b y the liv er to synthesiz e glycogen. When gl ycogen s tores ar e ful l, additional\ngluc ose is c onverted int o fat ty acids . These fat ty acids ar e stored in adipose tis sue c ells\u2014the fat c ells in the\nmammalian body whose primar y role is t o store fat f or lat er use .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3236, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "96f45ff2-547e-430c-ad6b-337d58aa5d65": {"__data__": {"id_": "96f45ff2-547e-430c-ad6b-337d58aa5d65", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "422", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f5d1e132-c294-4f58-bf41-104d2149d599", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "422", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "05102b28c6cf07d32f095f9259b65bfabb591e091bdb279e60832b51c4f45d68", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "7f0c9247-0c96-4ee0-be92-b982c2d4cb6b", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "422", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "094670369e9b4e224b80ae9a7f3de3ba025a3d37620d84e1f459de71685e5462", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "One gr am o f carboh ydrates has f our calories , one gr am o f protein has f our calories , and one gr am o f fat\nhas nine calories . Animals t end t o seek lipid-rich f ood f or their higher ener gy content. Gr eater amounts o f food\nener gy tak en in than the body \u2019s requir ements wil l resul t in s torage of the e xcess in fat deposits .\nExcess carboh ydrate is used b y the liv er to synthesiz e glycogen. When gl ycogen s tores ar e ful l, additional\ngluc ose is c onverted int o fat ty acids . These fat ty acids ar e stored in adipose tis sue c ells\u2014the fat c ells in the\nmammalian body whose primar y role is t o store fat f or lat er use .\nThe r ate of obesity among childr en is r apidl y rising in the Unit ed Stat es. To combat childhood obesity and ensur e\nthat childr en g et a heal thy start in lif e, in 2010 Firs t Lady Michel le Obama launched the L et\u2019s Mo ve! campaign.\nThe g oal o f this campaign is t o educat e par ents and car egiv ers on pr oviding heal thy nutrition and enc ouraging\nactiv e lifestyles in futur e gener ations . This pr ogram aims t o involve the entir e community , including par ents ,\nteachers , and heal thcar e providers t o ensur e that childr en ha ve ac cess to heal thy foods \u2014mor e fruits ,\nvegetables , and whole gr ains \u2014and c onsume f ewer calories fr om pr ocessed f oods . Another g oal is t o ensur e that\nchildr en g et ph ysical activity . With the incr ease in t elevision vie wing and s tationar y pursuits such as video\ngames , sedentar y lifestyles ha ve bec ome the norm. Visit ht tps:/ /letsmo ve.obama whit ehouse .archiv es.gov/ to\nlearn mor e.408 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2585, "end_char_idx": 4263, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d24f6dad-edc7-439d-9533-6fd25899e0d5": {"__data__": {"id_": "d24f6dad-edc7-439d-9533-6fd25899e0d5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "423", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "883e0e0a-8e3c-4ded-87ae-3e34eb2a8570", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "423", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e4dfa4d4e1d13a29928c9c3651d33f7dfae71df056e3b09e01f22d2546cf8975", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "f5ade30a-ede8-4762-9e14-572efb1527f5", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "89ebf24eb15e0221ab3a3f53c8363e3addf42f03e20293b6c90fc8da785a0d23", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Breathing is both a v oluntar y and an in voluntar y event. Ho w often a br eath is tak en and ho w much air is inhaled or\nexhaled is r egulated b y the r espir atory center in the br ain in r esponse t o signals it r eceives about the carbon dio xide\ncontent o f the blood. Ho wever, it is pos sible t o override this aut omatic r egulation f or activities such as speaking ,\nsinging and s wimming under w ater.\nDuring inhalation the diaphr agm desc ends cr eating a neg ative pressure around the lungs and the y begin t o inflat e,\ndrawing in air fr om outside the body . The air ent ers the body thr ough the nasal ca vity locat ed jus t inside the nose\n(Figure 16.9 ). As the air pas ses thr ough the nasal ca vity, the air is w armed t o body t emper atur e and humidified b y\nmois ture from muc ous membr anes . These pr ocesses help equilibr ate the air t o the body c onditions , reducing an y\ndamag e that c old, dr y air can cause . Particulat e mat ter that is floating in the air is r emo ved in the nasal pas sages b y\nhairs , mucus , and cilia . Air is also chemical ly sampled b y the sense o f smel l.\nFrom the nasal ca vity, air pas ses thr ough the phar ynx (throat) and the larynx (voice bo x) as it mak es its w ay to the\ntrachea (Figure 16.9 ). The main function o f the tr achea is t o funnel the inhaled air t o the lungs and the e xhaled air\nback out o f the body . The human tr achea is a cylinder , about 25 t o 30 cm (9.8\u201311.8 in) long , which sits in fr ont o f the\nesophag us and e xtends fr om the phar ynx int o the ches t cavity t o the lungs . It is made o f inc omplet e rings o f\ncartilag e and smooth muscle . The car tilag e provides s trength and suppor t to the tr achea t o keep the pas sage open.\nThe tr achea is lined with c ells that ha ve cilia and secr ete mucus . The mucus cat ches par ticles that ha ve been\ninhaled, and the cilia mo ve the par ticles t oward the phar ynx.\nThe end o f the tr achea divides int o tw o bronchi that ent er the right and left lung . Air ent ers the lungs thr ough the\nprimar y br onchi . The primar y bronchus divides , creating smal ler and smal ler diamet erbronchi until the pas sages\nare under 1 mm (.03 in) in diamet er when the y are cal ledbronchioles as the y split and spr ead thr ough the lung . Like\nthe tr achea , the br onchus and br onchioles ar e made o f car tilag e and smooth muscle . Bronchi ar e inner vated b y\nnerves o f both the par asympathetic and s ympathetic ner vous s ystems that c ontr ol muscle c ontr action\n(par asympathetic) or r elaxation (s ympathetic) in the br onchi and br onchioles , depending on the ner vous s ystem\u2019s\ncues . The final br onchioles ar e the r espir atory bronchioles . Alveolar ducts ar e attached t o the end o f each\nrespir atory bronchiole . At the end o f each duct ar e alveolar sacs , each c ontaining 20 t o 30 alveoli. Gas e xchang e\noccurs onl y in the al veoli. The al veoli ar e thin-w alled and look lik e tin y bubbles within the sacs . The al veoli ar e in\ndirect c ontact with capil laries o f the cir culat ory system. Such intimat e contact ensur es that o xygen wil l diffuse fr om\nthe al veoli int o the blood.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3166, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f5ade30a-ede8-4762-9e14-572efb1527f5": {"__data__": {"id_": "f5ade30a-ede8-4762-9e14-572efb1527f5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "423", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "883e0e0a-8e3c-4ded-87ae-3e34eb2a8570", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "423", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e4dfa4d4e1d13a29928c9c3651d33f7dfae71df056e3b09e01f22d2546cf8975", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "d24f6dad-edc7-439d-9533-6fd25899e0d5", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "423", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d5d3d0a6e10e5ede4ed22dd40b2f590a3517278a597780ce91b7d8894b3e3957", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The final br onchioles ar e the r espir atory bronchioles . Alveolar ducts ar e attached t o the end o f each\nrespir atory bronchiole . At the end o f each duct ar e alveolar sacs , each c ontaining 20 t o 30 alveoli. Gas e xchang e\noccurs onl y in the al veoli. The al veoli ar e thin-w alled and look lik e tin y bubbles within the sacs . The al veoli ar e in\ndirect c ontact with capil laries o f the cir culat ory system. Such intimat e contact ensur es that o xygen wil l diffuse fr om\nthe al veoli int o the blood. In addition, carbon dio xide wil l diffuse fr om the blood int o the al veoli t o be e xhaled. The\nanat omical arr angement o f capil laries and al veoli emphasiz es the s tructur al and functional r elationship o f the\nrespir atory and cir culat ory systems . Estimat es for the sur face area o f alveoli in the lungs v ary around 100 m2. This\nlarge area is about the ar ea o f half a t ennis c ourt. This lar ge sur face area, combined with the thin-w alled natur e of\nthe al veolar c ells, allows gases t o easil y diffuse acr oss the c ells.16.3 \u2022 Cir culat ory and R espir atory Systems 409", "start_char_idx": 2646, "end_char_idx": 3762, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ffd428a2-ed7c-49df-bc28-86bb2b360237": {"__data__": {"id_": "ffd428a2-ed7c-49df-bc28-86bb2b360237", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "424", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "12cecc8a-604e-439f-a28e-fb71b2ffb5b6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "424", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a1e9433aad5e7c0e2f447b6ce5241c7f8855cc1e01fa0a2078fc3f24739aaecf", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 16.9 Air ent ers the r espir atory system thr ough the nasal ca vity, and then pas ses thr ough the phar ynx and the tr achea int o the\nlungs . (credit: modification o f work b y NCI)\nWhich o f the f ollowing s tatements about the human r espir atory system is false?\na.When w e breathe in, air tr avels fr om the phar ynx t o the tr achea .\nb.The br onchioles br anch int o bronchi.\nc.Alveolar ducts c onnect t o alveolar sacs .\nd.Gas e xchang e betw een the lungs and blood tak es plac e in the al veolus .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch this video (http://opens tax.org/l/lungs _pulmonar2) for a r eview of the r espir atory system.\nThe Cir culat ory System\nThe cir culat ory system is a netw ork o f vessels \u2014the ar teries , veins , and capil laries \u2014and a pump , the hear t. In al l\nvertebrate organisms this is a closed-loop s ystem, in which the blood is lar gely separ ated fr om the body \u2019s other\n410 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 990, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "59f84621-fcc9-4480-afe5-7f54689a820d": {"__data__": {"id_": "59f84621-fcc9-4480-afe5-7f54689a820d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "425", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f5c2b1d1-397f-4a4e-b272-7b6fffe77c0c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "425", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f8bfeb43d774a7e90ada79b0dfa60327cc273f5539520780fce88a58472d4afd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "extracellular fluid c ompar tment, the int erstitial fluid, which is the fluid bathing the c ells. Blood cir culat es inside\nblood v essels and cir culat es unidir ectional ly from the hear t around one o f two cir culat ory routes, then r eturns t o the\nhear t again; this is a closed cir cula tory system.Open cir cula tory systems are found in in vertebrate animals in\nwhich the cir culat ory fluid bathes the int ernal or gans dir ectly even though it ma y be mo ved about with a pumping\nhear t.\nThe Hear t\nThe hear t is a c omple x muscle that c onsis ts of two pumps: one that pumps blood thr ough pulmonar y cir cula tion to\nthe lungs , and the other that pumps blood thr ough systemic cir cula tion to the r est of the body \u2019s tis sues (and the\nhear t itself ).\nThe hear t is as ymmetrical , with the left side being lar ger than the right side , correlating with the diff erent siz es o f\nthe pulmonar y and s ystemic cir cuits ( Figure 16.10 ). In humans , the hear t is about the siz e of a clenched fis t; it is\ndivided int o four chambers: tw o atria and tw o ventricles . Ther e is one atrium and one ventricle on the right side and\none atrium and one v entricle on the left side . The right atrium r eceives deo xygenat ed blood fr om the s ystemic\ncirculation thr ough the major v eins: the superior v ena ca va, which dr ains blood fr om the head and fr om the v eins\nthat c ome fr om the arms , as w ell as the inferior v ena ca va, which dr ains blood fr om the v eins that c ome fr om the\nlower or gans and the legs . This deo xygenat ed blood then pas ses t o the right v entricle thr ough the tricuspid v alve,\nwhich pr events the backflo w of blood. Aft er it is fil led, the right v entricle c ontr acts , pumping the blood t o the lungs\nfor reoxygenation. The left atrium r eceives the o xygen-rich blood fr om the lungs . This blood pas ses thr ough the\nbicuspid v alveto the left v entricle wher e the blood is pumped int o the aorta. The aor ta is the major ar tery of the\nbody , taking o xygenat ed blood t o the or gans and muscles o f the body . This pat tern o f pumping is r eferred to as\ndouble cir culation and is f ound in al l mammals . (Figure 16.10 ).\nVISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 16.10 The hear t is divided int o four chambers , two atria , and tw o ventricles . Each chamber is separ ated b y one -way valves. The\nright side o f the hear t receives deo xygenat ed blood fr om the body and pumps it t o the lungs . The left side o f the hear t pumps blood t o the\nrest of the body .\nWhich o f the f ollowing s tatements about the cir culat ory system is false?\n16.3 \u2022 Cir culat ory and R espir atory Systems 411", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2651, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2d0af3d0-0d45-4b87-8d46-94f641ee976b": {"__data__": {"id_": "2d0af3d0-0d45-4b87-8d46-94f641ee976b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "426", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6c8b273c-f835-4f7a-9edc-f5fac69dbac9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "426", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6c9f537d9c2cc1d7772cad46907e775f044e6ce4c75367ffe7e78f12be8f8554", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "a.Blood in the pulmonar y vein is deo xygenat ed.\nb.Blood in the inf erior v ena ca va is deo xygenat ed.\nc.Blood in the pulmonar y artery is deo xygenat ed.\nd.Blood in the aor ta is o xygenat ed.\nThe C ardiac C ycle\nThe main purpose o f the hear t is t o pump blood thr ough the body; it does so in a r epeating sequenc e cal led the\ncardiac cy cle. The cardiac cy cleis the flo w of blood thr ough the hear t coordinat ed b y electr ochemical signals that\ncause the hear t muscle t o contr act and r elax. In each car diac cy cle, a sequenc e of contr actions pushes out the\nblood, pumping it thr ough the body; this is f ollowed b y a r elaxation phase , wher e the hear t fills with blood. These\ntwo phases ar e cal led the systole(contr action) and dias tole(relaxation), r espectiv ely (Figure 16.11 ). The signal f or\ncontr action begins at a location on the outside o f the right atrium. The electr ochemical signal mo ves fr om ther e\nacross the atria causing them t o contr act. The c ontr action o f the atria f orces blood thr ough the v alves int o the\nventricles . Closing o f these v alves caused b y the c ontr action o f the v entricles pr oduc es a \u201club \u201d sound. The signal\nhas, by this time , pas sed do wn the w alls of the hear t, thr ough a point betw een the right atrium and right v entricle .\nThe signal then causes the v entricles t o contr act. The v entricles c ontr act t ogether f orcing blood int o the aor ta and\nthe pulmonar y arteries . Closing o f the v alves to these ar teries caused b y blood being dr awn back t oward the hear t\nduring v entricular r elaxation pr oduc es a monos yllabic \u201c dub\u201d sound.\nFIGURE 16.11 In each car diac cy cle, a series o f contr actions (s ystoles) and r elaxations (dias toles) pumps blood thr ough the hear t and\nthrough the body . (a) During car diac dias tole, blood flo ws int o the hear t while al l chambers ar e relax ed. (b) Then the v entricles r emain\nrelax ed while atrial s ystole pushes blood int o the v entricles . (c) Onc e the atria r elax ag ain, v entricle s ystole pushes blood out o f the hear t.\nThe pumping o f the hear t is a function o f the car diac muscle c ells, or car diom yocyt es, that mak e up the hear t\nmuscle . Car diom yocyt es ar e dis tinctiv e muscle c ells that ar e striat ed lik e sk eletal muscle but pump rh ythmical ly\nand in voluntaril y like smooth muscle; adjac ent c ells ar e connect ed b y int ercalat ed disk s found onl y in car diac\nmuscle . These c onnections al low the electrical signal t o travel dir ectly to neighboring muscle c ells.\nThe electrical impulses in the hear t produc e electrical curr ents that flo w thr ough the body and can be measur ed on\nthe skin using electr odes . This inf ormation can be obser ved as an electr ocar diogr am (EC G)a recording o f the\nelectrical impulses o f the car diac muscle .412 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2911, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2d1ccf68-a1c1-4374-ab50-a8babdfd5277": {"__data__": {"id_": "2d1ccf68-a1c1-4374-ab50-a8babdfd5277", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "427", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7e7c651b-54e9-47ae-99b9-2523927927f5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "427", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "326323c951c314ad7e50232a71c4719f9ee7156aa7fa0b723c7d9faab8803ace", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "LINK T O LE ARNING\nVisit this sit e(http://opens tax.org/l/electric _hear t2)and select the dr opdo wn \u201c Your Hear t\u2019s Electrical Sy stem\u201d to\nsee the hear t\u2019s pac emak er, or electr ocar diogr am s ystem, in action.\nBlood V essels\nThe blood fr om the hear t is carried thr ough the body b y a c omple x netw ork o f blood v essels ( Figure 16.12 ).Arteries\ntake blood a way from the hear t. The main ar tery of the s ystemic cir culation is the aor ta; it br anches int o major\narteries that tak e blood t o diff erent limbs and or gans. The aor ta and ar teries near the hear t have hea vy but elas tic\nwalls that r espond t o and smooth out the pr essure diff erences caused b y the beating hear t. Ar teries far ther a way\nfrom the hear t have mor e muscle tis sue in their w alls that can c onstrict t o aff ect flo w rates o f blood. The major\narteries div erge int o minor ar teries , and then smal ler v essels cal led ar terioles , to reach mor e deepl y int o the\nmuscles and or gans o f the body .\nArterioles div erge int o capil lary beds . Capil lary beds c ontain a lar ge number , 10\u2019 s to 100\u2019 s ofcapil laries that br anch\namong the c ells of the body . Capil laries ar e narr ow-diamet er tubes that can fit single r ed blood c ells and ar e the\nsites for the e xchang e of nutrients , waste, and o xygen with tis sues at the c ellular le vel. Fluid also leak s from the\nblood int o the int erstitial spac e from the capil laries . The capil laries c onverge ag ain int o venules that c onnect t o\nminor v eins that final ly connect t o major v eins .Veins are blood v essels that bring blood high in carbon dio xide back\nto the hear t. Veins ar e not as thick -walled as ar teries , sinc e pressure is lo wer, and the y ha ve valves along their\nlength that pr event backflo w of blood a way from the hear t. The major v eins dr ain blood fr om the same or gans and\nlimbs that the major ar teries suppl y.\n16.3 \u2022 Cir culat ory and R espir atory Systems 413", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1973, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7656996d-42d8-4f0e-adb8-1ef144901c26": {"__data__": {"id_": "7656996d-42d8-4f0e-adb8-1ef144901c26", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "428", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "81dfcf61-bab0-4c28-b0de-05bf2af18b98", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "428", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cf3c9b12396322111892593d952f55dca57326fedaac7af45d37365bab0ef399", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 16.12 The ar teries o f the body , indicat ed in r ed, s tart at the aor tic ar ch and br anch t o suppl y the or gans and muscles o f the body\nwith o xygenat ed blood. The v eins o f the body , indicat ed in blue , return blood t o the hear t. The pulmonar y arteries ar e blue t o reflect the fact\nthat the y are deo xygenat ed, and the pulmonar y veins ar e red to reflect that the y are oxygenat ed. (cr edit: modification o f work b y Mariana\nRuiz Vil lareal)\n16.4 Endocrine S ystem\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022List the diff erent types o f hormones and e xplain their r oles in maintaining homeos tasis\n\u2022Explain ho w hormones w ork\n\u2022Explain ho w hormone pr oduction is r egulated\n\u2022Describe the r ole o f diff erent glands in the endocrine s ystem\n\u2022Explain ho w the diff erent glands w ork t ogether t o maintain homeos tasis\nThe endocrine s ystem pr oduc es hormones that function t o contr ol and r egulate man y diff erent body pr ocesses. The\nendocrine s ystem c oordinat es with the ner vous s ystem t o contr ol the functions o f the other or gan s ystems . Cel ls of\nthe endocrine s ystem pr oduc e molecular signals cal led hormones . These c ells ma y compose endocrine glands , ma y\nbe tis sues or ma y be locat ed in or gans or tis sues that ha ve functions in addition t o hormone pr oduction. Hormones\ncirculat e thr oughout the body and s timulat e a r esponse in c ells that ha ve receptors able t o bind with them. The\nchang es br ought about in the r eceiving c ells aff ect the functioning o f the or gan s ystem t o which the y belong . Man y\nof the hormones ar e secr eted in r esponse t o signals fr om the ner vous s ystem, thus the tw o systems act in c oncert to\neffect chang es in the body .414 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1838, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "80847927-5e54-4e66-b36b-0defa1ae3782": {"__data__": {"id_": "80847927-5e54-4e66-b36b-0defa1ae3782", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "429", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "01cf9ddc-ed0c-49fe-ba20-48d54cd72db5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "429", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e45b9f443a653cfe1e670e6ea66ba53ebdac58a3a63f188a41fccc6a5e66a568", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "c8448f2e-e921-4bf7-a612-737dc4b474fc", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "cba58ea2271738dc3e896a25dbe49bb059804ab872af84b9b1e47fdda6a310a7", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Hormones\nMaintaining homeos tasis within the body r equir es the c oordination o f man y diff erent s ystems and or gans. One\nmechanism o f communication betw een neighboring c ells, and betw een c ells and tis sues in dis tant par ts of the body ,\noccurs thr ough the r elease o f chemicals cal led hormones .Hormones are released int o body fluids , usual ly blood,\nwhich carries them t o their tar get cells wher e the y elicit a r esponse . The c ells that secr ete hormones ar e often\nlocat ed in specific or gans, cal ledendocrine glands , and the c ells, tissues , and or gans that secr ete hormones mak e\nup the endocrine s ystem. Examples o f endocrine or gans include the pancr eas, which pr oduc es the hormones insulin\nand glucag on to regulate blood-gluc ose le vels, the adr enal glands , which pr oduc e hormones such as epinephrine\nand nor epinephrine that r egulate responses t o stress, and the th yroid gland, which pr oduc es th yroid hormones that\nregulate metabolic r ates.\nThe endocrine glands diff er fr om the e xocrine glands .Exocrine glands secr ete chemicals thr ough ducts that lead\noutside the gland (not t o the blood). F or example , sweat pr oduc ed b y sweat glands is r eleased int o ducts that carr y\nsweat t o the sur face of the skin. The pancr eas has both endocrine and e xocrine functions because besides r eleasing\nhormones int o the blood. It also pr oduc es dig estive juic es, which ar e carried b y ducts int o the smal l intestine.\nCAREER C ONNE CTION\nEndocrinologis t\nAn endocrinologis t is a medical doct or who specializ es in tr eating endocrine disor ders . An endocrine sur geon\nspecializ es in the sur gical tr eatment o f endocrine diseases and glands . Some o f the diseases that ar e manag ed b y\nendocrinologis ts include disor ders o f the pancr eas (diabet es mel litus), disor ders o f the pituitar y (gigantism,\nacromeg aly, and pituitar y dw arfism), disor ders o f the th yroid gland ( goiter and Gr aves\u2019 disease), and disor ders o f the\nadrenal glands (Cushing \u2019s disease and Addison \u2019s disease).\nEndocrinologis ts ar e requir ed to as sess patients and diagnose endocrine disor ders thr ough e xtensiv e use o f\nlabor atory tests. Man y endocrine diseases ar e diagnosed using t ests that s timulat e or suppr ess endocrine or gan\nfunctioning . Blood samples ar e then dr awn t o det ermine the eff ect o f stimulating or suppr essing an endocrine or gan\non the pr oduction o f hormones . For example , to diagnose diabet es mel litus , patients ar e requir ed to fas t for 12 t o 24\nhours . The y are then giv en a sug ary drink, which s timulat es the pancr eas t o produc e insulin t o decr ease blood-\ngluc ose le vels. A blood sample is tak en one t o tw o hours aft er the sug ar drink is c onsumed. If the pancr eas is\nfunctioning pr operl y, the blood-gluc ose le vel wil l be within a normal r ange. Another e xample is the A1C t est, which\ncan be per formed during blood scr eening . The A1C t est measur es a verage blood-gluc ose le vels o ver the pas t two to\nthree months . The A1C t est is an indicat or of how well blood gluc ose is being manag ed o ver a long time .\nOnc e a disease such as diabet es has been diagnosed, endocrinologis ts can pr escribe lif estyle chang es and\nmedications t o treat the disease .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3298, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c8448f2e-e921-4bf7-a612-737dc4b474fc": {"__data__": {"id_": "c8448f2e-e921-4bf7-a612-737dc4b474fc", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "429", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "01cf9ddc-ed0c-49fe-ba20-48d54cd72db5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "429", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e45b9f443a653cfe1e670e6ea66ba53ebdac58a3a63f188a41fccc6a5e66a568", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "80847927-5e54-4e66-b36b-0defa1ae3782", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "429", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d7410a00c0d4f745fc7e7e0ce0120da14b26f4b2a389c87a648a7a5761b32ac5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "A blood sample is tak en one t o tw o hours aft er the sug ar drink is c onsumed. If the pancr eas is\nfunctioning pr operl y, the blood-gluc ose le vel wil l be within a normal r ange. Another e xample is the A1C t est, which\ncan be per formed during blood scr eening . The A1C t est measur es a verage blood-gluc ose le vels o ver the pas t two to\nthree months . The A1C t est is an indicat or of how well blood gluc ose is being manag ed o ver a long time .\nOnc e a disease such as diabet es has been diagnosed, endocrinologis ts can pr escribe lif estyle chang es and\nmedications t o treat the disease . Some cases o f diabet es mel litus can be manag ed b y exercise, weight los s, and a\nheal thy diet; in other cases , medications ma y be r equir ed to enhanc e insulin \u2019s production or eff ect. If the disease\ncannot be c ontr olled b y these means , the endocrinologis t ma y prescribe insulin injections .\nIn addition t o clinical pr actic e, endocrinologis ts ma y also be in volved in primar y resear ch and de velopment\nactivities . For example , ong oing islet tr ansplant r esear ch is in vestigating ho w heal thy pancr eas islet c ells ma y be\ntransplant ed int o diabetic patients . Suc cessful islet tr ansplants ma y allow patients t o stop taking insulin injections .\nHow Hormones W ork\nHormones cause chang es in tar get cells by binding t o specific c ell-sur face or intracellular hormone r eceptors,\nmolecules embedded in the c ell membr ane or floating in the cyt oplasm with a binding sit e that mat ches a binding\nsite on the hormone molecule . In this w ay, even though hormones cir culat e thr oughout the body and c ome int o\ncontact with man y diff erent c ell types , the y onl y aff ect c ells that pos sess the nec essary receptors. Receptors f or a\nspecific hormone ma y be f ound on or in man y diff erent c ells or ma y be limit ed to a smal l number o f specializ ed\ncells. For example , thyroid hormones act on man y diff erent tis sue types , stimulating metabolic activity thr oughout\nthe body . Cel ls can ha ve man y receptors f or the same hormone but o ften also pos sess receptors f or diff erent types\nof hormones . The number o f receptors that r espond t o a hormone det ermines the c ell\u2019s sensitivity t o that hormone ,\n16.4 \u2022 Endocrine S ystem 415", "start_char_idx": 2692, "end_char_idx": 4990, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "462c8642-9bd7-4fda-af6d-bd144c0c9aff": {"__data__": {"id_": "462c8642-9bd7-4fda-af6d-bd144c0c9aff", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "430", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "20ed2544-0153-4867-bedd-3251e907a153", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "430", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4e74fe9ed62493bd53d72980a6f593c98a993db2a70a905e0bb9094768c96312", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "and the r esul ting c ellular r esponse . Additional ly, the number o f receptors a vailable t o respond t o a hormone can\nchang e over time , resul ting in incr eased or decr eased c ell sensitivity . Inup-regulation , the number o f receptors\nincreases in r esponse t o rising hormone le vels, making the c ell mor e sensitiv e to the hormone and al lowing f or mor e\ncellular activity . When the number o f receptors decr eases in r esponse t o rising hormone le vels, cal leddown-\nregulation , cellular activity is r educ ed.\nEndocrine Glands\nThe endocrine glands secr ete hormones int o the surr ounding int erstitial fluid; those hormones then diffuse int o\nblood and ar e carried t o various or gans and tis sues within the body . The endocrine glands include the pituitar y,\nthyroid, par athyroid, adr enal glands , gonads , pineal , and pancr eas.\nThe pituitar y gland , sometimes cal led the h ypoph ysis, is locat ed at the base o f the br ain ( Figure 16.13 a). It is\nattached t o the h ypothalamus . The pos terior lobe s tores and r eleases o xytocin and antidiur etic hormone pr oduc ed\nby the h ypothalamus . The ant erior lobe r esponds t o hormones pr oduc ed b y the h ypothalamus b y producing its o wn\nhormones , mos t of which r egulate other hormone -producing glands .\nFIGURE 16.13 (a) The pituitar y gland sits at the base o f the br ain, jus t abo ve the br ain s tem. (b) The par athyroid glands ar e locat ed on the\nposterior o f the th yroid gland. (c) The adr enal glands ar e on t op o f the kidne ys. d) The pancr eas is f ound betw een the s tomach and the\nsmal l intestine. (credit: modification o f work b y NCI, NIH)\nThe ant erior pituitar y produc es six hormones: gr owth hormone , prolactin, th yroid-s timulating hormone ,\nadrenoc orticotropic hormone , follicle -stimulating hormone , and lut einizing hormone . Growth hormone s timulat es\ncellular activities lik e protein s ynthesis that pr omot e growth. P rolactin s timulat es the pr oduction o f milk b y the416 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2067, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ed98c016-6afa-495e-a109-0297d8a4eba3": {"__data__": {"id_": "ed98c016-6afa-495e-a109-0297d8a4eba3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "431", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a4555408-cba6-4f87-8a89-a765872c03a2", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "431", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3e54e2de27c607a9e884d964577f4be600270442ce21548d32d7c02b0b5ed297", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "e7b51602-5c54-4101-85a8-3fcdab21d7d5", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "f2955cbf6fadb6c48d7d38be389f363e5bc9c1d21438bda7f8df4ca464edb3ac", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "mammar y glands . The other hormones pr oduc ed b y the ant erior pituitar y regulate the pr oduction o f hormones b y\nother endocrine tis sues ( Table 16.1 ). The pos terior pituitar y is significantl y diff erent in s tructur e from the ant erior\npituitar y. It is a par t of the br ain, e xtending do wn fr om the h ypothalamus , and c ontains mos tly ner ve fibers that\nextend fr om the h ypothalamus t o the pos terior pituitar y.\nThe thyroid gland is locat ed in the neck, jus t belo w the lar ynx and in fr ont o f the tr achea ( Figure 16.13 b). It is a\nbutterfly-shaped gland with tw o lobes that ar e connect ed. The th yroid f ollicle c ells synthesiz e the hormone\nthyroxine , which is also kno wn as T 4because it c ontains f our at oms o f iodine , and triiodoth yronine , also kno wn as T 3\nbecause it c ontains thr ee at oms o f iodine . T3and T 4are released b y the th yroid in r esponse t othyroid-s timulating\nhormone pr oduc ed b y the ant erior pituitar y, and both T 3and T 4have the eff ect o f stimulating metabolic activity in\nthe body and incr easing ener gy use . A thir d hormone , calcit onin, is also pr oduc ed b y the th yroid. Calcit onin is\nreleased in r esponse t o rising calcium ion c oncentr ations in the blood and has the eff ect o f reducing those le vels.\nMos t people ha ve fourparathyroid glands ; however, the number can v ary from tw o to six. These glands ar e locat ed\non the pos terior sur face of the th yroid gland ( Figure 16.13 b).\nThe par athyroid glands pr oduc e par athyroid hormone . Parathyroid hormone incr eases blood calcium c oncentr ations\nwhen calcium ion le vels fal l belo w normal .\nThe adrenal glands are locat ed on t op o f each kidne y (Figure 16.13 c). The adr enal glands c onsis t of an out er\nadrenal c ortex and an inner adr enal medul la. These r egions secr ete diff erent hormones .\nThe adr enal c ortex produc es miner aloc orticoids , gluc ocorticoids , and andr ogens. The main miner aloc orticoid is\naldos terone, which r egulates the c oncentr ation o f ions in urine , sweat, and saliv a. Aldos terone r elease fr om the\nadrenal c ortex is s timulat ed b y a decr ease in blood c oncentr ations o f sodium ions , blood v olume , or blood pr essure,\nor by an incr ease in blood potas sium le vels. The gluc ocorticoids maintain pr oper blood-gluc ose le vels betw een\nmeals . The y also c ontr ol a r esponse t o stress by incr easing gluc ose s ynthesis fr om fats and pr oteins and int eract\nwith epinephrine t o cause v asoc onstriction.\nThe t estes and the adr enal c ortex both secr ete andr ogens, and the t estes pr oduc e a lar ger amount that mos tly\ndrives de velopment in a t esticular r eproductiv e system. When andr ogens ar e produc ed, some o f them ar e lat er\nconverted to es trogens. Andr ogens and es trogens r esemble one another in chemical s tructur e and originat e from\nthe same molecule . Minut e amounts o f estrogen oc cur in al l humans thr ough actions in adipose , brain, skin, and\nbone , which c onvert testosterone t o es trogen. The smal l amount o f andr ogens pr oduc ed in the adr enal c ortex ma y\nsupplement hormones r eleased fr om the g onads .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3171, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e7b51602-5c54-4101-85a8-3fcdab21d7d5": {"__data__": {"id_": "e7b51602-5c54-4101-85a8-3fcdab21d7d5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "431", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a4555408-cba6-4f87-8a89-a765872c03a2", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "431", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3e54e2de27c607a9e884d964577f4be600270442ce21548d32d7c02b0b5ed297", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "ed98c016-6afa-495e-a109-0297d8a4eba3", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "431", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ee1a260226950793ee687cfc3a175a3969fc9f5820d117490bc40e64cbf6905e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The t estes and the adr enal c ortex both secr ete andr ogens, and the t estes pr oduc e a lar ger amount that mos tly\ndrives de velopment in a t esticular r eproductiv e system. When andr ogens ar e produc ed, some o f them ar e lat er\nconverted to es trogens. Andr ogens and es trogens r esemble one another in chemical s tructur e and originat e from\nthe same molecule . Minut e amounts o f estrogen oc cur in al l humans thr ough actions in adipose , brain, skin, and\nbone , which c onvert testosterone t o es trogen. The smal l amount o f andr ogens pr oduc ed in the adr enal c ortex ma y\nsupplement hormones r eleased fr om the g onads . The adr enal medul la contains tw o types o f secr etory cells: one\nthat pr oduc es epinephrine (adr enaline) and another that pr oduc es nor epinephrine (nor adrenaline). Epinephrine and\nnorepinephrine cause immediat e, shor t-term chang es in r esponse t o stressors , inducing the so -called fight -or-flight\nresponse . The r esponses include incr eased hear t rate, breathing r ate, car diac muscle c ontr actions , and blood-\ngluc ose le vels. The y also ac celerate the br eakdown o f gluc ose in sk eletal muscles and s tored fats in adipose tis sue,\nand r edirect blood flo w toward sk eletal muscles and a way from skin and visc era. The r elease o f epinephrine and\nnorepinephrine is s timulat ed b y neur al impulses fr om the s ympathetic ner vous s ystem that originat e from the\nhypothalamus .\nThe pancr eas is an elong ated or gan locat ed betw een the s tomach and the pr oximal por tion o f the smal l intestine\n(Figure 16.13 d). It c ontains both e xocrine c ells that e xcrete dig estive enzymes and endocrine c ells that r elease\nhormones .\nThe endocrine c ells of the pancr eas f orm clus ters cal led pancr eatic islets or the islets o f Langerhans . Among the c ell\ntypes in each pancr eatic islet ar e the alpha c ells, which pr oduc e the hormone glucag on, and the beta c ells, which\nproduc e the hormone insulin. These hormones r egulate blood-gluc ose le vels. Alpha c ells release glucag on as blood-\ngluc ose le vels decline . When blood-gluc ose le vels rise , beta c ells release insulin. Glucag on causes the r elease o f\ngluc ose t o the blood fr om the liv er, and insulin facilitat es the up take of gluc ose b y the body \u2019s cells.\nThe g onads \u2014the t estes and o varies \u2014produc e steroid hormones . The t estes pr oduc e andr ogens, testosterone being\nthe mos t prominent, which trig ger the pr oduction o f sperm c ells, growth and de velopment o f the t estes and penis ,\nincreased sk eletal and muscular gr owth, enlar gement o f the lar ynx, and incr eased gr owth and r edis tribution o f body\nhair. The o varies pr oduc e es trogen and pr ogesterone, which, during puber ty, cause the incr eased de velopment o f\nbreast tissue, redis tribution o f fat t owards hips , legs , and br east, the matur ation o f the ut erus and v agina , and16.4 \u2022 Endocrine S ystem 417", "start_char_idx": 2527, "end_char_idx": 5479, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "87f17869-9cf4-49bf-95d0-60289155653b": {"__data__": {"id_": "87f17869-9cf4-49bf-95d0-60289155653b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "432", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f40f23b5-e7d1-4f15-9aca-d8c3681483c6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "432", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0346a396a38860d31600e330fe07e1e355d2ea0e17646268b1018f4972de5def", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "regulate the pr oduction o f eggs. If pr egnancy oc curs , these hormones manag e and pr epar e the body s ystems f or\ncarr ying and bir thing the o ffspring .\nTher e are se veral or gans whose primar y functions ar e non-endocrine but that also pos sess endocrine functions .\nThese include the hear t, kidne ys, intestines , thymus , and adipose tis sue. The hear t has endocrine c ells in the w alls\nof the atria that r elease a hormone in r esponse t o incr eased blood v olume . It causes a r eduction in blood v olume\nand blood pr essure, and r educ es the c oncentr ation o f Na+in the blood.\nThe g astrointestinal tr act pr oduc es se veral hormones that aid in dig estion. The endocrine c ells ar e locat ed in the\nmuc osa o f the GI tr act thr oughout the s tomach and smal l intestine. The y trig ger the r elease o f gastric juic es, which\nhelp t o break do wn and dig est food in the GI tr act.\nThe kidne ys also pos sess endocrine function. T wo of these hormones r egulate ion c oncentr ations and blood v olume\nor pr essure. Erythr opoietin (EPO) is r eleased b y kidne ys in r esponse t o low oxygen le vels. EPO trig gers the f ormation\nof red blood c ells in the bone marr ow. EPO has been used b y athlet es to impr ove per formanc e. But EPO doping has\nits risk s, sinc e it thick ens the blood and incr eases s train on the hear t; it also incr eases the risk o f blood clots and\nther efore hear t attack s and s troke.\nThe thymus is found behind the s ternum. The th ymus pr oduc es hormones r eferred to as th ymosins , which\ncontribut e to the de velopment o f the immune r esponse in infants . Adipose tis sue, or fat tis sue, produc es the\nhormone lep tin in r esponse t o food intak e. Leptin pr oduc es a f eeling o f satiety aft er eating , reducing the ur ge for\nfurther eating .\nEndocrine Glands and Their As sociat ed Hormones\nEndocrine\nGlandAssociat ed\nHormonesEffect\nPituitar y\n(ant erior)growth hormone promot es gr owth o f body tis sues\nprolactin promot es milk pr oduction\nthyroid-s timulating\nhormonestimulat es th yroid hormone r elease\nadrenoc orticotropic\nhormonestimulat es hormone r elease b y adr enal c ortex\nfollicle -stimulating\nhormonestimulat es g amet e production\nluteinizing hormonestimulat es andr ogen pr oduction in t estes; s timulat es o vulation and\nproduction o f estrogen and pr ogesterone in o varies\nPituitar y\n(pos terior)antidiur etic\nhormonestimulat es w ater reabsorp tion b y kidne ys\noxytocin stimulat es ut erine c ontr actions during childbir th\nThyroidthyroxine ,\ntriiodoth yroninestimulat e metabolism\ncalcit onin reduc es blood Ca2+levels\nTABLE 16.1418 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2685, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "baeaf741-b897-4753-bc95-f1e653f15798": {"__data__": {"id_": "baeaf741-b897-4753-bc95-f1e653f15798", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "433", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7ccfe006-b91c-4bae-8f78-48dd97e35e31", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "433", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4fb449e6021f6aa58e2ada17ead531b72147c541189888d3e286b27be7f34649", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Endocrine\nGlandAssociat ed\nHormonesEffect\nParathyroidparathyroid\nhormoneincreases blood Ca2+levels\nAdrenal\n(cortex)aldos terone increases blood Na+levels\ncortisol ,\ncorticosterone,\ncortisoneincrease blood-gluc ose le vels\nAdrenal\n(medul la)epinephrine ,\nnorepinephrinestimulat e fight -or-flight r esponse\nPancr easinsulin reduc es blood-gluc ose le vels\nglucag on increases blood-gluc ose le vels\nTABLE 16.1\nRegulation o f Hormone P roduc tion\nHormone pr oduction and r elease ar e primaril y contr olled b y neg ative feedback, as described in the discus sion on\nhomeos tasis . In this w ay, the c oncentr ation o f hormones in blood is maintained within a narr ow range. For example ,\nthe ant erior pituitar y signals the th yroid t o release th yroid hormones . Incr easing le vels o f these hormones in the\nblood then giv e feedback t o the h ypothalamus and ant erior pituitar y to inhibit fur ther signaling t o the th yroid gland\n(Figure 16.14 ).16.4 \u2022 Endocrine S ystem 419", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 982, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "92b06a8a-b8b4-4bea-9891-79cc5eb22b23": {"__data__": {"id_": "92b06a8a-b8b4-4bea-9891-79cc5eb22b23", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "434", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5e25d89b-8e6d-44d9-83df-30ce346e2992", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "434", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2a18181b7726877d4a32bb91be3d1314b59532d1bc31fe8d00115dcb7a30f6b5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 16.14 The ant erior pituitar y stimulat es the th yroid gland t o release th yroid hormones T 3and T 4. Incr easing le vels o f these\nhormones in the blood r esul t in f eedback t o the h ypothalamus and ant erior pituitar y to inhibit fur ther signaling t o the th yroid gland. (cr edit:\nmodification o f work b y Mik ael H\u00e4g gstr\u00f6m)\nGoit er, a disease caused b y iodine deficiency , resul ts in the inability o f the th yroid gland t o form T 3and T 4. The body\ntypical ly attemp ts to compensat e by producing gr eater amounts o f TSH. Which o f the f ollowing s ymp toms w ould\nyou e xpect g oiter to cause?\na.Hypoth yroidism, r esul ting in w eight g ain, c old sensitivity , and r educ ed mental activity .\nb.Hyper thyroidism, r esul ting in w eight los s, profuse s weating , and incr eased hear t rate.\nc.Hyper thyroidism, r esul ting in w eight g ain, c old sensitivity , and r educ ed mental activity .\nd.Hypoth yroidism, r esul ting in w eight los s, profuse s weating , and incr eased hear t rate.\n16.5 Musculosk eletal S ystem\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Discus s the axial and appendicular par ts of the sk eletal s ystem\n\u2022Explain the r ole o f joints in sk eletal mo vement\n\u2022Explain the r ole o f muscles in loc omotion\nThe muscular and sk eletal s ystems pr ovide suppor t to the body and al low for mo vement. The bones o f the sk eleton\nprotect the body \u2019s int ernal or gans and suppor t the w eight o f the body . The muscles o f the muscular s ystem c ontr act\n420 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1619, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2cdb51e1-9738-4a98-b864-fd23475d2dec": {"__data__": {"id_": "2cdb51e1-9738-4a98-b864-fd23475d2dec", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "435", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "002bb84f-96ed-48fb-b07b-f36dfc0fa6f3", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "435", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ad3aabf66200dcefa067d335771882bb752e62a22afd4797ef3f12a98039e4d7", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "and pul l on the bones , allowing f or mo vements as div erse as s tanding , walking , running , and gr asping it ems .\nInjur y or disease aff ecting the musculosk eletal s ystem can be v ery debilitating . The mos t common musculosk eletal\ndiseases w orldwide ar e caused b y malnutrition, which can neg atively aff ect de velopment and maint enanc e of bones\nand muscles . Other diseases aff ect the joints , such as ar thritis , which can mak e mo vement difficul t and, in adv anced\ncases , complet ely impair mobility .\nProgress in the scienc e of prosthesis design has r esul ted in the de velopment o f artificial joints , with joint\nreplac ement sur gery in the hips and knees being the mos t common. R eplac ement joints f or shoulders , elbo ws, and\nfingers ar e also a vailable .\nSkeletal S ystem\nThe human sk eleton is an endosk eleton that c onsis ts of 206 bones in the adul t. An endosk eleton de velops within\nthe body r ather than outside lik e the e xoskeleton o f insects . The sk eleton has fiv e main functions: pr oviding suppor t\nto the body , storing miner als and lipids , producing blood c ells, protecting int ernal or gans, and al lowing f or\nmovement. The sk eletal s ystem in v ertebrates is divided int o the axial sk eleton (which c onsis ts of the sk ull,\nvertebral column, and rib cag e), and the appendicular sk eleton (which c onsis ts of limb bones , the pect oral or\nshoulder gir dle, and the pel vic gir dle).\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nExplor e the human sk eleton b y vie wing the f ollowing video (http://opens tax.org/l/human_ skeleton)with digital 3D\nsculp turing .\nThe axial sk elet onforms the c entr al axis o f the body and includes the bones o f the sk ull, ossicles o f the middle ear ,\nhyoid bone o f the thr oat, v ertebral column, and the thor acic cag e (rib cag e) (Figure 16.15 ).\n16.5 \u2022 Musculosk eletal S ystem 421", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1864, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "882a50ca-9ed6-4cf7-992a-beeba30365f2": {"__data__": {"id_": "882a50ca-9ed6-4cf7-992a-beeba30365f2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "436", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d3ccfb9d-aa6f-4fde-893e-8ca47b0a1d93", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "436", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1262b82203faa68534fe2291dafff91ca1f35df50bbfb3c00324389b54cca2e1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 16.15 The axial sk eleton, sho wn in blue , consis ts of the bones o f the sk ull, ossicles o f the middle ear , hyoid bone , vertebral\ncolumn, and thor acic cag e. The appendicular sk eleton, sho wn in r ed, c onsis ts of the bones o f the pect oral limbs , pect oral gir dle, pel vic limb ,\nand pel vic gir dle. (credit: modification o f work b y Mariana Ruiz Vil lareal)\nThe bones o f the skullsuppor t the s tructur es o f the fac e and pr otect the br ain. The sk ull consis ts of cranial bones\nand facial bones . The cr anial bones f orm the cr anial ca vity, which encloses the br ain and ser ves as an at tachment\nsite for muscles o f the head and neck. In the adul t the y are tightl y joint ed with c onnectiv e tis sue and adjoining\nbones do not mo ve.\nThe audit ory os sicles of the middle ear tr ansmit sounds fr om the air as vibr ations t o the fluid-fil led c ochlea . The\naudit ory os sicles c onsis t of two mal leus (hammer) bones , two incus (an vil) bones , and tw o stapes (s tirrups), one on\neach side . Facial bones pr ovide ca vities f or the sense or gans (e yes, mouth, and nose), and ser ve as at tachment\npoints f or facial muscles .\nThe hyoid bone lies belo w the mandible in the fr ont o f the neck. It acts as a mo vable base f or the t ongue and is\nconnect ed to muscles o f the ja w, larynx, and t ongue. The mandible f orms a joint with the base o f the sk ull. The422 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1469, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bb9bc65d-e13f-40f2-a344-64b0723106bc": {"__data__": {"id_": "bb9bc65d-e13f-40f2-a344-64b0723106bc", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "437", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "152a04ca-d51c-44a8-82e6-d392eb5e41e5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "437", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7b1ef3eae3fc853a3f61a7dbfbd19b335b8caf833e01f6ff2e3ce34b7ca35f36", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "8e20cea2-e732-45a8-ba63-a3b3ce907787", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "ee8ede109c05b0abc7120421606b87fc6e02b37de6bf06424cfeb5366592012c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "mandible c ontr ols the opening t o the mouth and henc e, the air way and g ut.\nThe vertebral column , or spinal c olumn, surr ounds and pr otects the spinal c ord, suppor ts the head, and acts as an\nattachment point f or ribs and muscles o f the back and neck. It c onsis ts of 26 bones: the 24 v ertebrae, the sacrum,\nand the c occyx. Each v ertebral body has a lar ge hole in the c enter thr ough which the spinal c ord pas ses do wn t o the\nlevel of the firs t lumbar v ertebra. Belo w this le vel, the hole c ontains spinal ner ves which e xit betw een the v ertebrae.\nTher e is a not ch on each side o f the hole thr ough which the spinal ner ves, can e xit fr om the spinal c ord to ser ve\ndifferent r egions o f the body . The v ertebral column is appr oximat ely 70 cm (28 in) in adul ts and is cur ved, which can\nbe seen fr om a side vie w.\nIntervertebral discs c omposed o f fibr ous car tilag e lie betw een adjac ent v ertebrae fr om the sec ond c ervical v ertebra\nto the sacrum. Each disc helps f orm a slightl y mo veable joint and acts as a cushion t o absorb shock s from\nmovements such as w alking and running .\nThe thor acic cag e, also kno wn as the rib cag e consis ts of the ribs , sternum, thor acic v ertebrae, and c ostal\ncartilag es. The thor acic cag e encloses and pr otects the or gans o f the thor acic ca vity including the hear t and lungs . It\nalso pr ovides suppor t for the shoulder gir dles and upper limbs and ser ves as the at tachment point f or the\ndiaphr agm, muscles o f the back, ches t, neck, and shoulders . Chang es in the v olume o f the thor ax enable br eathing .\nThe s ternum, or br eastbone , is a long flat bone locat ed at the ant erior o f the ches t. Lik e the sk ull, it is f ormed fr om\nman y bones in the embr yo, which fuse in the adul t. The ribs ar e 12 pairs o f long cur ved bones that at tach t o the\nthor acic v ertebrae and cur ve toward the fr ont o f the body , forming the ribcag e. Cos tal car tilag es connect the ant erior\nends o f mos t ribs t o the s ternum.\nThe appendicular sk elet onis composed o f the bones o f the upper and lo wer limbs . It also includes the pect oral, or\nshoulder gir dle, which at taches the upper limbs t o the body , and the pel vic gir dle, which at taches the lo wer limbs t o\nthe body ( Figure 16.15 ).\nThe pect oral gir dlebones tr ansfer force gener ated b y muscles acting on the upper limb t o the thor ax. It c onsis ts of\nthe cla vicles (or c ollarbones) in the ant erior , and the scapulae (or shoulder blades) in the pos terior .\nThe upper limb c ontains bones o f the arm (shoulder t o elbo w), the f orearm, and the hand. The humerus is the\nlargest and long est bone o f the upper limb . It f orms a joint with the shoulder and with the f orearm at the elbo w. The\nforearm e xtends fr om the elbo w to the wris t and c onsis ts of two bones . The hand includes the bones o f the wris t,\nthe palm, and the bones o f the fing ers.\nThe pelvic gir dleattaches t o the lo wer limbs o f the axial sk eleton. Sinc e it is r esponsible f or bearing the w eight o f\nthe body and f or loc omotion, the pel vic gir dle is secur ely attached t o the axial sk eleton b y strong lig aments .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3193, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8e20cea2-e732-45a8-ba63-a3b3ce907787": {"__data__": {"id_": "8e20cea2-e732-45a8-ba63-a3b3ce907787", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "437", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "152a04ca-d51c-44a8-82e6-d392eb5e41e5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "437", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7b1ef3eae3fc853a3f61a7dbfbd19b335b8caf833e01f6ff2e3ce34b7ca35f36", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "bb9bc65d-e13f-40f2-a344-64b0723106bc", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "437", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "10de6c403c954f67ab048661927444c4d20b729752c413b4fa09f76245424741", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The upper limb c ontains bones o f the arm (shoulder t o elbo w), the f orearm, and the hand. The humerus is the\nlargest and long est bone o f the upper limb . It f orms a joint with the shoulder and with the f orearm at the elbo w. The\nforearm e xtends fr om the elbo w to the wris t and c onsis ts of two bones . The hand includes the bones o f the wris t,\nthe palm, and the bones o f the fing ers.\nThe pelvic gir dleattaches t o the lo wer limbs o f the axial sk eleton. Sinc e it is r esponsible f or bearing the w eight o f\nthe body and f or loc omotion, the pel vic gir dle is secur ely attached t o the axial sk eleton b y strong lig aments . It also\nhas deep sock ets with r obus t ligaments that secur ely attach t o the f emur . The pel vic gir dle is mainl y composed o f\ntwo lar ge hip bones . The hip bones join t ogether in the ant erior o f the body at a joint cal led the pubic s ymph ysis and\nwith the bones o f the sacrum at the pos terior o f the body .\nThe lo wer limb c onsis ts of the thigh, the leg , and the f oot. The bones o f the lo wer limbs ar e thick er and s tronger than\nthe bones o f the upper limbs t o suppor t the entir e weight o f the body and the f orces fr om loc omotion. The f emur , or\nthighbone , is the long est, hea vies t, and s trongest bone in the body . The f emur and pel vis f orm the hip joint. A t its\nother end, the f emur , along with the shinbone and kneecap , form the knee joint.\nJoints and Sk eletal Mo vement\nThe point at which tw o or mor e bones meet is cal led a joint , or ar ticulation. Joints ar e responsible f or mo vement,\nsuch as the mo vement o f limbs , and s tability , such as the s tability f ound in the bones o f the sk ull.\nTher e are tw o ways to clas sify joints: based on their s tructur e or based on their function. The s tructur al\nclas sification divides joints int o fibr ous, car tilaginous , and s ynovial joints depending on the mat erial c omposing the\njoint and the pr esenc e or absenc e of a ca vity in the joint. The bones o ffibrous joints are held t ogether b y fibr ous\nconnectiv e tis sue. Ther e is no ca vity, or spac e, present betw een the bones , so mos t fibr ous joints do not mo ve at al l,\nor ar e onl y capable o f minor mo vements . The joints betw een the bones in the sk ull and betw een the t eeth and the\nbone o f their sock ets ar e examples o f fibr ous joints ( Figure 16.16 a).\nCartilaginous joints are joints in which the bones ar e connect ed b y car tilag e (Figure 16.16 b). An e xample is f ound16.5 \u2022 Musculosk eletal S ystem 423", "start_char_idx": 2544, "end_char_idx": 5097, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f3baffcb-e1e6-4038-9d23-70744cc9edc1": {"__data__": {"id_": "f3baffcb-e1e6-4038-9d23-70744cc9edc1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "438", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cfbb002c-5dd2-4595-9245-09f77fdbf3f9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "438", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ccec6f82f996b86e473d1c15a4604683d22f3132db91a4dc5a4e302544bb947f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "689e7391-5d7f-498e-8f8b-91637629fc25", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "f866e65065d5aa611dae893e8e5c5f147b66930b8b0e466cf4aea5b350d91187", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "at the joints betw een v ertebrae, the so -called \u201c disk s\u201d of the backbone . Car tilaginous joints al low for very little\nmovement.\nSyno vial joints are the onl y joints that ha ve a spac e betw een the adjoining bones ( Figure 16.16 c). This spac e is\nreferred to as the joint ca vity and is fil led with fluid. The fluid lubricat es the joint, r educing friction betw een the\nbones and al lowing f or gr eater mo vement. The ends o f the bones ar e covered with car tilag e and the entir e joint is\nsurr ounded b y a capsule . Syno vial joints ar e capable o f the gr eatest mo vement o f the joint types . Knees , elbo ws,\nand shoulders ar e examples o f synovial joints .\nFIGURE 16.16 (a) Sutur es ar e fibr ous joints f ound onl y in the sk ull. (b) Car tilaginous joints ar e bones c onnect ed b y car tilag e, such as\nbetw een v ertebrae. (c) Syno vial joints ar e the onl y joints that ha ve a spac e or \u201c synovial ca vity\u201d in the joint.\nThe wide r ange of mo vement al lowed b y synovial joints pr oduc es diff erent types o f mo vements . Ang ular mo vements\nare produc ed when the angle betw een the bones o f a joint chang es. Fle xion, or bending , occurs when the angle\nbetw een the bones decr eases . Mo ving the f orearm up ward at the elbo w is an e xample o f flexion. Ext ension is the\nopposit e of flexion in that the angle betw een the bones o f a joint incr eases . Rotational mo vement is the mo vement\nof a bone as it r otat es ar ound its o wn longitudinal axis . Mo vement o f the head as in sa ying \u201c no\u201d is an e xample o f\nrotation.\nCAREER C ONNE CTION\nRheumat ologis t\nRheumat ologis ts ar e medical doct ors who specializ e in the diagnosis and tr eatment o f disor ders o f the joints ,\nmuscles , and bones . The y diagnose and tr eat diseases such as ar thritis , musculosk eletal disor ders , osteopor osis ,\nplus aut oimmune diseases lik e ankylosing spondylitis , a chr onic spinal inflammat ory disease and rheumat oid\narthritis .\nRheumat oid ar thritis (RA) is an inflammat ory disor der that primaril y aff ects s ynovial joints o f the hands , feet, and\ncervical spine . Aff ected joints bec ome s wollen, s tiff, and painful . Although it is kno wn that RA is an aut oimmune\ndisease in which the body \u2019s immune s ystem mis takenly attack s heal thy tis sue, the e xact cause o f RA r emains\nunkno wn. Immune c ells from the blood ent er joints and the joint capsule causing car tilag e breakdown and s welling\nof the joint lining . Breakdown o f car tilag e causes bones t o rub ag ains t each other causing pain. RA is mor e common\npeople with declining es trogen le vels, in par ticular pos t-menopausal people , and the ag e of onset is usual ly\nbetw een 40 t o 50 y ears . Resear chers ar e still exploring pos sible causes and s tudies that sug gest an X -link ed g enetic\nfactor.\nRheumat ologis ts can diagnose RA based on s ymp toms such as joint inflammation and pain, x -ray and MRI imaging ,\nand blood t ests. Arthrography is a type o f medical imaging o f joints that uses a c ontr ast agent, such as a dy e that is\nopaque t o x-rays. This al lows the so ft tis sue s tructur es o f joints \u2014such as car tilag e, tendons , and lig aments \u2014to be\nvisualiz ed.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3208, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "689e7391-5d7f-498e-8f8b-91637629fc25": {"__data__": {"id_": "689e7391-5d7f-498e-8f8b-91637629fc25", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "438", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cfbb002c-5dd2-4595-9245-09f77fdbf3f9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "438", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ccec6f82f996b86e473d1c15a4604683d22f3132db91a4dc5a4e302544bb947f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "f3baffcb-e1e6-4038-9d23-70744cc9edc1", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "438", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5bcf9887386de473e5b90d2a2eb4d78958be2572606bd049587e085dafa28b7c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "RA is mor e common\npeople with declining es trogen le vels, in par ticular pos t-menopausal people , and the ag e of onset is usual ly\nbetw een 40 t o 50 y ears . Resear chers ar e still exploring pos sible causes and s tudies that sug gest an X -link ed g enetic\nfactor.\nRheumat ologis ts can diagnose RA based on s ymp toms such as joint inflammation and pain, x -ray and MRI imaging ,\nand blood t ests. Arthrography is a type o f medical imaging o f joints that uses a c ontr ast agent, such as a dy e that is\nopaque t o x-rays. This al lows the so ft tis sue s tructur es o f joints \u2014such as car tilag e, tendons , and lig aments \u2014to be\nvisualiz ed. An ar throgram diff ers fr om a r egular x -ray by sho wing the sur face of soft tis sues lining the joint in\naddition t o joint bones . An ar throgram al lows earl y deg ener ative chang es in joint car tilag e to be det ected bef ore\n424 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2555, "end_char_idx": 3507, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fde39eac-619c-4d75-b501-c6527e34d37f": {"__data__": {"id_": "fde39eac-619c-4d75-b501-c6527e34d37f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "439", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0d0f5e40-b374-4155-a3e6-33438a08b99a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "439", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f1b7a8b6d3c0029d44e3e104b43f9b80a3fe5f85cde47a0b78119ed67ea71b2a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "671da64c-40e1-4f3d-bb64-b1f8b37825c4", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "6ff47d302c543a289b172c30240dd7ef6be9571536c97d656d8ca4c28d89a611", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "bones bec ome aff ected.\nTher e is curr ently no cur e for RA; ho wever, rheumat ologis ts ha ve a number o f treatment op tions a vailable .\nTreatments ar e divided int o those that r educ e the s ymp toms o f the disease and those that r educ e the damag e to\nbone and car tilag e caused b y the disease . Earl y stages can be tr eated with r est of the aff ected joints thr ough the use\nof a cane , or with joint splints that minimiz e inflammation. When inflammation has decr eased, e xercise can be used\nto strengthen muscles that surr ound the joint and t o maintain joint fle xibility . If joint damag e is mor e extensiv e,\nmedications can be used t o relieve pain and decr ease inflammation. Anti-inflammat ory drugs that ma y be used\ninclude aspirin, t opical pain r elievers, and c orticosteroid injections . Sur gery ma y be r equir ed in cases wher e joint\ndamag e is se vere. Physicians ar e no w using drugs that r educ e the damag e to bones and car tilag e caused b y the\ndisease t o slo w its de velopment. These drugs ar e div erse in their mechanisms but the y all act t o reduc e the impact\nof the aut oimmune r esponse , for example b y inhibiting the inflammat ory response or r educing the number o f T\nlymphocyt es, a c ell of the immune s ystem.\nMuscles\nMuscles al low for mo vement such as w alking , and the y also facilitat e bodil y processes such as r espir ation and\ndigestion. The body c ontains thr ee types o f muscle tis sue: sk eletal muscle , car diac muscle , and smooth muscle\n(Figure 16.17 ).\nFIGURE 16.17 The body c ontains thr ee types o f muscle tis sue: sk eletal muscle , smooth muscle , and car diac muscle . Notic e that sk eletal\nmuscle c ells ar e long and cylindrical , the y ha ve mul tiple nuclei, and the smal l, dark nuclei ar e pushed t o the peripher y of the c ell. Smooth\nmuscle c ells ar e shor t, taper ed at each end, and ha ve onl y one nucleus each. Car diac muscle c ells ar e also cylindrical , but shor t. The\ncytoplasm ma y branch, and the y ha ve one or tw o nuclei in the c enter of the c ell. (credit: modification o f work b y NCI, NIH; scale -bar data\nfrom Mat t Rus sell)\nSkeletal muscle tis sue forms sk eletal muscles , which at tach t o bones and sometimes the skin and c ontr ol\nlocomotion and an y other mo vement that can be c onsciousl y contr olled. Because it can be c ontr olled int entional ly,\nskeletal muscle is also cal led v oluntar y muscle . When vie wed under a micr oscope, skeletal muscle tis sue has a\nstriped or s triat ed appear ance. This appear ance resul ts from the arr angement o f the pr oteins inside the c ell that ar e\nresponsible f or contr action. The c ells of skeletal muscle ar e long and taper ed and ha ve mul tiple nuclei on the\nperipher y of each c ell.\nSmoo th muscle tis sue occurs in the w alls of hol low or gans such as the int estines , stomach, and urinar y bladder ,\nand ar ound pas sages such as in the r espir atory tract and blood v essels . Smooth muscle has no s triations , is not\nunder v oluntar y contr ol, and is cal led in voluntar y muscle . Smooth muscle c ells ha ve a single nucleus .\nCardiac muscle tis sue is onl y found in the hear t. The c ontr actions o f car diac muscle tis sue pump blood thr oughout\nthe body and maintain blood pr essure.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3283, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "671da64c-40e1-4f3d-bb64-b1f8b37825c4": {"__data__": {"id_": "671da64c-40e1-4f3d-bb64-b1f8b37825c4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "439", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0d0f5e40-b374-4155-a3e6-33438a08b99a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "439", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f1b7a8b6d3c0029d44e3e104b43f9b80a3fe5f85cde47a0b78119ed67ea71b2a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "fde39eac-619c-4d75-b501-c6527e34d37f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "439", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1e967ec47c94dae10ee6a74ab0c598dd236900b229d898166064e92c26ab271b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The c ells of skeletal muscle ar e long and taper ed and ha ve mul tiple nuclei on the\nperipher y of each c ell.\nSmoo th muscle tis sue occurs in the w alls of hol low or gans such as the int estines , stomach, and urinar y bladder ,\nand ar ound pas sages such as in the r espir atory tract and blood v essels . Smooth muscle has no s triations , is not\nunder v oluntar y contr ol, and is cal led in voluntar y muscle . Smooth muscle c ells ha ve a single nucleus .\nCardiac muscle tis sue is onl y found in the hear t. The c ontr actions o f car diac muscle tis sue pump blood thr oughout\nthe body and maintain blood pr essure. Like sk eletal muscle , car diac muscle is s triat ed, but unlik e sk eletal muscle ,\ncardiac muscle cannot be c onsciousl y contr olled and is cal led in voluntar y muscle . The c ells of car diac muscle tis sue\nare connect ed to each other thr ough int ercalat ed disk s and usual ly ha ve jus t one nucleus per c ell.\nSkeletal Muscle Fiber S tructure and F unction\nEach sk eletal muscle fiber is a sk eletal muscle c ell. Within each muscle fiber ar emyofibrils , long cylindrical\nstructur es that lie par allel to the muscle fiber . My ofibrils run the entir e length o f the muscle fiber . The y attach t o the\nplasma membr ane, cal led the sarcolemma , at their ends , so that as m yofibrils shor ten, the entir e muscle c ell\ncontr acts ( Figure 16.18 ).16.5 \u2022 Musculosk eletal S ystem 425", "start_char_idx": 2656, "end_char_idx": 4080, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "39d4af26-3e71-412a-985f-f1f88091a4ef": {"__data__": {"id_": "39d4af26-3e71-412a-985f-f1f88091a4ef", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "440", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ab0f210d-9d0c-43d5-a814-0c198dafee9e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "440", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "bb769c1413b06ea89044615e9172bff9cde25b33c59b1f5901e6d8839172ef43", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "eeeba8d0-7cff-4065-a7ac-505e66836095", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "e5d04d79d069e2a761348044a8693c36cd5ff50058ea2db93d911c60e2f24873", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 16.18 A sk eletal muscle fiber is surr ounded b y a plasma membr ane cal led the sar colemma , with a cyt oplasm cal led the\nsarcoplasm. A muscle fiber is c omposed o f man y fibrils pack aged int o orderly units . The or derly arr angement o f the pr oteins in each unit,\nshown as r ed and blue lines , giv es the c ell its s triat ed appear ance.\nThe s triat ed appear ance of skeletal muscle tis sue is a r esul t of repeating bands o f the pr oteins actin and m yosin that\noccur along the length o f myofibrils .\nMyofibrils ar e composed o f smal ler s tructur es cal ledmyofilaments . Ther e are tw o main types o f myofilaments:\nthick filaments and thin filaments . Thick filaments ar e composed o f the pr otein m yosin. The primar y component o f\nthin filaments is the pr otein actin.\nThe thick and thin filaments al ternat e with each other in a s tructur e cal led a sarcomer e. The sar comer e is the unit o f\ncontr action in a muscle c ell. Contr action is s timulat ed b y an electr ochemical signal fr om a ner ve cell associat ed with\nthe muscle fiber . For a muscle c ell to contr act, the sar comer e mus t shor ten. Ho wever, thick and thin filaments do\nnot shor ten. Ins tead, the y slide b y one another , causing the sar comer e to shor ten while the filaments r emain the\nsame length. The sliding is ac complished when a molecular e xtension o f myosin, cal led the m yosin head,\ntempor arily binds t o an actin filament ne xt to it and thr ough a chang e in c onformation, bends , dragging the tw o\nfilaments in opposit e dir ections . The m yosin head then r eleases its actin filament, r elax es, and then r epeats the\nprocess, dragging the tw o filaments fur ther along each other . The c ombined activity o f man y binding sit es and\nrepeat ed mo vements within the sar comer e causes it t o contr act. The c oordinat ed c ontr actions o f man y sar comer es\nin a m yofibril leads t o contr action o f the entir e muscle c ell and ul timat ely the muscle itself . The mo vement o f the\nmyosin head r equir es A TP, which pr ovides the ener gy for the c ontr action.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nView this animation (http://opens tax.org/l/sk eletal _muscl2) to see ho w muscle fibers ar e organiz ed.\n16.6 Nervous S ystem\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the f orm and function o f a neur on\n\u2022Describe the basic par ts and functions o f the c entr al ner vous s ystem\n\u2022Describe the basic par ts and functions o f the peripher al ner vous s ystem\nAs y ou read this , your ner vous s ystem is per forming se veral functions simul taneousl y. The visual s ystem is\nprocessing what is seen on the pag e; the mot or system c ontr ols y our e ye mo vements and the turn o f the pag es (or\nclick o f the mouse); the pr efrontal c ortex maintains at tention. Ev en fundamental functions , like breathing and\nregulation o f body t emper atur e, are contr olled b y the ner vous s ystem. The ner vous s ystem is one o f two systems\nthat e xert contr ol over al l the or gan s ystems o f the body; the other is the endocrine s ystem. The ner vous s ystem\u2019s\ncontr ol is much mor e specific and r apid than the hormonal s ystem. It c ommunicat es signals thr ough c ells and the\ntiny gaps betw een them r ather than thr ough the cir culat ory system as in the endocrine s ystem.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3341, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "eeeba8d0-7cff-4065-a7ac-505e66836095": {"__data__": {"id_": "eeeba8d0-7cff-4065-a7ac-505e66836095", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "440", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ab0f210d-9d0c-43d5-a814-0c198dafee9e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "440", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "bb769c1413b06ea89044615e9172bff9cde25b33c59b1f5901e6d8839172ef43", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "39d4af26-3e71-412a-985f-f1f88091a4ef", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "440", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "58e655d91d3bf6994e4fbba8ae310fa8e52f87e8dfc67b7ecf5b8c42cc20bfc0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Ev en fundamental functions , like breathing and\nregulation o f body t emper atur e, are contr olled b y the ner vous s ystem. The ner vous s ystem is one o f two systems\nthat e xert contr ol over al l the or gan s ystems o f the body; the other is the endocrine s ystem. The ner vous s ystem\u2019s\ncontr ol is much mor e specific and r apid than the hormonal s ystem. It c ommunicat es signals thr ough c ells and the\ntiny gaps betw een them r ather than thr ough the cir culat ory system as in the endocrine s ystem. It uses a\ncombination o f chemical and electr ochemical signals , rather than pur ely chemical signals used b y the endocrine\n426 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2827, "end_char_idx": 3530, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f643d1f3-fc2f-4d73-ac2b-e3ee2fb57c0a": {"__data__": {"id_": "f643d1f3-fc2f-4d73-ac2b-e3ee2fb57c0a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "441", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "822c6558-f350-4b70-bf3f-7211d75334a0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "441", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0cf736a21319f6ce3e6524cc8ae57bfb9e502b02e0571e30f32fb4062f6b905d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "bec99f89-a8cd-41ef-8fde-fb1655a4dbaf", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "0f56d5b946e425496a2afbd2200da097d5b8bae107fc45da6626985f8a6f783b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "system t o cover long dis tanc es quickl y. The ner vous s ystem ac quires inf ormation fr om sensor y organs, processes it\nand then ma y initiat e a r esponse either thr ough mot or function, leading t o mo vement, or in a chang e in the\norganism \u2019s ph ysiological s tate.\nNervous s ystems thr oughout the animal king dom v ary in s tructur e and c omple xity. Some or ganisms , like sea\nspong es, lack a true ner vous s ystem. Others , like jel lyfish, lack a true br ain and ins tead ha ve a s ystem o f separ ate\nbut c onnect ed ner ve cells (neur ons) cal led a \u201c nerve net. \u201d Flatw orms ha ve both a c entr al ner vous s ystem (CNS),\nmade up o f a g anglion (clus ters o f connect ed neur ons) and tw o ner ve cords, and a peripher al ner vous s ystem (PNS)\ncontaining a s ystem o f ner ves that e xtend thr oughout the body . The insect ner vous s ystem is mor e comple x but also\nfairly dec entr alized. It c ontains a br ain, v entr al ner ve cord, and g anglia . These g anglia can c ontr ol mo vements and\nbeha viors without input fr om the br ain.\nCompar ed to invertebrates, vertebrate ner vous s ystems ar e mor e comple x, centr alized, and specializ ed. While ther e\nis gr eat div ersity among diff erent v ertebrate ner vous s ystems , the y all shar e a basic s tructur e: a CNS that c ontains a\nbrain and spinal c ord and a PNS made up o f peripher al sensor y and mot or ner ves. One int eresting diff erence\nbetw een the ner vous s ystems o f invertebrates and v ertebrates is that the ner ve cords o f man y invertebrates ar e\nlocat ed v entr ally (toward the s tomach) wher eas the v ertebrate spinal c ords ar e locat ed dorsal ly (toward the back).\nTher e is debat e among e volutionar y biologis ts as t o whether these diff erent ner vous s ystem plans e volved\nsepar ately or whether the in vertebrate body plan arr angement someho w \u201cflipped\u201d during the e volution o f\nvertebrates.\nThe ner vous s ystem is made up o fneur ons, specializ ed c ells that can r eceive and tr ansmit chemical or electrical\nsignals , and glia, cells that pr ovide suppor t functions f or the neur ons. Ther e is gr eat div ersity in the types o f neur ons\nand glia that ar e present in diff erent par ts of the ner vous s ystem.\nNeur ons and Glial C ells\nThe ner vous s ystem o f the c ommon labor atory fly,Drosophila melanog aster, contains ar ound 100,000 neur ons, the\nsame number as a lobs ter. This number c ompar es to 75 mil lion in the mouse and 300 mil lion in the oct opus . A\nhuman br ain c ontains ar ound 86 bil lion neur ons. Despit e these v ery diff erent numbers , the ner vous s ystems o f\nthese animals c ontr ol man y of the same beha viors \u2014from basic r eflexes to mor e complicat ed beha viors lik e finding\nfood and c ourting mat es. The ability o f neur ons t o communicat e with each other as w ell as with other types o f cells\nunderlies al l of these beha viors .\nMos t neur ons shar e the same c ellular c omponents . But neur ons ar e also highl y specializ ed\u2014 different types o f\nneur ons ha ve diff erent siz es and shapes that r elate to their functional r oles .\nLike other c ells, each neur on has a c ell body (or soma) that c ontains a nucleus , smooth and r ough endoplasmic\nreticulum, Golgi appar atus , mit ochondria , and other c ellular c omponents .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3300, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bec99f89-a8cd-41ef-8fde-fb1655a4dbaf": {"__data__": {"id_": "bec99f89-a8cd-41ef-8fde-fb1655a4dbaf", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "441", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "822c6558-f350-4b70-bf3f-7211d75334a0", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "441", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0cf736a21319f6ce3e6524cc8ae57bfb9e502b02e0571e30f32fb4062f6b905d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "f643d1f3-fc2f-4d73-ac2b-e3ee2fb57c0a", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "441", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "af8f0c74e63a108b6ee47d9c740f83909a790f02d783644f803ffc6adb961e80", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The ability o f neur ons t o communicat e with each other as w ell as with other types o f cells\nunderlies al l of these beha viors .\nMos t neur ons shar e the same c ellular c omponents . But neur ons ar e also highl y specializ ed\u2014 different types o f\nneur ons ha ve diff erent siz es and shapes that r elate to their functional r oles .\nLike other c ells, each neur on has a c ell body (or soma) that c ontains a nucleus , smooth and r ough endoplasmic\nreticulum, Golgi appar atus , mit ochondria , and other c ellular c omponents . Neur ons also c ontain unique s tructur es\nfor receiving and sending the electrical signals that mak e communication betw een neur ons pos sible ( Figure 16.19 ).\nDendrit esare tree-like structur es that e xtend a way from the c ell body t o receive mes sages fr om other neur ons at\nspecializ ed junctions cal ledsynapses . Although some neur ons do not ha ve an y dendrit es, mos t have one or man y\ndendrit es.\nThe bila yer lipid membr ane that surr ounds a neur on is impermeable t o ions . To ent er or e xit the neur on, ions mus t\npass thr ough ion channels that span the membr ane. Some ion channels need t o be activ ated to open and al low ions\nto pas s int o or out o f the c ell. These ion channels ar e sensitiv e to the en vironment and can chang e their shape\naccordingl y. Ion channels that chang e their s tructur e in r esponse t o voltage chang es ar e cal led v oltage-gated ion\nchannels . The diff erence in t otal char ge betw een the inside and outside o f the c ell is cal led the membr ane pot ential .\nA neur on at r est is neg atively char ged: the inside o f a c ell is appr oximat ely 70 mil livolts mor e neg ative than the\noutside (\u201370 m V). This v oltage is cal led the r esting membr ane pot ential; it is caused b y diff erences in the\nconcentr ations o f ions inside and outside the c ell and the selectiv e permeability cr eated b y ion channels . Sodium-\npotas sium pumps in the membr ane pr oduc e the diff erent ion c oncentr ations inside and outside o f the c ell by\nbringing in tw o K+ions and r emo ving thr ee Na+ions . The actions o f this pump ar e costly: one molecule o f ATP is\nused up f or each turn. Up t o 50 per cent o f a neur on\u2019s ATP is used in maintaining its membr ane r esting pot ential .\nPotas sium ions (K+), which ar e higher inside the c ell, mo ve fairl y freely out o f the neur on thr ough potas sium\nchannels; this los s of positiv e char ge produc es a net neg ative char ge inside the c ell. Sodium ions (Na+), which ar e16.6 \u2022 Ner vous S ystem 427", "start_char_idx": 2765, "end_char_idx": 5319, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "846cc1c5-7d66-4617-919e-38dfc2849563": {"__data__": {"id_": "846cc1c5-7d66-4617-919e-38dfc2849563", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "442", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "dd54650f-66f4-45a9-b9e6-37cb14ae4e47", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "442", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ce9a0b76a48c1e9203dd367de6f3b4eff8c28372907b5c1f7b187c98fa7e7a07", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "70cdb75f-a921-484a-940e-cda25c7db9c0", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "95f4b6b3f14acd593eb1ae77c17e449ef291eb69fc624175f169f15517d1983e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "low inside , have a driving f orce to ent er but mo ve les s freely. Their channels ar e voltage dependent and wil l open\nwhen a slight chang e in the membr ane pot ential trig gers them.\nA neur on can r eceive input fr om other neur ons and, if this input is s trong enough, send the signal t o do wns tream\nneur ons. Transmis sion o f a signal betw een neur ons is g ener ally carried b y a chemical , cal led a neur otransmit ter,\nwhich diffuses fr om the ax on o f one neur on to the dendrit e of a sec ond neur on. When neur otransmit ter molecules\nbind t o receptors locat ed on a neur on\u2019s dendrit es, the neur otransmit ter opens ion channels in the dendrit e\u2019s plasma\nmembr ane. This opening al lows sodium ions t o ent er the neur on and r esul ts in depolariza tion of the membr ane\u2014a\ndecr ease in the v oltage acr oss the neur on membr ane. Onc e a signal is r eceived b y the dendrit e, it then tr avels\npassively to the c ell body . A lar ge enough signal fr om neur otransmit ters wil l reach the ax on. If it is s trong enough\n(that is , if the threshold o f excitation , a depolarization t o around \u201360m V is r eached), then depolarization cr eates a\npositiv e feedback loop: as mor e Na+ions ent er the c ell, the ax on bec omes fur ther depolariz ed, opening e ven mor e\nsodium channels at fur ther dis tanc es fr om the c ell body . This wil l cause v oltage dependent Na+channels fur ther\ndown the ax on to open and mor e positiv e ions t o ent er the c ell. In the ax on, this \u201c signal \u201d wil l bec ome a self-\npropag ating brief r eversal o f the r esting membr ane pot ential cal led an action po tential .\nAn action pot ential is an al l-or-nothing e vent; it either happens or it does not. The thr eshold o f excitation mus t be\nreached f or the neur on to \u201cfire\u201d an action pot ential . As sodium ions rush int o the c ell, depolarization actual ly\nreverses the char ge acr oss the membr ane f orm -70m v to +30m V. This chang e in the membr ane pot ential causes\nvoltage-gated K+channels t o open, and K+begins t o lea ve the c ell, repolarizing it. A t the same time , Na+channels\ninactiv ate so no mor e Na+enters the c ell. K+ions c ontinue t o lea ve the c ell and the membr ane pot ential r eturns t o\nthe r esting pot ential . At the r esting pot ential , the K+channels close and Na+channels r eset. The depolarization o f\nthe membr ane pr oceeds in a w ave do wn the length o f the ax on. It tr avels in onl y one dir ection because the sodium\nchannels ha ve been inactiv ated and una vailable until the membr ane pot ential is near the r esting pot ential ag ain; at\nthis point the y are reset t o closed and can be opened ag ain.\nAnaxonis a tube -like structur e that pr opag ates the signal fr om the c ell body t o specializ ed endings cal led ax on\nterminals . These t erminals in turn then s ynapse with other neur ons, muscle , or tar get or gans. When the action\npotential r eaches the ax on terminal , this causes the r elease o f neur otransmit ter ont o the dendrit e of another\nneur on. Neur otransmit ters r eleased at ax on terminals al low signals t o be c ommunicat ed to these other c ells, and\nthe pr ocess begins ag ain. Neur ons usual ly ha ve one or tw o ax ons, but some neur ons do not c ontain an y axons.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3263, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "70cdb75f-a921-484a-940e-cda25c7db9c0": {"__data__": {"id_": "70cdb75f-a921-484a-940e-cda25c7db9c0", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "442", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "dd54650f-66f4-45a9-b9e6-37cb14ae4e47", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "442", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ce9a0b76a48c1e9203dd367de6f3b4eff8c28372907b5c1f7b187c98fa7e7a07", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "846cc1c5-7d66-4617-919e-38dfc2849563", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "442", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "13413b6080c072192ec90e7883059d36ebb6a6025033a69b288277fc8fba50f3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Anaxonis a tube -like structur e that pr opag ates the signal fr om the c ell body t o specializ ed endings cal led ax on\nterminals . These t erminals in turn then s ynapse with other neur ons, muscle , or tar get or gans. When the action\npotential r eaches the ax on terminal , this causes the r elease o f neur otransmit ter ont o the dendrit e of another\nneur on. Neur otransmit ters r eleased at ax on terminals al low signals t o be c ommunicat ed to these other c ells, and\nthe pr ocess begins ag ain. Neur ons usual ly ha ve one or tw o ax ons, but some neur ons do not c ontain an y axons.\nSome ax ons ar e covered with a special s tructur e cal led a myelin shea th, which acts as an insulat or to keep the\nelectrical signal fr om dis sipating as it tr avels do wn the ax on. This insulation is impor tant, as the ax on fr om a human\nmot or neur on can be as long as a met er (3.2 ft)\u2014fr om the base o f the spine t o the t oes. The m yelin sheath is\nproduc ed b y glial c ells. Along the ax on ther e are periodic g aps in the m yelin sheath. These g aps ar e cal led nodes o f\nRanvier and ar e sit es wher e the signal is \u201c rechar ged\u201d as it tr avels along the ax on.\nIt is impor tant t o not e that a single neur on does not act alone \u2014neur onal c ommunication depends on the\nconnections that neur ons mak e with one another (as w ell as with other c ells, like muscle c ells). Dendrit es fr om a\nsingle neur on ma y receive synap tic c ontact fr om man y other neur ons. For example , dendrit es fr om a Purkinje c ell in\nthe c erebel lum ar e thought t o receive contact fr om as man y as 200,000 other neur ons.428 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2666, "end_char_idx": 4354, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "27c5aa50-9e12-4a82-a5f9-142d864ac1da": {"__data__": {"id_": "27c5aa50-9e12-4a82-a5f9-142d864ac1da", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "443", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9205fa46-07a7-4c20-9d6c-9f99c96a2128", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "443", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0798fc1621cb6d93a197d69771471fab66aa3e959ac0b011771d477f81d1d4c5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 16.19 Neur ons c ontain or ganel les c ommon t o other c ells, such as a nucleus and mit ochondria . The y also ha ve mor e specializ ed\nstructur es, including dendrit es and ax ons.\nEVERYDAY CONNE CTION\nNeur ogenesis\nAt one time , scientis ts belie ved that people w ere born with al l the neur ons the y would e ver ha ve. Resear ch\nperformed during the las t few decades indicat es that neur ogenesis , the bir th of new neur ons, continues int o\nadul thood. Neur ogenesis w as firs t disc overed in songbir ds that pr oduc e ne w neur ons while learning songs . For\nmammals , new neur ons also pla y an impor tant r ole in learning: about 1,000 ne w neur ons de velop in the\nhippocampus (a br ain s tructur e involved in learning and memor y) each da y. While mos t of the ne w neur ons wil l\ndie, resear chers f ound that an incr ease in the number o f sur viving ne w neur ons in the hippocampus c orrelated\nwith ho w well rats learned a ne w task. Int erestingl y, both e xercise and some antidepr essant medications also\npromot e neur ogenesis in the hippocampus . Str ess has the opposit e eff ect. While neur ogenesis is quit e limit ed\ncompar ed to regener ation in other tis sues , resear ch in this ar ea ma y lead t o ne w treatments f or disor ders such\nas Alzheimer \u2019s, stroke, and epileps y.\nHow do scientis ts identif y ne w neur ons? A r esear cher can inject a c ompound cal led br omodeo xyuridine (Br dU)\ninto the br ain o f an animal . While al l cells wil l be e xposed t o Br dU, BrdU wil l onl y be inc orpor ated int o the DNA o f\nnewly gener ated c ells that ar e in S phase . A technique cal led immunohis tochemis try can be used t o attach a\nfluor escent label t o the inc orpor ated Br dU, and a r esear cher can use fluor escent micr oscopy to visualiz e the\npresenc e of BrdU, and thus ne w neur ons, in br ain tis sue ( Figure 16.20 ).16.6 \u2022 Ner vous S ystem 429", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1904, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "289e8fc6-1e99-46ae-ad6e-b5f29cc18f9c": {"__data__": {"id_": "289e8fc6-1e99-46ae-ad6e-b5f29cc18f9c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "444", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d2247cc2-ed71-4032-abf0-ccaf5c639191", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "444", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "eb3121f88291af67ce7013b492d78907d73b32f7b20791481a6073ee9a3cf0d1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "LINK T O LE ARNING\nVisit this link interactiv e lab (http://opens tax.org/l/neur ogenesis2) to see mor e inf ormation about neur ogenesis ,\nincluding an int eractiv e labor atory simulation and a video that e xplains ho w Br dU labels ne w cells.\nWhile glial c ells ar e often thought o f as the suppor ting cas t of the ner vous s ystem, the number o f glial c ells in the\nbrain actual ly outnumbers the number o f neur ons b y a fact or of 10. Neur ons w ould be unable t o function without\nthe vital r oles that ar e fulfil led b y these glial c ells. Glia g uide de veloping neur ons t o their des tinations , buff er ions\nand chemicals that w ould other wise harm neur ons, and pr ovide m yelin sheaths ar ound ax ons. When glia do not\nfunction pr operl y, the r esul t can be disas trous\u2014mos t brain tumors ar e caused b y mutations in glia .\nHow Neur ons C ommunic ate\nAll functions per formed b y the ner vous s ystem\u2014fr om a simple mot or reflex to mor e adv anced functions lik e making\na memor y or a decision\u2014r equir e neur ons t o communicat e with one another . Neur ons c ommunicat e betw een the\naxon o f one neur on and the dendrit es, and sometimes the c ell body , of another neur on acr oss the g ap betw een\nthem, kno wn as the synap tic cleft . When an action pot ential r eaches the end o f an ax on it s timulat es the r elease o f\nneur otransmit ter molecules int o the s ynap tic cleft betw een the s ynap tic knob o f the ax on and the pos t-synap tic\nmembr ane o f the dendrit e or soma o f the ne xt cell. The neur otransmit ter is r eleased thr ough e xocyt osis o f vesicles\ncontaining the neur otransmit ter molecules . The neur otransmit ter diffuses acr oss the s ynap tic cleft and binds t o\nreceptors in the pos t-synap tic membr ane. These r eceptor molecules ar e chemical ly regulated ion channels and wil l\nopen, al lowing sodium t o ent er the c ell. If sufficient neur otransmit ter has been r eleased an action pot ential ma y be\ninitiat ed in the ne xt cell, but this is not g uaranteed. If insufficient neur otransmit ter is r eleased the ner ve signal wil l\ndie at this point. Ther e are a number o f diff erent neur otransmit ters that ar e specific t o neur on types that ha ve\nspecific functions .\nThe C entral Ner vous S ystem\nThe centr al ner vous s ystem (CNS) is made up o f the br ain and spinal c ord and is c overed with thr ee la yers o f\nprotectiv e coverings cal ledmening es(\u201cmening es\u201d is deriv ed fr om the Gr eek and means \u201c membr anes\u201d) ( Figure\n16.21 ). The out ermos t layer is the dur a mat er, the middle la yer is the w eb-like arachnoid mat er, and the inner la yer\nis the pia mat er, which dir ectly contacts and c overs the br ain and spinal c ord. The spac e betw een the ar achnoid and\npia mat ers is fil led with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF ). The br ain floats in CSF , which acts as a cushion and shock\nabsorber .\nFIGURE 16.20 This imag e sho ws ne w neur ons in a r at hippocampus . New neur ons tag ged with Br dU glo w red in this micr ograph.\n(credit: modification o f work b y Dr. Mar yam F aiz, Univ ersity o f Bar celona)\n430 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3165, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b2c412f3-eaef-4153-ab98-3a28180b7ece": {"__data__": {"id_": "b2c412f3-eaef-4153-ab98-3a28180b7ece", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "445", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "54304486-8fe5-4df1-89b0-73d28cd1f88d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "445", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d3d51756d55d3e91e50c1eb9f6027dbb9266c54c7e3e9000d2f4747c40d16502", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 16.21 The c erebral cortex is c overed b y thr ee la yers o f mening es: the dur a, arachnoid, and pia mat ers. (credit: modification o f work\nby Gr ay's Anat omy)\nThe Br ain\nThe br ain is the par t of the c entr al ner vous s ystem that is c ontained in the cr anial ca vity o f the sk ull. It includes the\ncerebral cortex, limbic s ystem, basal g anglia , thalamus , hypothalamus , cerebel lum, br ains tem, and r etinas . The\noutermos t par t of the br ain is a thick piec e of ner vous s ystem tis sue cal led the cerebral cortex. The c erebral cortex,\nlimbic s ystem, and basal g anglia mak e up the tw o cerebral hemispher es. A thick fiber bundle cal led the corpus\ncallosum (corpus = \u201cbody \u201d; cal losum = \u201c tough \u201d) connects the tw o hemispher es. Although ther e are some br ain\nfunctions that ar e localiz ed mor e to one hemispher e than the other , the functions o f the tw o hemispher es ar e lar gely\nredundant. In fact, sometimes (v ery rarely) an entir e hemispher e is r emo ved to treat se vere epileps y. While patients\ndo suff er some deficits f ollowing the sur gery, the y can ha ve surprisingl y few pr oblems , especial ly when the sur gery\nis per formed on childr en who ha ve very immatur e ner vous s ystems .\nIn other sur geries t o treat se vere epileps y, the c orpus cal losum is cut ins tead o f remo ving an entir e hemispher e.\nThis causes a c ondition cal led split -brain, which giv es insights int o unique functions o f the tw o hemispher es. For\nexample , when an object is pr esent ed to patients\u2019 left visual field, the y ma y be unable t o verbal ly name the object\n(and ma y claim t o not ha ve seen an object at al l). This is because the visual input fr om the left visual field cr osses\nand ent ers the right hemispher e and cannot then signal t o the speech c enter, which g ener ally is f ound in the left\nside o f the br ain. R emark ably, if a split -brain patient is ask ed to pick up a specific object out o f a gr oup o f objects\nwith the left hand, the patient wil l be able t o do so but wil l still be unable t o verbal ly identif y it.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nVisit the f ollowing websit e(http://opens tax.org/l/split -brain2) to learn mor e about split -brain patients and t o pla y a\ngame wher e you can model split -brain e xperiments y ourself .\nEach hemispher e contains r egions cal led lobes that ar e involved in diff erent functions . Each hemispher e of the\nmammalian c erebral cortex can be br oken do wn int o four functional ly and spatial ly defined lobes: fr ontal , parietal ,\ntempor al, and oc cipital ( Figure 16.22 ).\n16.6 \u2022 Ner vous S ystem 431", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2624, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6f3e071f-cbf6-49c1-a505-2c812fd9f183": {"__data__": {"id_": "6f3e071f-cbf6-49c1-a505-2c812fd9f183", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "446", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6efd4913-32ec-4c60-b1de-3c34cb730165", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "446", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "85f35cf52f49d2a51c20b6effb2113e4a6bf581ea7ae19b0dd0c7a9ea09c4746", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "ed199042-e985-49d9-8c10-e47cc163d0f1", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "54cce263499b607c6057621527a210c3dfef4082454c617d2b3398804015f81e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 16.22 The human c erebral cortex includes the fr ontal , parietal , tempor al, and oc cipital lobes .\nThe frontal lobe is locat ed at the fr ont o f the br ain, o ver the e yes. This lobe c ontains the olfact ory bulb , which\nprocesses smel ls. The fr ontal lobe also c ontains the mot or cortex, which is impor tant f or planning and implementing\nmovement. Ar eas within the mot or cortex map t o diff erent muscle gr oups . Neur ons in the fr ontal lobe also c ontr ol\ncognitiv e functions lik e maintaining at tention, speech, and decision-making . Studies o f humans who ha ve damag ed\ntheir fr ontal lobes sho w that par ts of this ar ea ar e involved in personality , socialization, and as sessing risk. The\nparietal lobe is locat ed at the t op o f the br ain. Neur ons in the parietal lobe ar e involved in speech and also r eading .\nTwo of the parietal lobe \u2019s main functions ar e processing somat osensation\u2014t ouch sensations lik e pressure, pain,\nheat, c old\u2014and pr ocessing pr oprioc eption\u2014the sense o f how par ts of the body ar e orient ed in spac e. The parietal\nlobe c ontains a somat osensor y map o f the body similar t o the mot or cortex. The occipital lobe is locat ed at the\nback o f the br ain. It is primaril y involved in vision\u2014seeing , recognizing , and identif ying the visual w orld. The\ntempor al lobe is locat ed at the base o f the br ain and is primaril y involved in pr ocessing and int erpr eting sounds . It\nalso c ontains the hippocampus (named fr om the Gr eek f or \u201cseahorse ,\u201d which it r esembles in shape) a s tructur e that\nprocesses memor y formation. The r ole o f the hippocampus in memor y was par tially det ermined b y studying one\nfamous epilep tic patient, HM, who had both sides o f his hippocampus r emo ved in an at temp t to cur e his epileps y.\nHis seizur es w ent a way, but he c ould no long er form ne w memories (al though he c ould r emember some facts fr om\nbefore his sur gery and c ould learn ne w mot or task s).\nInterconnect ed br ain ar eas cal led the basal g anglia play impor tant r oles in mo vement c ontr ol and pos ture. The\nbasal g anglia also r egulate motiv ation.\nThe thalamus acts as a g ateway to and fr om the c ortex. It r eceives sensor y and mot or inputs fr om the body and\nalso r eceives feedback fr om the c ortex. This f eedback mechanism can modulat e conscious a warenes s of sensor y\nand mot or inputs depending on the at tention and ar ousal s tate of the animal . The thalamus helps r egulate\nconsciousnes s, arousal , and sleep s tates.\nBelo w the thalamus is the hypothalamus . The h ypothalamus c ontr ols the endocrine s ystem b y sending signals t o\nthe pituitar y gland. Among other functions , the h ypothalamus is the body \u2019s thermos tat\u2014it mak es sur e the body\ntemper atur e is k ept at appr opriat e levels. Neur ons within the h ypothalamus also r egulate cir cadian rh ythms ,\nsometimes cal led sleep cy cles .\nThe limbic s ystemis a c onnect ed set o f structur es that r egulates emotion, as w ell as beha viors r elated to fear and\nmotiv ation. It pla ys a r ole in memor y formation and includes par ts of the thalamus and h ypothalamus as w ell as the\nhippocampus . One impor tant s tructur e within the limbic s ystem is a t empor al lobe s tructur e cal led the amygdala .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3292, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ed199042-e985-49d9-8c10-e47cc163d0f1": {"__data__": {"id_": "ed199042-e985-49d9-8c10-e47cc163d0f1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "446", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6efd4913-32ec-4c60-b1de-3c34cb730165", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "446", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "85f35cf52f49d2a51c20b6effb2113e4a6bf581ea7ae19b0dd0c7a9ea09c4746", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "6f3e071f-cbf6-49c1-a505-2c812fd9f183", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "446", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3ae6a6c3608d4fe0092f402cda38d209aedad4a242e70f2a4cec7f652e36649f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Among other functions , the h ypothalamus is the body \u2019s thermos tat\u2014it mak es sur e the body\ntemper atur e is k ept at appr opriat e levels. Neur ons within the h ypothalamus also r egulate cir cadian rh ythms ,\nsometimes cal led sleep cy cles .\nThe limbic s ystemis a c onnect ed set o f structur es that r egulates emotion, as w ell as beha viors r elated to fear and\nmotiv ation. It pla ys a r ole in memor y formation and includes par ts of the thalamus and h ypothalamus as w ell as the\nhippocampus . One impor tant s tructur e within the limbic s ystem is a t empor al lobe s tructur e cal led the amygdala .\nThe tw o am ygdala (one on each side) ar e impor tant both f or the sensation o f fear and f or recognizing f earful fac es.\nThe cerebel lum (cerebel lum = \u201clit tle br ain\u201d) sits at the base o f the br ain on t op o f the br ains tem. The c erebel lum\ncontr ols balanc e and aids in c oordinating mo vement and learning ne w mot or task s. The c erebel lum o f birds is lar ge\ncompar ed to other v ertebrates because o f the c oordination r equir ed b y flight.432 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2677, "end_char_idx": 3816, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "62cccbcc-d7e9-4d8b-8dff-c0819aced053": {"__data__": {"id_": "62cccbcc-d7e9-4d8b-8dff-c0819aced053", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "447", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "89c47d67-e656-414a-8095-32a45aee526b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "447", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9bbdd9d072ac1db244bce1d6034f0c0eccb0460a74bd633f537dc68a80957e1b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The brains temconnects the r est of the br ain with the spinal c ord and r egulates some o f the mos t impor tant and\nbasic functions o f the ner vous s ystem including br eathing , swallowing , dig estion, sleeping , walking , and sensor y and\nmot or inf ormation int egration.\nSpinal c ord\nConnecting t o the br ains tem and e xtending do wn the body thr ough the spinal c olumn is the spinal c ord. The spinal\ncord is a thick bundle o f ner ve tis sue that carries inf ormation about the body t o the br ain and fr om the br ain t o the\nbody . The spinal c ord is c ontained within the mening es and the bones o f the v ertebral column but is able t o\ncommunicat e signals t o and fr om the body thr ough its c onnections with spinal ner ves (par t of the peripher al\nnervous s ystem). A cr oss-section o f the spinal c ord look s like a whit e oval containing a gr ay but terfly-shape ( Figure\n16.23 ). Ax ons mak e up the \u201c whit e mat ter\u201d and neur on and glia c ell bodies (and int erneur ons) mak e up the \u201c gray\nmatter.\u201d Ax ons and c ell bodies in the dorsa spinal c ord convey mos tly sensor y inf ormation fr om the body t o the\nbrain. Ax ons and c ell bodies in the spinal c ord primaril y transmit signals c ontr olling mo vement fr om the br ain t o the\nbody .\nThe spinal c ord also c ontr ols mot or reflexes. These r eflexes ar e quick, unc onscious mo vements \u2014lik e aut omatical ly\nremo ving a hand fr om a hot object. R eflexes ar e so fas t because the y involve local s ynap tic c onnections . For\nexample , the knee r eflex that a doct or tests during a r outine ph ysical is c ontr olled b y a single s ynapse betw een a\nsensor y neur on and a mot or neur on. While a r eflex ma y onl y requir e the in volvement o f one or tw o synapses ,\nsynapses with int erneur ons in the spinal c olumn tr ansmit inf ormation t o the br ain t o convey what happened (the\nknee jerk ed, or the hand w as hot).\nFIGURE 16.23 A cross-section o f the spinal c ord sho ws gray mat ter (c ontaining c ell bodies and int erneur ons) and whit e mat ter (c ontaining\nmyelinat ed ax ons).\nThe P eripher al Ner vous S ystem\nThe peripher al ner vous s ystem (PNS) is the c onnection betw een the c entr al ner vous s ystem and the r est of the\nbody . The PNS can be br oken do wn int o the autonomic ner vous s ystem, which c ontr ols bodil y functions without\nconscious c ontr ol, and the sensor y-soma tic ner vous s ystem, which tr ansmits sensor y inf ormation fr om the skin,\nmuscles , and sensor y organs t o the CNS and sends mot or commands fr om the CNS t o the muscles .16.6 \u2022 Ner vous S ystem 433", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2603, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f51e2d83-f073-43dd-befb-e5cbb54b216e": {"__data__": {"id_": "f51e2d83-f073-43dd-befb-e5cbb54b216e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "448", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a7975d1e-b97f-4ea9-a268-0c3526d5c93a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "448", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d1db4125a5d26de74b758772ccd2e93fddd6c65bf0cc28087d94597fc0b0fc9f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 16.24 In the aut onomic ner vous s ystem, a pr eganglionic neur on (originating in the CNS) s ynapses t o a neur on in a g anglion that, in\nturn, s ynapses on a tar get or gan. Activ ation o f the s ympathetic ner vous s ystem causes r elease o f nor epinephrine on the tar get or gan.\nActiv ation o f the par asympathetic ner vous s ystem causes r elease o f acetylcholine on the tar get or gan.\nThe aut onomic ner vous s ystem ser ves as the r elay betw een the CNS and the int ernal or gans. It c ontr ols the lungs ,\nthe hear t, smooth muscle , and e xocrine and endocrine glands . The aut onomic ner vous s ystem c ontr ols these or gans\nlargely without c onscious c ontr ol; it can c ontinuousl y monit or the c onditions o f these diff erent s ystems and\nimplement chang es as needed. Signaling t o the tar get tis sue usual ly involves tw o synapses: a pr eganglionic neur on\n(originating in the CNS) s ynapses t o a neur on in a g anglion that, in turn, s ynapses on the tar get or gan (Figure 16.24 ).\nTher e are tw o divisions o f the aut onomic ner vous s ystem that o ften ha ve opposing eff ects: the s ympathetic ner vous\nsystem and the par asympathetic ner vous s ystem.\nThe sympa thetic ner vous s ystemis responsible f or the immediat e responses an animal mak es when it enc ount ers\na dang erous situation. One w ay to remember this is t o think o f the \u201c fight -or-flight \u201d response a person f eels when\nencount ering a snak e (\u201csnak e\u201d and \u201c sympathetic \u201d both begin with \u201c s\u201d). Examples o f functions c ontr olled b y the\nsympathetic ner vous s ystem include an ac celerated hear t rate and inhibit ed dig estion. These functions help pr epar e\nan or ganism \u2019s body f or the ph ysical s train r equir ed to escape a pot ential ly dang erous situation or t o fend o ff a\npredat or.434 16 \u2022 The Body \u2019s Systems\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1872, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0e54339c-0372-4153-b580-925cccef1162": {"__data__": {"id_": "0e54339c-0372-4153-b580-925cccef1162", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "449", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cc75c507-ffd6-43aa-9cb7-8a1188646c2e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "449", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6684477af25401477b87b8afab89da453af4c546a0ee393904a310857f70fd9b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 16.25 The s ympathetic and par asympathetic ner vous s ystems o ften ha ve opposing eff ects on tar get or gans.\nWhile the s ympathetic ner vous s ystem is activ ated in s tressful situations , the parasympa thetic ner vous s ystem\nallows an animal t o \u201crest and dig est.\u201d One w ay to remember this is t o think that during a r estful situation lik e a\npicnic, the par asympathetic ner vous s ystem is in c ontr ol (\u201c picnic \u201d and \u201c parasympathetic \u201d both s tart with \u201c p\u201d).\nParasympathetic pr eganglionic neur ons ha ve cell bodies locat ed in the br ains tem and in the sacr al (toward the\nbottom) spinal c ord (Figure 16.25 ). The par asympathetic ner vous s ystem r esets or gan function aft er the\nsympathetic ner vous s ystem is activ ated including slo wing o f hear t rate, lowered blood pr essure, and s timulation o f\ndigestion.\nThe sensor y-somatic ner vous s ystem is made up o f cranial and spinal ner ves and c ontains both sensor y and mot or\nneur ons. Sensor y neur ons tr ansmit sensor y inf ormation fr om the skin, sk eletal muscle , and sensor y organs t o the\nCNS. Mot or neur ons tr ansmit mes sages about desir ed mo vement fr om the CNS t o the muscles t o mak e them\ncontr act. Without its sensor y-somatic ner vous s ystem, an animal w ould be unable t o process an y inf ormation about\nits en vironment (what it sees , feels , hears , and so on) and c ould not c ontr ol mot or mo vements . Unlik e the\nautonomic ner vous s ystem, which usual ly has tw o synapses betw een the CNS and the tar get or gan, sensor y and\nmot or neur ons usual ly ha ve onl y one s ynapse \u2014one ending o f the neur on is at the or gan and the other dir ectly\ncontacts a CNS neur on.16.6 \u2022 Ner vous S ystem 435", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1721, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "77ad43d5-63cf-4b70-a93a-998b1aba8e26": {"__data__": {"id_": "77ad43d5-63cf-4b70-a93a-998b1aba8e26", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "450", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a16271c4-6c01-47cf-a835-dc7ffa0fb906", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "450", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "810d5b9ff6adb2c9622b004e70592f6dfa75e21653a92518b75b333599c0e9b0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "22199204-d300-42a9-a9c4-4373e435edcd", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "7439e916e27d6e9030e523baf77790eccc62d2bc58996dfedbf54a42f901bdf9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\naction po tential a momentar y chang e in the\nelectrical pot ential o f a neur on (or muscle)\nmembr ane\nadrenal gland the endocrine gland as sociat ed with\nthe kidne ys\nalveolus (plur al: al veoli) (also , air sacs) the t erminal\nstructur e of the lung pas sage wher e gas e xchang e\noccurs\namygdala a structur e within the limbic s ystem that\nprocesses f ear\namylase an enzyme f ound in saliv a and secr eted b y\nthe pancr eas that c onverts carboh ydrates to\nmaltose\nanus the e xit point o f the dig estive system f or w aste\nmaterial\naorta the major ar tery that tak es blood a way from the\nhear t to the s ystemic cir culat ory system\nappendicular sk elet on the sk eleton c omposed o f the\nbones o f the upper limbs , which function t o grasp\nand manipulat e objects , and the lo wer limbs , which\npermit loc omotion\narterya blood v essel that tak es blood a way from the\nhear t\natrium (plur al: atria) a chamber o f the hear t that\nreceives blood fr om the v eins\naudit ory os sicles (also , middle ear bones) the bones\nthat tr ansduc e sounds fr om the air int o vibr ations in\nthe fluid-fil led c ochlea\nautonomic ner vous s ystem the par t of the peripher al\nnervous s ystem that c ontr ols bodil y functions\naxial sk elet on skeleton that f orms the c entr al axis o f\nthe body and includes the bones o f the sk ull, the\nossicles o f the middle ear , the h yoid bone o f the\nthroat, the v ertebral column, and the thor acic cag e\n(ribcag e)\naxon a tube -like structur e that pr opag ates a signal\nfrom a neur on\u2019s cell body t o ax on terminals\nbasal g anglia an int erconnect ed c ollections o f cells\nin the br ain that ar e involved in mo vement and\nmotiv ation\nbicuspid v alvea one -way opening betw een the\natrium and the v entricle in the left side o f the hear t\nbile a dig estive juic e produc ed b y the liv er; impor tant\nfor dig estion o f lipids\nbolus a mas s of food r esul ting fr om che wing action\nand w etting b y saliv a\nbrains tem a por tion o f brain that c onnects with the\nspinal c ord; contr ols basic ner vous s ystem functions\nlike breathing and s wallowing\nbronchi (sing ular: br onchus) smal ler br anches o f\ncartilaginous tis sue that s tem o ff of the tr achea; air\nis funneled thr ough the br onchi t o the r egion wher egas e xchang e oc curs in the al veoli\nbronchiole an air way that e xtends fr om the main\nbronchus t o the al veolar sac\ncapil larythe smal lest blood v essel that al lows the\npassage of individual blood c ells and the sit e of\ndiffusion o f oxygen and nutrient e xchang e\ncardiac cy cle the fil ling and emp tying the hear t of\nblood caused b y electrical signals that cause the\nhear t muscles t o contr act and r elax\ncardiac muscle tis sue the muscle tis sue f ound onl y\nin the hear t; car diac c ontr actions pump blood\nthroughout the body and maintain blood pr essure\ncartilaginous joint a joint in which the bones ar e\nconnect ed b y car tilag e\ncentr al ner vous s ystem (CNS) the ner vous s ystem\nmade up o f the br ain and spinal c ord; covered with\nthree la yers o f protectiv e mening es\ncerebel lum the br ain s tructur e involved in pos ture,\nmot or coordination, and learning ne w mot or actions\ncerebral cortexthe out ermos t sheet o f brain tis sue;", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3237, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "22199204-d300-42a9-a9c4-4373e435edcd": {"__data__": {"id_": "22199204-d300-42a9-a9c4-4373e435edcd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "450", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a16271c4-6c01-47cf-a835-dc7ffa0fb906", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "450", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "810d5b9ff6adb2c9622b004e70592f6dfa75e21653a92518b75b333599c0e9b0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "77ad43d5-63cf-4b70-a93a-998b1aba8e26", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "450", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "edb94f77d58f3596ae7ef1665b0867d25788e5b7f56a9e9fc8b34dbde9e6beae", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "car diac c ontr actions pump blood\nthroughout the body and maintain blood pr essure\ncartilaginous joint a joint in which the bones ar e\nconnect ed b y car tilag e\ncentr al ner vous s ystem (CNS) the ner vous s ystem\nmade up o f the br ain and spinal c ord; covered with\nthree la yers o f protectiv e mening es\ncerebel lum the br ain s tructur e involved in pos ture,\nmot or coordination, and learning ne w mot or actions\ncerebral cortexthe out ermos t sheet o f brain tis sue;\ninvolved in man y higher -order functions\ncerebrospinal fluid (CSF )a clear liquid that\nsurr ounds the br ain and fil ls its v entricles and acts\nas a shock absorber\nchyme a mixtur e of par tially dig ested food and\nstomach juic es\nclosed cir cula tory system a system that has the\nblood separ ated fr om the bodil y int erstitial fluid and\ncontained in blood v essels\ncolon the lar gest por tion o f the lar ge int estine\nconsis ting o f the asc ending c olon, tr ansverse c olon,\nand desc ending c olon\ncorpus cal losum a thick ner ve bundle that c onnects\nthe c erebral hemispher es\ndendrit ea structur e that e xtends a way from the c ell\nbody t o receive mes sages fr om other neur ons\ndepolariza tion a chang e in the membr ane pot ential\nto a les s neg ative value\ndiaphr agm a skeletal muscle locat ed under lungs\nthat encloses the lungs in the thor ax\ndias tole the r elaxation phase o f the car diac cy cle\nwhen the hear t is r elax ed and the v entricles ar e\nfilling with blood\ndown-r egulation a decr ease in the number o f\nhormone r eceptors in r esponse t o incr eased\nhormone le vels\nectotherm an or ganism that r elies primaril y on\nenvironmental heat sour ces to maintain its body\ntemper atur e\nelectr ocar diogr am (EC G) a recording o f the electrical\nimpulses o f the car diac muscle\nendocrine gland the gland that secr etes hormones436 16 \u2022 K ey Terms\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2761, "end_char_idx": 4645, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c8e7e0e9-f4dd-43a3-a3e8-77d19c5afd5a": {"__data__": {"id_": "c8e7e0e9-f4dd-43a3-a3e8-77d19c5afd5a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "451", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "577baf8f-2cfd-4736-832a-09c0d418cc9f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "451", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "239b693054e7806a8dfbfb18a1665b43a90bd97123c93049f0d15eec51d3aa0c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "d15c956f-a220-41f5-ad78-94811a11417f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "7c18842cc356f0b0b86d9a808c9cf44c15c23308d6f30d588bcdad1effa2d4e9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "into the surr ounding int erstitial fluid, which then\ndiffuse int o blood and ar e carried t o various or gans\nand tis sues within the body\nendo therm an or ganism that r elies primaril y on\ninternal heat sour ces to maintain its body\ntemper atur e\nesophag us a tubular or gan that c onnects the mouth\nto the s tomach\nessential nutrient a nutrient that cannot be\nsynthesiz ed b y the body; it mus t be ob tained fr om\nfood\nexocrine gland the gland that secr etes chemicals\nthrough ducts that lead t o skin sur faces, body\ncavities , and or gan ca vities .\nfibrous joint a joint held t ogether b y fibr ous\nconnectiv e tis sue\nfrontal lobe the par t of the c erebral cortex that\ncontains the mot or cortex and ar eas in volved in\nplanning , attention, and lang uage\ngallbladder the or gan that s tores and c oncentr ates\nbile\nglia (also , glial c ells) the c ells that pr ovide suppor t\nfunctions f or neur ons\nhippocampus the br ain s tructur e in the t empor al\nlobe in volved in pr ocessing memories\nhormone a chemical r eleased b y cells in one ar ea o f\nthe body that aff ects c ells in other par ts of the body\nhyoid bone the bone that lies belo w the mandible in\nthe fr ont o f the neck\nhypothalamus the br ain s tructur e that c ontr ols\nhormone r elease and body homeos tasis\ninferior v ena ca vathe major v ein o f the body\nreturning blood fr om the lo wer par ts of the body t o\nthe right atrium\ninterstitial fluid the fluid f ound betw een c ells in the\nbody , similar in c onstitution t o the fluid c omponent\nof blood, but without the high c oncentr ations o f\nproteins\nintracellular hormone r eceptor a hormone r eceptor\nin the cyt oplasm or nucleus o f a c ell\njoint the point at which tw o or mor e bones meet\nkidne ythe or gan that per forms e xcretory and\nosmor egulatory functions\nlarge int estine a dig estive system or gan that\nreabsorbs w ater fr om undig ested mat erial and\nprocesses w aste mat ter\nlarynx the v oice bo x, locat ed within the thr oat\nlimbic s ystem a connect ed br ain ar ea that pr ocesses\nemotion and motiv ation\nliver an or gan that pr oduc es bile f or dig estion and\nprocesses vitamins and lipids\nmembr ane po tential a diff erence in electrical\npotential betw een the inside and outside o f a c ellmening es (sing ular: meninx) the membr anes that\ncover and pr otect the c entr al ner vous s ystem\nminer al an inor ganic,", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2368, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d15c956f-a220-41f5-ad78-94811a11417f": {"__data__": {"id_": "d15c956f-a220-41f5-ad78-94811a11417f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "451", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "577baf8f-2cfd-4736-832a-09c0d418cc9f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "451", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "239b693054e7806a8dfbfb18a1665b43a90bd97123c93049f0d15eec51d3aa0c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "c8e7e0e9-f4dd-43a3-a3e8-77d19c5afd5a", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "451", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0a0ac3bee07898a82b9f3f675433f7ea032db8304dfbdac9618e413415f5ac36", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "locat ed within the thr oat\nlimbic s ystem a connect ed br ain ar ea that pr ocesses\nemotion and motiv ation\nliver an or gan that pr oduc es bile f or dig estion and\nprocesses vitamins and lipids\nmembr ane po tential a diff erence in electrical\npotential betw een the inside and outside o f a c ellmening es (sing ular: meninx) the membr anes that\ncover and pr otect the c entr al ner vous s ystem\nminer al an inor ganic, elemental molecule that carries\nout impor tant r oles in the body\nmyelin shea th a cellular e xtension c ontaining a fat ty\nsubs tanc e produc ed b y glia that surr ounds and\ninsulat es ax ons\nmyofibril the long cylindrical s tructur es that lie\nparallel to the muscle fiber\nmyofilament the smal l structur es that mak e up\nmyofibrils\nnasal ca vity an opening o f the r espir atory system t o\nthe outside en vironment\nnephr on the functional unit o f the kidne y\nneur on a specializ ed c ell that can r eceive and\ntransmit electrical and chemical signals\noccipital lobe the par t of the c erebral cortex that\ncontains visual c ortex and pr ocesses visual s timuli\nopen cir cula tory system a cir culat ory system that\nhas the blood mix ed with int erstitial fluid in the\nbody ca vity and dir ectly bathes the or gans\noral ca vity the point o f entr y of food int o the dig estive\nsystem\nosmor egulation the mechanism b y which w ater and\nsolut e concentr ations ar e maintained at desir ed\nlevels\nosmo tic balanc ethe appr opriat e values o f water and\nsolut e concentr ations f or a heal thy organism\npancr eas a gland that secr etes dig estive juic es\npancr eas the or gan locat ed betw een the s tomach\nand the smal l intestine that c ontains e xocrine and\nendocrine c ells\nparasympa thetic ner vous s ystem the division o f\nautonomic ner vous s ystem that r egulates visc eral\nfunctions during r elaxation\nparathyroid gland the gland locat ed on the sur face of\nthe th yroid that pr oduc es par athyroid hormone\nparietal lobe the par t of the c erebral cortex involved\nin pr ocessing t ouch and the sense o f the body in\nspac e\npect oral gir dle the bones that tr ansmit the f orce\ngener ated b y the upper limbs t o the axial sk eleton\npelvic gir dle the bones that tr ansmit the f orce\ngener ated b y the lo wer limbs t o the axial sk eleton\npepsin an enzyme f ound in the s tomach whose main\nrole is pr otein dig estion\nperipher al ner vous s ystem (PNS) the ner vous\nsystem that ser ves as the c onnection betw een the\ncentr al ner vous s ystem and the r est of the body;\nconsis ts of the aut onomic ner vous s ystem and the\nsensor y-somatic ner vous s ystem\nperis talsis wave-like mo vements o f muscle tis sue\nphar ynx the thr oat16 \u2022 K ey Terms 437", "start_char_idx": 1947, "end_char_idx": 4628, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2069d1cc-a81e-4a83-8740-30ce3f98952f": {"__data__": {"id_": "2069d1cc-a81e-4a83-8740-30ce3f98952f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "452", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "dbf6a9c7-84f6-4941-921f-005e9cd97d04", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "452", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4db3975164fcd54be15e6f244555f4f2cbcf432e6469f0a6d93ce182fc98f16e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "e00f6fe8-e2ad-46c6-993a-dba3daf90c5a", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "33005bbae9b0e9155526384fe67ed591ad5e4d0e1c1fddebe8b73fc7b1e7aed0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "pituitar y gland the endocrine gland locat ed at the\nbase o f the br ain c omposed o f an ant erior and\nposterior r egion; also cal led h ypoph ysis\nprimar y br onchus (also , main br onchus) a r egion o f\nthe air way within the lung that at taches t o the\ntrachea and bifur cates to form the br onchioles\npulmonar y cir cula tion the flo w of blood a way from\nthe hear t thr ough the lungs wher e oxygenation\noccurs and then back t o the hear t\nrectum the ar ea o f the body wher e feces is s tored\nuntil elimination\nrenal ar terythe ar tery that deliv ers blood t o the\nkidne y\nrenal v ein the v ein that dr ains blood fr om the kidne y\nsaliv ary gland one o f thr ee pairs o f exocrine glands in\nthe mammalian mouth that secr etes saliv a, a mix o f\nwatery mucus and enzymes\nsarcolemma the plasma membr ane o f a sk eletal\nmuscle fiber\nsarcomer ethe functional unit o f skeletal muscle\nsensor y-soma tic ner vous s ystem the s ystem o f\nsensor y and mot or ner ves\nset point the tar get value o f a ph ysiological s tate in\nhomeos tasis\nskeletal muscle tis sue forms sk eletal muscles ,\nwhich at tach t o bones and c ontr ol loc omotion and\nany mo vement that can be c onsciousl y contr olled\nskullthe bone that suppor ts the s tructur es o f the\nface and pr otects the br ain\nsmal l int estine the or gan wher e dig estion o f protein,\nfats, and carboh ydrates is c omplet ed\nsmoo th muscle tis sue the muscle that oc curs in the\nwalls of hol low or gans such as the int estines ,\nstomach, and urinar y bladder , and ar ound pas sages\nsuch as the r espir atory tract and blood v essels\nspinal c orda thick fiber bundle that c onnects the\nbrain with peripher al ner ves; tr ansmits sensor y and\nmot or inf ormation; c ontains neur ons that c ontr ol\nmot or reflexes\nstomach a saclik e organ c ontaining acidic dig estive\njuices\nsuperior v ena ca vathe major v ein o f the body\nreturning blood fr om the upper par t of the body t o\nthe right atrium\nsympa thetic ner vous s ystem the division o f\nautonomic ner vous s ystem activ ated during\nstressful \"fight -or-flight \u201d situations\nsynapse a junction betw een tw o neur ons wher e\nneur onal signals ar e communicat edsynap tic cleft a spac e betw een the pr esynap tic and\npostsynap tic membr anes\nsynovial joints the onl y joints that ha ve a spac e\nbetw een the adjoining bones\nsystemic cir cula tion the flo w of blood a way from the\nhear t to the br ain, liv er, kidne ys, stomach, and other\norgans, the limbs , and the muscles o f the body , and\nthen back t o the hear t\nsystole the c ontr action phase o f car diac cy cle when\nthe v entricles ar e pumping blood int o the ar teries\ntempor al lobe the par t of the c erebral cortex that\nprocesses audit ory input; par ts of the t empor al lobe\nare involved in speech, memor y, and emotion\nprocessing\nthalamus the br ain ar ea that r elays sensor y\ninformation t o the c ortex\nthor acic cag e(also , ribcag e) the sk eleton o f the\nches t, which c onsis ts of the ribs , thor acic v ertebrae,\nsternum,", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3007, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e00f6fe8-e2ad-46c6-993a-dba3daf90c5a": {"__data__": {"id_": "e00f6fe8-e2ad-46c6-993a-dba3daf90c5a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "452", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "dbf6a9c7-84f6-4941-921f-005e9cd97d04", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "452", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4db3975164fcd54be15e6f244555f4f2cbcf432e6469f0a6d93ce182fc98f16e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "2069d1cc-a81e-4a83-8740-30ce3f98952f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "452", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b6671fe706428a95976ea3a6ebc8eb0fb0d7c8beeb2fe8b349bb19d914a304e9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "liv er, kidne ys, stomach, and other\norgans, the limbs , and the muscles o f the body , and\nthen back t o the hear t\nsystole the c ontr action phase o f car diac cy cle when\nthe v entricles ar e pumping blood int o the ar teries\ntempor al lobe the par t of the c erebral cortex that\nprocesses audit ory input; par ts of the t empor al lobe\nare involved in speech, memor y, and emotion\nprocessing\nthalamus the br ain ar ea that r elays sensor y\ninformation t o the c ortex\nthor acic cag e(also , ribcag e) the sk eleton o f the\nches t, which c onsis ts of the ribs , thor acic v ertebrae,\nsternum, and c ostal car tilag es\nthreshold o f excitation the le vel of depolarization\nneeded f or an action pot ential t o fire\nthymus the gland locat ed behind the s ternum that\nproduc es th ymosin hormones that c ontribut e to the\ndevelopment o f the immune s ystem\nthyroid gland an endocrine gland locat ed in the neck\nthat pr oduc es th yroid hormones th yroxine and\ntriiodoth yronine\ntrachea the car tilaginous tube that tr anspor ts air\nfrom the thr oat t o the lungs\ntricuspid v alvea one -way opening betw een the\natrium and the v entricle in the right side o f the hear t\nup-regulation an incr ease in the number o f hormone\nreceptors in r esponse t o incr eased hormone le vels\nureter the urine -bearing tubes c oming out o f the\nkidne y\nurethr athe tube that c onducts urine fr om the urinar y\nbladder t o the e xternal en vironment\nurinar y bladder the s tructur e that the ur eters emp ty\nthe urine int o\nvein a blood v essel that brings blood back t o the\nhear t\nventricle (of the hear t) a lar ge chamber o f the hear t\nthat pumps blood int o arteries\nvertebral column (also , spine) the c olumn that\nsurr ounds and pr otects the spinal c ord, suppor ts\nthe head, and acts as an at tachment point f or ribs\nand muscles o f the back and neck\nvitamin an or ganic subs tanc e nec essary in smal l\namounts t o sus tain lif e\nChap ter Summar y\n16.1 Homeos tasis and Osmor egulation\nHomeos tasis is a dynamic equilibrium that ismaintained in body tis sues and or gans. It is dynamic\nbecause it is c onstantl y adjus ting t o the chang es that438 16 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2411, "end_char_idx": 4612, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "26be2e2f-7b41-4bcd-9f62-e4128229b1b8": {"__data__": {"id_": "26be2e2f-7b41-4bcd-9f62-e4128229b1b8", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "453", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cec603b4-ced3-4652-a888-592cad5b4436", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "453", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3d9cad3f82d5d36333a35a41c20814131e1c863f8aa150fdeb3b671bb882e046", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "7c6fd60e-b720-4d72-bcff-33fb9e4889c4", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "6cca38697b3fb5b46db832f1870a5188de8987b09007d61849beb0f9d6bad12e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "the s ystems enc ount er. It is an equilibrium because\nbody functions ar e kept within a normal r ange, with\nsome fluctuations ar ound a set point. The kidne ys are\nthe main osmor egulatory organs in mammalian\nsystems; the y function t o filter blood and maintain the\ndissolved ion c oncentr ations o f body fluids . The y are\nmade up int ernal ly of thr ee dis tinct r egions \u2014the c ortex,\nmedul la, and pel vis. The blood v essels that tr anspor t\nblood int o and out o f the kidne ys arise fr om and mer ge\nwith the aor ta and inf erior v ena ca va, respectiv ely. The\nnephr on is the functional unit o f the kidne y, which\nactiv ely filters blood and g ener ates urine . The urine\nleaves the kidne y thr ough the ur eter and is s tored in\nthe urinar y bladder . Urine is v oided fr om the body\nthrough the ur ethr a.\n16.2 Diges tive System\nTher e are man y organs that w ork t ogether t o dig est\nfood and absorb nutrients . The mouth is the point o f\ningestion and the location wher e both mechanical and\nchemical br eakdown o f food begins . Saliv a contains an\nenzyme cal led am ylase that br eaks do wn\ncarboh ydrates. The f ood bolus tr avels thr ough the\nesophag us b y peris taltic mo vements t o the s tomach.\nThe s tomach has an e xtremel y acidic en vironment. The\nenzyme pepsin dig ests pr otein in the s tomach. F urther\ndigestion and absorp tion tak e plac e in the smal l\nintestine. The lar ge int estine r eabsorbs w ater fr om the\nundig ested food and s tores w aste until elimination.\nCarboh ydrates, proteins , and fats ar e the primar y\ncomponents o f food. Some es sential nutrients ar e\nrequir ed for cellular function but cannot be pr oduc ed\nby the animal body . These include vitamins , miner als,\nsome fat ty acids , and some amino acids . Food intak e in\nmor e than nec essary amounts is s tored as gl ycogen in\nthe liv er and muscle c ells, and in adipose tis sue.\nExcess adipose s torage can lead t o obesity and serious\nheal th pr oblems .\n16.3 Circulat ory and R espir atory Systems\nAnimal r espir atory systems ar e designed t o facilitat e\ngas e xchang e. In mammals , air is w armed and\nhumidified in the nasal ca vity. Air then tr avels do wn the\nphar ynx and lar ynx, thr ough the tr achea , and int o the\nlungs . In the lungs , air pas ses thr ough the br anching\nbronchi, r eaching the r espir atory bronchioles . The\nrespir atory bronchioles open up int o the al veolar ducts ,\nalveolar sacs , and al veoli. Because ther e are so man y\nalveoli and al veolar sacs in the lung , the sur face area\nfor gas e xchang e is v ery lar ge.\nThe mammalian cir culat ory system is a closed s ystem\nwith double cir culation pas sing thr ough the lungs andthe body . It c onsis ts of a netw ork o f vessels c ontaining\nblood that cir culat es because o f pressure diff erences\ngener ated b y the hear t.\nThe hear t contains tw o pumps that mo ve blood\nthrough the pulmonar y and s ystemic cir culations .\nTher e is one atrium and one v entricle on the right side\nand one atrium and one v entricle on the left side . The\npumping o f the hear t is a function o f car diom yocyt es,\ndistinctiv e muscle c ells that ar e striat ed lik e sk eletal\nmuscle but pump rh ythmical ly and in voluntaril y like\nsmooth muscle .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3242, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7c6fd60e-b720-4d72-bcff-33fb9e4889c4": {"__data__": {"id_": "7c6fd60e-b720-4d72-bcff-33fb9e4889c4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "453", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cec603b4-ced3-4652-a888-592cad5b4436", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "453", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3d9cad3f82d5d36333a35a41c20814131e1c863f8aa150fdeb3b671bb882e046", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "26be2e2f-7b41-4bcd-9f62-e4128229b1b8", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "453", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "899f6cc3a225535483e4b6fecaa06055859491a40407dcfaad3b45faf2e8c409", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The mammalian cir culat ory system is a closed s ystem\nwith double cir culation pas sing thr ough the lungs andthe body . It c onsis ts of a netw ork o f vessels c ontaining\nblood that cir culat es because o f pressure diff erences\ngener ated b y the hear t.\nThe hear t contains tw o pumps that mo ve blood\nthrough the pulmonar y and s ystemic cir culations .\nTher e is one atrium and one v entricle on the right side\nand one atrium and one v entricle on the left side . The\npumping o f the hear t is a function o f car diom yocyt es,\ndistinctiv e muscle c ells that ar e striat ed lik e sk eletal\nmuscle but pump rh ythmical ly and in voluntaril y like\nsmooth muscle . The signal f or contr action begins in the\nwall of the right atrium. The electr ochemical signal\ncauses the tw o atria t o contr act in unison; then the\nsignal causes the v entricles t o contr act. The blood fr om\nthe hear t is carried thr ough the body b y a c omple x\nnetw ork o f blood v essels; ar teries tak e blood a way\nfrom the hear t, and v eins bring blood back t o the hear t.\n16.4 Endocrine S ystem\nHormones cause c ellular chang es b y binding t o\nreceptors on or in tar get cells. The number o f receptors\non a tar get cell can incr ease or decr ease in r esponse t o\nhormone activity .\nHormone le vels ar e primaril y contr olled thr ough\nnegative feedback, in which rising le vels o f a hormone\ninhibit its fur ther r elease .\nThe pituitar y gland is locat ed at the base o f the br ain.\nThe ant erior pituitar y receives signals fr om the\nhypothalamus and pr oduc es six hormones . The\nposterior pituitar y is an e xtension o f the br ain and\nreleases hormones (antidiur etic hormone and o xytocin)\nproduc ed b y the h ypothalamus . The th yroid gland is\nlocat ed in the neck and is c omposed o f two lobes . The\nthyroid pr oduc es the hormones th yroxine and\ntriiodoth yronine . The th yroid also pr oduc es calcit onin.\nThe par athyroid glands lie on the pos terior sur face of\nthe th yroid gland and pr oduc e par athyroid hormone .\nThe adr enal glands ar e locat ed on t op o f the kidne ys\nand c onsis t of the adr enal c ortex and adr enal medul la.\nThe adr enal c ortex produc es the c orticosteroids ,\ngluc ocorticoids and miner aloc orticoids . The adr enal\nmedul la is the inner par t of the adr enal gland and\nproduc es epinephrine and nor epinephrine .\nThe pancr eas lies in the abdomen betw een the\nstomach and the smal l intestine. Clus ters o f endocrine\ncells in the pancr eas f orm the islets o f Langerhans ,\nwhich c ontain alpha c ells that r elease glucag on and\nbeta c ells that r elease insulin. Some or gans pos sess\nendocrine activity as a sec ondar y function but ha ve\nanother primar y function. The hear t produc es the\nhormone atrial natriur etic pep tide, which functions t o16 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y439", "start_char_idx": 2573, "end_char_idx": 5389, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e9aad882-d21f-415b-a3b7-89ae74ee478e": {"__data__": {"id_": "e9aad882-d21f-415b-a3b7-89ae74ee478e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "454", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0113a701-8126-44fb-acfc-a5d123b225fa", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "454", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "eb001950fd978d44fdc71aeb460f7e294fcb5a7b4e392926fc872cc21ca8d6e2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "86bfe2d0-55f4-4bfc-9749-f06b2911b8c4", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "f796cf318ee5739a0dbb3de871d64952f083168f1f012882a4bd82e816f81b8a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "reduc e blood v olume , pressure, and Na+concentr ation.\nThe g astrointestinal tr act pr oduc es various hormones\nthat aid in dig estion. The kidne ys produc e\nerythr opoietin. The th ymus pr oduc es hormones that\naid in the de velopment o f the immune s ystem. The\ngonads pr oduc e lar ge amounts o f steroid hormones ,\nincluding t estosterone in t estes and es trogen and\nprogesterone in o varies . Adipose tis sue pr oduc es\nleptin, which pr omot es satiety signals in the br ain.\n16.5 Musculosk eletal S ystem\nThe human sk eleton is an endosk eleton that is\ncomposed o f the axial and appendicular sk eleton. The\naxial sk eleton is c omposed o f the bones o f the sk ull,\nossicles o f the ear , hyoid bone , vertebral column, and\nribcag e. The sk ull consis ts of eight cr anial bones and\n14 facial bones . Six bones mak e up the os sicles o f the\nmiddle ear , while the h yoid bone is locat ed in the neck\nunder the mandible . The v ertebral column c ontains 26\nbones and surr ounds and pr otects the spinal c ord. The\nthor acic cag e consis ts of the s ternum, ribs , thor acic\nvertebrae, and c ostal car tilag es. The appendicular\nskeleton is made up o f the upper and lo wer limbs . The\npect oral gir dle is c omposed o f the cla vicles and the\nscapulae . The upper limb c ontains 30 bones in the\narm, the f orearm, and the hand. The pel vic gir dle\nattaches the lo wer limbs t o the axial sk eleton. The\nlower limb includes the bones o f the thigh, the leg , and\nthe f oot.\nThe s tructur al clas sification o f joints divides them int o\nfibrous, car tilaginous , and s ynovial joints . The bones o f\nfibrous joints ar e held t ogether b y fibr ous c onnectiv e\ntissue. Car tilaginous joints ar e joints in which the bones\nare connect ed b y car tilag e. Syno vial joints ar e joints\nthat ha ve a spac e betw een the adjoining bones . The\nmovement o f synovial joints includes ang ular and\nrotational . Ang ular mo vements ar e produc ed when the\nangle betw een the bones o f a joint chang es. Rotational\nmovement is the mo vement o f a bone as it r otat es\naround its o wn longitudinal axis .\nThe body c ontains thr ee types o f muscle tis sue:\nskeletal muscle , car diac muscle , and smooth muscle .\nMuscles ar e composed o f individual c ells cal led muscle\nfibers . Muscle fibers c onsis t of myofilaments\ncomposed o f the pr oteins actin and m yosin arr anged in\nunits cal led sar comer es. Contr action o f the muscle\noccurs b y the c ombined action o f myosin and actin\nfibers sliding pas t each other when the m yosin heads\nbind t o the actin fiber , bend, diseng age, and then\nrepeat the pr ocess.16.6 Nervous S ystem\nThe ner vous s ystem is made up o f neur ons and glia .\nNeur ons ar e specializ ed c ells that ar e capable o f\nsending electrical as w ell as chemical signals . Mos t\nneur ons c ontain dendrit es, which r eceive these signals ,\nand ax ons that send signals t o other neur ons or\ntissues . Glia ar e non-neur onal c ells in the ner vous\nsystem that suppor t neur onal de velopment and\nsignaling . Ther e are se veral types o f glia that ser ve\ndifferent functions .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3100, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "86bfe2d0-55f4-4bfc-9749-f06b2911b8c4": {"__data__": {"id_": "86bfe2d0-55f4-4bfc-9749-f06b2911b8c4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "454", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0113a701-8126-44fb-acfc-a5d123b225fa", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "454", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "eb001950fd978d44fdc71aeb460f7e294fcb5a7b4e392926fc872cc21ca8d6e2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "e9aad882-d21f-415b-a3b7-89ae74ee478e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "454", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "688aca77af0bf698062b426c23578339902f4437db8c1983e878ae650d1e591f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Neur ons ar e specializ ed c ells that ar e capable o f\nsending electrical as w ell as chemical signals . Mos t\nneur ons c ontain dendrit es, which r eceive these signals ,\nand ax ons that send signals t o other neur ons or\ntissues . Glia ar e non-neur onal c ells in the ner vous\nsystem that suppor t neur onal de velopment and\nsignaling . Ther e are se veral types o f glia that ser ve\ndifferent functions .\nNeur ons ha ve a r esting pot ential acr oss their\nmembr anes and when the y are stimulat ed b y a s trong\nenough signal fr om another neur on an action pot ential\nmay carr y an electr ochemical signal along the neur on\nto a s ynapse with another neur on. Neur otransmit ters\ncarr y signals acr oss synapses t o initiat e a r esponse in\nanother neur on.\nThe v ertebrate centr al ner vous s ystem c ontains the\nbrain and the spinal c ord, which ar e covered and\nprotected b y thr ee mening es. The br ain c ontains\nstructur ally and functional ly defined r egions . In\nmammals , these include the c ortex (which can be\nbroken do wn int o four primar y functional lobes: fr ontal ,\ntempor al, occipital , and parietal), basal g anglia ,\nthalamus , hypothalamus , limbic s ystem, c erebel lum,\nand br ains tem\u2014al though s tructur es in some o f these\ndesignations o verlap . While functions ma y be primaril y\nlocaliz ed to one s tructur e in the br ain, mos t comple x\nfunctions , like lang uage and sleep , involve neur ons in\nmultiple br ain r egions . The spinal c ord is the\ninformation superhigh way that c onnects the br ain with\nthe r est of the body thr ough its c onnections with\nperipher al ner ves. It tr ansmits sensor y and mot or input\nand also c ontr ols mot or reflexes.\nThe peripher al ner vous s ystem c ontains both the\nautonomic and sensor y-somatic ner vous s ystems . The\nautonomic ner vous s ystem pr ovides unc onscious\ncontr ol over visc eral functions and has tw o divisions:\nthe s ympathetic and par asympathetic ner vous\nsystems . The s ympathetic ner vous s ystem is activ ated\nin stressful situations t o prepar e the animal f or a \u201c fight -\nor-flight \u201d response . The par asympathetic ner vous\nsystem is activ e during r estful periods . The sensor y-\nsomatic ner vous s ystem is made o f cranial and spinal\nnerves that tr ansmit sensor y inf ormation fr om skin and\nmuscle t o the CNS and mot or commands fr om the CNS\nto the muscles .440 16 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2691, "end_char_idx": 5126, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2cf99323-34a7-4be3-8d44-b2c2f361b48e": {"__data__": {"id_": "2cf99323-34a7-4be3-8d44-b2c2f361b48e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "455", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cf922f59-dad4-4b04-8f4b-92479b5bed83", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "455", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d71be8d52d590999548e1def5e04de2ab8f3f2a467152deb486a56d921a75e99", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "22cbdd2b-9167-4f32-ac5c-979bc7a07aac", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "95668e4157d4ddaef68202b73e19e422fe7d6f66b6708f84b8436fac7c261691", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Visual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 16.2 When bact eria ar e des troyed b y\nleuk ocyt es, pyrogens ar e released int o the blood.\nPyrogens r eset the body \u2019s thermos tat t o a higher\ntemper atur e, resul ting in f ever. Ho w might p yrogens\ncause the body t emper atur e to rise?\n2.Figure 16.7 Which o f the f ollowing s tatements\nabout the dig estive system is false?\na.Chyme is a mixtur e of food and dig estive juic es\nthat is pr oduc ed in the s tomach.\nb.Food ent ers the lar ge int estine bef ore the smal l\nintestine.\nc.In the smal l intestine, chyme mix es with bile ,\nwhich emulsifies fats .\nd.The s tomach is separ ated fr om the smal l\nintestine b y the p yloric sphinct er.\n3.Figure 16.9 Which o f the f ollowing s tatements\nabout the human r espir atory system is false?\na.When w e breathe in, air tr avels fr om the\nphar ynx t o the tr achea .\nb.The br onchioles br anch int o bronchi.\nc.Alveolar ducts c onnect t o alveolar sacs .\nd.Gas e xchang e betw een the lungs and blood\ntakes plac e in the al veolus .4.Figure 16.10 Which o f the f ollowing s tatements\nabout the cir culat ory system is false?\na.Blood in the pulmonar y vein is deo xygenat ed.\nb.Blood in the inf erior v ena ca va is\ndeoxygenat ed.\nc.Blood in the pulmonar y artery is deo xygenat ed.\nd.Blood in the aor ta is o xygenat ed.\n5.Figure 16.14 Goit er, a disease caused b y iodine\ndeficiency , resul ts in the inability o f the th yroid\ngland t o form T 3and T 4. The body typical ly\nattemp ts to compensat e by producing gr eater\namounts o f TSH. Which o f the f ollowing s ymp toms\nwould y ou e xpect g oiter to cause?\na.Hypoth yroidism, r esul ting in w eight g ain, c old\nsensitivity , and r educ ed mental activity .\nb.Hyper thyroidism, r esul ting in w eight los s,\nprofuse s weating and incr eased hear t rate.\nc.Hyper thyroidism, r esul ting in w eight g ain, c old\nsensitivity , and r educ ed mental activity .\nd.Hypoth yroidism, r esul ting in w eight los s,\nprofuse s weating and incr eased hear t rate.\nReview Ques tions\n6.When fac ed with a sudden dr op in en vironmental\ntemper atur e, an endothermic animal wil l ________.\na.experienc e a dr op in its body t emper atur e\nb.wait to see if it g oes lo wer\nc.increase muscle activity t o gener ate heat\nd.add fur or fat t o incr ease insulation\n7.How ar e wastes carried t o the kidne y for remo val?\na.in cells\nb.in the urine\nc.in blood\nd.in int erstitial fluid\n8.What is the cause o f a fever of 38.3 \u00b0C (101 \u00b0F )?\na.too much heat pr oduc ed b y the body\nb.upward adjus tment o f the body t emper atur e\nset point\nc.inadequat e cooling mechanisms in the body\nd.the heat caused b y a vir al or bact erial inf ection9.Wher e does the majority o f fat dig estion tak e plac e?\na.mouth\nb.stomach\nc.smal l intestine\nd.large int estine\n10.The bile fr om the liv er is deliv ered to the\n________.\na.stomach\nb.liver\nc.smal l intestine\nd.colon\n11.Which o f the f ollowing s tatements is not true?\na.Essential nutrients can be s ynthesiz ed b y the\nbody .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2997, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "22cbdd2b-9167-4f32-ac5c-979bc7a07aac": {"__data__": {"id_": "22cbdd2b-9167-4f32-ac5c-979bc7a07aac", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "455", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cf922f59-dad4-4b04-8f4b-92479b5bed83", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "455", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d71be8d52d590999548e1def5e04de2ab8f3f2a467152deb486a56d921a75e99", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "2cf99323-34a7-4be3-8d44-b2c2f361b48e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "455", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c04afbce16eda9ed74a34cc81e81a24ac8ea9fde07b1d00f3aa28bcb0a7ebda5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "a.too much heat pr oduc ed b y the body\nb.upward adjus tment o f the body t emper atur e\nset point\nc.inadequat e cooling mechanisms in the body\nd.the heat caused b y a vir al or bact erial inf ection9.Wher e does the majority o f fat dig estion tak e plac e?\na.mouth\nb.stomach\nc.smal l intestine\nd.large int estine\n10.The bile fr om the liv er is deliv ered to the\n________.\na.stomach\nb.liver\nc.smal l intestine\nd.colon\n11.Which o f the f ollowing s tatements is not true?\na.Essential nutrients can be s ynthesiz ed b y the\nbody .\nb.Vitamins ar e requir ed in smal l quantities f or\nbodil y function.\nc.Some amino acids can be s ynthesiz ed b y the\nbody , while others need t o be ob tained fr om\ndiet.\nd.Vitamins c ome in tw o cat egories: fat -soluble\nand w ater-soluble .16 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions 441", "start_char_idx": 2467, "end_char_idx": 3280, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "17c2f193-c1ea-42e6-86ff-2bfa679e6f15": {"__data__": {"id_": "17c2f193-c1ea-42e6-86ff-2bfa679e6f15", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "456", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7f806896-7c05-4d59-82d4-a00c91e73d78", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "456", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "60f3f6f36b3deed494020a646124815ed06c354d09d585a55ebf5308e4d7965a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "12.The r espir atory system ________.\na.provides body tis sues with o xygen\nb.provides body tis sues with o xygen and carbon\ndioxide\nc.establishes ho w man y breaths ar e tak en per\nminut e\nd.provides the body with carbon dio xide\n13.Which is the or der o f airflow during inhalation?\na.nasal ca vity, trachea , larynx, br onchi,\nbronchioles , alveoli\nb.nasal ca vity, larynx, tr achea , bronchi,\nbronchioles , alveoli\nc.nasal ca vity, larynx, tr achea , bronchioles ,\nbronchi, al veoli\nd.nasal ca vity, trachea , larynx, br onchi,\nbronchioles , alveoli\n14.Wher e does the right v entricle send blood?\na.the head\nb.the upper body\nc.the lungs\nd.the lo wer body\n15.During the s ystolic phase o f the car diac cy cle, the\nhear t is ________.\na.contr acting\nb.relaxing\nc.contr acting and r elaxing\nd.filling with blood\n16.How do ar teries diff er fr om v eins?\na.Arteries ha ve thick er w all layers t o\naccommodat e the chang es in pr essure from\nthe hear t.\nb.Arteries carr y blood.\nc.Arteries ha ve thinner w all layers and v alves\nand mo ve blood b y the action o f skeletal\nmuscle .\nd.Arteries ar e thin w alled and ar e used f or gas\nexchang e.\n17.Mos t of the hormones pr oduc ed b y the ant erior\npituitar y per form what function?\na.regulate growth\nb.regulate the sleep cy cle\nc.regulate production o f other hormones\nd.regulate blood v olume and blood pr essure18.What is the function o f the hormone\nerythr opoietin?\na.stimulat es pr oduction o f red blood c ells\nb.stimulat es muscle gr owth\nc.causes the fight -or-flight r esponse\nd.causes t estosterone pr oduction\n19.Which endocrine glands ar e as sociat ed with the\nkidne ys?\na.thyroid glands\nb.pituitar y glands\nc.adrenal glands\nd.gonads\n20.Among other bones , the axial sk eleton includes\nthe ________.\na.thor acic cag e and v ertebral column\nb.thor acic cag e and pect oral gir dle\nc.skull and pel vic gir dle\nd.pect oral and pel vic gir dles\n21.The pect oral gir dle suppor ts the ________.\na.arms\nb.legs\nc.skull\nd.thor acic cag e\n22.Which c omponent is r esponsible f or initial ly\nstimulating a muscle c ontr action?\na.proteins\nb.electr ochemical signals\nc.plasma membr anes\nd.striations\n23.What kind o f muscle tis sue is f ound surr ounding\nthe urinar y bladder?\na.cardiac\nb.skeletal\nc.striat ed\nd.smooth\n24.Neur ons c ontain _________, which can r eceive\nsignals fr om other neur ons.\na.axons\nb.mitochondria\nc.dendrit es\nd.Golgi bodies442 16 \u2022 R eview Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2467, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "56d4b520-3492-4add-9bb0-11eeb05a9103": {"__data__": {"id_": "56d4b520-3492-4add-9bb0-11eeb05a9103", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "457", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "75932f10-21c9-4a14-bc3b-2738f724fa38", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "457", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "af53fbb0889229c762e07dbe48d51b4e0198683452254f312f84b1f7f3a87534", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "25.The par t of the br ain that is r esponsible f or\ncoordination during mo vement is the ______.\na.limbic s ystem\nb.thalamus\nc.cerebel lum\nd.parietal lobe26.Which par t of the ner vous s ystem dir ectly contr ols\nthe dig estive system?\na.parasympathetic ner vous s ystem\nb.centr al ner vous s ystem\nc.spinal c ord\nd.sensor y-somatic ner vous s ystem\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n27.Describe ho w the body \u2019s mechanisms maintain\nhomeos tasis?\n28.Why is e xcretion impor tant in or der t o achie ve\nosmotic balanc e?\n29.What is the r ole o f the ac cessory organs in\ndigestion?\n30.What is the r ole o f miner als in maintaining g ood\nheal th?\n31.Discus s wh y obesity is a gr owing epidemic.\n32.Describe the function o f these t erms and describe\nwher e the y are locat ed: main br onchus , trachea ,\nalveoli.\n33.How does the s tructur e of alveoli maximiz e gas\nexchang e?\n34.Describe the car diac cy cle.\n35.What is a similarity and a diff erence betw een an\nexocrine gland and an endocrine gland?36.Describe ho w hormone r eceptors can pla y a r ole in\naffecting the siz e of the r esponses o f tissues t o\nhormones .\n37.Man y hormone s ystems r egulate body functions\nthrough opposing hormone actions . Describe ho w\nopposing hormone actions r egulate blood-gluc ose\nlevels?\n38.What mo vements oc cur at the hip joint and knees\nas you bend do wn t o pick something up?\n39.How ar e neur ons similar t o other c ells? Ho w ar e\nthey unique?\n40.What ar e the main functions o f the spinal c ord?\n41.What ar e the main diff erences betw een the\nsympathetic and par asympathetic br anches o f the\nautonomic ner vous s ystem?\n42.What ar e the main functions o f the sensor y-\nsomatic ner vous s ystem?16 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions 443", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1737, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c5652a5e-0283-44cb-bce2-04730bf93a8d": {"__data__": {"id_": "c5652a5e-0283-44cb-bce2-04730bf93a8d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "458", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b5da048c-7861-43b2-99e5-aac69414dd3a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "458", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b3bebc7230639aa806ad9509882e43b3182b995fffce88eade9d7473a3df1414", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "444 16 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 72, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8f473201-a1b3-4376-b116-3b4cd9c0ac0d": {"__data__": {"id_": "8f473201-a1b3-4376-b116-3b4cd9c0ac0d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "459", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c4836a06-d4ce-4993-bc24-14219dbb9f70", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "459", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "72cc7bef1925a9a1faea38dc1e72461c4f2ea45d8730b7e8a053d9b1df152226", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 17\nThe Immune Sy stem and Disease\n17.1 Viruses\n17.2 Inna te Immunity\n17.3 Adap tive Immunity\n17.4 Disrup tions in the Immune Sy stem\nOrganisms ha ve a wide arr ay of adap tations f or pr eventing at tack s of par asites\nand diseases . The v ertebrate def ense s ystems , including those o f humans , are comple x and\nmultilayered, with def enses unique t o vertebrates. These unique v ertebrate def enses int eract with\nother def ense s ystems inherit ed fr om anc estral lineag es, and include c omple x and specific\npathog en recognition and memor y mechanisms . Resear ch c ontinues t o unr avel the c omple xities\nand vulner abilities o f the immune s ystem.\nDespit e a poor unders tanding o f the w orkings o f the body in the earl y 18th c entur y in Eur ope, the\npractic e of inoculation as a method t o prevent the o ften-deadl y eff ects o f smal lpox was\nintroduc ed fr om the c ourts of the Ot toman Empir e. The method in volved causing limit ed inf ection\nwith the smal lpox virus b y intr oducing the pus o f an aff ected individual t o a scr atch in an\nuninf ected person. The r esul ting inf ection w as milder than if it had been caught natur ally and\nmor tality r ates w ere sho wn t o be about tw o per cent r ather than 30 per cent fr om natur al\ninfections . Mor eover, the inoculation g ave the individual immunity t o the disease . It w as fr om\nthese earl y experienc es with inoculation that the methods o f vaccination w ere de veloped, in\nwhich a w eakened or r elativ ely harmles s (kil led) deriv ative of a pathog en is intr oduc ed int o theFIGURE 17.1 (a) This smal lpox (variola) v accine is deriv ed fr om cal ves e xposed t o cowpo x virus . Vaccines pr ovoke a\nreaction in the immune s ystem that pr epar es it f or a subsequent inf ection b y smal lpox. (b) Vie wed under a\ntransmis sion electr on micr oscope, you can see the v ariola\u2019 s dumbbel l-shaped s tructur e that c ontains the vir al DNA .\n(credit a: modification o f work b y James Gathan y, CDC; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Dr. Fred Murph y; Syl via\nWhit field, CDC; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2152, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "353f58a9-747d-4074-af6c-16f0ce69ffc9": {"__data__": {"id_": "353f58a9-747d-4074-af6c-16f0ce69ffc9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "460", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f2bbae24-697c-461d-8a63-646f10b90c2e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "460", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "54e8de48f1201e269bc062017d2b6d8c55f7dcf57b7d0a2e0a3271cfeb090f1c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "2bfc85c9-3d60-43c1-8734-84c64615dede", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "c2c4d0a848839670e83058ac1d46e927245aad53f37345bb10063250a48161dd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "individual . The v accination induc es immunity t o the disease with f ew of the risk s of being inf ected.\nA modern unders tanding o f the causes o f the inf ectious disease and the mechanisms o f the\nimmune s ystem beg an in the lat e 19th c entur y and c ontinues t o grow today.\n17.1 Viruses\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe ho w viruses w ere firs t disc overed and ho w the y are det ected\n\u2022Explain the detailed s teps o f viral replication\n\u2022Describe ho w vaccines ar e used in pr evention and tr eatment o f viral diseases\nFIGURE 17.2 (a) The t obac co mosaic virus , seen b y transmis sion electr on micr oscopy, was the firs t virus t o be\ndisc overed. (b) The lea ves o f an inf ected plant ar e sho wn. (cr edit a: scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell; credit b:\nmodification o f work b y USD A, Depar tment o f Plant P atholog y Archiv e, Nor th Car olina Stat e Univ ersity)\nNo one kno ws exactl y when viruses emer ged or fr om wher e the y came , sinc e viruses do not lea ve\nhistorical f ootprints such as f ossils. Modern viruses ar e thought t o be a mosaic o f bits and piec es\nof nucleic acids pick ed up fr om v arious sour ces along their r espectiv e evolutionar y paths . Viruses\nareacellular , par asitic entities that ar e not clas sified within an y domain because the y are not\nconsider ed aliv e. The y ha ve no plasma membr ane, internal or ganel les, or metabolic pr ocesses,\nand the y do not divide . Ins tead, the y inf ect a hos t cell and use the hos t\u2019s replication pr ocesses t o\nproduc e progeny virus par ticles . Viruses inf ect al l forms o f organisms including bact eria, archaea ,\nfungi, plants , and animals . Living things gr ow, metaboliz e, and r eproduc e. Viruses r eplicat e, but t o\ndo so , the y are entir ely dependent on their hos t cells. The y do not metaboliz e or gr ow, but ar e\nassembled in their matur e form.\nViruses ar e div erse . The y vary in their s tructur e, their r eplication methods , and in their tar get hos ts\nor even hos t cells. While mos t biological div ersity can be unders tood thr ough e volutionar y his tory,\nsuch as ho w species ha ve adap ted to conditions and en vironments , much about virus origins and\nevolution r emains unkno wn.\nHow Viruses R eplic ate\nViruses w ere firs t disc overed aft er the de velopment o f a por celain fil ter, cal led the Chamberland-\nPasteur fil ter, which c ould r emo ve all bact eria visible under the micr oscope fr om an y liquid\nsample . In 1886, Adolph Me yer demons trated that a disease o f tobac co plants , tobac co mosaic\ndisease , could be tr ansferred fr om a diseased plant t o a heal thy one thr ough liquid plant e xtracts .\nIn 1892, Dmitri Iv anowski sho wed that this disease c ould be tr ansmit ted in this w ay even aft er the\nChamberland-P asteur fil ter had r emo ved al l viable bact eria fr om the e xtract. Stil l, it w as man y\nyears bef ore it w as pr oven that these \u201c filterable \u201d inf ectious ag ents w ere not simpl y very smal l\nbact eria but w ere a ne w type o f tiny, disease -causing par ticle .\nVirions , single virus par ticles , are very smal l, about 20\u2013250 nanomet ers (1 nanomet er = 1/\n1,000,000 mm). These individual virus par ticles ar e the inf ectious f orm o f a virus outside the hos t\ncell.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3312, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2bfc85c9-3d60-43c1-8734-84c64615dede": {"__data__": {"id_": "2bfc85c9-3d60-43c1-8734-84c64615dede", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "460", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f2bbae24-697c-461d-8a63-646f10b90c2e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "460", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "54e8de48f1201e269bc062017d2b6d8c55f7dcf57b7d0a2e0a3271cfeb090f1c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "353f58a9-747d-4074-af6c-16f0ce69ffc9", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "460", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5cd347767e6f2ba80c66fec323ed302888bb2bd1783be146990f76198f70db7a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In 1892, Dmitri Iv anowski sho wed that this disease c ould be tr ansmit ted in this w ay even aft er the\nChamberland-P asteur fil ter had r emo ved al l viable bact eria fr om the e xtract. Stil l, it w as man y\nyears bef ore it w as pr oven that these \u201c filterable \u201d inf ectious ag ents w ere not simpl y very smal l\nbact eria but w ere a ne w type o f tiny, disease -causing par ticle .\nVirions , single virus par ticles , are very smal l, about 20\u2013250 nanomet ers (1 nanomet er = 1/\n1,000,000 mm). These individual virus par ticles ar e the inf ectious f orm o f a virus outside the hos t\ncell. Unlik e bact eria (which ar e about 100 times lar ger), w e cannot see viruses with a light\nmicr oscope, with the e xception o f some lar ge virions o f the po xvirus famil y (Figure 17.3 ).446 17 \u2022 The Immune S ystem and Disease\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2714, "end_char_idx": 3576, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "959eaa95-8432-43e2-8fd1-035617df9ffc": {"__data__": {"id_": "959eaa95-8432-43e2-8fd1-035617df9ffc", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "461", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f7f75d36-2a98-4ecc-806a-3bb0eb6c3757", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "461", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5811af4201b56a096e19b594d60ee656ecd1fa511e4c9be8ca895bab79290f64", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 17.3 The siz e of a virus is v ery smal l relativ e to the siz e of cells and or ganel les.\nIt was not until the de velopment o f the electr on micr oscope in the 1940s that scientis ts got their firs t good vie w of\nthe s tructur e of the t obac co mosaic virus ( Figure 17.2 ) and others . The sur face structur e of virions can be obser ved\nby both scanning and tr ansmis sion electr on micr oscopy, wher eas the int ernal s tructur es o f the virus can onl y be\nobser ved in imag es fr om a tr ansmis sion electr on micr oscope ( Figure 17.4 ).\nFIGURE 17.4 The ebola virus is sho wn her e as visualiz ed thr ough (a) a scanning electr on micr ograph and (b) a tr ansmis sion electr on\nmicr ograph. (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Cynthia Goldsmith, CDC; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Thomas W . Geisber t, Bos ton\nUniv ersity School o f Medicine; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nThe use o f this t echnolog y has al lowed for the disc overy of man y viruses o f all types o f living or ganisms . The y were\ninitial ly grouped b y shar ed morpholog y, meaning their siz e, shape , and dis tinguishing s tructur es. Later, groups o f\nviruses w ere clas sified b y the type o f nucleic acid the y contained, DNA or RNA , and whether their nucleic acid w as\nsingle - or double -stranded. Mor e recently, molecular anal ysis o f viral replication cy cles has fur ther r efined their\nclas sification.\nAvirion consis ts of a nucleic-acid c ore, an out er pr otein c oating , and sometimes an out er en velope made o f protein\nand phospholipid membr anes deriv ed fr om the hos t cell. The mos t visible diff erence betw een members o f viral\nfamilies is their morpholog y, which is quit e div erse . An int eresting f eatur e of viral comple xity is that the c omple xity\nof the hos t does not c orrelate to the c omple xity o f the virion. Some o f the mos t comple x virion s tructur es ar e\nobser ved in bact eriophag es, viruses that inf ect the simples t living or ganisms , bact eria.\nViruses c ome in man y shapes and siz es, but these ar e consis tent and dis tinct f or each vir al famil y (Figure 17.5 ). All\nvirions ha ve a nucleic-acid g enome c overed b y a pr otectiv e layer of protein, cal led a capsid . The capsid is made o f\nprotein subunits cal led capsomer es. Some vir al capsids ar e simple pol yhedr al \u201cspher es,\u201d wher eas others ar e quit e17.1 \u2022 Viruses 447", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2407, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a35e6702-92d2-4282-b5f5-f7479bdb8639": {"__data__": {"id_": "a35e6702-92d2-4282-b5f5-f7479bdb8639", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "462", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "585f47e8-3b6e-4ec9-ae77-7223b3fd2382", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "462", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c11c1a0a741ce1cb74192762789f8e5474b5bc00315a51e682c4b99bd5d219c4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "95c78954-69f7-40ee-9dc4-88e98d160360", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "0e3b30df78c61e22a182083587ad71e67740f1712069b255b0992e01f7773343", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "comple x in s tructur e. The out er structur e surr ounding the capsid o f some viruses is cal led the viral en velope . All\nviruses use some sor t ofglycoproteinto attach t o their hos t cells at molecules on the c ell cal led vir al receptors. The\nvirus e xploits these c ell-sur face molecules , which the c ell uses f or some other purpose , as a w ay to recogniz e and\ninfect specific c ell types . For example , the measles virus uses a c ell-sur face glycoprotein in humans that normal ly\nfunctions in immune r eactions and pos sibly in the sperm-eg g int eraction at f ertilization. A ttachment is a\nrequir ement f or viruses t o lat er penetr ate the c ell membr ane, inject the vir al genome , and c omplet e their r eplication\ninside the c ell.\nThe T4 bact eriophag e, which inf ects the E. colibact erium, is among the mos t comple x virion kno wn; T4 has a\nprotein tail s tructur e that the virus uses t o attach t o the hos t cell and a head s tructur e that houses its DNA .\nAdeno virus , a nonen veloped animal virus that causes r espir atory illnes ses in humans , uses pr otein spik es\nprotruding fr om its capsomer es to attach t o the hos t cell. Nonen veloped viruses also include those that cause polio\n(polio virus), plantar w arts (papil loma virus), and hepatitis A (hepatitis A virus). Nonen veloped viruses t end t o be\nmor e robus t and mor e lik ely to sur vive under harsh c onditions , such as the g ut.\nEnveloped virions lik e HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), the causativ e ag ent in AIDS (ac quired immune\ndeficiency s yndr ome), c onsis t of nucleic acid (RNA in the case o f HIV ) and capsid pr oteins surr ounded b y a\nphospholipid bila yer en velope and its as sociat ed pr oteins ( Figure 17.5 ). Chick en po x, influenza , and mumps ar e\nexamples o f diseases caused b y viruses with en velopes . Because o f the fr agility o f the en velope , nonen veloped\nviruses ar e mor e resistant t o chang es in t emper atur e, pH, and some disinf ectants than en veloped viruses .\nOverall, the shape o f the virion and the pr esenc e or absenc e of an en velope t ells us lit tle about what diseases the\nviruses ma y cause or what species the y might inf ect, but is s till a useful means t o begin vir al clas sification.\nVISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 17.5 Viruses can be c omple x in shape or r elativ ely simple . This fig ure sho ws thr ee relativ ely comple x virions: the bact eriophag e\nT4, with its DNA -containing head gr oup and tail fibers that at tach t o hos t cells; adeno virus , which uses spik es fr om its capsid t o bind t o the\nhost cells; and HIV , which uses gl ycoproteins embedded in its en velope t o do so . Notic e that HIV has pr oteins cal led matrix pr oteins ,\ninternal t o the en velope , which help s tabiliz e virion shape . HIV is a r etrovirus , which means it r everse tr anscribes its RNA g enome int o DNA ,\nwhich is then splic ed int o the hos t\u2019s DNA . (credit \u201cbact eriophag e, adeno virus\u201d : modification o f work b y NCBI, NIH; cr edit \u201cHIV r etrovirus\u201d :\nmodification o f work b y NIAID , NIH)\nWhich o f the f ollowing s tatements about virus s tructur e is true?\na.All viruses ar e encased in a vir al membr ane.\nb.The capsomer e is made up o f smal l protein subunits cal led capsids .\nc.DNA is the g enetic mat erial in al l viruses .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3315, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "95c78954-69f7-40ee-9dc4-88e98d160360": {"__data__": {"id_": "95c78954-69f7-40ee-9dc4-88e98d160360", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "462", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "585f47e8-3b6e-4ec9-ae77-7223b3fd2382", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "462", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c11c1a0a741ce1cb74192762789f8e5474b5bc00315a51e682c4b99bd5d219c4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "a35e6702-92d2-4282-b5f5-f7479bdb8639", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "462", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "759c3bf57363a5675aa134e435ba5a55aa52b6cb1843cca9ff983864ba98cb8c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "HIV is a r etrovirus , which means it r everse tr anscribes its RNA g enome int o DNA ,\nwhich is then splic ed int o the hos t\u2019s DNA . (credit \u201cbact eriophag e, adeno virus\u201d : modification o f work b y NCBI, NIH; cr edit \u201cHIV r etrovirus\u201d :\nmodification o f work b y NIAID , NIH)\nWhich o f the f ollowing s tatements about virus s tructur e is true?\na.All viruses ar e encased in a vir al membr ane.\nb.The capsomer e is made up o f smal l protein subunits cal led capsids .\nc.DNA is the g enetic mat erial in al l viruses .\nd.Glycoproteins help the virus at tach t o the hos t cell.\nUnlik e all living or ganisms that use DNA as their g enetic mat erial , viruses ma y use either DNA or RNA as theirs . The\n448 17 \u2022 The Immune S ystem and Disease\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2792, "end_char_idx": 3572, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fb5d205a-e0a6-4169-92bc-ec77bdc0fbc2": {"__data__": {"id_": "fb5d205a-e0a6-4169-92bc-ec77bdc0fbc2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "463", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "05b28976-466d-4937-b5f8-0483b1bd1865", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "463", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c4c69f92c7a5b06b314c99a2f9b0ba20db1f7a5e3dd4534a158d27a12eb4baca", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "28530e61-73e0-470c-a0be-6ee7229f043e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "a18129388e367fe204c3c0ed2feb05bd21f113117814038335dbe93e8cf41e04", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "virus c ore contains the g enome or t otal g enetic c ontent o f the virus . Viral genomes t end t o be smal l compar ed to\nbact eria or euk aryotes, containing onl y those g enes that c ode f or pr oteins the virus cannot g et fr om the hos t cell.\nThis g enetic mat erial ma y be single -stranded or double -stranded. It ma y also be linear or cir cular . While mos t\nviruses c ontain a single segment o f nucleic acid, others ha ve genomes that c onsis t of several segments .\nDNA viruses ha ve a DNA c ore. The vir al DNA dir ects the hos t cell\u2019s replication pr oteins t o synthesiz e ne w copies o f\nthe vir al genome and t o transcribe and tr anslat e that g enome int o vir al pr oteins . DNA viruses cause human diseases\nsuch as chick enpo x, hepatitis B , and some v ener eal diseases lik e herpes and g enital w arts.\nRNA viruses c ontain onl y RNA in their c ores. To replicat e their g enomes in the hos t cell, the g enomes o f RNA viruses\nencode enzymes not f ound in hos t cells. RNA pol ymer ase enzymes ar e not as s table as DNA pol ymer ases and o ften\nmak e mis takes during tr anscrip tion. F or this r eason, mutations , chang es in the nucleotide sequenc e, in RNA viruses\noccur mor e frequentl y than in DNA viruses . This leads t o mor e rapid e volution and chang e in RNA viruses . For\nexample , the fact that influenza is an RNA virus is one r eason a ne w flu v accine is needed e very year. Human\ndiseases caused b y RNA viruses include hepatitis C, measles , and r abies .\nViruses can be seen as oblig ate intr acellular par asites. The virus mus t attach t o a living c ell, be tak en inside ,\nmanufactur e its pr oteins and c opy its g enome , and find a w ay to escape the c ell so the virus can inf ect other c ells\nand ul timat ely other individuals . Viruses can inf ect onl y certain species o f hos ts and onl y certain c ells within that\nhost. The molecular basis f or this specificity is that a par ticular sur face molecule , kno wn as the vir al receptor, mus t\nbe found on the hos t cell sur face for the virus t o attach. Also , metabolic diff erences seen in diff erent c ell types\nbased on diff erential g ene e xpression ar e a lik ely fact or in which c ells a virus ma y use t o replicat e. The c ell mus t be\nmaking the subs tanc es the virus needs , such as enzymes the virus g enome itself does not ha ve genes f or, or the\nvirus wil l not be able t o replicat e using that c ell.\nSteps o f Virus Inf ections\nA virus mus t \u201ctake over\u201d a c ell to replicat e. The vir al replication cy cle can pr oduc e dramatic biochemical and\nstructur al chang es in the hos t cell, which ma y cause c ell damag e. These chang es, cal ledcytopathic effects , can\nchang e cell functions or e ven des troy the c ell. Some inf ected c ells, such as those inf ected b y the c ommon c old virus\n(rhino virus), die thr ough l ysis (burs ting) orapop tosis (programmed c ell death or \u201c cell suicide \u201d), releasing al l the\nprogeny virions at onc e. The s ymp toms o f viral diseases r esul t from the immune r esponse t o the virus , which\nattemp ts to contr ol and eliminat e the virus fr om the body , and fr om c ell damag e caused b y the virus . Man y animal\nviruses , such as HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), lea ve the inf ected c ells of the immune s ystem b y a pr ocess\nknown as budding , wher e virions lea ve the c ell individual ly. During the budding pr ocess, the c ell does not under go\nlysis and is not immediat ely kil led.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3474, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "28530e61-73e0-470c-a0be-6ee7229f043e": {"__data__": {"id_": "28530e61-73e0-470c-a0be-6ee7229f043e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "463", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "05b28976-466d-4937-b5f8-0483b1bd1865", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "463", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c4c69f92c7a5b06b314c99a2f9b0ba20db1f7a5e3dd4534a158d27a12eb4baca", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "fb5d205a-e0a6-4169-92bc-ec77bdc0fbc2", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "463", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "37c1d25b58b9269fce87dafd9d42541c67607d203a82383f58d621f2b664f832", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Man y animal\nviruses , such as HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), lea ve the inf ected c ells of the immune s ystem b y a pr ocess\nknown as budding , wher e virions lea ve the c ell individual ly. During the budding pr ocess, the c ell does not under go\nlysis and is not immediat ely kil led. Ho wever, the damag e to the c ells that HIV inf ects ma y mak e it impos sible f or the\ncells to function as mediat ors o f immunity , even though the c ells remain aliv e for a period o f time . Mos t productiv e\nviral inf ections f ollow similar s teps in the virus r eplication cy cle: at tachment, penetr ation, unc oating , replication,\nassembl y, and r elease .\nA virus at taches t o a specific r eceptor sit e on the hos t-cell membr ane thr ough at tachment pr oteins in the capsid or\nproteins embedded in its en velope . The at tachment is specific, and typical ly a virus wil l onl y attach t o cells of one or\na few species and onl y certain c ell types within those species with the appr opriat e receptors.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nView this video (http://opens tax.org/l/influenza2) for a visual e xplanation o f how influenza at tack s the body .\nUnlik e animal viruses , the nucleic acid o f bact eriophag es is inject ed int o the hos t cell nak ed, lea ving the capsid\noutside the c ell. Plant and animal viruses can ent er their c ells thr ough endocyt osis , in which the c ell membr ane\nsurr ounds and eng ulfs the entir e virus . Some en veloped viruses ent er the c ell when the vir al en velope fuses dir ectly\nwith the c ell membr ane. Onc e inside the c ell, the vir al capsid is degr aded and the vir al nucleic acid is r eleased,\nwhich then bec omes a vailable f or replication and tr anscrip tion.\nThe r eplication mechanism depends on the vir al genome . DNA viruses usual ly use hos t cell proteins and enzymes t o\nmak e additional DNA that is used t o copy the g enome or be tr anscribed t o mes seng er RNA (mRNA), which is then\nused in pr otein s ynthesis . RNA viruses , such as the influenza virus , usual ly use the RNA c ore as a t emplat e for\n17.1 \u2022 Viruses 449", "start_char_idx": 3181, "end_char_idx": 5271, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3b204e2a-6494-404a-8ab3-f6c52b281a7e": {"__data__": {"id_": "3b204e2a-6494-404a-8ab3-f6c52b281a7e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "464", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d77d313c-3bf8-4174-a062-68e63afbdc05", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "464", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1f9aea8887ee57b9d5377dc65ec781aba59c351ebadbbb1e1089a5046d430f30", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "synthesis o f viral genomic RNA and mRNA . The vir al mRNA is tr anslat ed int o vir al enzymes and capsid pr oteins t o\nassemble ne w virions ( Figure 17.6 ). Of c ourse , ther e are exceptions t o this pat tern. If a hos t cell does not pr ovide\nthe enzymes nec essary for vir al replication, vir al genes suppl y the inf ormation t o dir ect s ynthesis o f the mis sing\nproteins . Retroviruses , such as HIV , have an RNA g enome that mus t be r everse tr anscribed t o mak e DNA , which\nthen is inser ted int o the hos t\u2019s DNA . To convert RNA int o DNA , retroviruses c ontain g enes that enc ode the virus -\nspecific enzyme r everse tr anscrip tase that tr anscribes an RNA t emplat e to DNA . The fact that HIV pr oduc es some o f\nits o wn enzymes , which ar e not f ound in the hos t, has al lowed resear chers t o de velop drugs that inhibit these\nenzymes . These drugs , including the r everse tr anscrip tase inhibit or AZT , inhibit HIV r eplication b y reducing the\nactivity o f the enzyme without aff ecting the hos t\u2019s metabolism.\nThe las t stage of viral replication is the r elease o f the ne w virions int o the hos t organism, wher e the y are able t o\ninfect adjac ent c ells and r epeat the r eplication cy cle. Some viruses ar e released when the hos t cell dies and other\nviruses can lea ve inf ected c ells by budding thr ough the membr ane without dir ectly kil ling the c ell.\nVISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 17.6 In influenza virus inf ection, gl ycoproteins at tach t o a hos t epithelial c ell. As a r esul t, the virus is eng ulfed. RNA and pr oteins\nare made and as sembled int o ne w virions .\nInfluenza virus is pack aged in a vir al en velope , which fuses with the plasma membr ane. This w ay, the virus can e xit\nthe hos t cell without kil ling it. What adv antag e does the virus g ain b y keeping the hos t cell aliv e?\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nClick thr ough this tutorial (http://opens tax.org/l/viruses2) on viruses t o identif y structur es, modes o f transmis sion,\nreplication, and mor e.\nViruses and Disease\nViruses cause a v ariety o f diseases in animals , including humans , ranging fr om the c ommon c old t o pot ential ly fatal\nillnes ses lik e meningitis ( Figure 17.7 ). These diseases can be tr eated b y antivir al drugs or b y vaccines , but some\nviruses , such as HIV , are capable o f avoiding the immune r esponse and mutating so as t o bec ome r esistant t o\nantivir al drugs .\n450 17 \u2022 The Immune S ystem and Disease\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2501, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "991c8a1c-8677-4e38-9a79-2048d378c95a": {"__data__": {"id_": "991c8a1c-8677-4e38-9a79-2048d378c95a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "465", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4d95c726-8a50-4144-8289-e1a3e3ddc369", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "465", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "bb5a9e0714539d36be96c7fa32182e2a6afbde7e3ca816bcd0738d921cb3eb30", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 17.7 Viruses ar e the cause o f dozens o f ailments in humans , ranging fr om mild il lnes ses t o serious diseases . (credit: modification\nof work b y Mik ael H\u00e4g gstr\u00f6m)\nVaccines f or Prevention\nWhile w e do ha ve limit ed numbers o f effectiv e antivir al drugs , such as those used t o treat HIV and influenza , the\nprimar y method o f contr olling vir al disease is b y vaccination, which is int ended t o prevent outbr eaks by building\nimmunity t o a virus or virus famil y. Avaccine may be pr epar ed using w eakened liv e viruses , killed viruses , or\nmolecular subunits o f the virus . In g ener al, live viruses lead t o bet ter immunity , but ha ve the pos sibility o f causing\ndisease at some lo w frequency . Killed vir al vaccine and the subunit viruses ar e both incapable o f causing disease ,\nbut in g ener al lead t o les s eff ectiv e or long-las ting immunity .\nWeakened liv e vir al vaccines ar e designed in the labor atory to cause f ew symp toms in r ecipients while giving them\nimmunity ag ains t futur e inf ections . Polio w as one disease that r epresent ed a miles tone in the use o f vaccines . Polio\nepidemics oc curr ed with incr easing fr equency and impact as the tw entieth c entur y progressed, bec oming a\nterrif ying and tr agic e vent each summer . Tens o f thousands o f people died and man y mor e were par alyzed; childr en\nmade up a lar ge por tion o f the victims . Using kil led virus t ested on the HeL a cell line (original ly ob tained fr om\nHenriet ta Lacks and then mas s produc ed to meet the need), Jonas Salk de veloped a suc cessful v accine . Mas s\nimmunization campaigns in the U .S. in the 1950s (kil led v accine) and 1960s (liv e vaccine) es sential ly eradicat ed the\ndisease . The suc cess of the polio v accine pa ved the w ay for the r outine dispensation o f childhood v accines ag ains t\nmeasles , mumps , rubel la, chick enpo x, and other diseases .\nLive vaccines ar e usual ly made b yattenua tion (weakening ) of the \u201c wild-type \u201d (disease -causing ) virus b y growing it\nin the labor atory in tis sues or at t emper atur es diff erent fr om what the virus is ac customed t o in the hos t. For\nexample , the virus ma y be gr own in c ells in a t est tube , in bir d embr yos, or in liv e animals . The adap tation t o these\nnew cells or t emper atur e induc es mutations in the virus\u2019 g enomes , allowing them t o grow bet ter in the labor atory\nwhile inhibiting their ability t o cause disease when r eintr oduc ed int o the c onditions f ound in the hos t. These\nattenuat ed viruses thus s till cause an inf ection, but the y do not gr ow very well, allowing the immune r esponse t o\ndevelop in time t o prevent major disease . The dang er of using liv e vaccines , which ar e usual ly mor e eff ectiv e than\nkilled v accines , is the lo w but significant risk that these viruses wil l revert back t o their disease -causing f orm b y\nback mutations . Back mutations oc cur when the v accine under goes mutations in the hos t such that it r eadap ts to\nthe hos t and can ag ain cause disease , which can then be spr ead t o other humans in an epidemic. This happened as\nrecently as 2007 in Nig eria wher e mutations in a polio v accine led t o an epidemic o f polio in that c ountr y.17.1 \u2022 Viruses 451", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3279, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1bb773b9-3a1f-4f4c-aad7-2278a9867b92": {"__data__": {"id_": "1bb773b9-3a1f-4f4c-aad7-2278a9867b92", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "466", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5c7701df-877e-4b96-b334-035cfe1e0445", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "466", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d529e971d0b562ffdc06560e9fbae9c7dd855b215e536babc48d20fa9047fe34", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "948161df-611b-45bd-8a4b-4a384d89c7a0", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "57fae01f941fe0789b047fdcb536f65f435eacf7a886f3c876a7352d105e29f2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Some v accines ar e in c ontinuous de velopment because c ertain viruses , such as influenza and HIV , have a high\nmutation r ate compar ed to other viruses or hos t cells. With influenza , mutation in g enes f or the sur face molecules\nhelps the virus e vade the pr otectiv e immunity that ma y ha ve been ob tained in a pr evious influenza season, making it\nnecessary for individuals t o get vaccinat ed e very year. Other viruses , such as those that cause the childhood\ndiseases measles , mumps , and rubel la, mutat e so lit tle that the same v accine is used y ear aft er year.\nOther v accines ar e de veloped because o f a ne w mutation o f a w ell kno wn type o f virus . Cor onaviruses ar e very\ncommon in natur e and v arious diseases , but a specific mutation o f a par ticular c oronavirus led t o the C OVID-19\npandemic. The r apid de velopment o f suc cessful v accines w as due in par t to scientis ts who had been w orking with\nother c oronaviruses prior t o the pandemic. Kizzmekia S. Corbet t, a r esear ch fellow and scientific lead, had deep\nexperienc e and kno wledg e of coronaviruses , which w as ins trumental in de veloping one o f the firs t vaccines\n(Moderna). She is no w appl ying that e xperienc e to other r espir atory diseases and v accine de velopment pr ocesses.\nVaccines and Antivir al Drugs f or Treatment\nIn some cases , vaccines can be used t o treat an activ e vir al inf ection. In the case o f rabies , a fatal neur ological\ndisease tr ansmit ted in the saliv a of rabies virus -infected animals , the pr ogression o f the disease fr om the time o f the\nanimal bit e to the time it ent ers the c entr al ner vous s ystem ma y be tw o weeks or long er. This is enough time t o\nvaccinat e an individual who suspects being bit ten b y a r abid animal , and the boos ted immune r esponse fr om the\nvaccination is enough t o prevent the virus fr om ent ering ner vous tis sue. Thus , the fatal neur ological c onsequenc es\nof the disease ar e averted and the individual onl y has t o recover fr om the inf ected bit e. This appr oach is also being\nused f or the tr eatment o f Ebola , one o f the fas test and mos t deadl y viruses aff ecting humans , though usual ly\ninfecting limit ed populations . Ebola is also a leading cause o f death in g orillas. Transmit ted b y bats and gr eat apes ,\nthis virus can cause death in 70\u201390 per cent o f the inf ected within tw o weeks. Using ne wly de veloped v accines that\nboos t the immune r esponse , ther e is hope that immune s ystems o f affected individuals wil l be bet ter able t o contr ol\nthe virus , pot ential ly reducing mor tality r ates.\nAnother w ay of treating vir al inf ections is the use o f antivir al drugs . These drugs o ften ha ve limit ed ability t o cur e\nviral disease but ha ve been used t o contr ol and r educ e symp toms f or a wide v ariety o f viral diseases . For mos t\nviruses , these drugs inhibit the virus b y blocking the actions o f one or mor e of its pr oteins . It is impor tant that the\ntargeted pr oteins be enc oded f or by vir al genes and that these molecules ar e not pr esent in a heal thy hos t cell. In\nfact, f or man y years , scientis ts thought that drugs capable o f impacting viruses w ould be t oo toxic f or the body t o\nendur e. To meet this chal leng e, resear cher Ger trude Elion sought t o de velop drugs that w ould tar get onl y the virus\nthrough pr ocesses such as inhibiting onl y vir al DNA r eplication.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3454, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "948161df-611b-45bd-8a4b-4a384d89c7a0": {"__data__": {"id_": "948161df-611b-45bd-8a4b-4a384d89c7a0", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "466", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5c7701df-877e-4b96-b334-035cfe1e0445", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "466", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d529e971d0b562ffdc06560e9fbae9c7dd855b215e536babc48d20fa9047fe34", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "1bb773b9-3a1f-4f4c-aad7-2278a9867b92", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "466", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d38c04723a215376b0e9809967ca40821b670e80c4c13062bd64363c47b98392", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "For mos t\nviruses , these drugs inhibit the virus b y blocking the actions o f one or mor e of its pr oteins . It is impor tant that the\ntargeted pr oteins be enc oded f or by vir al genes and that these molecules ar e not pr esent in a heal thy hos t cell. In\nfact, f or man y years , scientis ts thought that drugs capable o f impacting viruses w ould be t oo toxic f or the body t o\nendur e. To meet this chal leng e, resear cher Ger trude Elion sought t o de velop drugs that w ould tar get onl y the virus\nthrough pr ocesses such as inhibiting onl y vir al DNA r eplication. F or example , some o f her medicines f ocused on\npurines , while others aff ected DNA pol ymer ase. Ther e are lar ge numbers o f antivir al drugs a vailable t o treat\ninfections , some specific f or a par ticular virus and others that can aff ect mul tiple viruses .\nAntivir als ha ve been de veloped t o treat g enital herpes (herpes simple x II) and influenza . For genital herpes , drugs\nsuch as acy clovir, developed b y Elion, can r educ e the number and dur ation o f the episodes o f activ e vir al disease\nduring which patients de velop vir al lesions in their skins c ells. As the virus r emains lat ent in ner vous tis sue o f the\nbody f or lif e, this drug is not a cur e but can mak e the s ymp toms o f the disease mor e manag eable . For influenza ,\ndrugs lik e Tamiflu can r educ e the dur ation o f \u201cflu\u201d symp toms b y one or tw o da ys, but the drug does not pr event\nsymp toms entir ely. Other antivir al drugs , such as Riba virin, ha ve been used t o treat a v ariety o f viral inf ections .\nBy far the mos t suc cessful use o f antivir als has been in the tr eatment o f the r etrovirus HIV , which causes a disease\nthat, if untr eated, is usual ly fatal within 10\u201312 y ears aft er being inf ected. Anti-HIV drugs ha ve been able t o contr ol\nviral replication t o the point that individuals r eceiving these drugs sur vive for a significantl y long er time than the\nuntr eated.\nA par ticular chal leng e with HIV is its t endency t o mutat e quickl y within the body o f an individual patient. This leads\nto individual drug r esistanc e, and r equir es a diff erent tr eatment s trategy than man y other diseases . David Ho w as\namong the firs t to propose and de velop a method t o treat mul tiple mutations o f HIV at the same time . Ho's eff orts\nwere a turning point in fighting AIDS. Anti-HIV drugs inhibit vir al replication at man y diff erent phases o f the HIV\nreplicativ e cy cle. Drugs ha ve been de veloped that inhibit the fusion o f the HIV vir al en velope with the plasma\nmembr ane o f the hos t cell (fusion inhibit ors), the c onversion o f its RNA g enome t o double -stranded DNA (r everse\ntranscrip tase inhibit ors), the int egration o f the vir al DNA int o the hos t genome (int egrase inhibit ors), and the\nprocessing o f viral pr oteins (pr otease inhibit ors).452 17 \u2022 The Immune S ystem and Disease\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2875, "end_char_idx": 5839, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a67f33a1-8a9b-4353-8450-1385ff1b9d74": {"__data__": {"id_": "a67f33a1-8a9b-4353-8450-1385ff1b9d74", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "467", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "daf96075-3862-4088-bc4a-89741a2a57e8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "467", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4b6a818c434ceb91c7606758666063b848f8a880c29fe233f5993d98791b1cc1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "fe1f7dd0-296f-4ea8-81f5-705c0061ec42", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "9cfe9b11dbfba41e3247f565b51fbdd777bc52b0809b2f9feb8764a999d6f119", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "When an y of these drugs ar e used individual ly, the virus\u2019 high mutation r ate allows the virus t o rapidl y evolve\nresistanc e to the drug . The br eakthrough in the tr eatment o f HIV w as the de velopment o f highl y activ e anti-\nretroviral ther apy (HA ART), which in volves a mixtur e of diff erent drugs , sometimes cal led a drug \u201c cocktail.\u201d By\nattacking the virus at diff erent s tages o f its r eplication cy cle, it is difficul t for the virus t o de velop r esistanc e to\nmultiple drugs at the same time . Stil l, even with the use o f combination HA ART ther apy, ther e is c oncern that, o ver\ntime , the virus wil l evolve resistanc e to this ther apy. Thus , new anti-HIV drugs ar e constantl y being de veloped with\nthe hope o f continuing the bat tle ag ains t this highl y fatal virus .\n17.2 Innat e Immunit y\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the body \u2019s innat e ph ysical and chemical def enses\n\u2022Explain the inflammat ory response\n\u2022Describe the c omplement s ystem\nThe v ertebrate, including human, immune s ystem is a c omple x mul tilayered s ystem f or def ending ag ains t external\nand int ernal thr eats t o the int egrity o f the body . The s ystem can be divided int o tw o types o f def ense s ystems: the\ninnat e immune s ystem, which is nonspecific t oward a par ticular kind o f pathog en, and the adap tive immune s ystem,\nwhich is specific ( Figure 17.8 ).Inna te immunity is not caused b y an inf ection or v accination and depends initial ly on\nphysical and chemical barriers that w ork on al l pathog ens, sometimes cal led the firs t line o f def ense . The sec ond\nline o f def ense o f the innat e system includes chemical signals that pr oduc e inflammation and f ever responses as\nwell as mobilizing pr otectiv e cells and other chemical def enses . The adap tive immune s ystem mounts a highl y\nspecific r esponse t o subs tanc es and or ganisms that do not belong in the body . The adap tive system tak es long er to\nrespond and has a memor y system that al lows it t o respond with gr eater int ensity should the body r eenc ount er a\npathog en e ven y ears lat er.\nFIGURE 17.8 Ther e are tw o main par ts to the v ertebrate immune s ystem. The innat e immune s ystem, which is made up o f physical barriers\nand int ernal def enses , responds t o all pathog ens. The adap tive immune s ystem is highl y specific.\nExternal and Chemic al Barrier s\nThe body has significant ph ysical barriers t o pot ential pathog ens. The skin c ontains the pr otein k eratin, which\nresists ph ysical entr y int o cells. Other body sur faces, par ticularl y those as sociat ed with body openings , are\nprotected b y the muc ous membr anes . The s ticky mucus pr ovides a ph ysical tr ap for pathog ens, preventing their\nmovement deeper int o the body . The openings o f the body , such as the nose and ears , are protected b y hairs that\ncatch pathog ens, and the muc ous membr anes o f the upper r espir atory tract ha ve cilia that c onstantl y mo ve\npathog ens tr apped in the mucus c oat up t o the mouth.\nThe skin and muc ous membr anes also cr eate a chemical en vironment that is hos tile t o man y micr oorganisms . The\nsurface of the skin is acidic, which pr events bact erial gr owth. Saliv a, mucus , and the t ears o f the e ye contain an\nenzyme that br eaks do wn bact erial c ell walls.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3381, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fe1f7dd0-296f-4ea8-81f5-705c0061ec42": {"__data__": {"id_": "fe1f7dd0-296f-4ea8-81f5-705c0061ec42", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "467", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "daf96075-3862-4088-bc4a-89741a2a57e8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "467", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4b6a818c434ceb91c7606758666063b848f8a880c29fe233f5993d98791b1cc1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "a67f33a1-8a9b-4353-8450-1385ff1b9d74", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "467", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6d2eb75046a71ab392191ff829d7ab0e6192e4bb7032cc467413368020674c55", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The s ticky mucus pr ovides a ph ysical tr ap for pathog ens, preventing their\nmovement deeper int o the body . The openings o f the body , such as the nose and ears , are protected b y hairs that\ncatch pathog ens, and the muc ous membr anes o f the upper r espir atory tract ha ve cilia that c onstantl y mo ve\npathog ens tr apped in the mucus c oat up t o the mouth.\nThe skin and muc ous membr anes also cr eate a chemical en vironment that is hos tile t o man y micr oorganisms . The\nsurface of the skin is acidic, which pr events bact erial gr owth. Saliv a, mucus , and the t ears o f the e ye contain an\nenzyme that br eaks do wn bact erial c ell walls. The s tomach secr etions cr eate a highl y acidic en vironment, which kil ls\nman y pathog ens ent ering the dig estive system.\nFinal ly, the sur face of the body and the lo wer dig estive system ha ve a c ommunity o f micr oorganisms such as\nbact eria, archaea , and fungi that c oexist without harming the body . Ther e is e videnc e that these or ganisms ar e17.2 \u2022 Innat e Immunit y 453", "start_char_idx": 2722, "end_char_idx": 3771, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1e904e4f-22a4-4e9e-99df-9583efdbc9d2": {"__data__": {"id_": "1e904e4f-22a4-4e9e-99df-9583efdbc9d2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "468", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2f0fd5d4-84e7-4738-b7eb-4c56e407691a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "468", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f18a45ea852efd2a297e5e14e0cbed92f85e3319639ecc185f88123da7b2abd5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "54f34cc3-e48f-4bf5-bbb2-fce88e9447bf", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "b7c8f4a2928fce7256460e4d4332aa17b7a90b259c184bc52183d5ca06462e81", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "highl y beneficial t o their hos t, combating disease -causing or ganisms and out competing them f or nutritional\nresour ces pr ovided b y the hos t body . Despit e these def enses , pathog ens ma y ent er the body thr ough skin abr asions\nor punctur es, or b y collecting on muc osal sur faces in lar ge numbers that o vercome the pr otections o f mucus or cilia .\nInternal De fenses\nWhen pathog ens ent er the body , the innat e immune s ystem r esponds with a v ariety o f internal def enses . These\ninclude the inflammat ory response , phag ocyt osis , natur al kil ler c ells, and the c omplement s ystem. Whit e blood c ells\nin the blood and l ymph r ecogniz e pathog ens as f oreign t o the body . Awhit e blood c ellis lar ger than a r ed blood c ell,\nis nucleat ed, and is typical ly able t o mo ve using amoeboid loc omotion. Because the y can mo ve on their o wn, whit e\nblood c ells can lea ve the blood t o go to inf ected tis sues . For example , amonocyt eis a type o f whit e blood c ell that\ncirculat es in the blood and l ymph and de velops int o a macr ophag e aft er it mo ves int o inf ected tis sue. Amacr ophag e\nis a lar ge cell that eng ulfs f oreign par ticles and pathog ens.Mas t cellsare produc ed in the same w ay as whit e blood\ncells, but unlik e cir culating whit e blood c ells, mas t cells tak e up r esidenc e in c onnectiv e tis sues and especial ly\nmuc osal tis sues . The y are responsible f or releasing chemicals in r esponse t o ph ysical injur y. The y also pla y a r ole in\nthe al lergic r esponse , which wil l be discus sed lat er in the chap ter.\nWhen a pathog en is r ecogniz ed as f oreign, chemicals cal led cyt okines ar e released. A cytokine is a chemical\nmes seng er that r egulates cell diff erentiation (f orm and function), pr oliferation (pr oduction), and g ene e xpression t o\nproduc e a v ariety o f immune r esponses . Appr oximat ely 40 types o f cyt okines e xist in humans . In addition t o being\nreleased fr om whit e blood c ells aft er pathog en recognition, cyt okines ar e also r eleased b y the inf ected c ells and\nbind t o nearb y uninf ected c ells, inducing those c ells to release cyt okines . This positiv e feedback loop r esul ts in a\nburs t of cyt okine pr oduction.\nOne clas s of earl y-acting cyt okines is the int erferons, which ar e released b y inf ected c ells as a w arning t o nearb y\nuninf ected c ells. An interferonis a smal l protein that signals a vir al inf ection t o other c ells. The int erferons\nstimulat e uninf ected c ells to produc e compounds that int erfere with vir al replication. Int erferons also activ ate\nmacr ophag es and other c ells.\nThe Inflammat ory Response and Phagoc ytosis\nThe firs t cyt okines t o be pr oduc ed enc ourageinflamma tion , a localiz ed rednes s, swelling, heat, and pain.\nInflammation is a r esponse t o ph ysical tr auma , such as a cut or a blo w, chemical irritation, and inf ection b y\npathog ens (viruses , bact eria, or fungi). The chemical signals that trig ger an inflammat ory response ent er the\nextracellular fluid and cause capil laries t o dilat e (expand) and capil lary walls to bec ome mor e permeable , or leaky .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3166, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "54f34cc3-e48f-4bf5-bbb2-fce88e9447bf": {"__data__": {"id_": "54f34cc3-e48f-4bf5-bbb2-fce88e9447bf", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "468", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2f0fd5d4-84e7-4738-b7eb-4c56e407691a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "468", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f18a45ea852efd2a297e5e14e0cbed92f85e3319639ecc185f88123da7b2abd5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "1e904e4f-22a4-4e9e-99df-9583efdbc9d2", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "468", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ba499b489eb796a1a98a0132c9cccd9206d3cbe069e46f08d201aadc55335ef4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Int erferons also activ ate\nmacr ophag es and other c ells.\nThe Inflammat ory Response and Phagoc ytosis\nThe firs t cyt okines t o be pr oduc ed enc ourageinflamma tion , a localiz ed rednes s, swelling, heat, and pain.\nInflammation is a r esponse t o ph ysical tr auma , such as a cut or a blo w, chemical irritation, and inf ection b y\npathog ens (viruses , bact eria, or fungi). The chemical signals that trig ger an inflammat ory response ent er the\nextracellular fluid and cause capil laries t o dilat e (expand) and capil lary walls to bec ome mor e permeable , or leaky .\nThe serum and other c ompounds leaking fr om capil laries cause s welling o f the ar ea, which in turn causes pain.\nVarious kinds o f whit e blood c ells ar e attracted to the ar ea o f inflammation. The types o f whit e blood c ells that arriv e\nat an inflamed sit e depend on the natur e of the injur y or inf ecting pathog en. F or example , aneutr ophil is an earl y\narriving whit e blood c ell that eng ulfs and dig ests pathog ens. Neutr ophils ar e the mos t abundant whit e blood c ells of\nthe immune s ystem ( Figure 17.9 ). Macr ophag es follow neutr ophils and tak e over the phag ocyt osis function and ar e\ninvolved in the r esolution o f an inflamed sit e, cleaning up c ell debris and pathog ens.\nFIGURE 17.9 Whit e blood c ells (leuk ocyt es) r elease chemicals t o stimulat e the inflammat ory response f ollowing a cut in the skin.\nCytokines also send f eedback t o cells of the ner vous s ystem t o bring about the o verall symp toms o f feeling sick,\nwhich include lethar gy, muscle pain, and nausea . Cyt okines also incr ease the c ore body t emper atur e, causing a454 17 \u2022 The Immune S ystem and Disease\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2588, "end_char_idx": 4328, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "44ed66f8-0015-4d98-94a7-4e013f090415": {"__data__": {"id_": "44ed66f8-0015-4d98-94a7-4e013f090415", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "469", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2c2a9e6f-cd36-4bc3-a518-97e54bada63e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "469", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4b1fdde50f164efd39418866fb2c25315b225775cfef0c1fb4384afab68c0743", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "fever. The ele vated temper atur es o f a fever inhibit the gr owth o f pathog ens and speed up c ellular r epair pr ocesses.\nFor these r easons , suppr ession o f fevers should be limit ed to those that ar e dang erousl y high.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nCheck out this 23-sec ond, s top-motion video (https:/ /commons .wikimedia .org/wiki/\nFile:S1-P olymorphonuclear _Cells_with_ Conidia _in_Liquid_Media .ogv) showing a neutr ophil that sear ches and\nengulfs fung us spor es during an elapsed time o f 79 minut es.\nNatur al Killer C ells\nAlymphocyt eis a whit e blood c ell that c ontains a lar ge nucleus ( Figure 17.10 ). Mos t lymphocyt es ar e as sociat ed\nwith the adap tive immune r esponse , but inf ected c ells ar e identified and des troyed b y natur al kil ler c ells, the onl y\nlymphocyt es o f the innat e immune s ystem. A natural kil ler (NK ) cellis a l ymphocyt e that can kil l cells inf ected with\nviruses (or canc erous c ells). NK c ells identif y intr acellular inf ections , especial ly from viruses , by the al tered\nexpression o fmajor his tocompa tibility c omple x (MHC) I molecules on the sur face of infected c ells. MHC clas s I\nmolecules ar e proteins on the sur faces o f all nucleat ed c ells that pr ovide a sample o f the c ell\u2019s int ernal en vironment\nat an y giv en time . Unheal thy cells, whether inf ected or canc erous, displa y an al tered MHC clas s I c omplement on\ntheir c ell sur faces.\nFIGURE 17.10 Lymphocyt es, such as NK c ells, are char acterized b y their lar ge nuclei that activ ely absorb W right s tain and ther efore appear\ndark c olored under a micr oscope. (credit: scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nAfter the NK c ell det ects an inf ected or tumor c ell, it induc es pr ogrammed c ell death, or apop tosis . Phag ocytic c ells\nthen c ome along and dig est the c ell debris left behind. NK c ells ar e constantl y patr olling the body and ar e an\neffectiv e mechanism f or contr olling pot ential inf ections and pr eventing canc er pr ogression. The v arious types o f\nimmune c ells ar e sho wn in Figure 17.11 .\nFIGURE 17.11 Cells in volved in the innat e immune r esponse include mas t cells, natur al kil ler c ells, and whit e blood c ells, such as\nmonocyt es, macr ophag es and neutr ophils .\nComplement\nAn arr ay of appr oximat ely 20 types o f proteins , cal led a complement s ystem, is also activ ated b y inf ection or the\nactivity o f the c ells of the adap tive immune s ystem and functions t o des troy extracellular pathog ens. Liver cells and\nmacr ophag es synthesiz e inactiv e forms o f complement pr oteins c ontinuousl y; these pr oteins ar e abundant in the\nblood serum and ar e capable o f responding immediat ely to inf ecting micr oorganisms . The c omplement s ystem is so\nnamed because it is c omplementar y to the innat e and adap tive immune s ystem. Complement pr oteins bind t o the\n17.2 \u2022 Innat e Immunit y 455", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2900, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d07269dc-54f9-46db-b303-cc6cb891086e": {"__data__": {"id_": "d07269dc-54f9-46db-b303-cc6cb891086e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "470", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2b0745e2-21c8-4998-a97f-e95d32f197c7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "470", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7d22d8848310ad731bb50460a0474f4e642db2e9d620283cf1aa2118a3a8ebc6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "f4203b5e-bc1e-4d73-a96d-7ca6b34b2ffd", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "3c2ef9e4af53153cb3380503e315d7024cc5a784d399ead5e60dbf33ed44376e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "surfaces o f micr oorganisms and ar e par ticularl y attracted to pathog ens that ar e alr eady tag ged b y the adap tive\nimmune s ystem. This \u201c tagging \u201d involves the at tachment o f specific pr oteins cal led antibodies (discus sed in detail\nlater) t o the pathog en. When the y attach, the antibodies chang e shape pr oviding a binding sit e for one o f the\ncomplement pr oteins . Aft er the firs t few complement pr oteins bind, a cascade o f binding in a specific sequenc e of\nproteins f ollows in which the pathog en rapidl y bec omes c oated in c omplement pr oteins .\nComplement pr oteins per form se veral functions , one o f which is t o ser ve as a mark er to indicat e the pr esenc e of a\npathog en to phag ocytic c ells and enhanc e eng ulfment. Cer tain c omplement pr oteins can c ombine t o open por es in\nmicr obial c ell membr anes and cause l ysis o f the c ells.\n17.3 Adaptive Immunit y\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain adap tive immunity\n\u2022Describe c ell-mediat ed immune r esponse and humor al immune r esponse\n\u2022Describe immune t olerance\nThe adap tive, or ac quired, immune r esponse tak es da ys or e ven w eeks to bec ome es tablished\u2014much long er than\nthe innat e response; ho wever, adap tive immunity is mor e specific t o an in vading pathog en.Adap tive immunity is an\nimmunity that oc curs aft er exposur e to an antig en either fr om a pathog en or a v accination. An antig enis a molecule\nthat s timulat es a r esponse in the immune s ystem. This par t of the immune s ystem is activ ated when the innat e\nimmune r esponse is insufficient t o contr ol an inf ection. In fact, without inf ormation fr om the innat e immune s ystem,\nthe adap tive response c ould not be mobiliz ed. Ther e are tw o types o f adap tive responses: the cell-media ted\nimmune r esponse , which is c ontr olled b y activ atedT cells, and the humor al immune r esponse , which is c ontr olled\nby activ atedB cellsand antibodies . Activ ated T and B c ells whose sur face binding sit es ar e specific t o the\nmolecules on the pathog en gr eatly incr ease in numbers and at tack the in vading pathog en. Their at tack can kil l\npathog ens dir ectly or the y can secr ete antibodies that enhanc e the phag ocyt osis o f pathog ens and disrup t the\ninfection. Adap tive immunity also in volves a memor y to giv e the hos t long-t erm pr otection fr om r einfection with the\nsame type o f pathog en; on r eexposur e, this hos t memor y wil l facilitat e a r apid and po werful response .\nB and T C ells\nLymphocyt es, which ar e whit e blood c ells, are formed with other blood c ells in the r ed bone marr ow found in man y\nflat bones , such as the shoulder or pel vic bones . The tw o types o f lymphocyt es o f the adap tive immune r esponse\nare B and T c ells (Figure 17.12 ). Whether an immatur e lymphocyt e bec omes a B c ell or T c ell depends on wher e in\nthe body it matur es. The B c ells remain in the bone marr ow to matur e (henc e the name \u201cB\u201d f or \u201cbone marr ow\u201d),\nwhile T c ells migr ate to the th ymus , wher e the y matur e (henc e the name \u201c T\u201d for \u201cthymus\u201d).", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3131, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f4203b5e-bc1e-4d73-a96d-7ca6b34b2ffd": {"__data__": {"id_": "f4203b5e-bc1e-4d73-a96d-7ca6b34b2ffd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "470", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2b0745e2-21c8-4998-a97f-e95d32f197c7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "470", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7d22d8848310ad731bb50460a0474f4e642db2e9d620283cf1aa2118a3a8ebc6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "d07269dc-54f9-46db-b303-cc6cb891086e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "470", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "66ffe754ce979f31ea5cab849bc60eb7fda56c265a51962d0161e8a2e3f2a7a0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "B and T C ells\nLymphocyt es, which ar e whit e blood c ells, are formed with other blood c ells in the r ed bone marr ow found in man y\nflat bones , such as the shoulder or pel vic bones . The tw o types o f lymphocyt es o f the adap tive immune r esponse\nare B and T c ells (Figure 17.12 ). Whether an immatur e lymphocyt e bec omes a B c ell or T c ell depends on wher e in\nthe body it matur es. The B c ells remain in the bone marr ow to matur e (henc e the name \u201cB\u201d f or \u201cbone marr ow\u201d),\nwhile T c ells migr ate to the th ymus , wher e the y matur e (henc e the name \u201c T\u201d for \u201cthymus\u201d).\nMatur ation o f a B or T c ell involves bec oming immunoc ompet ent, meaning that it can r ecogniz e, by binding , a\nspecific molecule or antig en (discus sed belo w). During the matur ation pr ocess, B and T c ells that bind t oo s trongl y\nto the body \u2019s own c ells ar e eliminat ed in or der t o minimiz e an immune r esponse ag ains t the body \u2019s own tis sues .\nThose c ells that r eact w eakl y to the body \u2019s own c ells, but ha ve highl y specific r eceptors on their c ell sur faces that\nallow them t o recogniz e a f oreign molecule , or antig en, r emain. This pr ocess oc curs during f etal de velopment and\ncontinues thr oughout lif e. The specificity o f this r eceptor is det ermined b y the g enetics o f the individual and is\npresent bef ore a f oreign molecule is intr oduc ed to the body or enc ount ered. Thus , it is g enetics and not e xperienc e\nthat initial ly provides a v ast arr ay of cells, each capable o f binding t o a diff erent specific f oreign molecule . Onc e the y\nare immunoc ompet ent, the T and B c ells wil l migr ate to the spleen and l ymph nodes wher e the y wil l remain until\nthey are cal led on during an inf ection. B c ells ar e involved in the humor al immune r esponse , which tar gets\npathog ens loose in blood and l ymph, and T c ells ar e involved in the c ell-mediat ed immune r esponse , which tar gets\ninfected c ells.456 17 \u2022 The Immune S ystem and Disease\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2541, "end_char_idx": 4578, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "897484d7-2f6e-48d2-b619-2a951ff1a07f": {"__data__": {"id_": "897484d7-2f6e-48d2-b619-2a951ff1a07f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "471", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a8684abe-e811-40a6-a95e-b0617b141134", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "471", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3a308a8ceb9ab53320a0c14bd9a805874f8172b378ca2ac8eb581de50947d2e8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 17.12 This scanning electr on micr ograph sho ws a T l ymphocyt e. T and B c ells ar e indis tinguishable b y light micr oscopy but can be\ndifferentiat ed e xperimental ly by probing their sur face receptors. (credit: modification o f work b y NCI; scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nHumor al Immune R esponse\nAs mentioned, an antig en is a molecule that s timulat es a r esponse in the immune s ystem. Not e very molecule is\nantig enic. B c ells par ticipat e in a chemical r esponse t o antig ens pr esent in the body b y producing specific antibodies\nthat cir culat e thr oughout the body and bind with the antig en whene ver it is enc ount ered. This is kno wn as the\nhumor al immune r esponse . As discus sed, during matur ation o f B c ells, a set o f highl y specific B c ells ar e produc ed\nthat ha ve man y antig en receptor molecules in their membr ane ( Figure 17.13 ).\nFIGURE 17.13 B cell receptors ar e embedded in the membr anes o f B c ells and bind a v ariety o f antig ens thr ough their v ariable r egions .\nEach B c ell has onl y one kind o f antig en receptor, which mak es e very B c ell diff erent. Onc e the B c ells matur e in the\nbone marr ow, the y migr ate to lymph nodes or other l ymphatic or gans. When a B c ell enc ount ers the antig en that\nbinds t o its r eceptor, the antig en molecule is br ought int o the c ell by endocyt osis and r eappears on the sur face of\nthe c ell bound t o an MHC clas s II molecule . When this pr ocess is c omplet e, the B c ell is sensitiz ed. In mos t cases ,\nthe sensitiz ed B c ell mus t then enc ount er a specific kind o f T c ell, cal led a helper T c ell, bef ore it is activ ated. The\nhelper T c ell mus t already ha ve been activ ated thr ough an enc ount er with the antig en (discus sed belo w).\nThe helper T c ell binds t o the antig en-MHC clas s II c omple x and is induc ed to release cyt okines that induc e the B\ncell to divide r apidl y, which mak es thousands o f identical (clonal) c ells. These daught er cells bec ome either plasma\ncells or memor y B c ells. The memor y B c ells remain inactiv e at this point, until another lat er enc ount er with the\nantig en, caused b y a r einfection b y the same bact eria or virus , resul ts in them dividing int o a ne w population o f\nplasma c ells. The plasma c ells, on the other hand, pr oduc e and secr ete lar ge quantities , up t o 100 mil lion molecules\nper hour , of antibody molecules . An antibody , also kno wn as an immunoglobulin (Ig ), is a pr otein that is pr oduc ed\nby plasma c ells aft er stimulation b y an antig en. Antibodies ar e the ag ents o f humor al immunity . Antibodies oc cur in\nthe blood, in g astric and mucus secr etions , and in br east milk. Antibodies in these bodil y fluids can bind pathog ens17.3 \u2022 A daptive Immunit y 457", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2801, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4bdbe2e7-1c42-4d9c-9c3a-0e8bb61a0c1d": {"__data__": {"id_": "4bdbe2e7-1c42-4d9c-9c3a-0e8bb61a0c1d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "472", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b6bcebf2-ae29-406e-a0da-548b6bbc622e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "472", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "eb6ea483a58b499f4cbae59d3df3d2aa747d5f61f7748d44d6c31619187ae801", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "and mark them f or des truction b y phag ocyt es bef ore the y can inf ect c ells.\nThese antibodies cir culat e in the blood s tream and l ymphatic s ystem and bind with the antig en whene ver it is\nencount ered. The binding can fight inf ection in se veral w ays. Antibodies can bind t o viruses or bact eria and int erfere\nwith the chemical int eractions r equir ed for them t o inf ect or bind t o other c ells. The antibodies ma y create bridg es\nbetw een diff erent par ticles c ontaining antig enic sit es clumping them al l together and pr eventing their pr oper\nfunctioning . The antig en-antibody c omple x stimulat es the c omplement s ystem described pr eviousl y, des troying the\ncell bearing the antig en. Phag ocytic c ells, such as those alr eady described, ar e attracted b y the antig en-antibody\ncomple xes, and phag ocyt osis is enhanc ed when the c omple xes ar e present. Final ly, antibodies s timulat e\ninflammation, and their pr esenc e in mucus and on the skin pr events pathog en at tack.\nAntibodies c oat e xtracellular pathog ens and neutr alize them b y blocking k ey sit es on the pathog en that enhanc e\ntheir inf ectivity (such as r eceptors that \u201c dock \u201d pathog ens on hos t cells) (Figure 17.14 ). Antibody neutr alization can\nprevent pathog ens fr om ent ering and inf ecting hos t cells. The neutr alized antibody -coated pathog ens can then be\nfiltered b y the spleen and eliminat ed in urine or f eces.\nAntibodies also mark pathog ens f or des truction b y phag ocytic c ells, such as macr ophag es or neutr ophils , in a\nprocess cal led opsonization. In a pr ocess cal led c omplement fixation, some antibodies pr ovide a plac e for\ncomplement pr oteins t o bind. The c ombination o f antibodies and c omplement pr omot es rapid clearing o f\npathog ens.\nThe pr oduction o f antibodies b y plasma c ells in r esponse t o an antig en is cal ledactiv e immunity and describes the\nhost\u2019s activ e response o f the immune s ystem t o an inf ection or t o a v accination. Ther e is also a passive immune\nresponse wher e antibodies c ome fr om an outside sour ce, ins tead o f the individual \u2019s own plasma c ells, and ar e\nintroduc ed int o the hos t. For example , antibodies cir culating in a pr egnant person \u2019s body mo ve acr oss the plac enta\ninto the de veloping f etus . The child benefits fr om the pr esenc e of these antibodies f or up t o se veral months aft er\nbirth. In addition, a pas sive immune r esponse is pos sible b y injecting antibodies int o an individual in the f orm o f an\nantiv enom t o a snak e-bite toxin or antibodies in blood serum t o help fight a hepatitis inf ection. This giv es immediat e\nprotection sinc e the body does not need the time r equir ed to mount its o wn r esponse .458 17 \u2022 The Immune S ystem and Disease\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2819, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "cafa1b4d-8fce-44ad-8b8a-93cb26c9d98e": {"__data__": {"id_": "cafa1b4d-8fce-44ad-8b8a-93cb26c9d98e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "473", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "87270fb9-7539-4950-a92a-9586b08fb2db", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "473", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f47d6e45f3d5e0f94d715fd890cabac5fe213e47b81b6523947b8b97feda83e9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 17.14 Antibodies ma y inhibit inf ection b y (a) pr eventing the antig en fr om binding its tar get, (b) tag ging a pathog en for des truction\nby macr ophag es or neutr ophils , or (c) activ ating the c omplement cascade .\nThe a vailability and r eliability o f antibodies mak es them ideal ly suit ed for use in medical t ests and in vestigations .\nRadioimmunos says, for example , rely on the antig en-antibody int eraction. Usual ly, a specific antig en is made\nradioactiv e, allowed to bind t o its antibody , and then intr oduc ed int o a sample subs tanc e, such as a patient's blood.\nBy measuring e ventual chang es in the quantity o f the bound and unbound antig en, anal ysts can det ect the pr esenc e\nand/or c oncentr ation o f certain subs tanc es. Developed b y Rosal yn Sus sman Y alow and Solomon Berson in the\n1950s , the t echnique is kno wn f or extreme sensitivity , meaning that it can det ect and measur e very smal l quantities\nof a subs tanc e. It is used in nar cotics det ection, blood bank scr eening , earl y canc er scr eening , hormone\nmeasur ement, and al lergy diagnosis . Based on her significant c ontribution t o the field, Y alow received a Nobel P rize,\nmaking her the sec ond w oman t o be a warded the priz e for medicine .\nCell-Mediat ed Immunit y\nUnlik e B c ells, T lymphocyt es ar e unable t o recogniz e pathog ens without as sistanc e. Ins tead, dendritic c ells and\nmacr ophag es firs t eng ulf and dig est pathog ens int o hundr eds or thousands o f antig ens. Then, an antig en-\npresenting c ell (APC) detects , eng ulfs, and inf orms the adap tive immune r esponse about an inf ection. When a\npathog en is det ected, these APCs wil l eng ulf and br eak it do wn thr ough phag ocyt osis . Antig en fr agments wil l then\nbe tr anspor ted to the sur face of the APC, wher e the y wil l ser ve as an indicat or to other immune c ells. Adendritic\ncellis an immune c ell that mops up antig enic mat erials in its surr oundings and pr esents them on its sur face.\nDendritic c ells ar e locat ed in the skin, the linings o f the nose , lungs , stomach, and int estines . These positions ar e\nideal locations t o enc ount er in vading pathog ens. Onc e the y are activ ated b y pathog ens and matur e to bec ome APCs\nthey migr ate to the spleen or a l ymph node . Macr ophag es also function as APCs . Aft er phag ocyt osis b y a\nmacr ophag e, the phag ocytic v esicle fuses with an intr acellular l ysosome . Within the r esul ting phag olysosome , the\ncomponents ar e broken do wn int o fragments; the fr agments ar e then loaded ont o MHC clas s II molecules and ar e17.3 \u2022 A daptive Immunit y 459", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2646, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b71b9d30-b50d-45b0-89b0-7134e53bbc58": {"__data__": {"id_": "b71b9d30-b50d-45b0-89b0-7134e53bbc58", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "474", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d3b2990c-3d5a-40d4-82e2-913d454644cb", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "474", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "453d3e8291cb8842ce8895d1fa615ebaa8752277c720b0aa5895f0f4bbf01227", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "81f52a9e-611d-49ef-b32c-60d9e9791dd4", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "1c26f7a5b04a7cb962d57c4a89a64510561b8452f6d30908ef89a49a1577ff10", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "transpor ted to the c ell sur face for antig en pr esentation ( Figure 17.15 ). Helper T c ells cannot pr operl y respond t o an\nantig en unles s it is pr ocessed and embedded in an MHC clas s II molecule . The APCs e xpress MHC clas s II on their\nsurfaces, and when c ombined with a f oreign antig en, these c omple xes signal an in vader .\nFIGURE 17.15 An antig en-pr esenting c ell (APC), such as a macr ophag e, eng ulfs a f oreign antig en, par tially dig ests it in a l ysosome , and\nthen embeds it in an MHC clas s II molecule f or pr esentation at the c ell sur face. Lymphocyt es o f the adap tive immune r esponse mus t\ninteract with antig en-embedded MHC clas s II molecules t o matur e int o functional immune c ells.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nView this animation fr om R ockefeller Univ ersity (http://opens tax.org/l/immune _system2) to see ho w dendritic c ells\nact as sentinels in the body \u2019s immune s ystem.\nT cells ha ve man y functions . Some r espond t o APCs o f the innat e immune s ystem and indir ectly induc e immune\nresponses b y releasing cyt okines . Others s timulat e B c ells to start the humor al response as described pr eviousl y.\nAnother type o f T c ell det ects APC signals and dir ectly kil ls the inf ected c ells, while some ar e involved in\nsuppr essing inappr opriat e immune r eactions t o harmles s or \u201c self\u201d antig ens.\nTher e are tw o main types o f T c ells: helper T l ymphocyt es (TH) and the cyt otoxic T l ymphocyt es (TC). The T H\nlymphocyt es function indir ectly to tell other immune c ells about pot ential pathog ens. THlymphocyt es recogniz e\nspecific antig ens pr esent ed b y the MHC clas s II c omple xes o f APCs . Ther e are tw o populations o f THcells: T H1 and\nTH2. TH1 cells secr ete cyt okines t o enhanc e the activities o f macr ophag es and other T c ells. TH2 cells stimulat e\nna\u00efv e B c ells to secr ete antibodies . Whether a T H1 or a T H2 immune r esponse de velops depends on the specific\ntypes o f cyt okines secr eted b y cells of the innat e immune s ystem, which in turn depends on the natur e of the\ninvading pathog en.\nCytotoxic T c ells (TC) are the k ey component o f the c ell-mediat ed par t of the adap tive immune s ystem and at tack\nand des troy inf ected c ells. TCcells ar e par ticularl y impor tant in pr otecting ag ains t viral inf ections; this is because\nviruses r eplicat e within c ells wher e the y are shielded fr om e xtracellular c ontact with cir culating antibodies . Onc e\nactiv ated, the T Ccreates a lar ge clone o f cells with one specific set o f cell-sur face receptors, as in the case with\nproliferation o f activ ated B c ells. As with B c ells, the clone includes activ e TCcells and inactiv e memor y TCcells. The\nresul ting activ e TCcells then identif y inf ected hos t cells. Because o f the time r equir ed to gener ate a population o f\nclonal T and B c ells, ther e is a dela y in the adap tive immune r esponse c ompar ed to the innat e immune r esponse .\nTCcells at temp t to identif y and des troy inf ected c ells bef ore the pathog en can r eplicat e and escape , ther eby hal ting\nthe pr ogression o f intr acellular inf ections .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3149, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "81f52a9e-611d-49ef-b32c-60d9e9791dd4": {"__data__": {"id_": "81f52a9e-611d-49ef-b32c-60d9e9791dd4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "474", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d3b2990c-3d5a-40d4-82e2-913d454644cb", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "474", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "453d3e8291cb8842ce8895d1fa615ebaa8752277c720b0aa5895f0f4bbf01227", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "b71b9d30-b50d-45b0-89b0-7134e53bbc58", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "474", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "35f2ea34d9c8c004947e4bfe8fcac744ffe70a1c4c83d9e20011a3b4dc7d2c27", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "As with B c ells, the clone includes activ e TCcells and inactiv e memor y TCcells. The\nresul ting activ e TCcells then identif y inf ected hos t cells. Because o f the time r equir ed to gener ate a population o f\nclonal T and B c ells, ther e is a dela y in the adap tive immune r esponse c ompar ed to the innat e immune r esponse .\nTCcells at temp t to identif y and des troy inf ected c ells bef ore the pathog en can r eplicat e and escape , ther eby hal ting\nthe pr ogression o f intr acellular inf ections . TCcells also suppor t NK l ymphocyt es to des troy earl y canc ers. Cyt okines\nsecr eted b y the T H1 response that s timulat es macr ophag es also s timulat e TCcells and enhanc e their ability t o\nidentif y and des troy inf ected c ells and tumors . A summar y of how the humor al and c ell-mediat ed immune\nresponses ar e activ ated appears in Figure 17.16 .\nB plasma c ells and T Ccells ar e collectiv ely cal ledeffector cellsbecause the y are involved in \u201c effecting \u201d (bringing\n460 17 \u2022 The Immune S ystem and Disease\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2634, "end_char_idx": 3708, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "88f94538-336b-4871-8046-7c45a35cf4ff": {"__data__": {"id_": "88f94538-336b-4871-8046-7c45a35cf4ff", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "475", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "85bc4a58-d0ba-46cf-b876-f89ddedbe5b5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "475", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ddfb289cadd2d88344f92c2ebfb22651cae90cd49ed77c57de0d36a537b95f0e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "about) the immune r esponse o f killing pathog ens and inf ected hos t cells.\nFIGURE 17.16 A helper T c ell bec omes activ ated b y binding t o an antig en pr esent ed b y an APC via the MHCII r eceptor, causing it t o release\ncytokines . Depending on the cyt okines r eleased, this activ ates either the humor al or the c ell-mediat ed immune r esponse .\nImmunologic al Memor y\nThe adap tive immune s ystem has a memor y component that al lows for a r apid and lar ge response upon r einvasion\nof the same pathog en. During the adap tive immune r esponse t o a pathog en that has not been enc ount ered bef ore,\nknown as the primar y immune r esponse , plasma c ells secr eting antibodies and diff erentiat ed T c ells incr ease , then\nplateau o ver time . As B and T c ells matur e int o eff ector cells, a subset o f the na\u00efv e populations diff erentiat es int o B\nand T memor y cells with the same antig en specificities ( Figure 17.17 ). Amemor y cellis an antig en-specific B or T\nlymphocyt e that does not diff erentiat e int o an eff ector cell during the primar y immune r esponse , but that can\nimmediat ely bec ome an eff ector cell on r eexposur e to the same pathog en. As the inf ection is clear ed and\npathog enic s timuli subside , the eff ectors ar e no long er needed and the y under go apop tosis . In c ontr ast, the memor y\ncells persis t in the cir culation.17.3 \u2022 A daptive Immunit y 461", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1410, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3f562374-0e82-46d3-8176-d8ae402b9efe": {"__data__": {"id_": "3f562374-0e82-46d3-8176-d8ae402b9efe", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "476", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "15e33e5f-ead9-4052-894a-fb033bfa6399", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "476", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9bc07a2de65ac58726b3b67d2065e5298472a766688128b4a29750a44e64d23a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 17.17 After initial ly binding an antig en to the B c ell receptor, a B c ell internaliz es the antig en and pr esents it on MHC clas s II. A\nhelper T c ell recogniz es the MHC clas s II- antig en c omple x and activ ates the B c ell. As a r esul t, memor y B c ells and plasma c ells ar e made .\nThe Rh antig en is f ound on Rh-positiv e red blood c ells. An Rh-neg ative person can usual ly carr y an Rh-positiv e fetus\nto term without difficul ty. Ho wever, having a sec ond Rh-positiv e fetus ma y launch an immune at tack that causes\nhemol ytic disease o f the ne wborn. Wh y do y ou think hemol ytic disease is onl y a pr oblem during the sec ond or\nsubsequent pr egnancies?\nIf the pathog en is ne ver enc ount ered ag ain during the individual \u2019s lifetime , B and T memor y cells wil l circulat e for a\nfew years or e ven se veral decades and wil l gradual ly die o ff, having ne ver functioned as eff ector cells. Ho wever, if\nthe hos t is r e-exposed t o the same pathog en type , circulating memor y cells wil l immediat ely diff erentiat e int o\nplasma c ells and T Ccells without input fr om APCs or T Hcells. This is kno wn as the secondar y immune r esponse .\nOne r eason wh y the adap tive immune r esponse is dela yed is because it tak es time f or na\u00efv e B and T c ells with the\nappr opriat e antig en specificities t o be identified, activ ated, and pr oliferate. On r einfection, this s tep is skipped, and\nthe r esul t is a mor e rapid pr oduction o f immune def enses . Memor y B c ells that diff erentiat e int o plasma c ells output\ntens t o hundr eds-fold gr eater antibody amounts than w ere secr eted during the primar y response ( Figure 17.18 ).\nThis r apid and dr amatic antibody r esponse ma y stop the inf ection bef ore it can e ven bec ome es tablished, and the\nindividual ma y not r ealiz e the y had been e xposed.\n462 17 \u2022 The Immune S ystem and Disease\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1951, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "39789df5-7225-4e52-b841-28e03b0216db": {"__data__": {"id_": "39789df5-7225-4e52-b841-28e03b0216db", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "477", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "96ef8b40-0eab-437b-9a11-f9dd025c8e87", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "477", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cd675955462ceb7731fea0d3565c601a3462212af83185b2c010210c50bb3ab2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 17.18 In the primar y response t o inf ection, antibodies ar e secr eted firs t from plasma c ells. Upon r e-exposur e to the same\npathog en, memor y cells diff erentiat e int o antibody -secr eting plasma c ells that output a gr eater amount o f antibody f or a long er period o f\ntime .\nVaccination is based on the kno wledg e that e xposur e to noninf ectious antig ens, deriv ed fr om kno wn pathog ens,\ngener ates a mild primar y immune r esponse . The immune r esponse t o vaccination ma y not be per ceived b y the hos t\nas il lnes s but s till confers immune memor y. When e xposed t o the c orresponding pathog en to which an individual\nwas vaccinat ed, the r eaction is similar t o a sec ondar y exposur e. Because each r einfection g ener ates mor e memor y\ncells and incr eased r esistanc e to the pathog en, some v accine c ourses in volve one or mor e boos ter vaccinations t o\nmimic r epeat e xposur es.\nThe L ymphatic S ystem\nLymph is the w atery fluid that bathes tis sues and or gans and c ontains pr otectiv e whit e blood c ells but does not\ncontain er ythr ocyt es. Lymph mo ves about the body thr ough the l ymphatic s ystem, which is made up o f vessels ,\nlymph ducts , lymph glands , and or gans, such as t onsils , adenoids , thymus , and spleen.\nAlthough the immune s ystem is char acterized b y cir culating c ells thr oughout the body , the r egulation, matur ation,\nand int ercommunication o f immune fact ors oc cur at specific sit es. The blood cir culat es immune c ells, proteins , and\nother fact ors thr ough the body . Appr oximat ely 0.1 per cent o f all cells in the blood ar e leuk ocyt es, which include\nmonocyt es (the pr ecursor o f macr ophag es) and l ymphocyt es. Mos t cells in the blood ar e red blood c ells. Cel ls of the\nimmune s ystem can tr avel betw een the dis tinct l ymphatic and blood cir culat ory systems , which ar e separ ated b y\ninterstitial spac e, by a pr ocess cal led e xtravasation (pas sing thr ough t o surr ounding tis sue).\nRecal l that c ells of the immune s ystem originat e from s tem c ells in the bone marr ow. B c ell matur ation oc curs in the\nbone marr ow, wher eas pr ogenitor cells migr ate from the bone marr ow and de velop and matur e int o na\u00efv e T c ells in\nthe or gan cal led the th ymus .\nOn matur ation, T and B l ymphocyt es cir culat e to various des tinations . Lymph nodes scat tered thr oughout the body\nhouse lar ge populations o f T and B c ells, dendritic c ells, and macr ophag es (Figure 17.19 ). Lymph g athers antig ens\nas it dr ains fr om tis sues . These antig ens then ar e filtered thr ough l ymph nodes bef ore the l ymph is r eturned t o\ncirculation. APCs in the l ymph nodes cap ture and pr ocess antig ens and inf orm nearb y lymphocyt es about pot ential\npathog ens.17.3 \u2022 A daptive Immunit y 463", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2813, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "17e34437-5f9a-44ea-ac0b-f5f0cb9d38f4": {"__data__": {"id_": "17e34437-5f9a-44ea-ac0b-f5f0cb9d38f4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "478", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ecde7cb3-16e9-42b2-952b-efdbf5f96c29", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "478", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "61e4464713457b31667791e11c83d2d78bcade8bfa912f3568950957e7daaa21", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 17.19 (a) L ymphatic v essels carr y a clear fluid cal led l ymph thr oughout the body . The liquid pas ses thr ough (b) l ymph nodes that\nfilter the l ymph that ent ers the node thr ough aff erent v essels and lea ves thr ough eff erent v essels; l ymph nodes ar e filled with l ymphocyt es\nthat pur ge inf ecting c ells. (credit a: modification o f work b y NIH; cr edit b: modification o f work b y NCI, NIH)\nThe spleen houses B and T c ells, macr ophag es, dendritic c ells, and NK c ells (Figure 17.20 ). The spleen is the sit e\nwher e APCs that ha ve trapped f oreign par ticles in the blood can c ommunicat e with l ymphocyt es. Antibodies ar e\nsynthesiz ed and secr eted b y activ ated plasma c ells in the spleen, and the spleen fil ters f oreign subs tanc es and\nantibody -comple xed pathog ens fr om the blood. F unctional ly, the spleen is t o the blood as l ymph nodes ar e to the\nlymph.\nFIGURE 17.20 The spleen functions t o immunological ly filter the blood and al low for communication betw een c ells corresponding t o the\ninnat e and adap tive immune r esponses . (credit: modification o f work b y NCI, NIH)\nMucosal Immune S ystem\nThe innat e and adap tive immune r esponses c ompose the s ystemic immune s ystem (aff ecting the whole body),\nwhich is dis tinct fr om the muc osal immune s ystem. Muc osa as sociat ed lymphoid tis sue (MAL T) is a crucial\ncomponent o f a functional immune s ystem because muc osal sur faces, such as the nasal pas sages, are the firs t\ntissues ont o which inhaled or ing ested pathog ens ar e deposit ed. The muc osal tis sue includes the mouth, phar ynx,\nand esophag us, and the g astrointestinal , respir atory, and ur ogenital tr acts .\nMuc osal immunity is f ormed b y MAL T, which functions independentl y of the s ystemic immune s ystem, and which\nhas its o wn innat e and adap tive components . MAL T is a c ollection o f lymphatic tis sue that c ombines with epithelial\ntissue lining the muc osa thr oughout the body . This tis sue functions as the immune barrier and r esponse in ar eas o f\nthe body with dir ect c ontact t o the e xternal en vironment. The s ystemic and muc osal immune s ystems use man y of\nthe same c ell types . Foreign par ticles that mak e their w ay to MAL T are tak en up b y absorp tive epithelial c ells and\ndeliv ered to APCs locat ed dir ectly belo w the muc osal tis sue. APCs o f the muc osal immune s ystem ar e primaril y464 17 \u2022 The Immune S ystem and Disease\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2495, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "79d34c88-d0bd-4d99-97f8-03d27af4423e": {"__data__": {"id_": "79d34c88-d0bd-4d99-97f8-03d27af4423e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "479", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9c9c22b7-843e-4dcf-8364-561840886962", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "479", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5d78801cf260235cbf655cb69544a588627ca66c67de8cabedcfac5681722001", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "736578bf-dd68-4a7e-ab0f-f24d52ab94b3", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "22759cfa68fb2e49d546cbe03805f74445e3bc03fa3267a3b72584d48ab35f47", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "dendritic c ells, with B c ells and macr ophag es ha ving minor r oles . Processed antig ens displa yed on APCs ar e\ndetected b y T c ells in the MAL T and at the t onsils , adenoids , appendix, or the mesent eric l ymph nodes o f the\nintestine. Activ ated T c ells then migr ate thr ough the l ymphatic s ystem and int o the cir culat ory system t o muc osal\nsites o f infection.\nImmune T olerance\nThe immune s ystem has t o be r egulated to prevent w asteful, unnec essary responses t o harmles s subs tanc es, and\nmor e impor tantl y, so that it does not at tack \u201c self.\u201d The ac quired ability t o prevent an unnec essary or harmful\nimmune r esponse t o a det ected foreign subs tanc e kno wn not t o cause disease , or self-antig ens, is described as\nimmune t oler ance. The primar y mechanism f or de veloping immune t olerance to self-antig ens oc curs during the\nselection f or w eakl y self-binding c ells during T and B l ymphocyt e matur ation. Ther e are populations o f T c ells that\nsuppr ess the immune r esponse t o self-antig ens and that suppr ess the immune r esponse aft er the inf ection has\nclear ed to minimiz e hos t cell damag e induc ed b y inflammation and c ell lysis. Immune t olerance is especial ly well\ndeveloped in the muc osa o f the upper dig estive system because o f the tr emendous number o f foreign subs tanc es\n(such as f ood pr oteins) that APCs o f the or al ca vity, phar ynx, and g astrointestinal muc osa enc ount er. Immune\ntolerance is br ought about b y specializ ed APCs in the liv er, lymph nodes , smal l intestine, and lung that pr esent\nharmles s antig ens t o a div erse population o f regulatory T ( Treg) cells, specializ ed lymphocyt es that suppr ess local\ninflammation and inhibit the secr etion o f stimulat ory immune fact ors. The c ombined r esul t of Tregcells is t o prevent\nimmunologic activ ation and inflammation in undesir ed tis sue c ompar tments and t o allow the immune s ystem t o\nfocus on pathog ens ins tead.\n17.4 Disrup tions in the Immune S ystem\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe h ypersensitivity\n\u2022Define aut oimmunity\nA functioning immune s ystem is es sential f or sur vival, but e ven the sophis ticat ed c ellular and molecular def enses o f\nthe mammalian immune r esponse can be def eated b y pathog ens at vir tually every step. In the c ompetition betw een\nimmune pr otection and pathog en e vasion, pathog ens ha ve the adv antag e of mor e rapid e volution because o f their\nshor ter gener ation time , large population siz es and o ften higher mutation r ates. Thus pathog ens ha ve evolved a\ndiverse arr ay of immune escape mechanisms . For ins tanc e,Streptococcus pneumoniae (the bact erium that causes\npneumonia and meningitis) surr ounds itself with a capsule that inhibits phag ocyt es fr om eng ulfing it and displa ying\nantig ens t o the adap tive immune s ystem. Staph yloc occus aur eus (the bact erium that can cause skin inf ections ,\nabsc esses, and meningitis) s ynthesiz es a t oxin cal led leuk ocidin that kil ls phag ocyt es aft er the y eng ulf the\nbact erium. Other pathog ens can also hinder the adap tive immune s ystem.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3183, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "736578bf-dd68-4a7e-ab0f-f24d52ab94b3": {"__data__": {"id_": "736578bf-dd68-4a7e-ab0f-f24d52ab94b3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "479", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9c9c22b7-843e-4dcf-8364-561840886962", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "479", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5d78801cf260235cbf655cb69544a588627ca66c67de8cabedcfac5681722001", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "79d34c88-d0bd-4d99-97f8-03d27af4423e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "479", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "253128b1e1dcbb5c0a1ddc37bb0ceb482039a53f3beec7608fb27fcf456e29cb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Thus pathog ens ha ve evolved a\ndiverse arr ay of immune escape mechanisms . For ins tanc e,Streptococcus pneumoniae (the bact erium that causes\npneumonia and meningitis) surr ounds itself with a capsule that inhibits phag ocyt es fr om eng ulfing it and displa ying\nantig ens t o the adap tive immune s ystem. Staph yloc occus aur eus (the bact erium that can cause skin inf ections ,\nabsc esses, and meningitis) s ynthesiz es a t oxin cal led leuk ocidin that kil ls phag ocyt es aft er the y eng ulf the\nbact erium. Other pathog ens can also hinder the adap tive immune s ystem. HIV inf ects T Hcells using their CD4\nsurface molecules , gradual ly depleting the number o f THcells in the body ( Figure 17.21 ); this inhibits the adap tive\nimmune s ystem\u2019s capacity t o gener ate sufficient r esponses t o inf ection or tumors . As a r esul t, HIV -infected\nindividuals o ften suff er fr om inf ections that w ould not cause il lnes s in people with heal thy immune s ystems but\nwhich can cause de vastating il lnes s to immune -compr omised individuals .\nFIGURE 17.21 HIV ( green) is sho wn budding fr om a l ymphocyt e cell (red) in cul ture. (credit: modification o f work b y C. Goldsmith, CDC;\nscale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nInappr opriat e responses o f immune c ells and molecules themsel ves can also disrup t the pr oper functioning o f the17.4 \u2022 Disrup tions in the Immune S ystem 465", "start_char_idx": 2602, "end_char_idx": 4005, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e49f2bbd-7e48-4d83-85d8-bf4a582cf860": {"__data__": {"id_": "e49f2bbd-7e48-4d83-85d8-bf4a582cf860", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "480", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c3271f2d-edc1-421c-a155-6b7d7afaebf9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "480", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8da2825e76ee5fbd85676388d380fd1b76412116067f8fa58e048b6fcc6f4c52", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "entir e system, leading t o hos t-cell damag e that can bec ome fatal .\nImmunode ficienc y\nImmunodeficiency is a failur e, insufficiency , or dela y in the r esponse o f the immune s ystem, which ma y be ac quired\nor inherit ed. Immunodeficiency can al low pathog ens or tumor c ells to gain a f oothold and r eplicat e or pr oliferate to\nhigh enough le vels so that the immune s ystem bec omes o verwhelmed. Immunodeficiency can be ac quired as a\nresul t of infection with c ertain pathog ens that at tack the c ells of the immune s ystem itself (such as HIV ), chemical\nexposur e (including c ertain medical tr eatments such as chemother apy), malnutrition, or e xtreme s tress. For\ninstanc e, radiation e xposur e can des troy populations o f lymphocyt es and ele vate an individual \u2019s susc eptibility t o\ninfections and canc er. Rarely, primar y immunodeficiencies that ar e present fr om bir th ma y also oc cur. For example ,\nsevere combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID) is a c ondition in which childr en ar e born without functioning B or\nT cells.\nHyper sensitivities\nA maladap tive immune r esponse t oward harmles s foreign subs tanc es or self-antig ens that oc cur aft er tis sue\nsensitization is t ermed a hypersensitivity . Types o f hypersensitivities include immediat e, dela yed, and\nautoimmune . A lar ge propor tion o f the human population is aff ected b y one or mor e types o f hypersensitivity .\nAller gies\nThe immune r eaction that r esul ts from immediat e hypersensitivities in which an antibody -mediat ed immune\nresponse oc curs within minut es o f exposur e to a usual ly harmles s antig en is cal led an allergy. In the Unit ed Stat es,\n20 per cent o f the population e xhibits s ymp toms o f allergy or as thma , wher eas 55 per cent t est positiv e ag ains t one\nor mor e allergens. On initial e xposur e to a pot ential al lergen, an al lergic individual s ynthesiz es antibodies thr ough\nthe typical pr ocess of APCs pr esenting pr ocessed antig en to THcells that s timulat e B c ells to produc e the\nantibodies . The antibody molecules int eract with mas t cells embedded in c onnectiv e tis sues . This pr ocess primes ,\nor sensitiz es, the tis sue. On subsequent e xposur e to the same al lergen, antibody molecules on mas t cells bind the\nantig en and s timulat e the mas t cell to release his tamine and other inflammat ory chemicals; these chemical\nmediat ors then r ecruit eosinophils (a type o f whit e blood c ell), which also appear t o be adap ted to responding t o\nparasitic w orms ( Figure 17.22 ). Eosinophils r elease fact ors that enhanc e the inflammat ory response and the\nsecr etions o f mas t cells. The eff ects o f an al lergic r eaction r ange from mild s ymp toms lik e snee zing and it chy,\nwatery eyes to mor e se vere or e ven lif e-threatening r eactions in volving int ensel y itchy welts or hiv es, airway\nconstriction with se vere respir atory dis tress, and plummeting blood pr essure caused b y dilating blood v essels and\nfluid los s from the cir culat ory system. This e xtreme r eaction, typical ly in r esponse t o an al lergen intr oduc ed to the\ncirculat ory system, is kno wn as anaph ylactic shock. Antihis tamines ar e an insufficient c ount er to anaph ylactic shock\nand if not tr eated with epinephrine t o count er the blood pr essure and br eathing eff ects , this c ondition can be fatal .466 17 \u2022 The Immune S ystem and Disease\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3447, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6524b44e-8913-4938-865f-d7c54f39da8d": {"__data__": {"id_": "6524b44e-8913-4938-865f-d7c54f39da8d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "481", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "88af7a8f-db82-4533-87df-9f06cffd1b90", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "481", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "56a9a962b8f43612bfa6a922c2f6744c965fe24175ba1fb81b7383e1c18e113f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 17.22 On firs t exposur e to an al lergen, an antibody is s ynthesiz ed b y plasma c ells in r esponse t o a harmles s antig en. The\nantibodies bind t o mas t cells, and on sec ondar y exposur e, the mas t cells release his tamines and other modulat ors that cause the\nsymp toms o f allergy. (credit: modification o f work b y NIH)\nDela yed h ypersensitivity is a c ell-mediat ed immune r esponse that tak es appr oximat ely one t o tw o da ys aft er\nsecondar y exposur e for a maximal r eaction. This type o f hypersensitivity in volves the T H1 cyt okine -mediat ed\ninflammat ory response and ma y cause local tis sue lesions or c ontact dermatitis (r ash or skin irritation). Dela yed\nhypersensitivity oc curs in some individuals in r esponse t o contact with c ertain types o f jewelry or c osmetics .\nDela yed h ypersensitivity facilitat es the immune r esponse t o poison ivy and is also the r eason wh y the skin t est for\ntuber culosis r esul ts in a smal l region o f inflammation on individuals who w ere previousl y exposed t oMycobact erium\ntuber culosis , the or ganism that causes tuber culosis .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nTry your hand at diagnosing an al lergic r eaction b y selecting one o f the interactiv e case s tudies (http://opens tax.org/\nl/world_ allergy)at the W orld Al lergy Or ganization w ebsit e.\nAutoimmunit y\nAutoimmunity is a type o f hypersensitivity t o self-antig ens that aff ects appr oximat ely fiv e per cent o f the\npopulation. Mos t types o f aut oimmunity in volve the humor al immune r esponse . An antibody that inappr opriat ely\nmark s self-c omponents as f oreign is t ermed an autoantibody . In patients with m yasthenia gr avis, an aut oimmune\ndisease , muscle -cell receptors that induc e contr action in r esponse t o ac etylcholine ar e tar geted b y antibodies . The\nresul t is muscle w eaknes s that ma y include mark ed difficul tly with fine or gr oss mot or functions . In s ystemic lupus\nerythemat osus , a diffuse aut oantibody r esponse t o the individual \u2019s own DNA and pr oteins r esul ts in v arious\nsystemic diseases ( Figure 17.23 ). Sy stemic lupus er ythemat osus ma y aff ect the hear t, joints , lungs , skin, kidne ys,\ncentr al ner vous s ystem, or other tis sues , causing tis sue damag e thr ough antibody binding , complement\nrecruitment, l ysis, and inflammation.\n17.4 \u2022 Disrup tions in the Immune S ystem 467", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2385, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1ccaba5a-6e7e-4c95-a581-5a4042b967c9": {"__data__": {"id_": "1ccaba5a-6e7e-4c95-a581-5a4042b967c9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "482", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "72d1ddb6-b56c-40cd-beeb-1b5fd4b600ef", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "482", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e93718e20eede92f6f364f6ee4d6ea30ebf3adba1d5aa258aa3536189d2a129c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 17.23 Systemic lupus er ythemat osus is char acterized b y aut oimmunity t o the individual \u2019s own DNA and/or pr oteins , which leads t o\nvaried dy sfunction o f the or gans. (credit: modification o f work b y Mik ael H\u00e4g gstr\u00f6m)\nAutoimmunity can de velop with time and its causes ma y be r ooted in molecular mimicr y, a situation in which one\nmolecule is similar enough in shape t o another molecule that it binds the same immune r eceptors. Antibodies and\nT-cell receptors ma y bind self-antig ens that ar e structur ally similar t o pathog en antig ens. As an e xample , infection\nwith Streptococcus p yogenes (the bact erium that causes s trep thr oat) ma y gener ate antibodies or T c ells that r eact\nwith hear t muscle , which has a similar s tructur e to the sur face ofS. pyogenes . These antibodies can damag e hear t\nmuscle with aut oimmune at tack s, leading t o rheumatic f ever. Insulin-dependent ( Type 1) diabet es mel litus arises\nfrom a des tructiv e inflammat ory TH1 response ag ains t insulin-pr oducing c ells of the pancr eas. Patients with this\nautoimmunity mus t be tr eated with r egular insulin injections .468 17 \u2022 The Immune S ystem and Disease\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1215, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6163c9ea-6826-4648-bdc5-cdba42dccd7d": {"__data__": {"id_": "6163c9ea-6826-4648-bdc5-cdba42dccd7d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "483", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7b55945e-e241-42b9-b91f-9b71aecfca9b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "483", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5093d8076c4e0324b47131f0c8dae9c4f305bc8aee2b566e756608406db82cc4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "63bc64ae-3c53-4ae8-b2ec-518759c02830", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "19628a5bfa5617538b8c2f4286e0b8527d4caa492e7804fb1defccc8ff339586", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nacellular lacking c ells\nactiv e immunity an immunity that oc curs as a r esul t\nof the activity o f the body \u2019s own c ells rather than\nfrom antibodies ac quired fr om an e xternal sour ce\nadap tive immunity a specific immune r esponse that\noccurs aft er exposur e to an antig en either fr om a\npathog en or a v accination\nallergyan immune r eaction that r esul ts from\nimmediat e hypersensitivities in which an antibody -\nmediat ed immune r esponse oc curs within minut es\nof exposur e to a harmles s antig en\nantibody a protein that is pr oduc ed b y plasma c ells\nafter stimulation b y an antig en; also kno wn as an\nimmunoglobulin\nantig en a macr omolecule that r eacts with c ells of the\nimmune s ystem and which ma y or ma y not ha ve a\nstimulat ory eff ect\nantig en-pr esenting c ell (APC) an immune c ell that\ndetects , eng ulfs, and inf orms the adap tive immune\nresponse about an inf ection b y presenting the\nprocessed antig en on its c ell sur face\napop tosis the c ell death caused b y induction o f a\ncell\u2019s own int ernal mechanisms either as a natur al\nstep in the de velopment o f a mul ticellular or ganism\nor by other en vironmental fact ors such as signals\nfrom c ells of the immune s ystem\nattenua tion the w eakening o f a virus during v accine\ndevelopment\nautoantibody an antibody that inc orrectly mark s\n\u201cself\u201d components as f oreign and s timulat es the\nimmune r esponse\nautoimmunity a type o f hypersensitivity t o self-\nantig ens\nB cella lymphocyt e that matur es in the bone marr ow\ncapsid the pr otein c oating o f the vir al core\ncell-media ted immune r esponse an adap tive\nimmune r esponse that is c ontr olled b y T c ells\ncomplement s ystem an arr ay of appr oximat ely 20\nsoluble pr oteins o f the innat e immune s ystem that\nenhanc e phag ocyt osis , bor e holes in pathog ens, and\nrecruit l ymphocyt es\ncytokine a chemical mes seng er that r egulates cell\ndifferentiation, pr oliferation, and g ene e xpression t o\neffect immune r esponses\ncytopathic causing c ell damag e\ncytotoxic T l ymphocyt e (TC)an adap tive immune c ell\nthat dir ectly kil ls inf ected c ells via enzymes , and\nthat r eleases cyt okines t o enhanc e the immune\nresponse\ndendritic c ellan immune c ell that pr ocesses antig en\nmaterial and pr esents it on the sur face of its c ell in\nMHC clas s II molecules and induc es an immuneresponse in other c ells\neffector cella lymphocyt e that has diff erentiat ed,\nsuch as a B c ell, plasma c ell, or cyt otoxic T c ell\nglycoprotein a protein molecule with at tached\ncarboh ydrate molecules\nhelper T l ymphocyt e (TH)a cell of the adap tive\nimmune s ystem that binds APCs via MHC clas s II\nmolecules and s timulat es B c ells or secr etes\ncytokines t o initiat e the immune r esponse\nhumor al immune r esponse the adap tive immune\nresponse that is c ontr olled b y activ ated B c ells and\nantibodies\nhypersensitivity a spectrum o f inappr opriat e\nimmune r esponses t oward harmles s foreign\nparticles or self-antig ens; oc curs aft er tis sue\nsensitization and includes immediat e-type (al lergy),\ndela yed-type , and aut oimmunity\nimmune t oler ancean ac quired ability t o prevent an\nunnec essary or harmful immune r esponse t o a\ndetected foreign body kno wn not t o cause disease\nimmunodeficiency a failur e, insufficiency ,", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3294, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "63bc64ae-3c53-4ae8-b2ec-518759c02830": {"__data__": {"id_": "63bc64ae-3c53-4ae8-b2ec-518759c02830", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "483", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7b55945e-e241-42b9-b91f-9b71aecfca9b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "483", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5093d8076c4e0324b47131f0c8dae9c4f305bc8aee2b566e756608406db82cc4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "6163c9ea-6826-4648-bdc5-cdba42dccd7d", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "483", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b7d2b91f5241149127d277ccb86a49e320143b4709435b4ce05586949245202f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "oc curs aft er tis sue\nsensitization and includes immediat e-type (al lergy),\ndela yed-type , and aut oimmunity\nimmune t oler ancean ac quired ability t o prevent an\nunnec essary or harmful immune r esponse t o a\ndetected foreign body kno wn not t o cause disease\nimmunodeficiency a failur e, insufficiency , or dela y at\nany level of the immune s ystem, which ma y be\nacquired or inherit ed\ninflamma tion the localiz ed rednes s, swelling, heat,\nand pain that r esul ts from the mo vement o f\nleuk ocyt es thr ough opened capil laries t o a sit e of\ninfection\ninna te immunity an immunity that oc curs natur ally\nbecause o f genetic fact ors or ph ysiolog y, and is not\ncaused b y inf ection or v accination\ninterferon a cyt okine that inhibits vir al replication\nlymph the w atery fluid pr esent in the l ymphatic\ncirculat ory system that bathes tis sues and or gans\nwith pr otectiv e whit e blood c ells and does not\ncontain er ythr ocyt es\nlymphocyt ea type o f whit e blood c ell that includes\nnatur al kil ler c ells of the innat e immune s ystem and\nB and T c ells of the adap tive immune s ystem\nmacr ophag ea lar ge phag ocytic c ell that eng ulfs\nforeign par ticles and pathog ens\nmajor his tocompa tibility c omple x (MHC) I a group\nof proteins f ound on the sur face of all nucleat ed\ncells that signals t o immune c ells whether the c ell is\nnormal or is inf ected or canc erous; it also pr ovides\nthe appr opriat e sit es int o which antig ens can be\nloaded f or recognition b y lymphocyt es\nmajor his tocompa tibility c omple x (MHC) II\nmolecule a protein f ound on the sur face of\nantig en-pr esenting c ells that signals t o immune\ncells whether the c ell is normal or is inf ected or\ncanc erous; it pr ovides the appr opriat e templat e int o\nwhich antig ens can be loaded f or recognition b y17 \u2022 K ey Terms 469", "start_char_idx": 2986, "end_char_idx": 4816, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c5687000-524e-490e-8fcb-f744cde09db0": {"__data__": {"id_": "c5687000-524e-490e-8fcb-f744cde09db0", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "484", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "233176dc-bbc2-4e70-b235-221700429f1c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "484", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "90725a604acc92ed70d888a81d3bb80601a40221638569417e078cdab2dc3747", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "89e22dad-394d-418a-9529-9a818e4d8643", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "943e571fbb048a2746b9775af7e093530e81261fbc184363c6c1a0b5d166fefa", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "lymphocyt es\nmas t cella leuk ocyt e that pr oduc es inflammat ory\nmolecules , such as his tamine , in r esponse t o lar ge\npathog ens\nmemor y cellan antig en-specific B or T l ymphocyt e\nthat does not diff erentiat e int o an eff ector cell\nduring the primar y immune r esponse but that can\nimmediat ely bec ome an eff ector cell on r eexposur e\nto the same pathog en\nmonocyt ea type o f whit e blood c ell that cir culat es in\nthe blood and l ymph and diff erentiat es int o a\nmacr ophag e aft er it mo ves int o inf ected tis sue\nnatural kil ler (NK ) cella lymphocyt e that can kil l\ncells inf ected with viruses or tumor c ells\nneutr ophil a phag ocytic leuk ocyt e that eng ulfs and\ndigests pathog ens\npassive immunity an immunity that does not r esul t\nfrom the activity o f the body \u2019s own immune c ells butby transfer of antibodies fr om one individual t o\nanother\nprimar y immune r esponse the r esponse o f the\nadap tive immune s ystem t o the firs t exposur e to an\nantig en\nsecondar y immune r esponse the r esponse o f the\nadap tive immune s ystem t o a sec ond or lat er\nexposur e to an antig en mediat ed b y memor y cells\nT cella lymphocyt e that matur es in the th ymus gland\nvaccine a weakened solution o f virus c omponents ,\nviruses , or other ag ents that pr oduc e an immune\nresponse\nviral en velope a lipid bila yer that en velops some\nviruses\nvirion an individual virus par ticle outside a hos t cell\nwhit e blood c ella nucleat ed c ell found in the blood\nthat is a par t of the immune s ystem; also cal led\nleuk ocyt es\nChap ter Summar y\n17.1 Viruses\nViruses ar e ac ellular entities that can usual ly onl y be\nseen with an electr on micr oscope. Their g enomes\ncontain either DNA or RNA , and the y replicat e using the\nreplication pr oteins o f a hos t cell. Viruses ar e div erse ,\ninfecting ar chaea , bact eria, fungi, plants , and animals .\nViruses c onsis t of a nucleic-acid c ore surr ounded b y a\nprotein capsid with or without an out er lipid en velope .\nViral replication within a living c ell always produc es\nchang es in the c ell, sometimes r esul ting in c ell death\nand sometimes slo wly kil ling the inf ected c ells. Ther e\nare six basic s tages in the virus r eplication cy cle:\nattachment, penetr ation, unc oating , replication,\nassembl y, and r elease . A vir al inf ection ma y be\nproductiv e, resul ting in ne w virions , or nonpr oductiv e,\nmeaning the virus r emains inside the c ell without\nproducing ne w virions .\nViruses cause a v ariety o f diseases in humans . Man y of\nthese diseases can be pr evented b y the use o f viral\nvaccines , which s timulat e protectiv e immunity ag ains t\nthe virus without causing major disease . Viral vaccines\nmay also be used in activ e vir al inf ections , boos ting the\nability o f the immune s ystem t o contr ol or des troy the\nvirus . Antivir al drugs that tar get enzymes and other\nprotein pr oducts o f viral genes ha ve been de veloped\nand used with mix ed suc cess. Combinations o f anti-\nHIV drugs ha ve been used t o eff ectiv ely contr ol the\nvirus , extending the lif espan o f infected individuals .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3106, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "89e22dad-394d-418a-9529-9a818e4d8643": {"__data__": {"id_": "89e22dad-394d-418a-9529-9a818e4d8643", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "484", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "233176dc-bbc2-4e70-b235-221700429f1c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "484", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "90725a604acc92ed70d888a81d3bb80601a40221638569417e078cdab2dc3747", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "c5687000-524e-490e-8fcb-f744cde09db0", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "484", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1c8d6ef0f01b03b39cbdc3f7b563460b1ef0c0971ebaf510831993bffc80e3dc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Viruses cause a v ariety o f diseases in humans . Man y of\nthese diseases can be pr evented b y the use o f viral\nvaccines , which s timulat e protectiv e immunity ag ains t\nthe virus without causing major disease . Viral vaccines\nmay also be used in activ e vir al inf ections , boos ting the\nability o f the immune s ystem t o contr ol or des troy the\nvirus . Antivir al drugs that tar get enzymes and other\nprotein pr oducts o f viral genes ha ve been de veloped\nand used with mix ed suc cess. Combinations o f anti-\nHIV drugs ha ve been used t o eff ectiv ely contr ol the\nvirus , extending the lif espan o f infected individuals .\n17.2 Innat e Immunit y\nThe innat e immune s ystem c onsis ts firs t of physical\nand chemical barriers t o inf ection including the skinand muc ous membr anes and their secr etions , ciliat ed\nsurfaces, and body hairs . The sec ond line o f def ense is\nan int ernal def ense s ystem designed t o count er\npathog enic thr eats that b ypas s the ph ysical and\nchemical barriers o f the body . Using a c ombination o f\ncellular and molecular r esponses , the innat e immune\nsystem identifies the natur e of a pathog en and\nresponds with inflammation, phag ocyt osis , cyt okine\nrelease , des truction b y NK c ells, or the c omplement\nsystem.\n17.3 Adaptive Immunit y\nThe adap tive immune r esponse is a slo wer-acting ,\nlong er-lasting, and mor e specific r esponse than the\ninnat e response . Ho wever, the adap tive response\nrequir es inf ormation fr om the innat e immune s ystem t o\nfunction. APCs displa y antig ens on MHC molecules t o\nna\u00efv e T c ells. T c ells with c ell-sur face receptors that\nbind a specific antig en wil l bind t o that APC. In\nresponse , the T c ells diff erentiat e and pr oliferate,\nbecoming T Hcells or T Ccells. THcells stimulat e B c ells\nthat ha ve eng ulfed and pr esent ed pathog en-deriv ed\nantig ens. B c ells diff erentiat e int o plasma c ells that\nsecr ete antibodies , wher eas T Ccells des troy inf ected\nor canc erous c ells. Memor y cells ar e produc ed b y\nactiv ated and pr oliferating B and T c ells and persis t\nafter a primar y exposur e to a pathog en. If r e-exposur e\noccurs , memor y cells diff erentiat e int o eff ector cells\nwithout input fr om the innat e immune s ystem. The\nmuc osal immune s ystem is lar gely independent o f the\nsystemic immune s ystem but functions in par allel to\nprotect the e xtensiv e muc osal sur faces o f the body .\nImmune t olerance is br ought about b y Tregcells to470 17 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2471, "end_char_idx": 5018, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "582988be-db58-492a-b3d8-293f622d159f": {"__data__": {"id_": "582988be-db58-492a-b3d8-293f622d159f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "485", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "60543f3b-53df-4688-a1c6-a5b8fd3c18c4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "485", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7eca3efa04bc46bcf764750bcbf603f2e8b2e27009db513cc2584a94303ac4e4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "limit r eactions t o harmles s antig ens and the body \u2019s\nown molecules .\n17.4 Disrup tions in the Immune S ystem\nImmune disrup tions ma y involve insufficient immune\nresponses or inappr opriat e immune r esponses .\nImmunodeficiency incr eases an individual'ssusc eptibility t o inf ections and canc ers.\nHypersensitivities ar e misdir ected responses either t o\nharmles s foreign par ticles , as in the case o f allergies , or\nto the individual \u2019s own tis sues , as in the case o f\nautoimmunity . Reactions t o self-c omponents ma y be\nthe r esul t of molecular mimicr y.\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 17.5 Which o f the f ollowing s tatements\nabout virus s tructur e is true?\na.All viruses ar e encased in a vir al membr ane.\nb.The capsomer e is made up o f smal l protein\nsubunits cal led capsids .\nc.DNA is the g enetic mat erial in al l viruses .\nd.Glycoproteins help the virus at tach t o the hos t\ncell.\n2.Figure 17.6 Influenza virus is pack aged in a vir al\nenvelope , which fuses with the plasma membr ane.\nThis w ay, the virus can e xit the hos t cell without\nkilling it. What adv antag e does the virus g ain b y\nkeeping the hos t cell aliv e?3.Figure 17.17 The Rh antig en is f ound on Rh-positiv e\nred blood c ells. An Rh-neg ative person can usual ly\ncarr y an Rh-positiv e fetus t o term without difficul ty.\nHowever, having a sec ond Rh-positiv e fetus ma y\nlaunch an immune at tack that causes hemol ytic\ndisease o f the ne wborn. Wh y do y ou think\nhemol ytic disease is onl y a pr oblem during the\nsecond or subsequent pr egnancies?\nReview Ques tions\n4.Which s tatement is true?\na.A virion c ontains DNA and RNA .\nb.Viruses ar e ac ellular .\nc.Viruses r eplicat e outside o f the c ell.\nd.Mos t viruses ar e easil y visualiz ed with a light\nmicr oscope.\n5.The vir al ________ pla ys a r ole in at taching a virion\nto the hos t cell.\na.core\nb.capsid\nc.envelope\nd.both b and c\n6.Which s tatement is true o f viral replication?\na.In the pr ocess of apop tosis , the c ell sur vives.\nb.During at tachment, the virus at taches at\nspecific sit es on the c ell sur face.\nc.The vir al capsid helps the hos t cell produc e\nmor e copies o f the vir al genome .\nd.mRNA w orks outside o f the hos t cell to\nproduc e enzymes and pr oteins .7.Which o f the f ollowing is a barrier ag ains t\npathog ens pr ovided b y the skin?\na.low pH\nb.mucus\nc.tears\nd.cilia\n8.Although int erferons ha ve se veral eff ects , the y are\nparticularl y useful ag ains t infections with which\ntype o f pathog en?\na.bact eria\nb.viruses\nc.fungi\nd.helminths\n9.Which innat e immune s ystem c omponent uses MHC\nclas s I molecules dir ectly in its def ense s trategy?\na.macr ophag es\nb.neutr ophils\nc.NK c ells\nd.interferon\n10.The humor al immune r esponse depends on which\ncells?\na.TCcells\nb.B cells\nc.B and T Hcells\nd.TCand T Hcells17 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions 471", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2860, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2249c21e-5b7d-4d9f-86b0-31a2a3a93e47": {"__data__": {"id_": "2249c21e-5b7d-4d9f-86b0-31a2a3a93e47", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "486", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "be54077a-205c-4ecb-8108-ebb2f0dc3eaa", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "486", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e6c000fc0780615c7413f667d7db55301dd0acb62477f566703d2f458cefbf6e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "11.The fact that the body does not normal ly mount an\nimmune r esponse t o the molecules in f ood is an\nexample o f _______.\na.secondar y immune r esponse\nb.immunological memor y\nc.immune t olerance\nd.passive immunity\n12.Foreign par ticles cir culating in the blood ar e\nfiltered b y the ____________.\na.spleen\nb.lymph nodes\nc.MAL T\nd.lymph13.Allergy to pol len is clas sified as ________.\na.an aut oimmune r eaction\nb.immunodeficiency\nc.dela yed h ypersensitivity\nd.immediat e hypersensitivity\n14.A pot ential cause o f acquired aut oimmunity is\n________.\na.tissue h ypersensitivity\nb.molecular mimicr y\nc.histamine r elease\nd.radiation e xposur e\n15.Autoantibodies ar e probabl y involved in\n________.\na.reactions t o poison ivy\nb.pollen al lergies\nc.systemic lupus er ythemat osus\nd.HIV/AIDS\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n16.Why can \u2019t dogs cat ch the measles?\n17.Why is immunization aft er being bit ten b y a r abid\nanimal so eff ectiv e?\n18.Different MHC clas s I molecules betw een donor\nand r ecipient c ells can lead t o rejection o f a\ntransplant ed or gan or tis sue. Sug gest a reason f or\nthis.\n19.If a series o f genetic mutations pr evented some ,\nbut not al l, of the c omplement pr oteins fr om\nbinding antibodies or pathog ens, would the entir e\ncomplement s ystem be c ompr omised?20.How do B and T c ells diff er with r espect t o\nantig ens that the y bind?\n21.Why is the immune r esponse aft er reinfection\nmuch fas ter than the adap tive immune r esponse\nafter the initial inf ection?\n22.Some phot ographers de velop a sensitivity t o\ncertain film de veloping chemicals leading t o\nsevere rashes on their hands such that the y are\nunable t o work with them. Explain what is\nprobabl y happening .472 17 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1789, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "300edb3b-0dd8-4e07-809b-5bb9704d29dc": {"__data__": {"id_": "300edb3b-0dd8-4e07-809b-5bb9704d29dc", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "487", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d4cce9f7-8b2e-4008-a435-7b6fd50cbf31", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "487", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "973f5f828e69ca0832d9dd91b0ecf7260879cbc87d78add1a67747519e1900ae", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 18\nAnimal R eproduction and De velopment\n18.1 How Animals R eproduc e\n18.2 Development and Or ganog enesis\n18.3 Human R eproduction\nIn the animal king dom, each species has its unique adap tations f or\nreproduction. Ase xual r eproduction pr oduc es g enetical ly identical o ffspring (clones), wher eas in\nsexual r eproduction, the g enetic mat erial o f two individuals c ombines t o produc e offspring that\nare genetical ly diff erent fr om their par ents . Although animal species v ary widel y in se x-specific\nmorpholog y and beha vior, ther e is almos t always one type o f body that pr oduc es smal ler g amet es,\nand one type o f body that pr oduc es lar ger gamet es. The individuals who pr oduc e smal ler g amet es\nare clas sified with a male se x, while those who pr oduc e lar ger gamet es ar e clas sified with a\nfemale se x. During se xual r eproduction the male g amet e (sperm) ma y be plac ed inside the\nfemale \u2019s body f or int ernal f ertilization, the sperm ma y be left in the en vironment f or the f emale t o\npick up and plac e in their o wn body , or both sperm and eg gs ma y be r eleased int o the\nenvironment f or external f ertilization. Seahorses pr ovide an e xample o f the lat ter, but with a twis tFIGURE 18.1 Female seahorses pr oduc e eg gs that ar e then f ertilized b y the male . Unlik e with almos t all other\nanimals , the y oung then de velop in a pouch o f the male seahorse until bir th. (cr edit: \" cliff1066\"/Flickr)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1502, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a58e00f2-bbef-4f3d-b50b-cefcf39a4884": {"__data__": {"id_": "a58e00f2-bbef-4f3d-b50b-cefcf39a4884", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "488", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "90bf1410-10a0-4538-a5c0-2e5b6262d02c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "488", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f469d052bddab7619c474512bc314c0c82550de9cac6484a73c7df922eacc15e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "301dbdb2-5fdc-4a4f-b358-c5cf707d45a6", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "1167774adb9d3c8950291d9df7efa8883299a40c6a40697fbec1886b9f0b35db", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "(Figure 18.1 ). Following a mating danc e, the f emale r eleases eg gs int o the male seahorse \u2019s\nabdominal br ood pouch and the male r eleases sperm int o the w ater, which then find their w ay int o\nthe br ood pouch t o fertilize the eg gs. The f ertilized eg gs de velop in the pouch f or se veral w eeks.\n18.1 How Animals R eproduc e\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe adv antag es and disadv antag es o f ase xual and se xual r eproduction\n\u2022Discus s ase xual r eproduction methods\n\u2022Discus s sexual r eproduction methods\n\u2022Discus s int ernal and e xternal methods o f fertilization\nSome animals pr oduc e offspring thr ough ase xual r eproduction while other animals pr oduc e\noffspring thr ough se xual r eproduction. Both methods ha ve adv antag es and disadv antag es.\nAsexual r eproduction produc es o ffspring that ar e genetical ly identical t o the par ent because the\noffspring ar e all clones o f the original par ent. A single individual can pr oduc e offspring ase xual ly\nand lar ge numbers o f offspring can be pr oduc ed quickl y; these ar e tw o adv antag es that ase xual ly\nreproducing or ganisms ha ve over se xual ly reproducing or ganisms . In a s table or pr edictable\nenvironment, ase xual r eproduction is an eff ectiv e means o f reproduction because al l the o ffspring\nwill be adap ted to that en vironment. In an uns table or unpr edictable en vironment, species that\nreproduc e ase xual ly ma y be at a disadv antag e because al l the o ffspring ar e genetical ly identical\nand ma y not be adap ted to diff erent c onditions .\nDuring sexual r eproduction , the g enetic mat erial o f two individuals is c ombined t o produc e\ngenetical ly div erse o ffspring that diff er fr om their par ents . The g enetic div ersity o f sexual ly\nproduc ed o ffspring is thought t o giv e se xual ly reproducing individuals gr eater fitnes s because\nmor e of their o ffspring ma y sur vive and r eproduc e in an unpr edictable or changing en vironment.\nSpecies that r eproduc e se xual ly (and ha ve separ ate se xes) mus t maintain tw o diff erent types o f\nindividuals , males and f emales . Onl y half the population (f emales) can pr oduc e the o ffspring , so\nfewer offspring wil l be pr oduc ed when c ompar ed to ase xual r eproduction. This is a disadv antag e\nof sexual r eproduction c ompar ed to ase xual r eproduction.\nAsexual R eproduc tion\nAsexual r eproduction oc curs in pr okaryotic micr oorganisms (bact eria and ar chaea) and in man y\neukaryotic, single -celled and mul ti-celled or ganisms . Ther e are se veral w ays that animals\nreproduc e ase xual ly, the details o f which v ary among individual species .\nFission\nFission , also cal led binar y fis sion, oc curs in some in vertebrate, mul ti-celled or ganisms . It is in\nsome w ays analog ous t o the pr ocess of binar y fis sion o f single -celled pr okaryotic or ganisms . The\nterm fis sion is applied t o ins tanc es in which an or ganism appears t o split itself int o tw o par ts and,\nif nec essary, regener ate the mis sing par ts of each ne w or ganism.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3102, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "301dbdb2-5fdc-4a4f-b358-c5cf707d45a6": {"__data__": {"id_": "301dbdb2-5fdc-4a4f-b358-c5cf707d45a6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "488", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "90bf1410-10a0-4538-a5c0-2e5b6262d02c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "488", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f469d052bddab7619c474512bc314c0c82550de9cac6484a73c7df922eacc15e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "a58e00f2-bbef-4f3d-b50b-cefcf39a4884", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "488", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "069d1513b4c7ed59b986e2f28233d711b99d30b1dd50050300a998747a1db742", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Ther e are se veral w ays that animals\nreproduc e ase xual ly, the details o f which v ary among individual species .\nFission\nFission , also cal led binar y fis sion, oc curs in some in vertebrate, mul ti-celled or ganisms . It is in\nsome w ays analog ous t o the pr ocess of binar y fis sion o f single -celled pr okaryotic or ganisms . The\nterm fis sion is applied t o ins tanc es in which an or ganism appears t o split itself int o tw o par ts and,\nif nec essary, regener ate the mis sing par ts of each ne w or ganism. F or example , species o f\nturbel larian flatw orms c ommonl y cal led the planarians , such as Dugesia dor otocephala , are able\nto separ ate their bodies int o head and tail r egions and then r egener ate the mis sing half in each o f\nthe tw o ne w or ganisms . Sea anemones (Cnidaria), such as species o f the g enus Anthopleur a\n(Figure 18.2 ), wil l divide along the or al-abor al axis , and sea cucumbers (E chinodermata) o f the\ngenus Holothuria ,will divide int o tw o hal ves acr oss the or al-abor al axis and r egener ate the other\nhalf in each o f the r esul ting individuals .474 18 \u2022 Animal R eproduc tion and De velopment\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2579, "end_char_idx": 3773, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "67a85c72-7693-49cb-ac24-d286618b05d5": {"__data__": {"id_": "67a85c72-7693-49cb-ac24-d286618b05d5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "489", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d16cb3b9-3084-4e32-87ec-cc17248e87f4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "489", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "4b922d4a2fb2b3d5c651e9403972a4a6dbdd8525bda3bbf9aff88288a4ba142c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 18.2 The Anthopleur a artemisia sea anemone can r eproduc e thr ough fis sion.\nBudding\nBudding is a f orm o f ase xual r eproduction that r esul ts from the out growth o f a par t of the body leading t o a\nsepar ation o f the \u201cbud\u201d fr om the original or ganism and the f ormation o f two individuals , one smal ler than the other .\nBudding oc curs c ommonl y in some in vertebrate animals such as h ydras and c orals. In h ydras, a bud f orms that\ndevelops int o an adul t and br eaks away from the main body ( Figure 18.3 ).\nFIGURE 18.3 (a) Hy dra reproduc e ase xual ly thr ough budding: a bud f orms on the tubular body o f an adul t hydra, develops a mouth and\ntentacles , and then detaches fr om its par ent. The ne w hydra is ful ly de veloped and wil l find its o wn location f or at tachment. (b) Some c oral,\nsuch as the Lophelia per tusa shown her e, can r eproduc e thr ough budding . (credit b: modification o f work b y Ed Bo wlby, NO AA/Ol ympic\nCoas t NMS; NO AA/OAR/Offic e of Ocean Explor ation)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nView this video (http://opens tax.org/l/budding _hydra2)to see a h ydra budding .\nFragmentation\nFragmenta tion is the br eaking o f an individual int o par ts followed b y regener ation. If the animal is capable o f\nfragmentation, and the par ts ar e big enough, a separ ate individual wil l regrow from each par t. Fragmentation ma y\noccur thr ough ac cidental damag e, damag e from pr edat ors, or as a natur al form o f reproduction. R eproduction\nthrough fr agmentation is obser ved in spong es, some cnidarians , turbel larians , echinoderms , and annelids . In some\nsea s tars, a ne w individual can be r egener ated fr om a br oken arm and a piec e of the c entr al disc. This sea s tar\n(Figure 18.4 ) is in the pr ocess of growing a c omplet e sea s tar fr om an arm that has been cut o ff. Fisheries w orkers\nhave been kno wn t o try to kil l the sea s tars eating their clam or o yster beds b y cut ting them in half and thr owing\nthem back int o the oc ean. Unf ortunat ely for the w orkers, the tw o par ts can each r egener ate a ne w half , resul ting in\ntwic e as man y sea s tars t o prey upon the o ysters and clams .\n18.1 \u2022 Ho w Animals R eproduc e 475", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2209, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4d6c44f1-712f-4819-9e5f-38282498fce5": {"__data__": {"id_": "4d6c44f1-712f-4819-9e5f-38282498fce5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "490", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e8ce8514-c780-479f-80bf-1dd790b7f31b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "490", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a4b8913310ed40f9f7db1edbc6c4909ca8c42f70e131dea1c4d482cc57362b16", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 18.4 (a)Linckia mul tiforais a species o f sea s tar that can r eproduc e ase xual ly via fr agmentation. In this pr ocess, (b) an arm that\nhas been shed gr ows int o a ne w sea s tar. (credit a: modification o f work b y Dw ayne Meado ws, NO AA/NMFS /OPR)\nParthenogenesis\nParthenog enesis is a f orm o f ase xual r eproduction in which an eg g de velops int o an individual without being\nfertilized. The r esul ting o ffspring can be either haploid or diploid, depending on the pr ocess in the species .\nParthenog enesis oc curs in in vertebrates such as w ater fleas , rotifers, aphids , stick insects , and ants , wasps , and\nbees . Ants , bees , and w asps use par thenog enesis t o produc e haploid males (dr ones). The diploid f emales (w orkers\nand queens) ar e the r esul t of a fertilized eg g.\nSome v ertebrate animals \u2014such as c ertain r eptiles , amphibians , and fish\u2014also r eproduc e thr ough par thenog enesis .\nParthenog enesis has been obser ved in species in which the se xes w ere separ ated in t errestrial or marine z oos. Two\nfemale K omodo dr agons, a hammerhead shark, and a black top shark ha ve produc ed par thenog enic y oung when the\nfemales ha ve been isolat ed fr om males . It is pos sible that the ase xual r eproduction obser ved oc curr ed in r esponse\nto unusual cir cums tanc es and w ould normal ly not oc cur.\nSexual R eproduc tion\nSexual r eproduction is the c ombination o f reproductiv e cells from tw o individuals t o form g enetical ly unique\noffspring . The natur e of the individuals that pr oduc e the tw o kinds o f gamet es can v ary, having f or example separ ate\nsexes or mul tiple se xes in each individual . Sex det ermination, the mechanism that det ermines which se x an\nindividual de velops int o, also can v ary.\nHermaphr oditism\nHermaphr oditism occurs in animals in which one individual has both male and f emale r eproductiv e systems .\nInvertebrates such as ear thworms , slugs , tape worms , and snails ( Figure 18.5 ) are often hermaphr oditic.\nHermaphr odites ma y self-f ertilize, but typical ly the y wil l mat e with another o f their species , fertilizing each other\nand both pr oducing o ffspring . Man y species ha ve specific mechanisms in plac e to prevent self-f ertilization, because\nit is an e xtreme f orm o f inbr eeding and usual ly produc es les s fit o ffspring . Hermaphr odite is not an ac cepted term\nfor humans , and does not describe diff erences in their se xual de velopment. Int erse x people ar e those whose se x\ntraits or r eproductiv e anat omy de velops diff erently from the typical w ays humans de velop , and can include\nhormonal , chr omosomal , or anat omical diff erences.\nFIGURE 18.5 Man y (a) snails ar e hermaphr odites. When tw o individuals (b) mat e, the y can pr oduc e up t o 100 eg gs each. (cr edit a:476 18 \u2022 Animal R eproduc tion and De velopment\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2899, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0c919ecc-2bc6-4f6f-85a7-f178b1379545": {"__data__": {"id_": "0c919ecc-2bc6-4f6f-85a7-f178b1379545", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "491", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "93c48857-6174-4b40-b77b-f3e37f6560f4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "491", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7a0289f2be3847861da3c3492b03f40fc0dbce74e54af339912aaf0cab719a86", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "c2b4adf5-b58c-4577-ab98-795de81a3914", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "e64ccc00466b29c65044c8d42b9289403924867cb3fb4da3887b80b361c1f61c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "modification o f work b y As saf Shtilman; cr edit b: modification o f work b y \"Schris tia\"/Flickr)\nSex De termination\nPioneering scientis t Net tie St evens w as the firs t to obser ve chr omosomal diff erences betw een the diff erent se xes o f\norganisms . Using a micr oscope t o obser ve meal worm c ells, she not ed that one chr omosome w as notabl y diff erent\nbetw een f emales and males , and she c oncluded that those chr omosomes w ere the mos t likely det erminants o f the\nworms ' sex. She lat er studied other insects , and her disc overies w ere confirmed b y other scientis ts. (St evens w as\ninitial ly denied cr edit due t o her g ender , but lat er publications ackno wledg ed her critical r ole.) Mammalian se x is\ndetermined g enetical ly by the c ombination o f X and Y chr omosomes . Individuals homo zygous f or X ( XX) ar e female\nand het erozygous individuals ( XY) are male . In mammals , the pr esenc e of a Y chr omosome causes the de velopment\nof male char acteristics and its absenc e resul ts in f emale char acteristics. The XY s ystem is also f ound in some\ninsects and plants .\nBirdsex det ermina tion is dependent on the c ombination o f Z and W chr omosomes . Homo zygous f or Z (ZZ ) resul ts\nin a male and het erozygous (ZW ) resul ts in a f emale . Notic e that this s ystem is the opposit e of the mammalian\nsystem because in bir ds the f emale is the se x with the diff erent se x chr omosomes . The W appears t o be es sential in\ndetermining the se x of the individual , similar t o the Y chr omosome in mammals . Some fish, crus taceans , insects\n(such as but terflies and moths), and r eptiles use the ZW s ystem.\nMore complicat ed chr omosomal se x det ermining s ystems also e xist. For example , some s wordtail fish ha ve thr ee\nsex chr omosomes in a population.\nThe se x of some other species is not det ermined b y chr omosomes , but b y some aspect o f the en vironment. Se x\ndetermination in al ligators, some tur tles, and tuatar as, for example , is dependent on the t emper atur e during the\nmiddle thir d of egg de velopment. This is r eferred to as en vironmental se x det ermination, or mor e specifical ly, as\ntemper atur e-dependent se x det ermination. In man y tur tles, cooler t emper atur es during eg g incubation pr oduc e\nmales and w arm t emper atur es pr oduc e females , while in man y other species o f tur tles, the r everse is true . In some\ncrocodiles and some tur tles, moder ate temper atur es pr oduc e males and both w arm and c ool t emper atur es pr oduc e\nfemales .\nIndividuals o f some species chang e their entir e set o f reproductiv e organs during their liv es, switching fr om one t o\nthe other . If the individual is born with an o varian s ystem o f organs firs t, it is t ermed pr otogyny or \u201c first female ,\u201d if it\nis born with a t esticular s ystem o f organs firs t, it is t ermed pr otandr y or \u201c first male .\u201d Oy sters ar e born with male\nmorpholog y, grow in siz e, and chang e body par ts and la y eg gs. The wr asses, a famil y of reef fishes , are all sequential\nhermaphr odites. Some o f these species liv e in closel y coordinat ed schools with a dominant male and a lar ge\nnumber o f smal ler females . If the male dies , a female incr eases in siz e, chang es se x, and bec omes the ne w\ndominant male .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3307, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c2b4adf5-b58c-4577-ab98-795de81a3914": {"__data__": {"id_": "c2b4adf5-b58c-4577-ab98-795de81a3914", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "491", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "93c48857-6174-4b40-b77b-f3e37f6560f4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "491", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7a0289f2be3847861da3c3492b03f40fc0dbce74e54af339912aaf0cab719a86", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "0c919ecc-2bc6-4f6f-85a7-f178b1379545", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "491", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6d37688b2b4e6c79219846a9c60f9641815f1ccc527ad2125fa34dfbc63cee20", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "If the individual is born with an o varian s ystem o f organs firs t, it is t ermed pr otogyny or \u201c first female ,\u201d if it\nis born with a t esticular s ystem o f organs firs t, it is t ermed pr otandr y or \u201c first male .\u201d Oy sters ar e born with male\nmorpholog y, grow in siz e, and chang e body par ts and la y eg gs. The wr asses, a famil y of reef fishes , are all sequential\nhermaphr odites. Some o f these species liv e in closel y coordinat ed schools with a dominant male and a lar ge\nnumber o f smal ler females . If the male dies , a female incr eases in siz e, chang es se x, and bec omes the ne w\ndominant male .\nFertilization\nThe fusion o f a sperm and an eg g is a pr ocess cal led f ertilization. This can oc cur either inside ( internal f ertiliza tion )\nor outside ( external f ertiliza tion ) the body o f the f emale . Humans pr ovide an e xample o f the f ormer , wher eas fr og\nreproduction is an e xample o f the lat ter.\nExternal F ertilization\nExternal f ertilization usual ly oc curs in aquatic en vironments wher e both eg gs and sperm ar e released int o the w ater.\nAfter the sperm r eaches the eg g, fertilization tak es plac e. Mos t external f ertilization happens during the pr ocess of\nspawning wher e one or se veral females r elease their eg gs and the male(s) r elease sperm in the same ar ea, at the\nsame time . The spa wning ma y be trig gered b y en vironmental signals , such as w ater temper atur e or the length o f\ndaylight. Nearl y all fish spa wn, as do crus taceans (such as cr abs and shrimp), mol lusk s (such as o ysters), squid, and\nechinoderms (such as sea ur chins and sea cucumbers). F rogs, corals, squid, and oct opuses also spa wn ( Figure\n18.6 ).18.1 \u2022 Ho w Animals R eproduc e 477", "start_char_idx": 2685, "end_char_idx": 4421, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "39137371-b97c-47e6-a7d9-678396daba07": {"__data__": {"id_": "39137371-b97c-47e6-a7d9-678396daba07", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "492", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d0757ebc-5314-48e1-abae-47e4cf6a5ac4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "492", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d72ce1e9ea33911dfca9154759593861e422e95763d9cf346c715bbdf2e972de", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "3c2b2aa8-d691-4856-93c4-3360b7e1046e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "c7c282fcbf1661941f910b08df2bf42d2cba20332886e9696467f007d6a8e57a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 18.6 During se xual r eproduction in t oads , the male gr asps the f emale fr om behind and e xternal ly fertilizes the eg gs as the y are\ndeposit ed. (cr edit: Bernie K ohl)\nInternal F ertilization\nInternal f ertilization oc curs mos t often in t errestrial animals , although some aquatic animals also use this method.\nInternal f ertilization ma y oc cur b y the male dir ectly depositing sperm in the f emale during mating . It ma y also oc cur\nby the male depositing sperm in the en vironment, usual ly in a pr otectiv e structur e, which a f emale pick s up t o\ndeposit the sperm in the r eproductiv e tract. Ther e are thr ee w ays that o ffspring ar e produc ed following int ernal\nfertilization. In oviparity , fertilized eg gs ar e laid outside the par ent\u2019s body and de velop ther e, receiving nourishment\nfrom the y olk that is a par t of the eg g (Figure 18.7 a). This oc curs in some bon y fish, some r eptiles , a few\ncartilaginous fish, some amphibians , a few mammals , and al l birds. Mos t non-a vian r eptiles and insects pr oduc e\nleather y eg gs, while bir ds and some tur tles pr oduc e eg gs with high c oncentr ations o f calcium carbonat e in the shel l,\nmaking them har d. Chick en eg gs ar e an e xample o f a har d shel l. The eg gs o f the eg g-laying mammals such as the\nplatypus and echidna ar e leather y.\nInovoviparity , fertilized eg gs ar e retained in the f emale , and the embr yo ob tains its nourishment fr om the eg g\u2019s\nyolk. The eg gs ar e retained in the f emale \u2019s body until the y hat ch inside the body , or the f emale la ys the eg gs right\nbefore the y hat ch. This pr ocess helps pr otect the eg gs until hat ching . This oc curs in some bon y fish (lik e the\nplaty fish Xiphophorus maculatus ,Figure 18.7 b), some shark s, lizar ds, some snak es (garter snak eThamnophis\nsirtalis ), some vipers , and some in vertebrate animals (Madag ascar his sing c ockr oach Gromphadorhina por tentosa).\nInviviparity the y oung ar e born aliv e. The y ob tain their nourishment fr om the f emale and ar e born in v arying s tates\nof maturity . This oc curs in mos t mammals ( Figure 18.7 c), some car tilaginous fish, and a f ew reptiles .\nFIGURE 18.7 In (a) o viparity , young de velop in eg gs outside the f emale body , as with these Harmonia axy dridis beetles hat ching . Some\naquatic animals , like this (b) pr egnant Xiphophorus maculatus are ovovipar ous, with the eg g de veloping inside the f emale and nutrition\nsupplied primaril y from the y olk. In mammals , nutrition is suppor ted b y the plac enta , as w as the case with this (c) ne wborn squirr el. (credit\nb: modification o f work b y Gour ami W atcher; cr edit c: modification o f work b y \"audr eyjm529\"/Flickr)\n18.2 Development and Or ganogenesis\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain ho w the embr yo forms fr om the zy gote\n\u2022Discus s the r ole o f clea vage and g astrulation in animal de velopment\n\u2022Describe or ganog enesis\nThe pr ocess by which an or ganism de velops fr om a single -celled zy gote to a mul ti-cellular or ganism is c omple x and\nwell regulated.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3127, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3c2b2aa8-d691-4856-93c4-3360b7e1046e": {"__data__": {"id_": "3c2b2aa8-d691-4856-93c4-3360b7e1046e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "492", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d0757ebc-5314-48e1-abae-47e4cf6a5ac4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "492", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d72ce1e9ea33911dfca9154759593861e422e95763d9cf346c715bbdf2e972de", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "39137371-b97c-47e6-a7d9-678396daba07", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "492", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c9fb6e0383ea2ce75c46ccfb54009cef3a2e73c207f47a896eccb6d4e110e3aa", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In mammals , nutrition is suppor ted b y the plac enta , as w as the case with this (c) ne wborn squirr el. (credit\nb: modification o f work b y Gour ami W atcher; cr edit c: modification o f work b y \"audr eyjm529\"/Flickr)\n18.2 Development and Or ganogenesis\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain ho w the embr yo forms fr om the zy gote\n\u2022Discus s the r ole o f clea vage and g astrulation in animal de velopment\n\u2022Describe or ganog enesis\nThe pr ocess by which an or ganism de velops fr om a single -celled zy gote to a mul ti-cellular or ganism is c omple x and\nwell regulated. The r egulation oc curs thr ough signaling betw een c ells and tis sues and r esponses in the f orm o f478 18 \u2022 Animal R eproduc tion and De velopment\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2502, "end_char_idx": 3312, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "86603d6e-38f7-4735-960c-aac850da0545": {"__data__": {"id_": "86603d6e-38f7-4735-960c-aac850da0545", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "493", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "525adf44-6afe-451b-b1fe-dc94716e3803", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "493", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "daed89edf45f084109fb28df9ba853c63ffeefc7631b1b3d62939ebab323b12c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "differential g ene e xpression.\nEarly Embr yonic De velopment\nFertilization is the pr ocess in which g amet es (an eg g and sperm) fuse t o form a zy gote (Figure 18.8 ). To ensur e that\nthe o ffspring has onl y one c omplet e diploid set o f chr omosomes , onl y one sperm mus t fuse with one eg g. In\nmammals , a la yer cal led the zona pel lucida protects the eg g. At the tip o f the head o f a sperm c ell is a s tructur e lik e\na lysosome cal led the acr osome , which c ontains enzymes . When a sperm binds t o the z ona pel lucida , a series o f\nevents , cal led the acr osomal r eactions , tak e plac e. These r eactions , involving enzymes fr om the acr osome , allow the\nsperm plasma membr ane t o fuse with the eg g plasma membr ane and permit the sperm nucleus t o transfer int o the\novum. The nuclear membr anes o f the eg g and sperm br eak do wn and the tw o haploid nuclei fuse t o form a diploid\nnucleus or g enome .\nFIGURE 18.8 Fertilization is the pr ocess in which sperm and eg g fuse t o form a zy gote. (credit: scale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nTo ensur e suc cessful de velopment, or ganisms mus t ensur e that that no mor e than one sperm f ertilizes the eg g.\nErnes t Everett Jus t demons trated se veral mechanisms at w ork at diff erent r ates. The fas t reaction included what\nJust cal led a \" wave of neg ativity ,\" in which the membr ane pot ential o f the eg g cell altered quickl y. Then, the slo w\nblock in volved changing the membr ane s tructur e itself . The acr osomal r eactions tak e plac e at one location o f the\negg membr ane, the eg g releases pr oteins in other locations t o prevent other sperm fr om fusing with the eg g.\nThe de velopment o f mul ti-cellular or ganisms begins fr om this single -celled zy gote, which under goes r apid c ell\ndivision, cal led clea vage (Figure 18.9 a), to form a hol low bal l of cells cal led a blas tula ( Figure 18.9 b).\nFIGURE 18.9 (a) During clea vage, the zy gote rapidl y divides int o mul tiple c ells. (b) The c ells rearr ange themsel ves to form a hol low bal l\ncalled the blas tula. (credit a: modification o f work b y Gr ay's Anat omy; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Pearson Sc ott Foresman; donat ed to\nthe Wikimedia F oundation)\nIn mammals , the blas tula f orms the blas tocystin the ne xt stage of development. Her e the c ells in the blas tula\narrange themsel ves in tw o layers: the inner c ell mas s, and an out er la yer cal led the trophoblas t. The inner c ell18.2 \u2022 De velopment and Or ganogenesis 479", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2518, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3b437cff-eda0-4beb-af26-8d17d935827d": {"__data__": {"id_": "3b437cff-eda0-4beb-af26-8d17d935827d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "494", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6aa04d4a-cc01-4ad3-87df-1c20c9186a33", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "494", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8d939b9d035e78096acf80b6cb374eba1af0d3d0afd9aa6030ff1c13c57a99f9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "7f2b9de5-58f6-4dd6-9027-c3d766a57b77", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "e78398af7bfedbe1c69ae4ff2c7d5854fe344a3bc2d332a125920ea884d6495d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "mas s wil l go on t o form the embr yo. The tr ophoblas t secr etes enzymes that al low implantation o f the blas tocyst into\nthe endometrium o f the ut erus . The tr ophoblas t wil l contribut e to the plac enta and nourish the embr yo.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nVisit the Virtual Human Embr yo project (http://opens tax.org/l/human_ embr yo2)at the Endo wment f or Human\nDevelopment sit e to click thr ough an int eractiv e of the s tages o f embr yo de velopment, including micr ographs and\nrotating 3-D imag es.\nThe c ells in the blas tula then r earr ange themsel ves spatial ly to form thr ee la yers o f cells. This pr ocess is cal led\ngastrula tion . During g astrulation, the blas tula f olds in on itself and c ells migr ate to form the thr ee la yers o f cells\n(Figure 18.10 ) in a s tructur e, the g astrula , with a hol low spac e that wil l bec ome the dig estive tract. Each o f the\nlayers o f cells is cal led a g erm la yer and wil l diff erentiat e int o diff erent or gan s ystems .\nFIGURE 18.10 Gastrulation is the pr ocess wher ein the c ells in the blas tula r earr ange themsel ves to form the g erm la yers. (credit:\nmodification o f work b y Abig ail Pyne)\nThe thr ee g erm la yers ar e the endoderm, the ect oderm, and the mesoderm. Cel ls in each g erm la yer diff erentiat e\ninto tis sues and embr yonic or gans. The ect oderm giv es rise t o the ner vous s ystem and the epidermis , among other\ntissues . The mesoderm giv es rise t o the muscle c ells and c onnectiv e tis sue in the body . The endoderm giv es rise t o\nthe g ut and man y int ernal or gans.\nOrganogenesis\nGastrulation leads t o the f ormation o f the thr ee g erm la yers that giv e rise during fur ther de velopment t o the\ndifferent or gans in the animal body . This pr ocess is cal ledorganog enesis .\nOrgans de velop fr om the g erm la yers thr ough the pr ocess of diff erentiation. During diff erentiation, the embr yonic\nstem c ells express specific sets o f genes that wil l det ermine their ul timat e cell type . For example , some c ells in the\nectoderm wil l express the g enes specific t o skin c ells. As a r esul t, these c ells wil l tak e on the shape and\nchar acteristics o f epidermal c ells. The pr ocess of diff erentiation is r egulated b y location-specific chemical signals\nfrom the c ell\u2019s embr yonic en vironment that sets in pla y a cascade o f events that r egulates g ene e xpression.\n18.3 Human R eproduc tion\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe human t esticular and o varian r eproductiv e anat omies\n\u2022Describe spermat ogenesis and oog enesis and discus s their diff erences and similarities\n\u2022Describe the r ole o f hormones in human r eproduction\n\u2022Describe the r oles o f reproductiv e hormones\nAs in al l animals , the adap tations f or reproduction in humans ar e comple x. The y involve specializ ed and diff erent\nanat omies in the tw o se xes, a hormone r egulation s ystem, and specializ ed beha viors r egulated b y the br ain and\nendocrine s ystem.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3027, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7f2b9de5-58f6-4dd6-9027-c3d766a57b77": {"__data__": {"id_": "7f2b9de5-58f6-4dd6-9027-c3d766a57b77", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "494", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6aa04d4a-cc01-4ad3-87df-1c20c9186a33", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "494", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8d939b9d035e78096acf80b6cb374eba1af0d3d0afd9aa6030ff1c13c57a99f9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "3b437cff-eda0-4beb-af26-8d17d935827d", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "494", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7039409c563d7cbbb9c1c4c296d7d1d55ab5e7717689082113b0d8162a169a9f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "18.3 Human R eproduc tion\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe human t esticular and o varian r eproductiv e anat omies\n\u2022Describe spermat ogenesis and oog enesis and discus s their diff erences and similarities\n\u2022Describe the r ole o f hormones in human r eproduction\n\u2022Describe the r oles o f reproductiv e hormones\nAs in al l animals , the adap tations f or reproduction in humans ar e comple x. The y involve specializ ed and diff erent\nanat omies in the tw o se xes, a hormone r egulation s ystem, and specializ ed beha viors r egulated b y the br ain and\nendocrine s ystem.\nHuman R eproduc tive Anat omy\nThe r eproductiv e tis sues o f male and f emale humans de velop similarl yin ut erountil about the se venth w eek o f\ngestation when, in some cases , a lo w le vel of the hormone t estosterone is r eleased fr om the g onads . Testosterone\n480 18 \u2022 Animal R eproduc tion and De velopment\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2403, "end_char_idx": 3379, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4cfa8104-f2ff-4137-a9f1-6a22c6fa1160": {"__data__": {"id_": "4cfa8104-f2ff-4137-a9f1-6a22c6fa1160", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "495", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0c841f3a-145a-44cf-aa4a-a752900d7595", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "495", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b319883ae0e51903d29d0a4fe2988d010c53d60e829c6ff5b13520cb701aa76d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "c8cda6d5-49b1-4a78-9d7f-35d2470ea559", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "22c9ffa2aebd90bcbfe1f3d05115aed7f7bb6619ef28126d234131571a884545", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "causes the primitiv e gonads t o diff erentiat e int o se xual or gans, such as the scr otum and penis . When t estosterone is\nabsent, the primitiv e gonads de velop int o ovaries . Tis sues that pr oduc e a penis in males pr oduc e a clit oris in\nfemales . The tis sue that wil l bec ome the scr otum in a male bec omes the labia in a f emale . Thus the male and\nfemale anat omies arise fr om a div ergence in the de velopment o f what w ere onc e common embr yonic s tructur es.\nMale R eproduc tive Anat omy\nSperm ar e immobile at body t emper atur e; ther efore, the t estes ar e external t o the body so that a c orrect\ntemper atur e is maintained f or motility . In land mammals , including humans , the pair o f testes mus t be suspended\noutside the body so the en vironment o f the sperm is about 2 \u00b0C lo wer than body t emper atur e to produc e viable\nsperm. If the t estes do not desc end thr ough the abdominal ca vity during f etal de velopment, the individual has\nreduc ed fertility .\nThe scrotum houses the t esticles or testes(sing ular: t estis), and pr ovides pas sage for blood v essels , ner ves, and\nmuscles r elated to testicular function. The t estes ar e a pair o f male g onads that pr oduc e sperm and r eproductiv e\nhormones . Each t estis is appr oximat ely 2.5 b y 3.8 cm (1.5 b y 1 inch) in siz e and divided int o wedge-shaped lobes b y\nsepta. Coiled in each w edge are seminif erous tubules that pr oduc e sperm.\nThe penis drains urine fr om the urinar y bladder and is a c opulat ory organ during int ercourse ( Figure 18.12 ;Table\n18.1 ). The penis c ontains thr ee tubes o f erectile tis sue that bec ome eng orged with blood, making the penis er ect, in\nprepar ation f or int ercourse . The or gan is inser ted int o the v agina culminating with an ejaculation. During or gasm, the\naccessory organs and glands c onnect ed to the t estes contr act and emp ty the semen (c ontaining sperm) int o the\nurethr a and the fluid is e xpel led fr om the body b y muscular c ontr actions causing ejaculation. Aft er int ercourse , the\nblood dr ains fr om the er ectile tis sue and the penis bec omes flac cid.\nSemen is a mixtur e of sperm (about fiv e per cent o f the t otal) and fluids fr om ac cessory glands that c ontribut e mos t\nof the semen \u2019s volume . Sperm ar e haploid c ells, consis ting o f a flag ellum f or motility , a neck that c ontains the c ell\u2019s\nener gy-producing mit ochondria , and a head that c ontains the g enetic mat erial ( Figure 18.11 ). An acr osome\n(acrosomal v esicle) is f ound at the t op o f the head o f the sperm. This s tructur e contains enzymes that can dig est the\nprotectiv e coverings that surr ound the eg g and al low the sperm t o fuse with the eg g. An ejaculat e wil l contain fr om\ntwo to fiv e mil liliters o f fluid and fr om 50\u2013120 mil lion sperm per mil liliter.\nFIGURE 18.11 As seen in this scanning electr on micr ograph, human sperm has a flag ellum, neck, and head. (cr edit: scale -bar data fr om\nMatt Rus sell)\nSperm f orm in the w alls ofseminif erous tubules that ar e coiled inside the t estes (Figure 18.12 ;Table 18.1 ).", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3109, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c8cda6d5-49b1-4a78-9d7f-35d2470ea559": {"__data__": {"id_": "c8cda6d5-49b1-4a78-9d7f-35d2470ea559", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "495", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0c841f3a-145a-44cf-aa4a-a752900d7595", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "495", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b319883ae0e51903d29d0a4fe2988d010c53d60e829c6ff5b13520cb701aa76d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "4cfa8104-f2ff-4137-a9f1-6a22c6fa1160", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "495", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fc61b683f33b3530a42a2b2db06d1f77628b4437db8fc63b79c70b74ba33d80b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "An acr osome\n(acrosomal v esicle) is f ound at the t op o f the head o f the sperm. This s tructur e contains enzymes that can dig est the\nprotectiv e coverings that surr ound the eg g and al low the sperm t o fuse with the eg g. An ejaculat e wil l contain fr om\ntwo to fiv e mil liliters o f fluid and fr om 50\u2013120 mil lion sperm per mil liliter.\nFIGURE 18.11 As seen in this scanning electr on micr ograph, human sperm has a flag ellum, neck, and head. (cr edit: scale -bar data fr om\nMatt Rus sell)\nSperm f orm in the w alls ofseminif erous tubules that ar e coiled inside the t estes (Figure 18.12 ;Table 18.1 ). The\nwalls of the seminif erous tubules ar e made up o f the de veloping sperm c ells, with the leas t developed sperm at the\nperipher y of the tubule and the ful ly de veloped sperm ne xt to the lumen. The sperm c ells ar e as sociat ed with\nSertoli c ellsthat nourish and pr omot e the de velopment o f the sperm. Other c ells pr esent betw een the w alls of the\ntubules ar e the interstitial c ells of Leydig, which pr oduc e testosterone onc e the male r eaches adolesc ence.\nWhen the sperm ha ve de veloped flag ella the y lea ve the seminif erous tubules and ent er the epididymis ( Figure\n18.12 ;Table 18.1 ). This s tructur e lies along the t op and pos terior o f the t estes and is the sit e of sperm matur ation.\nThe sperm lea ve the epididymis and ent er the v as def erens, which carries the sperm behind the bladder , and f orms\nthe ejaculat ory duct with the duct fr om the seminal v esicles . During a v asect omy, a section o f the v as def erens is18.3 \u2022 Human R eproduc tion 481", "start_char_idx": 2492, "end_char_idx": 4106, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5acb0ca3-859b-4d7e-93a2-56e5b80d004f": {"__data__": {"id_": "5acb0ca3-859b-4d7e-93a2-56e5b80d004f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "496", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3dde5fa2-ada1-4935-a2a3-8ae77a1f9108", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "496", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "803cea513c46143afa081754ab5c1735d792107137ad74403fd06324e0e44602", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "remo ved, pr eventing sperm (but not the secr etions o f the ac cessory glands) fr om being pas sed out o f the body\nduring ejaculation and pr eventing f ertilization.\nThe bulk o f the semen c omes fr om the ac cessory glands as sociat ed with the male r eproductiv e system. These ar e\ntheseminal v esicles , the prostate gland , and the bulbour ethr al gland (Figure 18.12 ;Table 18.1 ). The secr etions\nfrom the ac cessory glands pr ovide impor tant c ompounds f or the sperm including nutrients , electr olytes, and pH\nbuff ering . Ther e are also c oagulation fact ors that aff ect sperm deliv ery and motility .\nVISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 18.12 The t esticular r eproductiv e system s tructur es ar e sho wn.\nWhich o f the f ollowing s tatements about the t esticular r eproductiv e system is false?\na.The v as def erens carries sperm fr om the t estes to the seminal v esicles .\nb.The ejaculat ory duct joins the ur ethr a.\nc.Both the pr ostate and the bulbour ethr al glands pr oduc e components o f the semen.\nd.The pr ostate gland is locat ed in the t estes.\nTesticular R eproductiv e Sy stem Anat omy\nOrgan Location Function\nScrotum External Suppor ts testes and r egulates their t emper atur e\nPenis External Deliv ers urine , copulating or gan\nTestes Internal Produc e sperm and male hormones\nSeminal V esicles Internal Contribut e to semen pr oduction\nProstate Gland Internal Contribut es to semen pr oduction\nBulbour ethtr al Glands Internal Neutr alize urine in ur ethr a\nTABLE 18.1\n482 18 \u2022 Animal R eproduc tion and De velopment\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1581, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "16ee643e-3707-4405-ba85-541b7d8a1ce8": {"__data__": {"id_": "16ee643e-3707-4405-ba85-541b7d8a1ce8", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "497", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a9a8dc3b-fa45-4879-a610-9b3ebcda6e36", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "497", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b277dc658a4482fb4100d8e08446d4f01a6aaba87a019ce2a7fa0b343d8ba1c2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Female R eproduc tive Anat omy\nA number o f female r eproductiv e structur es ar e exterior t o the body . These include the br easts and the vul va, which\nconsis ts of the mons pubis ,clitoris,labia major a,labia minor a, and the v estibular glands ( Figure 18.13 ;Table\n18.2 ).\nFIGURE 18.13 The s tructur es o f the human o varian r eproductiv e system ar e sho wn. (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Gr ay's Anat omy;\ncredit b: modification o f work b y CDC)\nThe br easts consis t of mammar y glands and fat. Each gland c onsis ts of 15 t o 25 lobes that ha ve ducts that emp ty at\nthe nipple and that suppl y the nursing child with nutrient - and antibody -rich milk t o aid de velopment and pr otect\nthe child.\nInternal f emale r eproductiv e structur es include o varies , oviducts , the ut erus , and the v agina ( Figure 18.13 ;Table\n18.2 ). The pair o f ovaries is held in plac e in the abdominal ca vity b y a s ystem o f ligaments . The out ermos t layer of\nthe o vary is made up o f follicles , each c onsis ting o f one or mor e follicular c ells that surr ound, nourish, and pr otect a\nsingle eg g. During the mens trual period, a bat ch o f follicular c ells de velops and pr epar es their eg gs for release . At\novulation, one f ollicle rup tures and one eg g is r eleased. F ollowing o vulation, the f ollicular tis sue that surr ounded the\novulat ed eg g stays within the o vary and gr ows to form a solid mas s cal led the corpus lut eum . The c orpus lut eum\nsecr etes additional es trogen and the hormone pr ogesterone that helps maintain the ut erine lining during pr egnancy .\nThe o varies also pr oduc e hormones , such as es trogen.\nThe oviducts , or fal lopian tubes , extend fr om the ut erus in the lo wer abdominal ca vity t o the o varies , but the y are\nnot in c ontact with the o varies . The lat eral ends o f the o viducts flar e out int o a trumpet -like structur e and ha ve a\nfring e of fing er-like projections cal led fimbr ae. When an eg g is r eleased at o vulation, the fimbr ae help the nonmotile\negg ent er int o the tube . The w alls of the o viducts ha ve a ciliat ed epithelium o ver smooth muscle . The cilia beat, and\nthe smooth muscle c ontr acts , mo ving the eg g toward the ut erus . Fertilization usual ly tak es plac e within the o viduct\nand the de veloping embr yo is mo ved toward the ut erus . It usual ly tak es the eg g or embr yo a w eek t o travel thr ough\nthe o viduct.\nSterilization in f emales is cal led a tubal lig ation; it is analog ous t o a v asect omy in males in that the o viducts ar e\nsevered and sealed, pr eventing sperm fr om r eaching the eg g.\nThe uterus is a s tructur e about the siz e of a person \u2019s fis t. The ut erus has a thick muscular w all and is lined with an\nendometrium rich in blood v essels and mucus glands that de velop and thick en during the f emale cy cle. Thick ening\nof the endometrium pr epar es the ut erus t o receive the f ertilized eg g or zy gote, which wil l then implant itself in the\nendometrium. The ut erus suppor ts the de veloping embr yo and f etus during g estation. Contr actions o f the smooth18.3 \u2022 Human R eproduc tion 483", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3146, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "540c62b6-71fe-474b-abf0-a936710f2651": {"__data__": {"id_": "540c62b6-71fe-474b-abf0-a936710f2651", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "498", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f2e656b4-48b4-4ee2-97a4-f6ce4fd39d92", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "498", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "953c5ab9475bd2d6bf643eb798b047f57c5bdc39932331e47bfecb46a23b2c90", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "muscle in the ut erus aid in f orcing the bab y thr ough the v agina during labor . If f ertilization does not oc cur, a por tion\nof the lining o f the ut erus sloughs o ff during each mens trual period. The endometrium builds up ag ain in pr epar ation\nfor implantation. P art of the ut erus , cal led the c ervix, pr otrudes int o the t op o f the v agina .\nThe vagina is a muscular tube that ser ves se veral purposes . It al lows mens trual flo w to lea ve the body . It is the\nreceptacle f or the penis during int ercourse and the path way for the deliv ery of offspring .\nOvarian R eproductiv e Sy stem Anat omy\nOrgan Location Function\nClitoris External Sensor y organ\nMons pubis External Fatty ar ea o verlying pubic bone\nLabia major a External Covers labia minor a; contains s weat and sebac eous glands\nLabia minor a External Covers v estibule\nGreater vestibular glands External Secr ete mucus; lubricat e vagina\nBreast External Produc es and deliv ers milk\nOvaries Internal Produc e and de velop eg gs\nOviducts Internal Transpor t egg to uterus; sit e of fertilization\nUterus Internal Suppor ts de veloping embr yo\nVagina Internal Common tube f or int ercourse , birth canal , pas sing mens trual flo w\nTABLE 18.2\nGame togenesis (Spermat ogenesis and Oogenesis)\nGamet ogenesis , the pr oduction o f sperm and eg gs, involves the pr ocess of meiosis . During meiosis , two nuclear\ndivisions separ ate the pair ed chr omosomes in the nucleus and then separ ate the chr omatids that w ere made during\nan earlier s tage of the c ell\u2019s life cy cle. Meiosis and its as sociat ed c ell divisions pr oduc es haploid c ells with half o f\neach pair o f chr omosomes normal ly found in diploid c ells. The pr oduction o f sperm is cal ledsperma togenesis and\nthe pr oduction o f eggs is cal ledoogenesis .\nSpermat ogenesis\nSpermat ogenesis oc curs in the w all of the seminif erous tubules , with the mos t primitiv e cells at the peripher y of the\ntube and the mos t matur e sperm at the lumen o f the tube ( Figure 18.14 ). Immediat ely under the capsule o f the\ntubule ar e diploid, undiff erentiat ed c ells. These s tem c ells, each cal led a spermat ogonium (pl . spermat ogonia), g o\nthrough mit osis t o produc e one c ell that r emains as a s tem c ell and a sec ond c ell cal led a primar y spermat ocyt e that\nwill under go meiosis t o produc e sperm.\nThe diploid primar y spermat ocyt e goes thr ough meiosis I t o produc e tw o haploid c ells cal led sec ondar y\nspermat ocyt es. Each sec ondar y spermat ocyt e divides aft er meiosis II t o produc e tw o cells cal led spermatids . The\nspermatids e ventual ly reach the lumen o f the tubule and gr ow a flag ellum, bec oming sperm c ells. Four sperm r esul t\nfrom each primar y spermat ocyt e that g oes thr ough meiosis .484 18 \u2022 Animal R eproduc tion and De velopment\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2866, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a0217172-cdeb-4501-ae7d-1c6a24349355": {"__data__": {"id_": "a0217172-cdeb-4501-ae7d-1c6a24349355", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "499", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6f61966e-9326-4692-b80a-c5120da58465", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "499", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0491ce005bb7adc77f97e06e951bcc4909a5d42d74e4572c809fd974033463e3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 18.14 During spermat ogenesis , four sperm r esul t from each primar y spermat ocyt e. The pr ocess also maps ont o the ph ysical\nstructur e of the w all of the seminif erous tubule , with the spermat ogonia on the out er side o f the tubule , and the sperm with their\ndeveloping tails e xtended int o the lumen o f the tubule .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nVisit this sit e(http://opens tax.org/l/spermat ogenes2) to see the pr ocess of spermat ogenesis .\nOogenesis\nOog enesis oc curs in the out ermos t layers o f the o varies . As with sperm pr oduction, oog enesis s tarts with a g erm\ncell. In oog enesis , this g erm c ell is cal led an oog onium and f orms during the embr yological de velopment o f the\nindividual . The oog onium under goes mit osis t o produc e about one t o tw o mil lion oocyt es b y the time o f birth.\n18.3 \u2022 Human R eproduc tion 485", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 860, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6e52bd45-d1a0-4105-958d-896c8219c985": {"__data__": {"id_": "6e52bd45-d1a0-4105-958d-896c8219c985", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "500", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8dd688a4-ff28-48fe-a266-ab84da595ba4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "500", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "65e3877ff133ee01f879a550a7ebfae11126ee63e0c10b6db7a904a52e383c20", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 18.15 The pr ocess of oog enesis oc curs in the o vary\u2019s out ermos t layer.\nThe primar y oocyt es begin meiosis bef ore bir th (Figure 18.15 ). Ho wever, the meiotic division is arr ested in its\nprogress in the firs t prophase s tage. At the time o f birth, al l futur e eg gs ar e in pr ophase I. This situation is in c ontr ast\nwith the t esticular r eproductiv e system in which sperm ar e produc ed c ontinuousl y thr oughout the lif e of the\nindividual . Star ting at adolesc ence, ant erior pituitar y hormones cause the de velopment o f a few follicles in an o vary\neach month. This r esul ts in a primar y oocyt e finishing the firs t meiotic division. The c ell divides unequal ly, with mos t\nof the cyt oplasm and or ganel les g oing t o one c ell, cal led a sec ondar y oocyt e, and onl y one set o f chr omosomes and\na smal l amount o f cyt oplasm g oing t o the other c ell. This sec ond c ell is cal led a polar body and usual ly dies . Cel l\ndivision is ag ain arr ested, this time at metaphase II. A t ovulation, this sec ondar y oocyt e is r eleased and tr avels\ntoward the ut erus thr ough the o viduct. If the sec ondar y oocyt e is f ertilized, the c ell continues thr ough meiosis II,\nproducing a sec ond polar body and haploid eg g, which fuses with the haploid sperm t o form a f ertilized eg g (zy gote)\ncontaining al l 46 chr omosomes .\nHormonal C ontrol of Reproduc tion\nThe human r eproductiv e cy cles ar e contr olled b y the int eraction o f hormones fr om the h ypothalamus and ant erior\npituitar y with hormones fr om r eproductiv e tis sues and or gans. The h ypothalamus monit ors and causes the r elease\nof hormones fr om the ant erior pituitar y gland. When the r eproductiv e hormone is r equir ed, the h ypothalamus sends\nagonado tropin-r eleasing hormone (GnRH) to the ant erior pituitar y. This causes the r elease o ffollicle s timula ting\nhormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the ant erior pituitar y int o the blood. Al though these hormones\nare named aft er their functions in f emale r eproduction, the y are produc ed in both se xes and pla y impor tant r oles in\ncontr olling r eproduction. Other hormones ha ve specific functions in the male and f emale r eproductiv e systems .\nMale Hormones\nAt the onset o f puber ty, the h ypothalamus causes the r elease o f FSH and LH int o the male s ystem f or the firs t time .\nFSH ent ers the t estes and s timulat es the Ser toli c ells locat ed in the w alls of the seminif erous tubules t o begin\npromoting spermat ogenesis ( Figure 18.16 ). LH also ent ers the t estes and s timulat es the int erstitial c ells of Leydig,\nlocat ed in betw een the w alls of the seminif erous tubules , to mak e and r elease t estosterone int o the t estes and the\nblood.\nTestosterone stimulat es spermat ogenesis . During adolesc ence, this hormone is also r esponsible f or a deepening o f\nthe v oice, the gr owth o f facial , axil lary, and pubic hair , an incr ease in muscle bulk, and the beginnings o f the se x\ndrive.486 18 \u2022 Animal R eproduc tion and De velopment\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3099, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1b5a424c-1c76-4fee-ac62-59e10c976005": {"__data__": {"id_": "1b5a424c-1c76-4fee-ac62-59e10c976005", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "501", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "28472b07-4635-4659-894c-f30e98b71a0d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "501", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3b89045fa55612e1cff55427064855ccc98408f875a4d6f77aa5259dbdec0566", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 18.16 Hormones c ontr ol sperm pr oduction in a neg ative feedback s ystem.\nA neg ative feedback s ystem oc curs in the male with rising le vels o f testosterone acting on the h ypothalamus and\nanterior pituitar y to inhibit the r elease o f GnRH, FSH, and LH. In addition, the Ser toli c ells pr oduc e the hormone\ninhibin , which is r eleased int o the blood when the sperm c ount is t oo high. This inhibits the r elease o f GnRH and\nFSH, which wil l cause spermat ogenesis t o slo w do wn. If the sperm c ount r eaches a lo w of 20 mil lion/mL , the Ser toli\ncells cease the r elease o f inhibin, and the sperm c ount incr eases .\nFemale Hormones\nThe c ontr ol of reproduction in f emales is mor e comple x. The f emale r eproductiv e cy cle is divided int o the o varian\ncycle and the mens trual cy cle. The ovarian cy clegoverns the pr epar ation o f endocrine tis sues and r elease o f eggs,\nwhile the mens trual cy clegoverns the pr epar ation and maint enanc e of the ut erine lining ( Figure 18.17 ). These\ncycles ar e coordinat ed o ver a 22\u201332 da y cycle, with an a verage length o f 28 da ys.\nAs with the male , the GnRH fr om the h ypothalamus causes the r elease o f the hormones FSH and LH fr om the\nanterior pituitar y. In addition, estrogenand progesterone are released fr om the de veloping f ollicles . As with\ntestosterone in males , estrogen is r esponsible f or the sec ondar y sexual char acteristics o f females . These include\nbreast development, flaring o f the hips , and a shor ter period f or bone gr owth.\nThe Ov arian C ycle and the Mens trual C ycle\nThe o varian and mens trual cy cles ar e regulated b y hormones o f the h ypothalamus , pituitar y, and o varies ( Figure\n18.17 ). The ebb and flo w of the hormones causes the o varian and mens trual cy cles t o adv ance. The o varian and\nmens trual cy cles oc cur c oncurr ently. The firs t half o f the o varian cy cle is the f ollicular phase . Slo wly rising le vels o f\nFSH cause the gr owth o f follicles on the sur face of the o vary. This pr ocess prepar es the eg g for ovulation. As the\nfollicles gr ow, the y begin r eleasing es trogen. The firs t few da ys of this cy cle c oincide with mens truation or the\nsloughing o ff of the functional la yer of the endometrium in the ut erus . Aft er about fiv e da ys, estrogen le vels rise and\nthe mens trual cy cle ent ers the pr oliferative phase . The endometrium begins t o regrow, replacing the blood v essels\nand glands that det erior ated during the end o f the las t cycle.18.3 \u2022 Human R eproduc tion 487", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2556, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "506db90b-d01a-4688-bb41-d73080b678af": {"__data__": {"id_": "506db90b-d01a-4688-bb41-d73080b678af", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "502", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1c8872ba-9ed7-441d-8d18-28de7204ab2e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "502", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b576d8fe2e000206512adcab94305a7fb6ee33b21c624538d147650477326d78", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 18.17 The o varian and mens trual cy cles o f reproduction ar e regulated b y hormones pr oduc ed b y the h ypothalamus , pituitar y, and\novaries .\nWhich o f the f ollowing s tatements about hormone r egulation o f the o varian and mens trual cy cle is false?\na.LH and FSH ar e produc ed in the pituitar y, and es trogen and pr ogesterone ar e produc ed in the o varies .\nb.Estradiol and pr ogesterone secr eted fr om the c orpus lut eum cause the endometrium t o thick en.\nc.Both pr ogesterone and es trogen ar e produc ed b y the f ollicles .\nd.Secr etion o f GnRH b y the h ypothalamus is inhibit ed b y low le vels o f estrogen but s timulat ed b y high le vels o f\nestrogen.\nJust prior t o the middle o f the cy cle (appr oximat ely da y 14), the high le vel of estrogen causes FSH and especial ly LH\nto rise r apidl y then fal l. The spik e in LH causes the mos t matur e follicle t o rup ture and r elease its eg g. This is\novula tion . The f ollicles that did not rup ture deg ener ate and their eg gs ar e los t. The le vel of estrogen decr eases\nwhen the e xtra follicles deg ener ate.\nFollowing o vulation, the o varian cy cle ent ers its lut eal phase and the mens trual cy cle ent ers its secr etory phase ,\nboth o f which run fr om about da y 15 t o 28. The lut eal and secr etory phases r efer to chang es in the rup tured follicle .\nThe c ells in the f ollicle under go ph ysical chang es and pr oduc e a s tructur e cal led a c orpus lut eum. The c orpus\nluteum pr oduc es es trogen and pr ogesterone. The pr ogesterone facilitat es the r egrowth o f the ut erine lining and\n488 18 \u2022 Animal R eproduc tion and De velopment\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1701, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e4786e4c-e3b9-4775-af1d-6996c5e1f572": {"__data__": {"id_": "e4786e4c-e3b9-4775-af1d-6996c5e1f572", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "503", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4b2581cf-33b9-4d46-a8f7-f5ce2cfe03ee", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "503", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "27e17370fa47aa3fdb4abe6b891ad52639f759e00aa3c835b903e0b82fd08f5d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "69e013a4-a54b-42f1-8461-c3abf0ec85ba", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "6c7f1b094a661ba6f80f805e7752071d7211b95fadff6eabc798f455d2c8b81f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "inhibits the r elease o f fur ther FSH and LH. The ut erus is being pr epar ed to ac cept a fertilized eg g, should it oc cur\nduring this cy cle. The inhibition o f FSH and LH pr events an y fur ther eg gs and f ollicles fr om de veloping , while the\nprogesterone is ele vated. The le vel of estrogen pr oduc ed b y the c orpus lut eum incr eases t o a s teady le vel for the\nnext few da ys.\nIf no f ertilized eg g is implant ed int o the ut erus , the c orpus lut eum deg ener ates and the le vels o f estrogen and\nprogesterone decr ease . The endometrium begins t o deg ener ate as the pr ogesterone le vels dr op, initiating the ne xt\nmens trual cy cle. The decr ease in pr ogesterone also al lows the h ypothalamus t o send GnRH t o the ant erior pituitar y,\nreleasing FSH and LH and s tarting the cy cles ag ain.\nCAREER C ONNE CTION\nReproduc tive Endocrinologis t\nA reproductiv e endocrinologis t is a ph ysician who tr eats a v ariety o f hormonal disor ders r elated to reproduction and\ninfertility in people o f any gender . The disor ders include mens trual pr oblems , infertility , pregnancy los s, sexual\ndysfunction, and menopause . Doct ors ma y use f ertility drugs , sur gery, or as sisted reproductiv e techniques (AR T) in\ntheir ther apy. ART involves the use o f procedur es to manipulat e the eg g or sperm t o facilitat e reproduction, such as\nin vitr ofertilization.\nReproductiv e endocrinologis ts under go extensiv e medical tr aining , firs t in a f our-year r esidency in obs tetrics and\ngynec olog y, then in a thr ee-year f ellowship in r eproductiv e endocrinolog y. To be boar d certified in this ar ea, the\nphysician mus t pas s writ ten and or al exams in both ar eas.\nGestation\nPregnancy begins with the f ertilization o f an eg g and c ontinues thr ough t o the bir th of the individual . The length o f\ntime o fgestation , or the gestation period , in humans is 266 da ys and is similar in other gr eat apes .\nWithin 24 hours o f fertilization, the eg g nucleus has finished meiosis and the eg g and sperm nuclei fuse . With fusion,\nthe c ell is kno wn as a zy gote. The zy gote initiat es clea vage and the de veloping embr yo travels thr ough the o viduct t o\nthe ut erus . The de veloping embr yo mus t implant int o the w all of the ut erus within se ven da ys, or it wil l det erior ate\nand die . The out er la yers o f the de veloping embr yo or blas tocyst grow int o the endometrium b y dig esting the\nendometrial c ells, and healing o f the endometrium closes up the blas tocyst into the tis sue. Another la yer of the\nblas tocyst, the chorion, begins r eleasing a hormone cal ledhuman beta chorionic g onado tropin (\u03b2-HC G), which\nmak es its w ay to the c orpus lut eum and k eeps that s tructur e activ e. This ensur es adequat e levels o f progesterone\nthat wil l maintain the endometrium o f the ut erus f or the suppor t of the de veloping embr yo. Pregnancy t ests\ndetermine the le vel of \u03b2-HCG in urine or serum. If the hormone is pr esent, the t est is positiv e.\nThe g estation period is divided int o thr ee equal periods or trimes ters. During the firs t two-to-four w eeks of the firs t\ntrimes ter, nutrition and w aste are handled b y the endometrial lining thr ough diffusion.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3234, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "69e013a4-a54b-42f1-8461-c3abf0ec85ba": {"__data__": {"id_": "69e013a4-a54b-42f1-8461-c3abf0ec85ba", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "503", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4b2581cf-33b9-4d46-a8f7-f5ce2cfe03ee", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "503", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "27e17370fa47aa3fdb4abe6b891ad52639f759e00aa3c835b903e0b82fd08f5d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "e4786e4c-e3b9-4775-af1d-6996c5e1f572", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "503", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "428dc92658cfa931c557d05b2a581083e997981655dae916159dc4646f637f3d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Pregnancy t ests\ndetermine the le vel of \u03b2-HCG in urine or serum. If the hormone is pr esent, the t est is positiv e.\nThe g estation period is divided int o thr ee equal periods or trimes ters. During the firs t two-to-four w eeks of the firs t\ntrimes ter, nutrition and w aste are handled b y the endometrial lining thr ough diffusion. As the trimes ter pr ogresses,\nthe out er la yer of the embr yo begins t o mer ge with the endometrium, and the plac enta f orms . The plac enta takes\nover the nutrient and w aste requir ements o f the embr yo and f etus , with the g estational par ent\u2019s blood pas sing\nnutrients t o the plac enta and r emo ving w aste from it. Chemicals fr om the f etus , such as bilirubin, ar e processed b y\nthe g estational par ent\u2019s liver for elimination. Some o f the pr egnant person \u2019s immunoglobulins wil l pas s thr ough the\nplac enta , providing pas sive immunity ag ains t some pot ential inf ections .\nInternal or gans and body s tructur es begin t o de velop during the firs t trimes ter. By fiv e weeks, limb buds , eyes, the\nhear t, and liv er ha ve been basical ly formed. B y eight w eeks, the t erm f etus applies , and the body is es sential ly\nformed ( Figure 18.18 a). The individual is about fiv e centimet ers (tw o inches) in length and man y of the or gans, such\nas the lungs and liv er, are not y et functioning . Exposur e to an y toxins is especial ly dang erous during the firs t\ntrimes ter, as al l of the body \u2019s organs and s tructur es ar e going thr ough initial de velopment. An ything that int erferes\nwith chemical signaling during that de velopment can ha ve a se vere eff ect on the f etus\u2019 sur vival.\n18.3 \u2022 Human R eproduc tion 489", "start_char_idx": 2898, "end_char_idx": 4592, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "92bda43c-ea3f-427a-99a8-396c75692a1b": {"__data__": {"id_": "92bda43c-ea3f-427a-99a8-396c75692a1b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "504", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "60f65e0c-3e89-44dd-8dbc-d53d57b6b8aa", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "504", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0311dcb08b1412e73b64e0641e7c27e8591c3149bf08f911469ee73c9bd64950", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 18.18 (a) F etal de velopment is sho wn at nine w eeks gestation. (b) This f etus is jus t ent ering the sec ond trimes ter, when the\nplac enta tak es o ver mor e of the functions per formed as the bab y de velops . (c) Ther e is r apid f etal gr owth during the thir d trimes ter. (credit\na: modification o f work b y Ed Uthman; cr edit b: modification o f work b y National Museum o f Heal th and Medicine; cr edit c: modification o f\nwork b y Gr ay\u2019s Anat omy)\nDuring the sec ond trimes ter, the f etus gr ows to about 30 cm (about 12 inches) ( Figure 18.18 b). It bec omes activ e\nand the pr egnant person usual ly feels the firs t mo vements . All organs and s tructur es continue t o de velop . The\nplac enta has tak en o ver the functions o f nutrition and w aste elimination and the pr oduction o f estrogen and\nprogesterone fr om the c orpus lut eum, which has deg ener ated. The plac enta wil l continue functioning up thr ough\nthe deliv ery of the bab y. During the thir d trimes ter, the f etus gr ows to 3 t o 4 k g (6.5\u20138.5 lbs .) and about 50 cm\n(19\u201320 inches) long ( Figure 18.18 c). This is the period o f the mos t rapid gr owth during the pr egnancy as al l organ\nsystems c ontinue t o grow and de velop .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nVisit this w ebsit e(http://opens tax.org/l/embr yo_fetus2) to see the s tages o f human f etal de velopment.\nLabor is the muscular c ontr actions t o expel the f etus and plac enta fr om the ut erus . Toward the end o f the thir d\ntrimes ter, estrogen causes r eceptors on the ut erine w all to de velop and bind the hormone o xytocin. A t this time , the\nbaby reorients , facing f orward and do wn with the back or cr own o f the head eng aging the c ervix (ut erine opening ).\nThis causes the c ervix t o stretch and ner ve impulses ar e sent t o the h ypothalamus , which signals the r elease o f\noxytocin fr om the pos terior pituitar y. Oxyt ocin causes smooth muscle in the ut erine w all to contr act. A t the same\ntime , the plac enta r eleases pr ostaglandins int o the ut erus , incr easing the c ontr actions . A positiv e feedback r elay\noccurs betw een the ut erus , hypothalamus , and the pos terior pituitar y to as sure an adequat e suppl y of oxytocin. As\nmor e smooth muscle c ells ar e recruit ed, the c ontr actions incr ease in int ensity and f orce.\nTher e are thr ee s tages to labor . During s tage one , the c ervix thins and dilat es. This is nec essary for the bab y and\nplac enta t o be e xpel led during bir th. The c ervix wil l eventual ly dilat e to about 10 cm. During s tage tw o, the bab y is\nexpel led fr om the ut erus . The ut erus c ontr acts and, in mos t cases , the person giving bir th pushes as the y compr ess\nthe abdominal muscles t o aid the deliv ery. The las t stage is the pas sage of the plac enta aft er the bab y has been\nborn and the or gan has c omplet ely diseng aged fr om the ut erine w all. If labor should s top bef ore stage tw o is\nreached, s ynthetic o xytocin, kno wn as Pit ocin, can be adminis tered to restart and maintain labor .\n490 18 \u2022 Animal R eproduc tion and De velopment\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3131, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "910282f0-1316-4b89-bd0b-f419399939dc": {"__data__": {"id_": "910282f0-1316-4b89-bd0b-f419399939dc", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "505", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "33d2e42e-69cf-447e-b421-0af881220212", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "505", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c15084a9dd9b1eade1712aa41b2fa28c4c2834459ed1fef8c463048b3f23a5b8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "f8f01896-c862-4f1f-b48a-2f46fe5f827f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "85953ce47eb4e16033a428d823ee7d46050880fdac715760b22884f13d5b9458", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nasexual r eproduction a mechanism that pr oduc es\noffspring that ar e genetical ly identical t o the par ent\nblas tocystthe s tructur e formed when c ells in the\nmammalian blas tula separ ate int o an inner and\nouter la yer\nbudding a form o f ase xual r eproduction that r esul ts\nfrom the out growth o f a par t of an or ganism leading\nto a separ ation fr om the original animal int o tw o\nindividuals\nbulbour ethr al gland the pair ed glands in the human\nmale that pr oduc e a secr etion that cleanses the\nurethr a prior t o ejaculation\nclitoris a sensor y and er ectile s tructur e in f emale\nmammals , homolog ous t o the male penis ,\nstimulat ed during se xual ar ousal\ncorpus lut eum the endocrine tis sue that de velops\nfrom an o varian f ollicle aft er ovulation; secr etes\nprogesterone and es trogen during pr egnancy\nestrogen a reproductiv e hormone , usual ly present in\nanimals o f any sex, which in f emales as sists in\nendometrial r egrowth, o vulation, and calcium\nabsorp tion\nexternal f ertiliza tion the f ertilization o f eggs b y\nsperm outside an animal \u2019s body , often during\nspawning\nfission (also , binar y fis sion) a f orm o f ase xual\nreproduction in which an or ganism splits int o tw o\nsepar ate organisms or tw o par ts that r egener ate the\nmissing por tions o f the body\nfollicle s timula ting hormone (FSH) a reproductiv e\nhormone that causes sperm pr oduction in males\nand f ollicle de velopment in f emales\nfragmenta tion the br eaking o f an or ganism int o par ts\nand the gr owth o f a separ ate individual fr om each\npart\ngastrula tion the pr ocess in which the blas tula f olds\nover itself t o form the thr ee g erm la yers\ngestation the de velopment bef ore bir th of a\nvivipar ous animal\ngestation period the length o f time o f development,\nfrom c onception t o bir th, o f the y oung o f a\nvivipar ous animal\ngonado tropin-r eleasing hormone (GnRH) a hormone\nfrom the h ypothalamus that causes the r elease o f\nFSH and LH fr om the ant erior pituitar y\nhermaphr oditism the s tate of having both male and\nfemale r eproductiv e structur es within the same\nindividual\nhuman beta chorionic g onado tropin (\u03b2-HC G) a\nhormone pr oduc ed b y the chorion o f the zy gote that\nhelps t o maintain the c orpus lut eum and ele vated\nlevels o f progesteroneinhibin a hormone made b y Ser toli c ells, provides\nnegative feedback t o hypothalamus in c ontr ol of\nFSH and GnRH r elease\ninner c ell mas sthe inner la yer of cells in the\nblas tocyst,", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2484, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f8f01896-c862-4f1f-b48a-2f46fe5f827f": {"__data__": {"id_": "f8f01896-c862-4f1f-b48a-2f46fe5f827f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "505", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "33d2e42e-69cf-447e-b421-0af881220212", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "505", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c15084a9dd9b1eade1712aa41b2fa28c4c2834459ed1fef8c463048b3f23a5b8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "910282f0-1316-4b89-bd0b-f419399939dc", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "505", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6b4719aebb9893cc7fd7563752a463597394f3099bd6c3fdb23cc19722920518", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "provides\nnegative feedback t o hypothalamus in c ontr ol of\nFSH and GnRH r elease\ninner c ell mas sthe inner la yer of cells in the\nblas tocyst, which bec omes the embr yo\ninternal f ertiliza tion the f ertilization o f eggs b y\nsperm inside the body o f the f emale\ninterstitial c ell of Leydig a cell type f ound ne xt to the\nseminif erous tubules that mak es testosterone\nlabia major athe lar ge folds o f tissue c overing\ninguinal ar ea\nlabia minor athe smal ler folds o f tissue within labia\nmajor a\nluteinizing hormone (LH) a reproductiv e hormone\nthat causes t estosterone pr oduction in males and\novulation and lactation in f emales\nmens trual cy cle the cy cle o f the degr adation and r e-\ngrowth o f the endometrium\noogenesis the pr ocess of producing haploid eg gs\norganog enesis the pr ocess of organ formation during\ndevelopment\novarian cy cle the cy cle o f prepar ation o f egg for\novulation and the c onversion o f the f ollicle t o the\ncorpus lut eum\noviduct (also , fallopian tube) the muscular tube\nconnecting ut erus with o vary area\noviparity a process by which f ertilized eg gs ar e laid\noutside the f emale \u2019s body and de velop ther e,\nreceiving nourishment fr om the y olk that is a par t of\nthe eg g\novoviparity a process by which f ertilized eg gs ar e\nretained within the f emale; the embr yo ob tains its\nnourishment fr om the eg g\u2019s yolk, and the y oung ar e\nfully de veloped when the y are hat ched\novula tion the r elease o f an oocyt e from a matur e\nfollicle in the o vary of a v ertebrate\nparthenog enesis a form o f ase xual r eproduction in\nwhich an eg g de velops int o a c omplet e individual\nwithout being f ertilized\npenis the male r eproductiv e structur e for urine\nelimination and c opulation\nplac enta the or gan that suppor ts the tr anspor t of\nnutrients and w aste betw een the mothers and f etus\u2019\nblood in eutherian mammals\nprogesterone a reproductiv e hormone in usual ly\npresent in animals o f any sex; in human f emales it\nassists in endometrial r egrowth and inhibition o f\nFSH and LH r elease\nprostate gland a structur e that is a mixtur e of\nsmooth muscle and glandular mat erial and that\ncontribut es to semen\nscrotum a sac c ontaining t estes, exterior t o body18 \u2022 K ey Terms 491", "start_char_idx": 2340, "end_char_idx": 4578, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "199e9710-be64-441e-819c-17aa40299d5f": {"__data__": {"id_": "199e9710-be64-441e-819c-17aa40299d5f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "506", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "845626c4-ce24-41f0-8fec-6655f0c79ec8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "506", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9c27e29fb010b700a3c8def24c27ffb81b9a6d24e217f09ea6fc390c24143c1a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "e0437cb8-a22a-409a-82a1-3c0fecf781de", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "3220d85e9fb1d4fe710af3497d903fabb705004dd456eceb351d856c98e66710", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "semen a fluid mixtur e of sperm and suppor ting\nmaterials\nseminal v esicle a secr etory accessory gland in male;\ncontribut es to semen\nseminif erous tubule the s tructur es within which\nsperm pr oduction oc curs in the t estes\nSertoli c ella cell in the w alls of the seminif erous\ntubules that as sists de veloping sperm and secr etes\ninhibin\nsex det ermina tion the mechanism b y which the se x\nof individuals in se xual ly reproducing or ganisms is\ninitial ly established\nsexual r eproduction a form o f reproduction in which\ncells containing g enetic mat erial fr om tw o\nindividuals c ombines t o produc e genetical ly unique\noffspring\nsperma togenesis the pr ocess of producing haploid\nspermtestes a pair o f male r eproductiv e organs\ntestosterone a reproductiv e hormone usual ly present\nin animals o f any sex, and that as sists in sperm\nproduction and pr omoting sec ondar y sexual\nchar acteristics\ntrophoblas tthe out er la yer of cells in the blas tocyst,\nwhich giv es rise t o the embr yo\u2019s contribution t o the\nplac enta\nuterus a female r eproductiv e structur e in which an\nembr yo de velops\nvagina a muscular tube f or the pas sage of mens trual\nflow, copulation, and bir th of offspring\nviviparity a process in which the y oung de velop\nwithin the f emale and ar e born in a nonembr yonic\nstate\nzona pel lucida the pr otectiv e layer ar ound the\nmammalian eg g\nChap ter Summar y\n18.1 How Animals R eproduc e\nReproduction ma y be ase xual when one individual\nproduc es g enetical ly identical o ffspring , or se xual\nwhen the g enetic mat erial fr om tw o individuals is\ncombined t o produc e genetical ly div erse o ffspring .\nAsexual r eproduction in animals oc curs thr ough fis sion,\nbudding , fragmentation, and par thenog enesis . Sexual\nreproduction ma y involve fertilization inside the body\nor in the e xternal en vironment. A species ma y ha ve\nsepar ate se xes or c ombined se xes; when the se xes ar e\ncombined the y ma y be e xpressed at diff erent times in\nthe lif e cy cle. The se x of an individual ma y be\ndetermined b y various chr omosomal s ystems or\nenvironmental fact ors such as t emper atur e.\nSexual r eproduction s tarts with the c ombination o f a\nsperm and an eg g in a pr ocess cal led f ertilization. This\ncan oc cur either outside the bodies or inside the\nfemale . The method o f fertilization v aries among\nanimals . Some species r elease the eg g and sperm int o\nthe en vironment, some species r etain the eg g and\nreceive the sperm int o the f emale body and then e xpel\nthe de veloping embr yo covered with shel l, while s till\nother species r etain the de veloping o ffspring\nthroughout the g estation period.\n18.2 Development and Or ganogenesis\nThe earl y stages o f embr yonic de velopment begin with\nfertilization. The pr ocess of fertilization is tightl y\ncontr olled t o ensur e that onl y one sperm fuses with\none eg g. Aft er fertilization, the zy gote under goes\nclea vage to form the blas tula. The blas tula, which in\nsome species is a hol low bal l of cells, under goes aprocess cal led g astrulation, during which the thr ee\ngerm la yers f orm. The ect oderm giv es rise t o the\nnervous s ystem and the epidermal skin c ells, the\nmesoderm giv es rise t o the muscle c ells and\nconnectiv e tis sue in the body , and the endoderm giv es\nrise t o the dig estive system and other int ernal or gans.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3358, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e0437cb8-a22a-409a-82a1-3c0fecf781de": {"__data__": {"id_": "e0437cb8-a22a-409a-82a1-3c0fecf781de", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "506", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "845626c4-ce24-41f0-8fec-6655f0c79ec8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "506", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9c27e29fb010b700a3c8def24c27ffb81b9a6d24e217f09ea6fc390c24143c1a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "199e9710-be64-441e-819c-17aa40299d5f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "506", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "23903822f1b93f124028908beb4b5ccdb418949c07202ed29ae2a792153e84e6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The pr ocess of fertilization is tightl y\ncontr olled t o ensur e that onl y one sperm fuses with\none eg g. Aft er fertilization, the zy gote under goes\nclea vage to form the blas tula. The blas tula, which in\nsome species is a hol low bal l of cells, under goes aprocess cal led g astrulation, during which the thr ee\ngerm la yers f orm. The ect oderm giv es rise t o the\nnervous s ystem and the epidermal skin c ells, the\nmesoderm giv es rise t o the muscle c ells and\nconnectiv e tis sue in the body , and the endoderm giv es\nrise t o the dig estive system and other int ernal or gans.\nOrganog enesis is the f ormation o f organs fr om the\ngerm la yers. Each g erm la yer giv es rise t o specific\ntissue types .\n18.3 Human R eproduc tion\nThe r eproductiv e structur es that e volved in land\nanimals al low them t o mat e, fertilize int ernal ly, and\nsuppor t the gr owth and de velopment o f offspring .\nGamet ogenesis , the pr oduction o f sperm\n(spermat ogenesis) and eg gs (oog enesis), tak es plac e\nthrough the pr ocess of meiosis .\nThe r eproductiv e cy cles ar e contr olled b y hormones\nreleased fr om the h ypothalamus and ant erior pituitar y\nand hormones fr om r eproductiv e tis sues and or gans.\nThe h ypothalamus monit ors the need f or FSH and LH\nproduction and r elease fr om the ant erior pituitar y. FSH\nand LH aff ect r eproductiv e structur es to cause the\nformation o f sperm and the pr epar ation o f eggs for\nrelease and pos sible f ertilization. In the male , FSH and\nLH s timulat e Ser toli c ells and int erstitial c ells of Leydig\nin the t estes to facilitat e sperm pr oduction. The L eydig\ncells pr oduc e testosterone, which in human males is\nalso r esponsible f or a deepening o f the v oice, the\ngrowth o f facial , axil lary, and pubic hair , and an\nincrease in muscle bulk. In f emales , FSH and LH cause\nestrogen and pr ogesterone t o be pr oduc ed. The y\nregulate the f emale r eproductiv e cy cle, which is492 18 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2770, "end_char_idx": 4776, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5ca28052-54ce-4351-89e9-78fd2b57df04": {"__data__": {"id_": "5ca28052-54ce-4351-89e9-78fd2b57df04", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "507", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "46c1f1bc-beaa-4ee9-bc79-8d994479b5fc", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "507", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fa09bb5867abe5f7ea050f2f4e92dfb10223ef28314720042145044d6a2b3ce3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "divided int o the o varian cy cle and the mens trual cy cle.\nHuman pr egnancy begins with f ertilization o f an eg g\nand pr oceeds thr ough the thr ee trimes ters o f gestation.\nThe firs t trimes ter la ys do wn the basic s tructur es o f the\nbody , including the limb buds , hear t, eyes, and the\nliver. The sec ond trimes ter continues the de velopmentof all of the or gans and s ystems . The thir d trimes ter\nexhibits the gr eatest growth o f the f etus and\nculminat es in labor and deliv ery. The labor pr ocess has\nthree s tages (c ontr actions , deliv ery of the f etus , and\nexpulsion o f the plac enta), each pr opel led b y\nhormones .\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 18.12 Which o f the f ollowing s tatements\nabout the t esticular r eproductiv e system is false?\na.The v as def erens carries sperm fr om the t estes\nto the seminal v esicles .\nb.The ejaculat ory duct joins the ur ethr a.\nc.Both the pr ostate and the bulbour ethr al glands\nproduc e components o f the semen.\nd.The pr ostate gland is locat ed in the t estes.2.Figure 18.17 Which o f the f ollowing s tatements\nabout hormone r egulation o f the o varian and\nmens trual r eproductiv e cy cles is false?\na.LH and FSH ar e produc ed in the pituitar y, and\nestrogen and pr ogesterone ar e produc ed in the\novaries .\nb.Estradiol and pr ogesterone secr eted fr om the\ncorpus lut eum cause the endometrium t o\nthick en.\nc.Both pr ogesterone and es trogen ar e produc ed\nby the f ollicles .\nd.Secr etion o f GnRH b y the h ypothalamus is\ninhibit ed b y low le vels o f estrogen but\nstimulat ed b y high le vels o f estrogen.\nReview Ques tions\n3.In which gr oup is par thenog enesis a normal e vent?\na.chick ens\nb.bees\nc.rabbits\nd.sea s tars\n4.Genetical ly unique individuals ar e produc ed\nthrough ________.\na.sexual r eproduction\nb.parthenog enesis\nc.budding\nd.fragmentation\n5.External f ertilization oc curs in which type o f\nenvironment?\na.aquatic\nb.forested\nc.savanna\nd.steppe\n6.The pr ocess of gastrulation f orms the _______.\na.blas tula\nb.zygote\nc.organs\nd.germ la yers7.Which o f the f ollowing giv es rise t o the skin c ells?\na.ectoderm\nb.endoderm\nc.mesoderm\nd.none o f the abo ve\n8.Sperm ar e produc ed in the ________.\na.scrotum\nb.seminal v esicles\nc.seminif erous tubules\nd.prostate gland\n9.Which or gan has an endometrial lining that wil l\nsuppor t a de veloping bab y?\na.labia minor a\nb.breast\nc.ovaries\nd.uterus\n10.Which hormone causes FSH and LH t o be\nreleased?\na.testosterone\nb.estrogen\nc.GnRH\nd.progesterone18 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions 493", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2542, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5b3b23b4-8ee3-4eef-8203-49ad07f3e834": {"__data__": {"id_": "5b3b23b4-8ee3-4eef-8203-49ad07f3e834", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "508", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6beb0d65-81ab-42ea-9a46-75e68bbde040", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "508", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2557ca0f33de1c90f193d99b0ba9b28c58f495cdcf5d66699ff1e5c03e559d84", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "11.Nutrient and w aste requir ements f or the\ndeveloping f etus ar e handled during the firs t few\nweeks by ________.\na.the plac enta\nb.diffusion thr ough the endometrium\nc.the chorion\nd.the blas tocyst12.Which hormone is primaril y responsible f or the\ncontr actions during labor?\na.oxytocin\nb.estrogen\nc.\u03b2-HCG\nd.progesterone\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n13.What might be a disadv antag e to temper atur e-\ndependent se x det ermination?\n14.Compar ed to separ ate se xes and as suming self-\nfertilizing is not pos sible , what might be one\nadvantag e and one disadv antag e to\nhermaphr oditism?\n15.What do y ou think w ould happen if mul tiple sperm\nfused with one eg g?16.Compar e spermat ogenesis and oog enesis as t o\ntiming o f the pr ocesses, and the number and type\nof cells final ly produc ed.\n17.Describe the e vents in the o varian cy cle leading up\nto ovulation.\n18.Describe the s tages o f labor .494 18 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 982, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "054f5636-adbc-4ba5-a34e-bd70dd72dbae": {"__data__": {"id_": "054f5636-adbc-4ba5-a34e-bd70dd72dbae", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "509", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "54c55305-5473-4fdb-89a7-5f011c2e87a2", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "509", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cc41cafb5a0e1d3f1751dcb5680d1128a4de3e056a9d07f1b7a9afbff99b2da1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 19\nPopula tion and Communit y Ecolog y\n19.1 Popula tion Demogr aphics and Dynamics\n19.2 Popula tion Gr owth and R egulation\n19.3 The Human P opula tion\n19.4 Community E colog y\nImagine sailing do wn a riv er in a smal l mot orboat on a w eekend aft ernoon; the\nwater is smooth, and y ou ar e enjo ying the sunshine and c ool br eeze when suddenl y you ar e hit in\nthe head b y a 20-pound sil ver carp . This is a risk no w on man y riv ers and canal s ystems in Il linois\nand Mis souri because o f the pr esenc e of Asian carp .\nThis fish\u2014actual ly a gr oup o f species including the sil ver, black, gr ass, and big head carp \u2014has\nbeen farmed and eat en in China f or over 1,000 y ears . It is one o f the mos t impor tant aquacul ture\nfood r esour ces w orldwide . In the Unit ed Stat es, however, Asian carp is c onsider ed a dang erous\ninvasive species that disrup ts ec ological c ommunity s tructur e to the point o f thr eatening nativ e\nspecies .\nThe eff ects o f invasive species (such as the Asian carp , kudzu vine , predat ory snak ehead fish, and\nzebra mus sel) ar e jus t one aspect o f what ec ologis ts study t o unders tand ho w populations int eract\nwithin ec ological c ommunities , and what impact natur al and human-induc ed dis turbanc es ha ve\non the char acteristics o f communities .FIGURE 19.1 Asian carp jump out o f the w ater in r esponse t o electr ofishing . The Asian carp in the inset phot ograph\nwere har vested fr om the Lit tle Calumet Riv er in Il linois in Ma y, 2010, using r otenone , a toxin o ften used as an\ninsecticide , in an eff ort to learn mor e about the population o f the species . (credit main imag e: modification o f work b y\nUSGS; cr edit inset: modification o f work b y Lt. Da vid F rench, USC G)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1792, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0b96d204-29c6-48d1-89c4-a7ceb1f354c2": {"__data__": {"id_": "0b96d204-29c6-48d1-89c4-a7ceb1f354c2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "510", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "70c8de82-136b-4c3f-a28c-0600bb130751", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "510", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "727c95722dca01a7b0d60298fd2dcff97d44a0baccaccb424dade428e66818d5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "19.1 Population Demogr aphics and Dynamics\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe ho w ec ologis ts measur e population siz e and density\n\u2022Describe thr ee diff erent pat terns o f population dis tribution\n\u2022Use lif e tables t o calculat e mor tality r ates\n\u2022Describe the thr ee types o f sur vivorship cur ves and r elate them t o specific populations\nPopulations ar e dynamic entities . Their siz e and c omposition fluctuat e in r esponse t o numer ous\nfactors, including seasonal and y early chang es in the en vironment, natur al disas ters such as f orest\nfires and v olcanic erup tions , and c ompetition f or resour ces betw een and within species . The\nstatis tical s tudy o f populations is cal leddemogr aphy: a set o f mathematical t ools designed t o\ndescribe populations and in vestigate ho w the y chang e. Man y of these t ools w ere actual ly designed\nto study human populations . For example ,life tables , which detail the lif e expectancy o f\nindividuals within a population, w ere initial ly de veloped b y life insur ance companies t o set\ninsur ance rates. In fact, while the t erm \u201c demogr aphics\u201d is sometimes as sumed t o mean a s tudy o f\nhuman populations , all living populations can be s tudied using this appr oach.\nPopulation Siz e and Densit y\nPopulations ar e char acterized b y their popula tion siz e(total number o f individuals) and their\npopula tion density (number o f individuals per unit ar ea). A population ma y ha ve a lar ge number\nof individuals that ar e dis tribut ed densel y, or sparsel y. Ther e are also populations with smal l\nnumbers o f individuals that ma y be dense or v ery sparsel y dis tribut ed in a local ar ea. Population\nsize can aff ect pot ential f or adap tation because it aff ects the amount o f genetic v ariation pr esent\nin the population. Density can ha ve eff ects on int eractions within a population such as c ompetition\nfor food and the ability o f individuals t o find a mat e. Smal ler or ganisms t end t o be mor e densel y\ndistribut ed than lar ger or ganisms ( Figure 19.2 ).\nVISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 19.2 Australian mammals sho w a typical in verse r elationship betw een population density and body siz e.\nAs this gr aph sho ws, population density typical ly decr eases with incr easing body siz e. Wh y do y ou\nthink this is the case?\nEstimating P opulation Siz e\nThe mos t accurate way to det ermine population siz e is t o count al l of the individuals within the\n496 19 \u2022 P opulation and C ommunit y Ecology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2577, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "63d83bea-d18c-4719-ae84-6797cd4ff7a7": {"__data__": {"id_": "63d83bea-d18c-4719-ae84-6797cd4ff7a7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "511", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c526777a-d6a9-4e65-86b5-a6a1366193b7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "511", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5a087f91ddff6a8a1ef0966ae941a33cf514119f773423b064af0e281d147d30", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "825255b5-30d8-4eb4-add1-70f0ac595469", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "9aa3df35196cc04ab409d1a9f01378a2a402704db8b1efd1ac78116e28d6b61d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "area. However, this method is usual ly not logis tical ly or ec onomical ly feasible , especial ly when s tudying lar ge areas.\nThus , scientis ts usual ly study populations b y sampling a r epresentativ e por tion o f each habitat and use this sample\nto mak e inf erences about the population as a whole . The methods used t o sample populations t o det ermine their\nsize and density ar e typical ly tailor ed to the char acteristics o f the or ganism being s tudied. F or immobile or ganisms\nsuch as plants , or f or very smal l and slo w-mo ving or ganisms , a quadr at ma y be used. A quadr atis a w ood, plas tic,\nor metal squar e that is r andoml y locat ed on the gr ound and used t o count the number o f individuals that lie within\nits boundaries . To ob tain an ac curate count using this method, the squar e mus t be plac ed at r andom locations\nwithin the habitat enough times t o produc e an ac curate es timat e. This c ounting method wil l provide an es timat e of\nboth population siz e and density . The number and siz e of quadr at samples depends on the type o f organisms and\nthe natur e of their dis tribution.\nFor smal ler mobile or ganisms , such as mammals , a technique cal ledmark and r ecap tureis often used. This\nmethod in volves marking a sample o f cap tured animals in some w ay and r eleasing them back int o the en vironment\nto mix with the r est of the population; then, a ne w sample is cap tured and scientis ts det ermine ho w man y of the\nmark ed animals ar e in the ne w sample . This method as sumes that the lar ger the population, the lo wer the\npercentag e of mark ed or ganisms that wil l be r ecap tured sinc e the y wil l have mix ed with mor e unmark ed individuals .\nFor example , if 80 field mic e are cap tured, mark ed, and r eleased int o the f orest, then a sec ond tr apping 100 field\nmice are cap tured and 20 o f them ar e mark ed, the population siz e (N) can be det ermined using the f ollowing\nequation:\nUsing our e xample , the population siz e would be 400.\nThese r esul ts giv e us an es timat e of 400 t otal individuals in the original population. The true number usual ly wil l be\na bit diff erent fr om this because o f chanc e err ors and pos sible bias caused b y the sampling methods .\nSpecies Dis tribution\nIn addition t o measuring density , fur ther inf ormation about a population can be ob tained b y looking at the\ndistribution o f the individuals thr oughout their r ange. Aspecies dis tribution pa ttern is the dis tribution o f individuals\nwithin a habitat at a par ticular point in time \u2014broad cat egories o f pat terns ar e used t o describe them.\nIndividuals within a population can be dis tribut ed at r andom, in gr oups , or equal ly spac ed apar t (mor e or les s).\nThese ar e kno wn as r andom, clumped, and unif orm dis tribution pat terns , respectiv ely (Figure 19.3 ). Diff erent\ndistributions r eflect impor tant aspects o f the biolog y of the species; the y also aff ect the mathematical methods\nrequir ed to es timat e population siz es. An e xample o f random dis tribution oc curs with dandelion and other plants\nthat ha ve wind-dispersed seeds that g erminat e wher ever the y happen t o fal l in fa vorable en vironments . A clumped\ndistribution, ma y be seen in plants that dr op their seeds s traight t o the gr ound, such as oak tr ees; it can also be seen\nin animals that liv e in social gr oups (schools o f fish or her ds o f elephants).", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3441, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "825255b5-30d8-4eb4-add1-70f0ac595469": {"__data__": {"id_": "825255b5-30d8-4eb4-add1-70f0ac595469", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "511", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c526777a-d6a9-4e65-86b5-a6a1366193b7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "511", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5a087f91ddff6a8a1ef0966ae941a33cf514119f773423b064af0e281d147d30", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "63d83bea-d18c-4719-ae84-6797cd4ff7a7", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "511", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "44ef7d9dce2b5b9d8717dba24ac734fb0570f0d956dcc04001dcfe5e22e3f4d4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "These ar e kno wn as r andom, clumped, and unif orm dis tribution pat terns , respectiv ely (Figure 19.3 ). Diff erent\ndistributions r eflect impor tant aspects o f the biolog y of the species; the y also aff ect the mathematical methods\nrequir ed to es timat e population siz es. An e xample o f random dis tribution oc curs with dandelion and other plants\nthat ha ve wind-dispersed seeds that g erminat e wher ever the y happen t o fal l in fa vorable en vironments . A clumped\ndistribution, ma y be seen in plants that dr op their seeds s traight t o the gr ound, such as oak tr ees; it can also be seen\nin animals that liv e in social gr oups (schools o f fish or her ds o f elephants). Unif orm dis tribution is obser ved in plants\nthat secr ete subs tanc es inhibiting the gr owth o f nearb y individuals (such as the r elease o f toxic chemicals b y sag e\nplants). It is also seen in t errit orial animal species , such as peng uins that maintain a defined t errit ory for nes ting.\nThe t errit orial def ensiv e beha viors o f each individual cr eate a r egular pat tern o f dis tribution o f similar -sized\nterrit ories and individuals within those t errit ories . Thus , the dis tribution o f the individuals within a population\nprovides mor e inf ormation about ho w the y int eract with each other than does a simple density measur ement. Jus t\nas lo wer density species might ha ve mor e difficul ty finding a mat e, solitar y species with a r andom dis tribution might\nhave a similar difficul ty when c ompar ed to social species clumped t ogether in gr oups .19.1 \u2022 P opulation Demogr aphics and Dynamics 497", "start_char_idx": 2751, "end_char_idx": 4374, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2b4e7bcd-f2eb-4c10-844e-2a5760d6535d": {"__data__": {"id_": "2b4e7bcd-f2eb-4c10-844e-2a5760d6535d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "512", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6db47a25-66fc-405f-8557-45438b590d37", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "512", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8051744b5be77180b84ae989c8f959be644ea4923b3a69008411a65bef1114c0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 19.3 Species ma y ha ve a r andom, clumped, or unif orm dis tribution. Plants such as (a) dandelions with wind-dispersed seeds t end\nto be r andoml y dis tribut ed. Animals such as (b) elephants that tr avel in gr oups e xhibit a clumped dis tribution. T errit orial bir ds such as (c)\npeng uins t end t o ha ve a unif orm dis tribution. (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Rosendahl; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Rebec ca W ood;\ncredit c: modification o f work b y Ben T ubby)\nDemogr aphy\nWhile population siz e and density describe a population at one par ticular point in time , scientis ts mus t use\ndemogr aphy to study the dynamics o f a population. Demogr aphy is the s tatis tical s tudy o f population chang es o ver\ntime: bir th rates, death r ates, and lif e expectancies . These population char acteristics ar e often displa yed in a lif e\ntable .\nLife Tables\nLife tables pr ovide impor tant inf ormation about the lif e his tory of an or ganism and the lif e expectancy o f individuals\nat each ag e. The y are modeled aft er actuarial tables used b y the insur ance indus try for es timating human lif e\nexpectancy . Life tables ma y include the pr obability o f each ag e group dying bef ore their ne xt bir thda y, the\npercentag e of sur viving individuals dying at a par ticular ag e int erval (their mor tality r ate, and their lif e expectancy\nat each int erval. An e xample o f a lif e table is sho wn in Table 19.1 from a s tudy o f Dal l mountain sheep , a species\nnativ e to nor thwestern Nor th America . Notic e that the population is divided int o ag e int ervals (c olumn A). The\nmor tality r ate (per 1000) sho wn in c olumn D is based on the number o f individuals dying during the ag e int erval\n(column B), divided b y the number o f individuals sur viving at the beginning o f the int erval (Column C) mul tiplied b y\n1000.\nFor example , betw een ag es thr ee and f our, 12 individuals die out o f the 776 that w ere remaining fr om the original\n1000 sheep . This number is then mul tiplied b y 1000 t o giv e the mor tality r ate per thousand.\nAs can be seen fr om the mor tality r ate data (c olumn D), a high death r ate oc curr ed when the sheep w ere betw een\nsix months and a y ear old, and then incr eased e ven mor e from 8 t o 12 y ears old, aft er which ther e were few\nsurvivors. The data indicat e that if a sheep in this population w ere to sur vive to ag e one , it c ould be e xpect ed to liv e\nanother 7.7 y ears on a verage, as sho wn b y the lif e-expectancy numbers in c olumn E.498 19 \u2022 P opulation and C ommunit y Ecology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2624, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1dfc585b-cbd8-4111-8602-23610b650591": {"__data__": {"id_": "1dfc585b-cbd8-4111-8602-23610b650591", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "513", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8beb5a13-edb6-44c6-847b-e189884e37e5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "513", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3747a4a6c18d8232c20252c79c5e48353c69ab483c5b6f3c8a64febc512d629f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Life Table o f Dal l Mountain Sheep1\nA B C D E\nAge\ninterval\n(years)Number dying\nin age int erval\nout o f 1000\nbornNumber sur viving at\nbeginning o f age\ninterval out o f 1000\nbornMortality rate per\n1000 aliv e at\nbeginning o f age\nintervalLife expec tanc y or mean\nlifetime r emaining t o those\nattaining age int erval\n0\u20130.5 54 1000 54.0 7.06\n0.5\u20131 145 946 153.3 \u2014\n1\u20132 12 801 15.0 7.7\n2\u20133 13 789 16.5 6.8\n3\u20134 12 776 15.5 5.9\n4\u20135 30 764 39.3 5.0\n5\u20136 46 734 62.7 4.2\n6\u20137 48 688 69.8 3.4\n7\u20138 69 640 107.8 2.6\n8\u20139 132 571 231.2 1.9\n9\u201310 187 439 426.0 1.3\n10\u201311 156 252 619.0 0.9\n11\u201312 90 96 937.5 0.6\n12\u201313 3 6 500.0 1.2\n13\u201314 3 3 1000 0.7\nTABLE 19.1 This lif e table o fOvis dal lishows the number o f deaths , number o f sur vivors, mor tality r ate, and lif e expectancy at each ag e\ninterval for Dal l mountain sheep .\nSurvivorship C urves\nAnother t ool used b y population ec ologis ts is a survivorship cur ve, which is a gr aph o f the number o f individuals\nsurviving at each ag e int erval versus time . These cur ves al low us t o compar e the lif e his tories o f diff erent\npopulations ( Figure 19.4 ). Ther e are thr ee types o f sur vivorship cur ves. In a type I cur ve, mor tality is lo w in the earl y\nand middle y ears and oc curs mos tly in older individuals . Organisms e xhibiting a type I sur vivorship typical ly produc e\nfew offspring and pr ovide g ood car e to the o ffspring incr easing the lik elihood o f their sur vival. Humans and mos t\nmammals e xhibit a type I sur vivorship cur ve. In type II cur ves, mor tality is r elativ ely constant thr oughout the entir e\nlife span, and mor tality is equal ly likely to oc cur at an y point in the lif e span. Man y bir d populations pr ovide\nexamples o f an int ermediat e or type II sur vivorship cur ve. In type III sur vivorship cur ves, earl y ag es e xperienc e the\nhighes t mor tality with much lo wer mor tality r ates for or ganisms that mak e it t o adv anced y ears . Type III or ganisms\n1Data Adap ted fr om E dward S. Dee vey, Jr., \u201cLif e Tables f or Natur al Populations o f Animals ,\u201dThe Quar terly Review of Biolog y22, no . 4\n(Dec ember 1947): 283-314.19.1 \u2022 P opulation Demogr aphics and Dynamics 499", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2188, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f95f09e9-4a30-4cc9-a4b2-c1d5d7a48d41": {"__data__": {"id_": "f95f09e9-4a30-4cc9-a4b2-c1d5d7a48d41", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "514", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2ec8a76b-e514-4b18-8e05-032564b44560", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "514", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "bcbbf9576849715bbcf0e3cccdd3d476f5d1aff4b8dc70e1a4873cd68009d760", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "typical ly produc e lar ge numbers o f offspring , but pr ovide v ery little or no car e for them. T rees and marine\ninvertebrates e xhibit a type III sur vivorship cur ve because v ery few of these or ganisms sur vive their y oung er years ,\nbut those that do mak e it t o an old ag e are mor e lik ely to sur vive for a r elativ ely long period o f time .\nFIGURE 19.4 Survivorship cur ves sho w the dis tribution o f individuals in a population ac cording t o ag e. Humans and mos t mammals ha ve a\nType I sur vivorship cur ve, because death primaril y oc curs in the older y ears . Bir ds ha ve a T ype II sur vivorship cur ve, as death at an y ag e is\nequal ly probable . Trees ha ve a T ype III sur vivorship cur ve because v ery few sur vive the y oung er years , but aft er a c ertain ag e, individuals\nare much mor e lik ely to sur vive.\n19.2 Population Gr owth and R egulation\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Explain the char acteristics o f and diff erences betw een e xponential and logis tic gr owth pat terns\n\u2022Give examples o f exponential and logis tic gr owth in natur al populations\n\u2022Give examples o f how the carr ying capacity o f a habitat ma y chang e\n\u2022Compar e and c ontr ast density -dependent gr owth r egulation and density -independent gr owth r egulation\ngiving e xamples\nPopulation ec ologis ts mak e use o f a v ariety o f methods t o model population dynamics . An ac curate model should be\nable t o describe the chang es oc curring in a population and pr edict futur e chang es.\nPopulation Gr owth\nThe tw o simples t models o f population gr owth use det erminis tic equations (equations that do not ac count f or\nrandom e vents) t o describe the r ate of chang e in the siz e of a population o ver time . The firs t of these models ,\nexponential gr owth, describes theor etical populations that incr ease in numbers without an y limits t o their gr owth.\nThe sec ond model , logis tic gr owth, intr oduc es limits t o reproductiv e growth that bec ome mor e int ense as the\npopulation siz e incr eases . Neither model adequat ely describes natur al populations , but the y provide points o f\ncomparison.\nExponential Gr owth\nCharles Dar win, in his theor y of natur al selection, w as gr eatly influenc ed b y the English cler gyman Thomas Mal thus .\nMalthus published a book in 1798 s tating that populations with unlimit ed natur al resour ces gr ow very rapidl y, which\nrepresents an exponential gr owth , and then population gr owth decr eases as r esour ces bec ome deplet ed,\nindicating a logis tic gr owth.\nThe bes t example o f exponential gr owth in or ganisms is seen in bact eria. Bact eria ar e prokaryotes that r eproduc e\nlargely by binar y fis sion. This division tak es about an hour f or man y bact erial species . If 1000 bact eria ar e plac ed in\na lar ge flask with an abundant suppl y of nutrients (so the nutrients wil l not bec ome quickl y deplet ed), the number o f\nbact eria wil l have doubled fr om 1000 t o 2000 aft er jus t an hour . In another hour , each o f the 2000 bact eria wil l500 19 \u2022 P opulation and C ommunit y Ecology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3166, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "dc5fc61e-8a53-4bc4-a4fa-2bb762e67bc1": {"__data__": {"id_": "dc5fc61e-8a53-4bc4-a4fa-2bb762e67bc1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "515", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5e4b4be2-81c3-4873-bb0c-10f3b56eae2b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "515", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "845fa249a36f2b1630e9d2d0e6c857649e0af1f40e6e9ed86e4a2ce73fab21f3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "2b07ef92-490a-4d27-8279-3dfffab46699", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "e62d855878af662e161505933cfe743ac6cea578242f32ec9eeebd7979e27979", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "divide , producing 4000 bact eria. Aft er the thir d hour , ther e should be 8000 bact eria in the flask. The impor tant\nconcept of exponential gr owth is that the gr owth r ate\u2014the number o f organisms added in each r eproductiv e\ngener ation\u2014is itself incr easing; that is , the population siz e is incr easing at a gr eater and gr eater rate. Aft er 24 o f\nthese cy cles , the population w ould ha ve incr eased fr om 1000 t o mor e than 16 bil lion bact eria. When the population\nsize,N, is plot ted o ver time , aJ-shaped gr owth cur veis pr oduc ed (Figure 19.5 a).\nThe bact eria-in-a -flask e xample is not trul y representativ e of the r eal w orld wher e resour ces ar e usual ly limit ed.\nHowever, when a species is intr oduc ed int o a ne w habitat that it finds suitable , it ma y sho w exponential gr owth f or a\nwhile . In the case o f the bact eria in the flask, some bact eria wil l die during the e xperiment and thus not r eproduc e;\nther efore, the gr owth r ate is lo wered fr om a maximal r ate in which ther e is no mor tality . The gr owth r ate of a\npopulation is lar gely det ermined b y sub tracting the death rate,D, (number or ganisms that die during an int erval)\nfrom the birth rate,B, (number or ganisms that ar e born during an int erval). The gr owth r ate can be e xpressed in a\nsimple equation that c ombines the bir th and death r ates int o a single fact or:r. This is sho wn in the f ollowing\nformula:\nThe v alue o frcan be positiv e, meaning the population is incr easing in siz e (the r ate of chang e is positiv e); or\nnegative, meaning the population is decr easing in siz e; or z ero, in which case the population siz e is unchanging , a\ncondition kno wn as zero popula tion gr owth .\nLogistic Gr owth\nExtended e xponential gr owth is pos sible onl y when infinit e natur al resour ces ar e available; this is not the case in the\nreal w orld. Charles Dar win r ecogniz ed this fact in his descrip tion o f the \u201c strug gle f or existence,\u201d which s tates that\nindividuals wil l compet e (with members o f their o wn or other species) f or limit ed resour ces. The suc cessful ones ar e\nmor e lik ely to sur vive and pas s on the tr aits that made them suc cessful to the ne xt gener ation at a gr eater rate\n(natur al selection). T o model the r eality o f limit ed resour ces, population ec ologis ts de veloped the logis tic gr owth\nmodel .\nCarrying C apacit y and the L ogistic Model\nIn the r eal w orld, with its limit ed resour ces, exponential gr owth cannot c ontinue indefinit ely. Exponential gr owth\nmay oc cur in en vironments wher e ther e are few individuals and plentiful r esour ces, but when the number o f\nindividuals g ets lar ge enough, r esour ces wil l be deplet ed and the gr owth r ate wil l slo w do wn. Ev entual ly, the gr owth\nrate wil l plat eau or le vel off (Figure 19.5 b). This population siz e, which is det ermined b y the maximum population\nsize that a par ticular en vironment can sus tain, is cal led the carr ying capacity , orK. In r eal populations , a gr owing\npopulation o ften o vershoots its carr ying capacity , and the death r ate incr eases be yond the bir th rate causing the\npopulation siz e to decline back t o the carr ying capacity or belo w it. Mos t populations usual ly fluctuat e around the\ncarr ying capacity in an undulating fashion r ather than e xisting right at it.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3367, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2b07ef92-490a-4d27-8279-3dfffab46699": {"__data__": {"id_": "2b07ef92-490a-4d27-8279-3dfffab46699", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "515", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5e4b4be2-81c3-4873-bb0c-10f3b56eae2b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "515", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "845fa249a36f2b1630e9d2d0e6c857649e0af1f40e6e9ed86e4a2ce73fab21f3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "dc5fc61e-8a53-4bc4-a4fa-2bb762e67bc1", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "515", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0a365ab1f9c680a739a0ee9a456bb7c51cb2eba2baa40a8886be0b3ee32511dd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Ev entual ly, the gr owth\nrate wil l plat eau or le vel off (Figure 19.5 b). This population siz e, which is det ermined b y the maximum population\nsize that a par ticular en vironment can sus tain, is cal led the carr ying capacity , orK. In r eal populations , a gr owing\npopulation o ften o vershoots its carr ying capacity , and the death r ate incr eases be yond the bir th rate causing the\npopulation siz e to decline back t o the carr ying capacity or belo w it. Mos t populations usual ly fluctuat e around the\ncarr ying capacity in an undulating fashion r ather than e xisting right at it.\nThe f ormula used t o calculat e logis tic gr owth adds the carr ying capacity as a moder ating f orce in the gr owth r ate.\nThe e xpression \u201c K\u2013N\u201d is equal t o the number o f individuals that ma y be added t o a population at a giv en time , and\n\u201cK\u2013N\u201d divided b y \u201cK\u201d is the fr action o f the carr ying capacity a vailable f or fur ther gr owth. Thus , the e xponential\ngrowth model is r estrict ed b y this fact or to gener ate the logis tic gr owth equation:\nNotic e that when Nis almos t zero the quantity in br ackets is almos t equal t o 1 (or K/K) and gr owth is close t o\nexponential . When the population siz e is equal t o the carr ying capacity , orN=K, the quantity in br ackets is equal t o\nzero and gr owth is equal t o zero. A gr aph o f this equation (logis tic gr owth) yields the S-shaped cur ve(Figure 19.5 b).\nIt is a mor e realis tic model o f population gr owth than e xponential gr owth. Ther e are thr ee diff erent sections t o an S -\nshaped cur ve. Initial ly, growth is e xponential because ther e are few individuals and ample r esour ces a vailable .\nThen, as r esour ces begin t o bec ome limit ed, the gr owth r ate decr eases . Final ly, the gr owth r ate levels o ff at the\ncarr ying capacity o f the en vironment, with lit tle chang e in population number o ver time .19.2 \u2022 P opulation Gr owth and R egulation 501", "start_char_idx": 2769, "end_char_idx": 4716, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "19acd03c-4f2d-46ae-8a88-aad436fb9154": {"__data__": {"id_": "19acd03c-4f2d-46ae-8a88-aad436fb9154", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "516", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d778b60e-6f04-4868-afb7-8bbaae824f80", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "516", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7ffbbbec6197aea8523501e3363722a9b4ab201daf8b60d0b01bd43d52c63a40", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 19.5 When r esour ces ar e unlimit ed, populations e xhibit (a) e xponential gr owth, sho wn in a J-shaped cur ve. When r esour ces ar e\nlimit ed, populations e xhibit (b) logis tic gr owth. In logis tic gr owth, population e xpansion decr eases as r esour ces bec ome scar ce, and it\nlevels o ff when the carr ying capacity o f the en vironment is r eached. The logis tic gr owth cur ve is S -shaped.\nRole o f Intr aspecific C ompe tition\nThe logis tic model as sumes that e very individual within a population wil l have equal ac cess to resour ces and, thus ,\nan equal chanc e for sur vival. For plants , the amount o f water, sunlight, nutrients , and spac e to grow ar e the\nimpor tant r esour ces, wher eas in animals , impor tant r esour ces include f ood, w ater, shel ter, nes ting spac e, and\nmates.\nIn the r eal w orld, phenotypic v ariation among individuals within a population means that some individuals wil l be\nbetter adap ted to their en vironment than others . The r esul ting c ompetition f or resour ces among population\nmembers o f the same species is t ermed intraspecific c ompetition . Intr aspecific c ompetition ma y not aff ect\npopulations that ar e well belo w their carr ying capacity , as r esour ces ar e plentiful and al l individuals can ob tain what\nthey need. Ho wever, as population siz e incr eases , this c ompetition int ensifies . In addition, the ac cumulation o f\nwaste products can r educ e carr ying capacity in an en vironment.\nExamples o f Logistic Gr owth\nYeast, a micr oscopic fung us used t o mak e bread and alc oholic be verages, exhibits the clas sical S -shaped cur ve\nwhen gr own in a t est tube ( Figure 19.6 a). Its gr owth le vels o ff as the population deplet es the nutrients that ar e\nnecessary for its gr owth. In the r eal w orld, ho wever, ther e are variations t o this idealiz ed cur ve. Examples in wild\npopulations include sheep and harbor seals ( Figure 19.6 b). In both e xamples , the population siz e exceeds the\ncarr ying capacity f or shor t periods o f time and then fal ls belo w the carr ying capacity aft erwards. This fluctuation in\npopulation siz e continues t o oc cur as the population oscil lates ar ound its carr ying capacity . Stil l, even with this\noscil lation, the logis tic model is c onfirmed.502 19 \u2022 P opulation and C ommunit y Ecology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2369, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9ef42433-b551-4ce7-8e53-a4520a4c4afb": {"__data__": {"id_": "9ef42433-b551-4ce7-8e53-a4520a4c4afb", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "517", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5d91603c-7fbb-4f1f-8d26-82d3cbcae9d7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "517", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "02a435de379162c0a2777b0a30debf28bd70783528414cde3da94cf859a696bf", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 19.6 (a) Y east grown in ideal c onditions in a t est tube sho ws a clas sical S -shaped logis tic gr owth cur ve, wher eas (b) a natur al\npopulation o f seals sho ws real-world fluctuation. The y east is visualiz ed using diff erential int erference contr ast light micr ography. (credit a:\nscale -bar data fr om Mat t Rus sell)\nIf the major f ood sour ce of seals declines due t o pol lution or o verfishing , which o f the f ollowing w ould lik ely oc cur?\na.The carr ying capacity o f seals w ould decr ease , as w ould the seal population.\nb.The carr ying capacity o f seals w ould decr ease , but the seal population w ould r emain the same .\nc.The number o f seal deaths w ould incr ease , but the number o f births w ould also incr ease , so the population siz e\nwould r emain the same .\nd.The carr ying capacity o f seals w ould r emain the same , but the population o f seals w ould decr ease .\nPopulation Dynamics and R egulation\nThe logis tic model o f population gr owth, while v alid in man y natur al populations and a useful model , is a\nsimplification o f real-world population dynamics . Implicit in the model is that the carr ying capacity o f the\nenvironment does not chang e, which is not the case . The carr ying capacity v aries annual ly. For example , some\nsummers ar e hot and dr y wher eas others ar e cold and w et; in man y areas, the carr ying capacity during the wint er is\nmuch lo wer than it is during the summer . Also , natur al events such as ear thquak es, volcanoes , and fir es can al ter an\nenvironment and henc e its carr ying capacity . Additional ly, populations do not usual ly exist in isolation. The y shar e\nthe en vironment with other species , competing with them f or the same r esour ces (int erspecific c ompetition). These\nfactors ar e also impor tant t o unders tanding ho w a specific population wil l grow.\n19.2 \u2022 P opulation Gr owth and R egulation 503", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1937, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "06a9a5cc-3555-4e32-85a7-3ea01b14aec1": {"__data__": {"id_": "06a9a5cc-3555-4e32-85a7-3ea01b14aec1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "518", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "c9987a07-11c9-41fa-b45b-84143d52fbec", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "518", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f98e24225ec6d109160818f126da423c5ae94d91727292bff12b01fb2e40c00d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Population gr owth is r egulated in a v ariety o f ways. These ar e grouped int odensity -dependent factors, in which the\ndensity o f the population aff ects gr owth r ate and mor tality , and density -independent factors, which cause mor tality\nin a population r egardles s of population density . Wildlif e biologis ts, in par ticular , want t o unders tand both types\nbecause this helps them manag e populations and pr event e xtinction or o verpopulation.\nDensit y-dependent R egulation\nMos t density -dependent fact ors ar e biological in natur e and include pr edation, int er- and intr aspecific c ompetition,\nand par asites. Usual ly, the denser a population is , the gr eater its mor tality r ate. For example , during intr a- and\ninterspecific c ompetition, the r eproductiv e rates o f the species wil l usual ly be lo wer, reducing their populations\u2019 r ate\nof growth. In addition, lo w pr ey density incr eases the mor tality o f its pr edat or because it has mor e difficul ty locating\nits food sour ce. Also , when the population is denser , diseases spr ead mor e rapidl y among the members o f the\npopulation, which aff ect the mor tality r ate.\nDensity dependent r egulation w as studied in a natur al experiment with wild donk ey populations on tw o sit es in\nAustralia.2On one sit e the population w as reduc ed b y a population c ontr ol pr ogram; the population on the other\nsite received no int erference. The high-density plot w as twic e as dense as the lo w-density plot. F rom 1986 t o 1987\nthe high-density plot sa w no chang e in donk ey density , while the lo w-density plot sa w an incr ease in donk ey density .\nThe diff erence in the gr owth r ates o f the tw o populations w as caused b y mor tality , not b y a diff erence in bir th rates.\nThe r esear chers f ound that numbers o f offspring bir thed b y each mother w as unaff ected b y density . Growth r ates in\nthe tw o populations w ere diff erent mos tly because o f juv enile mor tality caused b y the mother \u2019s malnutrition due t o\nscar ce high-quality f ood in the dense population. Figure 19.7 shows the diff erence in ag e-specific mor talities in the\ntwo populations .\nFIGURE 19.7 This gr aph sho ws the ag e-specific mor tality r ates for wild donk eys from high- and lo w-density populations . The juv enile\nmor tality is much higher in the high-density population because o f mat ernal malnutrition caused b y a shor tage of high-quality f ood.\nDensit y-independent R egulation and Int eraction with Densit y-dependent F actors\nMan y fact ors that ar e typical ly ph ysical in natur e cause mor tality o f a population r egardles s of its density . These\nfactors include w eather , natur al disas ters, and pol lution. An individual deer wil l be kil led in a f orest fire regardles s of\nhow man y deer happen t o be in that ar ea. Its chanc es o f sur vival ar e the same whether the population density is\nhigh or lo w. The same holds true f or cold wint er w eather .\nIn real-life situations , population r egulation is v ery complicat ed and density -dependent and independent fact ors\ncan int eract. A dense population that suff ers mor tality fr om a density -independent cause wil l be able t o recover\ndifferently than a sparse population. F or example , a population o f deer aff ected b y a harsh wint er wil l recover fas ter\nif ther e are mor e deer r emaining t o reproduc e.\n2David Choquenot, \u201cDensity -Dependent Gr owth, Body Condition, and Demogr aphy in F eral Donk eys: Testing the F ood Hypothesis ,\u201d\nEcolog y72, no . 3 (June 1991):805\u2013813.504 19 \u2022 P opulation and C ommunit y Ecology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3635, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "628f7369-8ef0-4387-901d-c2b0b29b9a65": {"__data__": {"id_": "628f7369-8ef0-4387-901d-c2b0b29b9a65", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "519", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4f3efe09-61e0-4850-aaa4-f693d07f1ecb", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "519", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7e25c5c74e87e0cb87cc6170f878cf7d093eda03fef8f432e9b7bbc1308d4a0b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "EVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nWhy Did the W oolly Mammo th Go Extinc t?\nFIGURE 19.8 The thr ee imag es include: (a) 1916 mur al of a mammoth her d from the American Museum o f Natur al His tory, (b) the onl y\nstuffed mammoth in the w orld is in the Museum o f Zoolog y locat ed in St. P etersbur g, Rus sia, and (c) a one -month-old bab y mammoth,\nnamed L yuba , disc overed in Siberia in 2007. (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Charles R. K night; cr edit b: modification o f work b y\n\u201cTanapon \u201d/Flickr; cr edit c: modification o f work b y Mat t Ho wry)\nWoolly mammoths beg an to go extinct about 10,000 y ears ag o, soon aft er paleont ologis ts belie ve humans able t o\nhunt them beg an to coloniz e Nor th America and nor thern Eur asia ( Figure 19.8 ). A mammoth population sur vived on\nWrangel Island, in the Eas t Siberian Sea , and w as isolat ed fr om human c ontact until as r ecently as 1700 BC. W e\nknow a lot about these animals fr om car casses f ound fr ozen in the ic e of Siberia and other nor thern r egions .\nIt is c ommonl y thought that climat e chang e and human hunting led t o their e xtinction. A 2008 s tudy es timat ed that\nclimat e chang e reduc ed the mammoth \u2019s range from 3,000,000 squar emiles 42,000 y ears ag o to 310,000\nsquar emiles 6,000 y ears ag o.3Through ar chaeological e videnc e of kill sites, it is also w ell document ed that\nhumans hunt ed these animals . A 2012 s tudy c oncluded that no single fact or w as e xclusiv ely responsible f or the\nextinction o f these magnific ent cr eatur es.4In addition t o climat e chang e and r eduction o f habitat, scientis ts\ndemons trated another impor tant fact or in the mammoth \u2019s extinction w as the migr ation o f human hunt ers acr oss the\nBering Str ait to Nor th America during the las t ice ag e 20,000 y ears ag o.\nThe maint enanc e of stable populations w as and is v ery comple x, with man y int eracting fact ors det ermining the\noutcome . It is impor tant t o remember that humans ar e also par t of natur e. Onc e we contribut ed to a species\u2019\ndecline using primitiv e hunting t echnolog y onl y.\nDemogr aphic -Based P opulation Models\nPopulation ec ologis ts ha ve hypothesiz ed that suit es o f char acteristics ma y evolve in species that lead t o par ticular\nadap tations t o their en vironments . These adap tations impact the kind o f population gr owth their species\n3David Nog u\u00e9s-Bravo et al ., \u201cClimat e Chang e, Humans , and the Extinction o f the W oolly Mammoth. \u201dPLoS Biol 6 (April 2008): e79,\ndoi:10.1371/journal .pbio .0060079.\n4G.M. MacDonald et al ., \u201cP attern o f Extinction o f the W oolly Mammoth in Beringia .\u201dNatur e Communications 3, no . 893 (June 2012),\ndoi:10.1038/nc omms1881.19.2 \u2022 P opulation Gr owth and R egulation 505", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2749, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bb16f519-4abe-4f6f-9383-7fa3d930a66e": {"__data__": {"id_": "bb16f519-4abe-4f6f-9383-7fa3d930a66e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "520", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "db962434-457d-4900-b299-c4f1a41c60b8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "520", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c544d1febcabe9937630294d5548ea7d091b7016e7721e7f08a9d434ee6d5022", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "experienc e. Life his tory char acteristics such as bir th rates, age at firs t reproduction, the numbers o f offspring , and\neven death r ates e volve jus t like anat omy or beha vior, leading t o adap tations that aff ect population gr owth.\nPopulation ec ologis ts ha ve described a c ontinuum o f life-history \u201cstrategies\u201d with K-select ed species on one end\nand r-select ed species on the other .K-select ed species are adap ted to stable , predictable en vironments .\nPopulations o fK-select ed species t end t o exist close t o their carr ying capacity . These species t end t o ha ve lar ger,\nbut f ewer, offspring and c ontribut e lar ge amounts o f resour ces to each o ffspring . Elephants w ould be an e xample o f\naK-select ed species .r-select ed species are adap ted to uns table and unpr edictable en vironments . The y ha ve lar ge\nnumbers o f smal l offspring . Animals that ar er-select ed do not pr ovide a lot o f resour ces or par ental car e to\noffspring , and the o ffspring ar e relativ ely self-sufficient at bir th. Examples o fr-select ed species ar e marine\ninvertebrates such as jel lyfish and plants such as the dandelion. The tw o extreme s trategies ar e at tw o ends o f a\ncontinuum on which r eal species lif e his tories wil l exist. In addition, lif e his tory strategies do not need t o evolve as\nsuites, but can e volve independentl y of each other , so each species ma y ha ve some char acteristics that tr end\ntoward one e xtreme or the other .\n19.3 The Human P opulation\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Discus s ho w human population gr owth can be e xponential\n\u2022Explain ho w humans ha ve expanded the carr ying capacity o f their habitat\n\u2022Relate population gr owth and ag e structur e to the le vel of economic de velopment in diff erent c ountries\n\u2022Discus s the long-t erm implications o f uncheck ed human population gr owth\nConc epts of animal population dynamics can be applied t o human population gr owth. Humans ar e not unique in\ntheir ability t o alter their en vironment. F or example , bea ver dams al ter the s tream en vironment wher e the y are buil t.\nHumans , however, have the ability t o alter their en vironment t o incr ease its carr ying capacity , sometimes t o the\ndetriment o f other species . Ear th\u2019s human population and their use o f resour ces ar e growing r apidl y, to the e xtent\nthat some w orry about the ability o f Ear th\u2019s en vironment t o sus tain its human population. L ong-t erm e xponential\ngrowth carries with it the pot ential risk s of famine , disease , and lar ge-scale death, as w ell as social c onsequenc es o f\ncrowding such as incr eased crime .\nHuman t echnolog y and par ticularl y our harnes sing o f the ener gy contained in f ossil fuels ha ve caused\nunpr ecedent ed chang es to Ear th\u2019s en vironment, al tering ec osystems t o the point wher e some ma y be in dang er of\ncollapse . Chang es on a global scale including depletion o f the o zone la yer, deser tification and t opsoil los s, and\nglobal climat e chang e are caused b y human activities .\nThe w orld\u2019 s human population is pr esentl y growing e xponential ly (Figure 19.9 ).\nFIGURE 19.9 Human population gr owth sinc e 1000 AD is e xponential .\nA consequenc e of exponential gr owth r ate is that the time that it tak es to add a par ticular number o f humans t o the\npopulation is bec oming shor ter.Figure 19.10 shows that 123 y ears w ere nec essary to add 1 bil lion humans506 19 \u2022 P opulation and C ommunit y Ecology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3562, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c11c75dc-a0c8-4362-811a-a8971f6f8ed4": {"__data__": {"id_": "c11c75dc-a0c8-4362-811a-a8971f6f8ed4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "521", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0bf84941-6bfc-476c-bc45-9a3b33f3adf3", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "521", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9884570056a78a6da20b2b394b69a47f30d963475d45ca666b7abdb3d554ab13", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "betw een 1804 and 1930, but it onl y took 24 y ears t o add the tw o bil lion people betw een 1975 and 1999. This\nacceleration in gr owth r ate wil l likely begin t o decr ease in the c oming decades . Despit e this , the population wil l\ncontinue t o incr ease and the thr eat o f overpopulation r emains , par ticularl y because the damag e caused t o\necosystems and biodiv ersity is lo wering the human carr ying capacity o f the planet.\nFIGURE 19.10 The time betw een the addition o f each bil lion human beings t o Ear th decr eases o ver time . (credit: modification o f work b y\nRyan T . Cragun)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nClick thr ough this video (http://opens tax.org/l/human_ growth2) of how human populations ha ve chang ed o ver time .\nOvercoming Densit y-Dependent R egulation\nHumans ar e unique in their ability t o alter their en vironment in m yriad w ays. This ability is r esponsible f or human\npopulation gr owth because it r esets the carr ying capacity and o vercomes density -dependent gr owth r egulation.\nMuch o f this ability is r elated to human int elligence, society , and c ommunication. Humans c onstruct shel ters t o\nprotect themsel ves fr om the elements and ha ve de veloped agricul ture and domes ticat ed animals t o incr ease their\nfood supplies . In addition, humans use lang uage to communicat e this t echnolog y to ne w gener ations , allowing them\nto impr ove upon pr evious ac complishments .\nOther fact ors in human population gr owth ar e migr ation and public heal th. Humans originat ed in Africa , but w e ha ve\nsinc e migr ated to nearl y all inhabitable land on Ear th, thus , incr easing the ar ea that w e ha ve coloniz ed. Public\nheal th, sanitation, and the use o f antibiotics and v accines ha ve decr eased the ability o f infectious disease t o limit\nhuman population gr owth in de veloped c ountries . In the pas t, diseases such as the bubonic plaque o f the\nfourteenth c entur y kil led betw een 30 and 60 per cent o f Eur ope\u2019s population and r educ ed the o verall world\npopulation b y as man y as one hundr ed mil lion people . Inf ectious disease c ontinues t o ha ve an impact on human\npopulation gr owth. F or example , life expectancy in sub -Sahar an Africa , which w as incr easing fr om 1950 t o 1990,\nbegan to decline aft er 1985 lar gely as a r esul t of HIV /AIDS mor tality . The r eduction in lif e expectancy caused b y\nHIV/AIDS w as es timat ed to be 7 y ears f or 2005.5\nDeclining lif e expectancy is an indicat or of higher mor tality r ates and leads t o lower bir th rates.\nThe fundamental cause o f the ac celeration o f growth r ate for humans in the pas t 200 y ears has been the r educ ed\ndeath r ate due t o a de velopment o f the t echnological adv ances o f the indus trial ag e, urbanization that suppor ted\nthose t echnologies , and especial ly the e xploitation o f the ener gy in f ossil fuels . Fossil fuels ar e responsible f or\ndramatical ly incr easing the r esour ces a vailable f or human population gr owth thr ough agricul ture (mechanization,\npesticides , and f ertilizers) and har vesting wild populations .\n5Dann y Dorling , Mar y Sha w, and Geor ge Da vey Smith, \u201c Global Inequality o f Life Expectancy due t o AIDS, \u201dBMJ 332, no . 7542 (Mar ch\n2006): 662-664, doi: 10.1136/bmj.332.7542.662.19.3 \u2022 The Human P opulation 507", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3320, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6edc71ed-c558-43f7-9975-dd9e62ed07c3": {"__data__": {"id_": "6edc71ed-c558-43f7-9975-dd9e62ed07c3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "522", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "19125e8d-c5c1-4db7-a9bb-ffa8002bfdfa", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "522", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5df967699921697d10641060a8b7d46b52ede83bb359d73f3dcb68fb2ff725a5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Age S tructure, Population Gr owth, and E conomic De velopment\nThe ag e structur e of a population is an impor tant fact or in population dynamics .Age structur eis the pr opor tion o f a\npopulation in diff erent ag e clas ses. Models that inc orpor ate ag e structur e allow bet ter pr ediction o f population\ngrowth, plus the ability t o as sociat e this gr owth with the le vel of economic de velopment in a r egion. Countries with\nrapid gr owth ha ve a p yramidal shape in their ag e structur e diagr ams , sho wing a pr eponder ance of young er\nindividuals , man y of whom ar e of reproductiv e ag e (Figure 19.11 ). This pat tern is mos t often obser ved in\nunder developed c ountries wher e individuals do not liv e to old ag e because o f les s-than-op timal living c onditions ,\nand ther e is a high bir th rate. Age structur es o f areas with slo w gr owth, including de veloped c ountries such as the\nUnit ed Stat es, still have a p yramidal s tructur e, but with man y fewer young and r eproductiv e-aged individuals and a\ngreater pr opor tion o f older individuals . Other de veloped c ountries , such as Ital y, have zero population gr owth. The\nage structur e of these populations is mor e conical , with an e ven gr eater per centag e of middle -aged and older\nindividuals . The actual gr owth r ates in diff erent c ountries ar e sho wn in Figure 19.12 , with the highes t rates tending\nto be in the les s economical ly de veloped c ountries o f Africa and Asia .\nVISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 19.11 Typical ag e structur e diagr ams ar e sho wn. The r apid gr owth diagr am narr ows to a point, indicating that the number o f\nindividuals decr eases r apidl y with ag e. In the slo w gr owth model , the number o f individuals decr eases s teadil y with ag e. Stable population\ndiagr ams ar e rounded on the t op, sho wing that the number o f individuals per ag e group decr eases gr adual ly, and then incr eases f or the\nolder par t of the population.\nAge structur e diagr ams f or rapidl y growing , slo w gr owing , and s table populations ar e sho wn in s tages 1 thr ough 3.\nWhat type o f population chang e do y ou think s tage 4 r epresents?\nFIGURE 19.12 The per cent gr owth r ate of population in diff erent c ountries is sho wn. Notic e that the highes t growth is oc curring in les s\neconomical ly de veloped c ountries in Africa and Asia .\n508 19 \u2022 P opulation and C ommunit y Ecology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2446, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8996078f-8631-40a3-ac4a-95bc18273aa6": {"__data__": {"id_": "8996078f-8631-40a3-ac4a-95bc18273aa6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "523", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "26b6fd57-b5dc-4afd-9214-423d8559139b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "523", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fa2d4560c8373bc49a24e7851e7f423e9f914f2b93d7297dfbcc11a545dc4d57", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "d38d41b7-adc3-40e2-bcaa-8075cc442b15", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "9c79eda18731f50806e8844be7407ed1623642835982478ec0f45b516db84250", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Long-T erm C onsequenc es of Exponential Human P opulation Gr owth\nMan y dir e predictions ha ve been made about the w orld\u2019 s population leading t o a major crisis cal led the \u201c population\nexplosion. \u201d In the 1968 book The P opulation Bomb , biologis t Dr. Paul R. Ehrlich wr ote, \u201cThe bat tle to feed al l of\nhumanity is o ver. In the 1970s hundr eds o f mil lions o f people wil l starve to death in spit e of any crash pr ograms\nembark ed upon no w. At this lat e dat e nothing can pr event a subs tantial incr ease in the w orld death r ate.\u201d6While\nman y critics vie w this s tatement as an e xaggeration, the la ws of exponential population gr owth ar e still in eff ect,\nand uncheck ed human population gr owth cannot c ontinue indefinit ely.\nEfforts to moder ate population c ontr ol led t o the one-child policy in China , which imposes fines on urban c ouples\nwho ha ve mor e than one child. Due t o the fact that some c ouples wish t o ha ve a male heir , man y Chinese c ouples\ncontinue t o ha ve mor e than one child. The eff ectiv enes s of the policy in limiting o verall population gr owth is\ncontr oversial , as is the policy itself . Mor eover, ther e are stories o f female infanticide ha ving oc curr ed in some o f the\nmor e rur al ar eas o f the c ountr y. Famil y planning education pr ograms in other c ountries ha ve had highl y positiv e\neffects on limiting population gr owth r ates and incr easing s tandar ds o f living . In spit e of population c ontr ol policies ,\nthe human population c ontinues t o grow. Because o f the subsequent need t o produc e mor e and mor e food t o feed\nour population, inequalities in ac cess to food and other r esour ces wil l continue t o widen. The Unit ed Nations\nestimat es the futur e world population siz e could v ary from 6 bil lion (a decr ease) t o 16 bil lion people b y the y ear\n2100. Ther e is no w ay to kno w whether human population gr owth wil l moder ate to the point wher e the crisis\ndescribed b y Dr. Ehrlich wil l be a verted.\nAnother c onsequenc e of population gr owth is the chang e and degr adation o f the natur al en vironment. Man y\ncountries ha ve attemp ted to reduc e the human impact on climat e chang e by limiting their emis sion o f greenhouse\ngases . However, a global climat e chang e treaty r emains elusiv e, and man y under developed c ountries tr ying t o\nimpr ove their ec onomic c ondition ma y be les s likely to agr ee with such pr ovisions without c ompensation if it means\nslowing their ec onomic de velopment. F urthermor e, the r ole o f human activity in causing climat e chang e has bec ome\na hotl y debat ed socio -political is sue in some de veloped c ountries , including the Unit ed Stat es. Thus , we ent er the\nfutur e with c onsider able unc ertainty about our ability t o curb human population gr owth and pr otect our\nenvironment t o maintain the carr ying capacity f or the human species .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nVisit this websit e(http://opens tax.org/l/populations2) and select \u201cL aunch the mo vie\u201d for an animation discus sing\nthe global impacts o f human population gr owth.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3100, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d38d41b7-adc3-40e2-bcaa-8075cc442b15": {"__data__": {"id_": "d38d41b7-adc3-40e2-bcaa-8075cc442b15", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "523", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "26b6fd57-b5dc-4afd-9214-423d8559139b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "523", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fa2d4560c8373bc49a24e7851e7f423e9f914f2b93d7297dfbcc11a545dc4d57", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "8996078f-8631-40a3-ac4a-95bc18273aa6", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "523", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7a31a8eb69f65edb41d973e73d0ba9a9cf19e39f60ae81c2aabf353c77424ed0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "F urthermor e, the r ole o f human activity in causing climat e chang e has bec ome\na hotl y debat ed socio -political is sue in some de veloped c ountries , including the Unit ed Stat es. Thus , we ent er the\nfutur e with c onsider able unc ertainty about our ability t o curb human population gr owth and pr otect our\nenvironment t o maintain the carr ying capacity f or the human species .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nVisit this websit e(http://opens tax.org/l/populations2) and select \u201cL aunch the mo vie\u201d for an animation discus sing\nthe global impacts o f human population gr owth.\n19.4 Communit y Ecology\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Discus s the pr edat or-prey cycle\n\u2022Give examples o f def enses ag ains t predation and herbiv ory\n\u2022Describe the c ompetitiv e exclusion principle\n\u2022Give examples o f symbiotic r elationships betw een species\n\u2022Describe c ommunity s tructur e and suc cession\nIn gener al, populations o f one species ne ver liv e in isolation fr om populations o f other species . The int eracting\npopulations oc cupying a giv en habitat f orm an ec ological c ommunity . The number o f species oc cupying the same\nhabitat and their r elativ e abundanc e is kno wn as the div ersity o f the c ommunity . Areas with lo w species div ersity ,\nsuch as the glaciers o f Antar ctica , still contain a wide v ariety o f living or ganisms , wher eas the div ersity o f tropical\nrainforests is so gr eat that it cannot be ac curately assessed. Scientis ts study ec olog y at the c ommunity le vel to\nunders tand ho w species int eract with each other and c ompet e for the same r esour ces.\nPredation and Herbiv ory\nPerhaps the clas sical e xample o f species int eraction is the pr edat or-prey relationship . The narr owest definition o f\n6Paul R. Erlich, pr olog ue toThe P opulation Bomb , (1968; r epr., Ne w York: Bal lantine , 1970).19.4 \u2022 C ommunit y Ecology 509", "start_char_idx": 2522, "end_char_idx": 4444, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6dd47fc3-f531-4554-a934-6336954d88af": {"__data__": {"id_": "6dd47fc3-f531-4554-a934-6336954d88af", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "524", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "af5674c7-bd76-4053-8846-bdda3888dcc6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "524", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b1b440e5cf12c5aeca86dfd8eacc0bd9a71d0787e77d908fb8ac0fafd1bced94", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "the pr edat or-prey int eraction describes individuals o f one population that kil l and then c onsume the individuals o f\nanother population. P opulation siz es o f predat ors and pr ey in a c ommunity ar e not c onstant o ver time , and the y ma y\nvary in cy cles that appear t o be r elated. The mos t often cit ed e xample o f predat or-prey population dynamics is seen\nin the cy cling o f the l ynx (pr edat or) and the sno wshoe har e (pr ey), using 100 y ears o f trapping data fr om Nor th\nAmerica ( Figure 19.13 ). This cy cling o f predat or and pr ey population siz es has a period o f appr oximat ely ten y ears ,\nwith the pr edat or population lag ging one t o tw o years behind the pr ey population. An appar ent e xplanation f or this\npattern is that as the har e numbers incr ease , ther e is mor e food a vailable f or the l ynx, al lowing the l ynx population\nto incr ease as w ell. When the l ynx population gr ows to a thr eshold le vel, however, the y kil l so man y har es that har e\nnumbers begin t o decline , followed b y a decline in the l ynx population because o f scar city o f food. When the l ynx\npopulation is lo w, the har e population siz e begins t o incr ease due , in par t, to low pr edation pr essure, starting the\ncycle ane w.\nFIGURE 19.13 The cy cling o f sno wshoe har e and l ynx populations in Nor thern Ontario is an e xample o f predat or-prey dynamics .\nDefense Mechanisms agains t Predation and Herbiv ory\nPredation and pr edat or avoidanc e are strong selectiv e ag ents . Any heritable char acter that al lows an individual o f a\nprey population t o bet ter evade its pr edat ors wil l be r epresent ed in gr eater numbers in lat er gener ations . Likewise ,\ntraits that al low a pr edat or to mor e efficientl y locat e and cap ture its pr ey wil l lead t o a gr eater number o f offspring\nand an incr ease in the c ommonnes s of the tr ait within the population. Such ec ological r elationships betw een\nspecific populations lead t o adap tations that ar e driv en b y recipr ocal e volutionar y responses in those populations .\nSpecies ha ve evolved numer ous mechanisms t o escape pr edation and herbiv ory (the c onsump tion o f plants f or\nfood). Def enses ma y be mechanical , chemical , physical , or beha vioral.\nMechanical def enses , such as the pr esenc e of armor in animals or thorns in plants , disc ourage predation and\nherbiv ory by disc ouraging ph ysical c ontact ( Figure 19.14 a). Man y animals pr oduc e or ob tain chemical def enses\nfrom plants and s tore them t o prevent pr edation. Man y plant species pr oduc e sec ondar y plant c ompounds that\nserve no function f or the plant e xcept that the y are toxic t o animals and disc ourage consump tion. F or example , the\nfoxglo ve produc es se veral compounds , including digitalis , that ar e extremel y toxic when eat en (Figure 19.14 b).\n(Biomedical scientis ts ha ve purposed the chemical pr oduc ed b y foxglo ve as a hear t medication, which has sa ved\nlives for man y decades .)510 19 \u2022 P opulation and C ommunit y Ecology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3087, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bbcf1d71-b953-4288-90bf-580e7ba084b1": {"__data__": {"id_": "bbcf1d71-b953-4288-90bf-580e7ba084b1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "525", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7040c7b1-9907-492a-b508-8cebe55fdbb6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "525", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e8a4874b114a16537d3afd129ffcf628dbef39a6a333549295bef48a4a171c9e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 19.14 The (a) hone y locus t tree uses thorns , a mechanical def ense , agains t herbiv ores, while the (b) f oxglo ve uses a chemical\ndefense: t oxins pr oduc es b y the plant can cause nausea , vomiting , hal lucinations , convulsions , or death when c onsumed. (cr edit a:\nmodification o f work b y Huw Wil liams; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Philip J\u00e4g enstedt)\nMan y species use ph ysical appear ance, such as body shape and c oloration, t o avoid being det ected b y predat ors.\nThe tr opical w alking s tick is an insect with the c oloration and body shape o f a twig , which mak es it v ery har d to see\nwhen it is s tationar y ag ains t a back ground o f real twigs ( Figure 19.15 a). In another e xample , the chameleon can,\nwithin limitations , chang e its c olor t o mat ch its surr oundings ( Figure 19.15 b). Ther e are man y beha vioral\nadap tations t o avoid or c onfuse pr edat ors. Pla ying dead and tr aveling in lar ge groups , like schools o f fish or flock s of\nbirds, are both beha viors that r educ e the risk o f being eat en.\nFIGURE 19.15 (a) The tr opical w alking s tick and (b) the chameleon use their body shape and/or c oloration t o prevent det ection b y\npredat ors. (credit a: modification o f work b y Linda T anner; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Frank V assen)\nSome species use c oloration as a w ay of warning pr edat ors that the y are dis tasteful or poisonous . For example , the\nmonar ch but terfly cat erpil lar seques ters poisons fr om its f ood (plants and milkw eeds) t o mak e itself poisonous or\ndistasteful t o pot ential pr edat ors. The cat erpil lar is bright y ellow and black t o adv ertise its t oxicity . The cat erpil lar is\nalso able t o pas s the seques tered toxins on t o the adul t monar ch, which is also dr amatical ly colored black and r ed\nas a w arning t o pot ential pr edat ors. Fire-bel lied t oads pr oduc e toxins that mak e them dis tasteful t o their pot ential\npredat ors. The y ha ve bright r ed or or ange coloration on their bel lies, which the y displa y to a pot ential pr edat or to\nadvertise their poisonous natur e and disc ourage an at tack. These ar e onl y tw o examples o f warning c oloration,\nwhich is a r elativ ely common adap tation. W arning c oloration onl y works if a pr edat or uses e yesight t o locat e prey\nand can learn\u2014a na\u00efv e predat or mus t experienc e the neg ative consequenc es o f eating one bef ore it wil l avoid other\nsimilarl y colored individuals ( Figure 19.16 ).19.4 \u2022 C ommunit y Ecology 511", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2530, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "eac0143b-cb7e-4b50-9c09-376b242d5de2": {"__data__": {"id_": "eac0143b-cb7e-4b50-9c09-376b242d5de2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "526", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "83984969-7f9c-4daa-91f6-6d973e7eebaa", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "526", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2a4d45fb8fa65cf91941918c40cc4a850bdc2faec604c096099c2bd201f8ca24", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 19.16 The fir e-bel lied t oad has bright c oloration on its bel ly that ser ves to warn pot ential pr edat ors that it is t oxic. (cr edit:\nmodification o f work b y Rober to Verzo)\nWhile some pr edat ors learn t o avoid eating c ertain pot ential pr ey because o f their c oloration, other species ha ve\nevolved mechanisms t o mimic this c oloration t o avoid being eat en, e ven though the y themsel ves ma y not be\nunpleasant t o eat or c ontain t oxic chemicals . In some cases o fmimicr y, a harmles s species imitat es the w arning\ncoloration o f a harmful species . Assuming the y shar e the same pr edat ors, this c oloration then pr otects the harmles s\nones . Man y insect species mimic the c oloration o f wasps , which ar e stinging , venomous insects , ther eby\ndisc ouraging pr edation ( Figure 19.17 ).\nFIGURE 19.17 One f orm o f mimicr y is when a harmles s species mimics the c oloration o f a harmful species , as is seen with the (a) w asp\n(Polistessp.) and the (b) ho verfly (Syrphus sp.). (cr edit: modification o f work b y Tom Ings)\nIn other cases o f mimicr y, mul tiple species shar e the same w arning c oloration, but al l of them actual ly ha ve\ndefenses . The c ommonnes s of the signal impr oves the c omplianc e of all the pot ential pr edat ors.Figure 19.18\nshows a v ariety o f foul-tasting but terflies with similar c oloration.512 19 \u2022 P opulation and C ommunit y Ecology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1448, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "889b7c4c-b24d-466f-aa35-52c67f77c555": {"__data__": {"id_": "889b7c4c-b24d-466f-aa35-52c67f77c555", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "527", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5bdd4501-9295-4f84-a10a-a98d197ff74d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "527", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "84b44ea8287a6b06cc26f0b0f2f86a03f81691878406cb8b49ad7db10dec2cdd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 19.18 Several unpleasant -tasting Helic onius butterfly species shar e a similar c olor pat tern with bet ter-tasting v arieties , an\nexample o f mimicr y. (credit: Jor on M, P apa R, Bel tr\u00e1n M, Chamberlain N, Ma v\u00e1rez J, et al .)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nGo t o this websit e(http://opens tax.org/l/find_ the_mimic2) to vie w stunning e xamples o f mimicr y.\nCompe titive Exclusion P rinciple\nResour ces ar e often limit ed within a habitat and mul tiple species ma y compet e to ob tain them. E cologis ts ha ve\ncome t o unders tand that al l species ha ve an ec ological niche . A niche is the unique set o f resour ces used b y a\nspecies , which includes its int eractions with other species . The competitiv e exclusion principle states that tw o\nspecies cannot oc cupy the same niche in a habitat: in other w ords, diff erent species cannot c oexist in a c ommunity\nif the y are competing f or al l the same r esour ces. This principle w orks because if ther e is an o verlap in r esour ce use\nand ther efore competition betw een tw o species , then tr aits that les sen r elianc e on the shar ed resour ce wil l be\nselect ed for leading t o evolution that r educ es the o verlap . If either species is unable t o evolve to reduc e\ncompetition, then the species that mos t efficientl y exploits the r esour ce wil l driv e the other species t o extinction. An\nexperimental e xample o f this principle is sho wn in Figure 19.19 with tw o protozoan species: Paramecium aur elia\nand Paramecium caudatum . When gr own individual ly in the labor atory, the y both thriv e. But when the y are plac ed\ntogether in the same t est tube (habitat), P. aur elia outcompet esP. caudatum for food, leading t o the lat ter\u2019s eventual\nextinction.\nFIGURE 19.19 Paramecium aur elia and Paramecium caudatum grow well individual ly, but when the y compet e for the same r esour ces, the\nP. aur elia outcompet es the P. caudatum .\n19.4 \u2022 C ommunit y Ecology 513", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1948, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "21a8699f-c268-4480-a849-610e70030197": {"__data__": {"id_": "21a8699f-c268-4480-a849-610e70030197", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "528", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9503c5d0-af06-492e-9009-8b8870099104", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "528", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6fcff3425a7b05524f34f8021502e953691eb50003c1fd1b5154851eb1aeb6d8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Symbiosis\nSymbiotic r elationships ar e close , long-t erm int eractions betw een individuals o f diff erent species . Symbioses ma y\nbe c ommensal , in which one species benefits while the other is neither harmed nor benefit ed; mutualis tic, in which\nboth species benefit; or par asitic, in which the int eraction harms one species and benefits the other .\nCommensalism\nA commensal r elationship oc curs when one species benefits fr om a close pr olong ed int eraction, while the other\nneither benefits nor is harmed. Bir ds nes ting in tr ees pr ovide an e xample o f a c ommensal r elationship ( Figure\n19.20 ). The tr ee is not harmed b y the pr esenc e of the nes t among its br anches . The nes ts ar e light and pr oduc e little\nstrain on the s tructur al int egrity o f the br anch, and mos t of the lea ves, which the tr ee uses t o get ener gy by\nphot osynthesis , are abo ve the nes t so the y are unaff ected. The bir d, on the other hand, benefits gr eatly. If the bir d\nhad t o nes t in the open, its eg gs and y oung w ould be vulner able t o predat ors. Man y pot ential c ommensal\nrelationships ar e difficul t to identif y because it is difficul t to prove that one par tner does not deriv e some benefit\nfrom the pr esenc e of the other .\nFIGURE 19.20 The southern mask ed-w eaver is s tarting t o mak e a nes t in a tr ee in Zambe zi Valley, Zambia . This is an e xample o f a\ncommensal r elationship , in which one species (the bir d) benefits , while the other (the tr ee) neither benefits nor is harmed. (cr edit:\n\u201cHana y\u201d/Wikimedia Commons)\nMutualism\nA sec ond type o f symbiotic r elationship is cal ledmutualism , in which tw o species benefit fr om their int eraction. F or\nexample , termit es ha ve a mutualis tic relationship with pr otists that liv e in the insect \u2019s gut (Figure 19.21 a). The\ntermit e benefits fr om the ability o f the pr otists to dig est cellulose . Ho wever, the pr otists ar e able t o dig est cellulose\nonly because o f the pr esenc e of symbiotic bact eria within their c ells that pr oduc e the c ellulase enzyme . The t ermit e\nitself cannot do this: without the pr otozoa, it w ould not be able t o ob tain ener gy from its f ood (c ellulose fr om the\nwood it che ws and eats). The pr otozoa benefit b y ha ving a pr otectiv e en vironment and a c onstant suppl y of food\nfrom the w ood che wing actions o f the t ermit e. In turn, the pr otists benefit fr om the enzymes pr ovided b y their\nbact erial endos ymbionts , while the bact eria benefit fr om a doubl y protectiv e en vironment and a c onstant sour ce of\nnutrients fr om tw o hos ts. Lichen ar e a mutualis tic relationship betw een a fung us and phot osynthetic alg ae or\ncyanobact eria ( Figure 19.21 b). The gluc ose pr oduc ed b y the alg ae pr ovides nourishment f or both or ganisms ,\nwher eas the ph ysical s tructur e of the lichen pr otects the alg ae fr om the elements and mak es certain nutrients in the\natmospher e mor e available t o the alg ae. The alg ae o f lichens can liv e independentl y giv en the right en vironment, but\nman y of the fung al par tners ar e unable t o liv e on their o wn.514 19 \u2022 P opulation and C ommunit y Ecology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3208, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e980b574-6a75-4c81-a952-73f232808cd5": {"__data__": {"id_": "e980b574-6a75-4c81-a952-73f232808cd5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "529", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2ef1c4dc-3b22-4b21-bbd6-ebdcb3809925", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "529", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c1c1481b2151abb56c3c01f6156fc18160486b7f727d4481519a1db02b12a0e6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 19.21 (a) T ermit es form a mutualis tic relationship with s ymbiotic pr otozoa in their g uts, which al low both or ganisms t o ob tain\nener gy from the c ellulose the t ermit e consumes . (b) Lichen is a fung us that has s ymbiotic phot osynthetic alg ae living in close as sociation.\n(credit a: modification o f work b y Sc ott Bauer , USD A; cr edit b: modification o f work b y Cor y Zank er)\nParasitism\nAparasiteis an or ganism that f eeds o ff another without immediat ely kil ling the or ganism it is f eeding on. In this\nrelationship , the par asite benefits , but the or ganism being f ed upon, the host, is harmed. The hos t is usual ly\nweakened b y the par asite as it siphons r esour ces the hos t would normal ly use t o maintain itself . Parasites ma y kil l\ntheir hos ts, but ther e is usual ly selection t o slo w do wn this pr ocess to allow the par asite time t o complet e its\nreproductiv e cy cle bef ore it or its o ffspring ar e able t o spr ead t o another hos t.\nThe r eproductiv e cy cles o f par asites ar e often v ery comple x, sometimes r equiring mor e than one hos t species . A\ntape worm causes disease in humans when c ontaminat ed, under cooked meat such as pork, fish, or beef is\nconsumed ( Figure 19.22 ). The tape worm can liv e inside the int estine o f the hos t for se veral years , benefiting fr om\nthe hos t\u2019s food, and it ma y grow to be o ver 50 f eet long b y adding segments . The par asite mo ves fr om one hos t\nspecies t o a sec ond hos t species in or der t o complet e its lif e cy cle.Plasmodium falciparum is another par asite: the\nprotists that cause malaria , a significant disease in man y par ts of the w orld. Living inside human liv er and r ed blood\ncells, the or ganism r eproduc es ase xual ly in the human hos t and then se xual ly in the g ut of blood-f eeding\nmosquit oes t o complet e its lif e cy cle. Thus malaria is spr ead fr om human t o mosquit o and back t o human, one o f\nman y arthropod-borne inf ectious diseases o f humans .\nFIGURE 19.22 This diagr am sho ws the lif e cy cle o f the tape worm, a human w orm par asite. (credit: modification o f work b y CDC)19.4 \u2022 C ommunit y Ecology 515", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2175, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7615fdae-a9fa-4bf9-9aba-f888a0b3f698": {"__data__": {"id_": "7615fdae-a9fa-4bf9-9aba-f888a0b3f698", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "530", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3ff8898a-f9e8-4c39-bed4-2bd68effb942", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "530", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ff108f7ce63655998646c47c7ea93e5d09ed49f8f0490d4bd6da7b32f551b4a6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "LINK T O LE ARNING\nTo learn mor e about \u201c Symbiosis in the Sea ,\u201d watch this webisode (http://opens tax.org/l/symbiosis) of Jonathan\nBird\u2019s Blue W orld.\nChar acteristics o f Communities\nCommunities ar e comple x systems that can be char acterized b y their s tructur e (the number and siz e of populations\nand their int eractions) and dynamics (ho w the members and their int eractions chang e over time). Unders tanding\ncommunity s tructur e and dynamics al lows us t o minimiz e impacts on ec osystems and manag e ec ological\ncommunities w e benefit fr om.\nBiodiv ersity\nEcologis ts ha ve extensiv ely studied one o f the fundamental char acteristics o f communities: biodiv ersity . One\nmeasur e of biodiv ersity used b y ec ologis ts is the number o f diff erent species in a par ticular ar ea and their r elativ e\nabundanc e. The ar ea in ques tion c ould be a habitat, a biome , or the entir e biospher e.Species richnes sis the t erm\nused t o describe the number o f species living in a habitat or other unit. Species richnes s varies acr oss the globe\n(Figure 19.23 ). Ecologis ts ha ve strug gled t o unders tand the det erminants o f biodiv ersity . Species richnes s is r elated\nto latitude: the gr eatest species richnes s oc curs near the equat or and the lo west richnes s oc curs near the poles .\nOther fact ors influenc e species richnes s as w ell.Island biog eogr aphyattemp ts to explain the gr eat species\nrichnes s found in isolat ed islands , and has f ound r elationships betw een species richnes s, island siz e, and dis tanc e\nfrom the mainland.\nRelative species abundanc eis the number individuals in a species r elativ e to the t otal number o f individuals in al l\nspecies within a s ystem. F oundation species , described belo w, often ha ve the highes t relativ e abundanc e of species .\nFIGURE 19.23 The gr eatest species richnes s for mammals in Nor th America is as sociat ed in the equat orial latitudes . (credit: modification\nof work b y NASA , CIESIN, Columbia Univ ersity)\nFoundation Species\nFounda tion species are consider ed the \u201cbase \u201d or \u201cbedr ock\u201d of a c ommunity , having the gr eatest influenc e on its\noverall structur e. The y are often primar y produc ers, and the y are typical ly an abundant or ganism. F or example , kelp,\na species o f brown alg ae, is a f oundation species that f orms the basis o f the k elp f orests off the c oast of Calif ornia .\nFoundation species ma y ph ysical ly modif y the en vironment t o produc e and maintain habitats that benefit the other\norganisms that use them. Examples include the k elp described abo ve or tr ee species f ound in a f orest. The\n516 19 \u2022 P opulation and C ommunit y Ecology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2714, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c4e862de-a64e-4de5-88e3-c29be3204bd1": {"__data__": {"id_": "c4e862de-a64e-4de5-88e3-c29be3204bd1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "531", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3d338294-ab07-43ea-9c86-9e5947b9406a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "531", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ff649b5e033c2a03c6f67b06b0476ad8d5345e20c4469227f7819e67d78dd432", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "phot osynthetic c orals o f the c oral reef also pr ovide s tructur e by ph ysical ly modif ying the en vironment ( Figure\n19.24 ). The e xoskeletons o f living and dead c oral mak e up mos t of the r eef s tructur e, which pr otects man y other\nspecies fr om w aves and oc ean curr ents .\nFIGURE 19.24 Coral is the f oundation species o f coral reef ec osystems . (credit: Jim E. Mar agos, USFWS)\nKeystone Species\nAkeystone species is one whose pr esenc e has inor dinat e influenc e in maintaining the pr evalenc e of various\nspecies in an ec osystem, the ec ological c ommunity \u2019s structur e, and sometimes its biodiv ersity .Pisas ter ochr aceus,\nthe int ertidal sea s tar, is a k eystone species in the nor thwestern por tion o f the Unit ed Stat es (Figure 19.25 ). Studies\nhave sho wn that when this or ganism is r emo ved fr om c ommunities , mus sel populations (their natur al pr ey)\nincrease , which c omplet ely alters the species c omposition and r educ es biodiv ersity . Another k eystone species is the\nbanded t etra, a fish in tr opical s treams , which supplies nearl y all of the phosphorus , a nec essary inor ganic nutrient,\nto the r est of the c ommunity . The banded t etra feeds lar gely on insects fr om the t errestrial ec osystem and then\nexcretes phosphorus int o the aquatic ec osystem. The r elationships betw een populations in the c ommunity , and\npossibly the biodiv ersity , would chang e dramatical ly if these fish w ere to bec ome e xtinct.\nFIGURE 19.25 The Pisas ter ochr aceus sea s tar is a k eystone species . (credit: Jerr y Kirkhar t)\nEVERYDAY CONNE CTION\nInvasiv e Species\nInvasive species ar e non-nativ e organisms that, when intr oduc ed to an ar ea out o f its nativ e range, alter the\ncommunity the y invade. In the Unit ed Stat es, invasive species lik e the purple looses trife (Lythrum salicaria ) and\nthe z ebra mus sel ( Dreissena pol ymorpha ) have altered aquatic ec osystems , and some f orests ar e thr eatened b y\nthe spr ead o f common buck thorn ( Rhamnus cathar tica) and g arlic mus tard (Alliaria petiolata ). Some w ell-kno wn\ninvasive animals include the emer ald ash bor er (Agrilus planipennis ) and the Eur opean s tarling ( Sturnus\nvulg aris). Whether enjo ying a f orest hik e, taking a summer boat trip , or simpl y walking do wn an urban s treet, y ou19.4 \u2022 C ommunit y Ecology 517", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2354, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f75af112-c240-4221-b113-35860ac54e22": {"__data__": {"id_": "f75af112-c240-4221-b113-35860ac54e22", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "532", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "55f6406a-4762-4a2f-98c5-03cde783e528", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "532", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "79d7d4b027ab217fb1d582e7e1a44e0459dbb5bcb1fda58b146d8de19e41a80c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "fbb99849-4bc4-43cc-a0fd-139226f23832", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "8e3b8f958b54f224b71fe1f840ec72495732e17b7c09785579588955402d33cb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Communit y Dynamics\nCommunity dynamics ar e the chang es in c ommunity s tructur e and c omposition o ver time , often following\nenvironmental dis turbanc essuch as v olcanoes , ear thquak es, storms , fires, and climat e chang e. Communities with\na relativ ely constant number o f species ar e said t o be at equilibrium. The equilibrium is dynamic with species\nidentities and r elationships changing o ver time , but maintaining r elativ ely constant numbers . Following a\ndisturbanc e, the c ommunity ma y or ma y not r eturn t o the equilibrium s tate.\nSuccession describes the sequential appear ance and disappear ance of species in a c ommunity o ver time aft er a\nsevere dis turbanc e. Inprimar y suc cession , newly exposed or ne wly formed r ock is c oloniz ed b y living or ganisms; in\nsecondar y suc cession , a par t of an ec osystem is dis turbed and r emnants o f the pr evious c ommunity r emain. In\nboth cases , ther e is a sequential chang e in species until a mor e or les s permanent c ommunity de velops .\nPrimar y Suc cession and Pioneer Species\nPrimar y suc cession oc curs when ne w land is f ormed, f or example , following the erup tion o f volcanoes , such as those\non the Big Island o f Ha waii. As la va flo ws int o the oc ean, ne w land is c ontinual ly being f ormed. On the Big Island,\nappr oximat ely 32 acr es o f land is added t o it its siz e each y ear. Weathering and other natur al forces br eak do wn the\nrock enough f or the es tablishment o f hear ty species such as lichens and some plants , kno wn as pioneer species\n(Figure 19.26 ). These species help t o fur ther br eak do wn the miner al-rich la va int o soil wher e other , les s har dy but\nmor e competitiv e species , such as gr asses, shrubs , and tr ees, wil l grow and e ventual ly replac e the pioneer species .\nOver time the ar ea wil l reach an equilibrium s tate, with a set o f organisms quit e diff erent fr om the pioneer species .have lik ely enc ount ered an in vasive species .\nOne o f the man y recent pr oliferations o f an in vasive species c oncerns the Asian carp in the Unit ed Stat es. Asian\ncarp w ere intr oduc ed to the Unit ed Stat es in the 1970s b y fisheries (c ommer cial cat fish ponds) and b y sewage\ntreatment facilities that used the fish \u2019s excellent fil ter feeding abilities t o clean their ponds o f excess plank ton.\nSome o f the fish escaped, and b y the 1980s the y had c oloniz ed man y waterways of the Mis sissippi Riv er basin,\nincluding the Il linois and Mis souri Riv ers.\nVoracious f eeders and r apid r eproduc ers, Asian carp ma y out compet e nativ e species f or food and c ould lead t o\ntheir e xtinction. One species , the gr ass carp , feeds on ph ytoplank ton and aquatic plants . It c ompet es with nativ e\nspecies f or these r esour ces and al ters nurser y habitats f or other fish b y remo ving aquatic plants . Another\nspecies , the sil ver carp , compet es with nativ e fish that f eed on z ooplank ton. In some par ts of the Il linois Riv er,\nAsian carp c onstitut e 95 per cent o f the c ommunity 's biomas s. Although edible , the fish is bon y and not desir ed\nin the Unit ed Stat es. Mor eover, their pr esenc e no w thr eatens the nativ e fish and fisheries o f the Gr eat L akes,\nwhich ar e impor tant t o local ec onomies and r ecreational anglers . Asian carp ha ve even injur ed humans .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3358, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fbb99849-4bc4-43cc-a0fd-139226f23832": {"__data__": {"id_": "fbb99849-4bc4-43cc-a0fd-139226f23832", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "532", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "55f6406a-4762-4a2f-98c5-03cde783e528", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "532", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "79d7d4b027ab217fb1d582e7e1a44e0459dbb5bcb1fda58b146d8de19e41a80c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "f75af112-c240-4221-b113-35860ac54e22", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "532", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "da3b9f802c63a20e941c6a30ac8d5cd1ae54eeca1820aa19bb6cedb959e3ef31", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "It c ompet es with nativ e\nspecies f or these r esour ces and al ters nurser y habitats f or other fish b y remo ving aquatic plants . Another\nspecies , the sil ver carp , compet es with nativ e fish that f eed on z ooplank ton. In some par ts of the Il linois Riv er,\nAsian carp c onstitut e 95 per cent o f the c ommunity 's biomas s. Although edible , the fish is bon y and not desir ed\nin the Unit ed Stat es. Mor eover, their pr esenc e no w thr eatens the nativ e fish and fisheries o f the Gr eat L akes,\nwhich ar e impor tant t o local ec onomies and r ecreational anglers . Asian carp ha ve even injur ed humans . The fish,\nfright ened b y the sound o f appr oaching mot orboats , thrus t themsel ves int o the air , often landing in the boat or\ndirectly hit ting boat ers.\nThe Gr eat L akes and their priz ed salmon and lak e trout fisheries ar e being thr eatened b y Asian carp . The carp\nare not y et pr esent in the Gr eat L akes, and at temp ts ar e being made t o prevent its ac cess to the lak es thr ough\nthe Chicag o Ship and Sanitar y Canal , which is the onl y connection betw een the Mis sissippi Riv er and Gr eat L akes\nbasins . To prevent the Asian carp fr om lea ving the canal , a series o f electric barriers ha ve been used t o\ndisc ourage their migr ation; ho wever, the thr eat is significant enough that se veral states and Canada ha ve sued t o\nhave the Chicag o channel permanentl y cut o ff from L ake Michig an. L ocal and national politicians ha ve weighed\nin on ho w to sol ve the pr oblem. In g ener al, governments ha ve been ineff ectiv e in pr eventing or slo wing the\nintroduction o f invasive species .\nThe is sues as sociat ed with Asian carp sho w ho w population and c ommunity ec olog y, fisheries manag ement, and\npolitics int ersect on is sues o f vital impor tanc e to the human f ood suppl y and ec onom y. Socio -political is sues lik e\nthe Asian carp mak e extensiv e use o f the scienc es o f population ec olog y, the s tudy o f members o f a par ticular\nspecies oc cupying a habitat; and c ommunity ec olog y, the s tudy o f the int eraction o f all species within a habitat.518 19 \u2022 P opulation and C ommunit y Ecology\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2736, "end_char_idx": 4946, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a603c44f-7703-4f9b-8957-0d7590758bd5": {"__data__": {"id_": "a603c44f-7703-4f9b-8957-0d7590758bd5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "533", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "dcd7d351-3c04-40f1-9b53-9cce85d2da8a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "533", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a1b7a9944bd42a54ba5b0aa5fcf5eef63d561c4ad85d413307f85302ab4db9b5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 19.26 During primar y suc cession in la va on Maui, Ha waii, suc culent plants ar e the pioneer species . (credit: F orest and Kim Starr)\nSecondar y suc cession\nA clas sic e xample o f sec ondar y suc cession oc curs in oak and hick ory forests clear ed b y wildfir e (Figure 19.27 ).\nWildfir es wil l burn mos t vegetation, and unles s the animals can flee the ar ea, the y are kil led. Their nutrients ,\nhowever, are returned t o the gr ound in the f orm o f ash. Thus , although the c ommunity has been dr amatical ly\naltered, ther e is a soil ec osystem pr esent that pr ovides a f oundation f or rapid r ecolonization.\nBefore the fir e, the v egetation w as dominat ed b y tal l trees with ac cess to the major plant ener gy resour ce: sunlight.\nTheir height g ave them ac cess to sunlight while also shading the gr ound and other lo w-lying species . Aft er the fir e,\nthough, these tr ees ar e no long er dominant. Thus , the firs t plants t o grow back ar e usual ly annual plants f ollowed\nwithin a f ew years b y quickl y growing and spr eading gr asses and other pioneer species . Due , at leas t in par t, to\nchang es in the en vironment br ought on b y the gr owth o f grasses and f orbs , over man y years , shrubs emer ge along\nwith smal l pine , oak, and hick ory trees. These or ganisms ar e cal led int ermediat e species . Eventual ly, over 150\nyears , the f orest wil l reach its equilibrium point and r esemble the c ommunity bef ore the fir e. This equilibrium s tate\nis referred to as the climax c ommunity , which wil l remain until the ne xt dis turbanc e. The climax c ommunity is\ntypical ly char acteristic o f a giv en climat e and g eolog y. Although the c ommunity in equilibrium look s the same onc e it\nis at tained, the equilibrium is a dynamic one with c onstant chang es in abundanc e and sometimes species identities .\nThe r eturn o f a natur al ec osystem aft er agricul tural activities is also a w ell-document ed sec ondar y suc cession\nprocess.\nFIGURE 19.27 Secondar y suc cession is seen in an oak and hick ory forest aft er a f orest fire. A sequenc e of the c ommunity pr esent at thr ee\nsuccessive times at the same location is depict ed.19.4 \u2022 C ommunit y Ecology 519", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2220, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3fa691ff-5e40-40f4-82dc-60cb1a2c5dda": {"__data__": {"id_": "3fa691ff-5e40-40f4-82dc-60cb1a2c5dda", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "534", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ae1cb880-4688-487e-b6db-6140cb2ef393", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "534", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5de570d8fb5222a16263d5457e3c1fbc1b4db0bfe9c3976e85fa3b9694b0eacd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "d612fd0c-4520-48ec-9a4f-59b0e56794a4", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "22dfda8459b3b48fcf4a5f52c5bdbbfd542b7b062aa27eb6c45ffaabe67cb05f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nage structur ethe dis tribution o f the pr opor tion o f\npopulation members in each ag e clas s\nbirth ratethe number o f births within a population at\na specific point in time\ncarr ying capacity the maximum number o f\nindividuals o f a population that can be suppor ted b y\nthe limit ed resour ces o f a habitat\nclimax c ommunity the final s tage of suc cession,\nwher e a s table c ommunity is f ormed b y a\nchar acteristic as sortment o f plant and animal\nspecies\ncompetitiv e exclusion principle no tw o species\nwithin a habitat can c oexist indefinit ely when the y\ncompet e for the same r esour ces at the same time\nand plac e\ndeath ratethe number o f deaths within a population\nat a specific point in time\ndemogr aphythe s tatis tical s tudy o f chang es in\npopulations o ver time\ndensity -dependent r egulation the r egulation o f\npopulation in which bir th and death r ates ar e\ndependent on population siz e\ndensity -independent r egulation the r egulation o f\npopulation in which the death r ate is independent o f\nthe population siz e\nenvironmental dis turbanc ea chang e in the\nenvironment caused b y natur al disas ters or human\nactivities\nexponential gr owth an ac celerating gr owth pat tern\nseen in populations wher e resour ces ar e not limiting\nfounda tion species a species which o ften forms the\nmajor s tructur al por tion o f the habitat\nhostan or ganism a par asite liv es on\nintraspecific c ompetition the c ompetition among\nmembers o f the same species\nisland biog eogr aphythe s tudy o f life on island chains\nand ho w their g eogr aphy int eracts with the div ersity\nof species f ound ther e\nJ-shaped gr owth cur vethe shape o f an e xponential\ngrowth cur ve\nK-select ed species a species suit ed to stable\nenvironments that pr oduc e a f ew, relativ ely lar ge\noffspring and pr ovide par ental car e\nkeystone species a species whose pr esenc e is k ey to\nmaintaining biodiv ersity in an ec osystem and t o\nupholding an ec ological c ommunity \u2019s structur e\nlife table a table sho wing the lif e expectancy o f a\npopulation member based on its ag e\nlogis tic gr owth the le veling o ff of exponential gr owthdue t o limiting r esour ces\nmark and r ecap turea method used t o det ermine\npopulation siz e in mobile or ganisms\nmimicr yan adap tation in which an or ganism look s\nlike another or ganism that is dang erous, toxic,", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2360, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d612fd0c-4520-48ec-9a4f-59b0e56794a4": {"__data__": {"id_": "d612fd0c-4520-48ec-9a4f-59b0e56794a4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "534", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ae1cb880-4688-487e-b6db-6140cb2ef393", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "534", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5de570d8fb5222a16263d5457e3c1fbc1b4db0bfe9c3976e85fa3b9694b0eacd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "3fa691ff-5e40-40f4-82dc-60cb1a2c5dda", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "534", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "31492fad231c9f8fd142f5df4912ab97bcb0d1a2aa85bc0097ea875d889b0667", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "relativ ely lar ge\noffspring and pr ovide par ental car e\nkeystone species a species whose pr esenc e is k ey to\nmaintaining biodiv ersity in an ec osystem and t o\nupholding an ec ological c ommunity \u2019s structur e\nlife table a table sho wing the lif e expectancy o f a\npopulation member based on its ag e\nlogis tic gr owth the le veling o ff of exponential gr owthdue t o limiting r esour ces\nmark and r ecap turea method used t o det ermine\npopulation siz e in mobile or ganisms\nmimicr yan adap tation in which an or ganism look s\nlike another or ganism that is dang erous, toxic, or\ndistasteful t o its pr edat ors\nmor tality r atethe pr opor tion o f population sur viving\nto the beginning o f an ag e int erval that dies during\nthat ag e int erval\nmutualism a symbiotic r elationship betw een tw o\nspecies wher e both species benefit\none-child policy a policy in China t o limit population\ngrowth b y limiting urban c ouples t o ha ve onl y one\nchild or fac e a penal ty of a fine\nparasitean or ganism that uses r esour ces fr om\nanother species: the hos t\npioneer species the firs t species t o appear in primar y\nand sec ondar y suc cession\npopula tion density the number o f population\nmembers divided b y the ar ea being measur ed\npopula tion siz ethe number o f individuals in a\npopulation\nprimar y suc cession the suc cession on land that\npreviousl y has had no lif e\nquadr ata squar e within which a c ount o f individuals\nis made that is c ombined with other such c ounts t o\ndetermine population siz e and density in slo w\nmoving or s tationar y organisms\nr-select ed species a species suit ed to changing\nenvironments that pr oduc e man y offspring and\nprovide lit tle or no par ental car e\nrelative species abundanc ethe absolut e population\nsize of a par ticular species r elativ e to the population\nsize of other species within the c ommunity\nS-shaped gr owth cur vethe shape o f a logis tic\ngrowth cur ve\nsecondar y suc cession the suc cession in r esponse t o\nenvironmental dis turbanc es that mo ve a c ommunity\naway from its equilibrium\nspecies dis tribution pa ttern the dis tribution o f\nindividuals within a habitat at a giv en point in time\nspecies richnes sthe number o f diff erent species in a\ncommunity\nsurvivorship cur vea graph o f the number o f\nsurviving population members v ersus the r elativ e\nage of the member\nzero popula tion gr owth the s teady population siz e\nwher e bir th rates and death r ates ar e equal520 19 \u2022 K ey Terms\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 1779, "end_char_idx": 4281, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4876d07c-292e-4748-89c0-a76cc43468bf": {"__data__": {"id_": "4876d07c-292e-4748-89c0-a76cc43468bf", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "535", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4b172c46-7b09-4b0e-8f6a-59f024e206c7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "535", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "58e929c0a51ca18d18eaa2a443abd5b18344fd584870da94ac0d71f98fbcf9f4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "b0043ba7-3cd4-4478-a58b-be12db8af92f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "d24bd1043232e0d832c996435e8405ff627964e1c89bd12efce6b6311445483f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Chap ter Summar y\n19.1 Population Demogr aphics and\nDynamics\nPopulations ar e individuals o f a species that liv e in a\nparticular habitat. E cologis ts measur e char acteristics\nof populations: siz e, density , and dis tribution pat tern.\nLife tables ar e useful t o calculat e life expectancies o f\nindividual population members . Sur vivorship cur ves\nshow the number o f individuals sur viving at each ag e\ninterval plot ted v ersus time .\n19.2 Population Gr owth and R egulation\nPopulations with unlimit ed resour ces gr ow\nexponential ly\u2014with an ac celerating gr owth r ate. When\nresour ces bec ome limiting , populations f ollow a\nlogis tic gr owth cur ve in which population siz e wil l level\noff at the carr ying capacity .\nPopulations ar e regulated b y a v ariety o f density -\ndependent and density -independent fact ors. Life-\nhistory char acteristics, such as ag e at firs t reproduction\nor numbers o f offspring , are char acteristics that e volve\nin populations jus t as anat omy or beha vior can e volve\nover time . The model o fr- and K-selection sug gests\nthat char acters, and pos sibly suit es o f char acters, ma y\nevolve adap tations t o population s tability near the\ncarr ying capacity ( K-selection) or r apid population\ngrowth and c ollapse ( r-selection). Species wil l exhibitadap tations some wher e on a c ontinuum betw een\nthese tw o extremes .\n19.3 The Human P opulation\nEarth\u2019s human population is gr owing e xponential ly.\nHumans ha ve incr eased their carr ying capacity thr ough\ntechnolog y, urbanization, and harnes sing the ener gy of\nfossil fuels . The ag e structur e of a population al lows us\nto predict population gr owth. Uncheck ed human\npopulation gr owth c ould ha ve dir e long-t erm eff ects on\nhuman w elfar e and Ear th\u2019s ecosystems .\n19.4 Communit y Ecology\nCommunities include al l the diff erent species living in a\ngiven ar ea. The v ariety o f these species is r eferred to\nas biodiv ersity . Man y organisms ha ve de veloped\ndefenses ag ains t predation and herbiv ory, including\nmechanical def enses , warning c oloration, and mimicr y.\nTwo species cannot e xist indefinit ely in the same\nhabitat c ompeting dir ectly for the same r esour ces.\nSpecies ma y form s ymbiotic r elationships such as\ncommensalism, mutualism, or par asitism. Community\nstructur e is described b y its f oundation and k eystone\nspecies . Communities r espond t o en vironmental\ndisturbanc es b y suc cession: the pr edictable\nappear ance of diff erent types o f plant species , until a\nstable c ommunity s tructur e is es tablished.\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 19.2 As this gr aph sho ws, population density\ntypical ly decr eases with incr easing body siz e. Wh y\ndo y ou think this is the case?\n2.Figure 19.6 If the major f ood sour ce of seals\ndeclines due t o pol lution or o verfishing , which o f\nthe f ollowing w ould lik ely oc cur?\na.The carr ying capacity o f seals w ould decr ease ,\nas w ould the seal population.\nb.The carr ying capacity o f seals w ould decr ease ,\nbut the seal population w ould r emain the\nsame .\nc.The number o f seal deaths w ould incr ease , but\nthe number o f births w ould also incr ease , so\nthe population siz e would r emain the same .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3223, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b0043ba7-3cd4-4478-a58b-be12db8af92f": {"__data__": {"id_": "b0043ba7-3cd4-4478-a58b-be12db8af92f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "535", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4b172c46-7b09-4b0e-8f6a-59f024e206c7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "535", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "58e929c0a51ca18d18eaa2a443abd5b18344fd584870da94ac0d71f98fbcf9f4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "4876d07c-292e-4748-89c0-a76cc43468bf", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "535", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fff64587547fc72eeaaf8da7db539bea75a01c5bfab9a350506e102c69b0d543", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Visual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 19.2 As this gr aph sho ws, population density\ntypical ly decr eases with incr easing body siz e. Wh y\ndo y ou think this is the case?\n2.Figure 19.6 If the major f ood sour ce of seals\ndeclines due t o pol lution or o verfishing , which o f\nthe f ollowing w ould lik ely oc cur?\na.The carr ying capacity o f seals w ould decr ease ,\nas w ould the seal population.\nb.The carr ying capacity o f seals w ould decr ease ,\nbut the seal population w ould r emain the\nsame .\nc.The number o f seal deaths w ould incr ease , but\nthe number o f births w ould also incr ease , so\nthe population siz e would r emain the same .\nd.The carr ying capacity o f seals w ould r emain\nthe same , but the population o f seals w ould\ndecr ease .3.Figure 19.11 Age structur e diagr ams f or rapidl y\ngrowing , slo w gr owing , and s table populations ar e\nshown in s tages 1 thr ough 3. What type o f\npopulation chang e do y ou think s tage 4 r epresents?19 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y521", "start_char_idx": 2569, "end_char_idx": 3566, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9008e681-e833-4b26-ace5-2651e77106dd": {"__data__": {"id_": "9008e681-e833-4b26-ace5-2651e77106dd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "536", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "9fe16c79-43f1-4b47-a6dc-9e8b2e2683ff", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "536", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "467cb092aa6d5bda88708e32f03b3e6d68caceb5fc646570545e42a311f5ca4f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Review Ques tions\n4.Which o f the f ollowing methods wil l provide\ninformation t o an ec ologis t about both the siz e and\ndensity o f a population?\na.mark and r ecap ture\nb.mark and r elease\nc.quadr at\nd.life table\n5.Which o f the f ollowing is bes t at sho wing the lif e\nexpectancy o f an individual within a population?\na.quadr at\nb.mark and r ecap ture\nc.survivorship cur ve\nd.life table\n6.Human populations ha ve which type o f sur vivorship\ncurve?\na.Type I\nb.Type II\nc.Type III\nd.Type IV\n7.Species with limit ed resour ces usual ly exhibit a(n)\n________ gr owth cur ve.\na.logis tic\nb.logical\nc.experimental\nd.exponential\n8.The maximum gr owth r ate char acteristic o f a\nspecies is cal led its ________.\na.limit\nb.carr ying capacity\nc.biotic pot ential\nd.exponential gr owth pat tern\n9.The population siz e of a species capable o f being\nsuppor ted b y the en vironment is cal led its\n________.\na.limit\nb.carr ying capacity\nc.biotic pot ential\nd.logis tic gr owth pat tern\n10.Species that ha ve man y offspring at one time ar e\nusual ly:\na.r-select ed\nb.K-select ed\nc.both r-and K-select ed\nd.not select ed11.A forest fire is an e xample o f ________ r egulation.\na.density -dependent\nb.density -independent\nc.r-select ed\nd.K-select ed\n12.A countr y with z ero population gr owth is lik ely to\nbe ________.\na.in Africa\nb.in Asia\nc.economical ly de veloped\nd.economical ly under developed\n13.Which type o f countr y has the gr eatest propor tion\nof young individuals?\na.economical ly de veloped\nb.economical ly under developed\nc.countries with z ero population gr owth\nd.countries in Eur ope\n14.Which o f the f ollowing is nota way that humans\nhave incr eased the carr ying capacity o f the\nenvironment?\na.agricul ture\nb.using lar ge amounts o f natur al resour ces\nc.domes tication o f animals\nd.use o f lang uage\n15.The firs t species t o liv e on ne w land, such as that\nformed fr om v olcanic la va, are cal led________.\na.climax c ommunity\nb.keystone species\nc.foundation species\nd.pioneer species\n16.A symbiotic r elationship wher e both o f the c o-\nexisting species benefit fr om the int eraction is\ncalled ________.\na.commensalism\nb.parasitism\nc.mutualism\nd.communism\n17.When an in vasive species al ters the c ommunity\nstructur e it is intr oduc ed to, what can the\nconsequenc e be?\na.extinction o f economical ly impor tant species\nb.reduc ed pr edation on some nativ e species\nc.increased pr edation on some nativ e species\nd.all of the abo veunderlineend underline522 19 \u2022 R eview Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2544, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ef2046ff-61c9-418e-95d7-eb4da43a9e6e": {"__data__": {"id_": "ef2046ff-61c9-418e-95d7-eb4da43a9e6e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "537", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fa51076b-5c3a-463a-bab2-39c9283356f2", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "537", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "18ce7d7535f3b3bf1a9b5f5a712728c6e70b06c2f5158f463111085cdc30a79b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Critic al Thinking Ques tions\n18.Describe ho w a r esear cher w ould det ermine the\nsize of a peng uin population in Antar ctica using\nthe mark and r elease method.\n19.Describe the gr owth at v arious par ts of the S -\nshaped cur ve of logis tic gr owth.\n20.Give an e xample o f how density -dependent and\ndensity -independent fact ors might int eract.21.Describe the ag e structur es in r apidl y growing\ncountries , slo wly growing c ountries , and c ountries\nwith z ero population gr owth.\n22.Describe the c ompetitiv e exclusion principle and\nits eff ects on c ompeting species .\n23.Describe the pot ential eff ects when a k eystone\nspecies is r emo ved fr om a c ommunity .19 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions 523", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 716, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8fa5d3ae-a2f2-424e-a846-ab5aaa649001": {"__data__": {"id_": "8fa5d3ae-a2f2-424e-a846-ab5aaa649001", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "538", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0b7fa66e-07ea-4ea3-9eb9-07209ec06d35", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "538", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "86304efe4269b528bee6f6c9e767ab28187d468eceac7f3f79589430eccf135e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "524 19 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 72, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f6144627-240e-44b2-a7d4-573ac3352ff1": {"__data__": {"id_": "f6144627-240e-44b2-a7d4-573ac3352ff1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "539", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "66b833c9-5411-4ee4-a500-f63027cc3021", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "539", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ba8d4deb9c517592175828714bef9c8a6eff2a849ebbb067f76d40842ee4a410", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 20\nEcosystems and the Biospher e\n20.1 Waterford's Ener gy Flo w thr ough E cosystems\n20.2 Biog eochemical Cy cles\n20.3 Terrestrial Biomes\n20.4 Aqua tic and Marine Biomes\nEcosystem ec olog y is an e xtension o f organismal , population, and c ommunity\necolog y. The ec osystem c omprises al l the biotic c omponents (living things) and abiotic\ncomponents (non-living things) in a par ticular g eogr aphic ar ea. Some o f the abiotic c omponents\ninclude air , water, soil , and climat e. Ecosystem biologis ts study ho w nutrients and ener gy are\nstored and mo ved among or ganisms and the surr ounding atmospher e, soil , and w ater.\nWild lupine and K arner blue but terflies liv e in an oak -pine barr en habitat in por tions o f Indiana ,\nMichig an, Minnesota , Wisc onsin, and Ne w York ( Figure 20.1 ). This habitat is char acterized b y\nnatur al dis turbanc e in the f orm o f fire and nutrient -poor soils that ar e low in nitr ogen\u2014impor tant\nfactors in the dis tribution o f the plants that liv e in this habitat. R esear chers int erested in\necosystem ec olog y study the impor tanc e of limit ed resour ces in this ec osystem and theFIGURE 20.1 The (a) K arner blue but terfly and (b) wild lupine liv e in oak -pine barr en habitats in Nor th America . (credit\na: modification o f work b y John & K aren Hol lings worth, USFWS)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1376, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "93df03cb-958f-4fb9-a567-9ed9b01aeda4": {"__data__": {"id_": "93df03cb-958f-4fb9-a567-9ed9b01aeda4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "540", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "bd08e44f-7292-4a3f-a192-66d4de3bd088", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "540", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "693cc1fa587cca29d3dbe656ce18e99a729552fca4d8e70cc109b7913c337264", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "movement o f resour ces (such as nutrients) thr ough the biotic and abiotic por tions o f the\necosystem. R esear chers also e xamine ho w or ganisms ha ve adap ted to their ec osystem.\n20.1 Waterford's Ener gy Flo w thr ough E cosystems\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the basic types o f ecosystems on Ear th\n\u2022Differentiat e betw een f ood chains and f ood w ebs and r ecogniz e the impor tanc e of each\n\u2022Describe ho w or ganisms ac quire ener gy in a f ood w eb and in as sociat ed food chains\n\u2022Explain ho w the efficiency o f ener gy transfers betw een tr ophic le vels aff ects ec osystems\nAnecosystemis a c ommunity o f living or ganisms and their abiotic (non-living ) environment.\nEcosystems can be smal l, such as the tide pools f ound near the r ocky shor es o f man y oc eans , or\nlarge, such as those f ound in the tr opical r ainforest of the Amaz on in Br azil ( Figure 20.2 ).\nFIGURE 20.2 A (a) tidal pool ec osystem in Matinicus Island, Maine , is a smal l ecosystem, while the (b) Amaz on\nrainforest in Br azil is a lar ge ec osystem. (cr edit a: modification o f work b y Jim K uhn; cr edit b: modification o f work b y\nIvan Mlinaric)\nTher e are thr ee br oad cat egories o f ecosystems based on their g ener al en vironment: fr eshwater,\nmarine , and t errestrial . Within these thr ee cat egories ar e individual ec osystem types based on the\nenvironmental habitat and or ganisms pr esent.\nEcology o f Ecosystems\nLife in an ec osystem o ften in volves competition f or limit ed resour ces, which oc curs both within a\nsingle species and betw een diff erent species . Organisms c ompet e for food, w ater, sunlight, spac e,\nand miner al nutrients . These r esour ces pr ovide the ener gy for metabolic pr ocesses and the mat ter\nto mak e up or ganisms\u2019 ph ysical s tructur es. Other critical fact ors influencing c ommunity dynamics\nare the c omponents o f its ph ysical en vironment: a habitat \u2019s climat e (seasons , sunlight, and\nrainfal l), ele vation, and g eolog y. These can al l be impor tant en vironmental v ariables that\ndetermine which or ganisms can e xist within a par ticular ar ea.\nFreshwater ec osystems ar e the leas t common, oc curring on onl y 1.8 per cent o f Ear th's sur face.\nThese s ystems c omprise lak es, rivers, streams , and springs; the y are quit e div erse , and suppor t a\nvariety o f animals , plants , fungi, pr otists and pr okaryotes.\nMarine ec osystems ar e the mos t common, c omprising 75 per cent o f Ear th's sur face and c onsis ting\nof thr ee basic types: shal low oc ean, deep oc ean w ater, and deep oc ean bot tom. Shal low oc ean\necosystems include e xtremel y biodiv erse c oral reef ec osystems , yet the deep oc ean w ater is\nknown f or lar ge numbers o f plank ton and kril l (smal l crus taceans) that suppor t it. These tw o\nenvironments ar e especial ly impor tant t o aer obic r espir ators w orldwide , as the ph ytoplank ton\nperform 40 per cent o f all phot osynthesis on Ear th. Al though not as div erse as the other tw o, deep526 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3132, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c444fd90-26bb-44f8-9097-c742b2646fc5": {"__data__": {"id_": "c444fd90-26bb-44f8-9097-c742b2646fc5", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "541", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6a58a993-b009-422d-8501-c9678d1d38bc", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "541", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f9b44f5d414dfa00914fe1b8fa6d09a0aa42f3ef52fcd68330ad8804855d4d30", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "d0945830-3f84-46de-a4b4-ecbfaedaf89e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "671a1091ed25ad8b456dbb7456a92f494746e87dae725689b30e9bf984f8e599", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "ocean bot tom ec osystems c ontain a wide v ariety o f marine or ganisms . Such ec osystems e xist even at dep ths wher e\nlight is unable t o penetr ate thr ough the w ater.\nTerrestrial ec osystems , also kno wn f or their div ersity , are grouped int o lar ge cat egories cal led biomes . Abiome is a\nlarge-scale c ommunity o f organisms , primaril y defined on land b y the dominant plant types that e xist in g eogr aphic\nregions o f the planet with similar climatic c onditions . Examples o f biomes include tr opical r ainforests, savannas ,\ndeser ts, grasslands , temper ate forests, and tundr as. Grouping these ec osystems int o jus t a few biome cat egories\nobscur es the gr eat div ersity o f the individual ec osystems within them. F or example , the sag uaro cacti ( Carnegiea\ngigantean) and other plant lif e in the Sonor an Deser t, in the Unit ed Stat es, are relativ ely div erse c ompar ed with the\ndesolat e rocky deser t of Boa Vis ta, an island o ff the c oast of Western Africa ( Figure 20.3 ).\nFIGURE 20.3 Deser t ecosystems , like all ecosystems , can v ary greatly. The deser t in (a) Sag uaro National P ark, Ariz ona, has abundant plant\nlife, while the r ocky deser t of (b) Boa Vis ta island, Cape V erde, Africa , is de void o f plant lif e. (credit a: modification o f work b y Ja y Gal vin;\ncredit b: modification o f work b y Ing o W\u00f6lbern)\nEcosystems and Dis turbanc e\nEcosystems ar e comple x with man y int eracting par ts. The y are routinel y exposed t o various dis turbanc es: chang es\nin the en vironment that aff ect their c ompositions , such as y early variations in r ainfal l and t emper atur e. Man y\ndisturbanc es ar e a r esul t of natur al pr ocesses. For example , when lightning causes a f orest fire and des troys par t of\na forest ecosystem, the gr ound is e ventual ly populat ed with gr asses, followed b y bushes and shrubs , and lat er\nmatur e trees: thus , the f orest is r estored to its f ormer s tate. This pr ocess is so univ ersal that ec ologis ts ha ve giv en it\na name \u2014suc cession. The impact o f environmental dis turbanc es caused b y human activities is no w as significant as\nthe chang es wr ought b y natur al pr ocesses. Human agricul tural pr actic es, air pol lution, acid r ain, global\ndeforestation, o verfishing , oil spil ls, and il legal dumping on land and int o the oc ean al l have impacts on ec osystems .\nEquilibrium is a dynamic s tate of an ec osystem in which, despit e chang es in species numbers and oc curr ence,\nbiodiv ersity r emains some what c onstant. In ec olog y, two par amet ers ar e used t o measur e chang es in ec osystems:\nresistanc e and r esilienc e. The ability o f an ec osystem t o remain at equilibrium in spit e of dis turbanc es is cal led\nresis tanc e. The speed at which an ec osystem r ecovers equilibrium aft er being dis turbed is cal ledresilienc e.\nEcosystem r esistanc e and r esilienc e are especial ly impor tant when c onsidering human impact. The natur e of an\necosystem ma y chang e to such a degr ee that it can lose its r esilienc e entir ely. This pr ocess can lead t o the c omplet e\ndestruction or irr eversible al tering o f the ec osystem.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3170, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d0945830-3f84-46de-a4b4-ecbfaedaf89e": {"__data__": {"id_": "d0945830-3f84-46de-a4b4-ecbfaedaf89e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "541", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6a58a993-b009-422d-8501-c9678d1d38bc", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "541", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f9b44f5d414dfa00914fe1b8fa6d09a0aa42f3ef52fcd68330ad8804855d4d30", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "c444fd90-26bb-44f8-9097-c742b2646fc5", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "541", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9197a2dc74cbb9eda0dec840827b887367a88fbc9b29465c8792d8c68f87c224", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In ec olog y, two par amet ers ar e used t o measur e chang es in ec osystems:\nresistanc e and r esilienc e. The ability o f an ec osystem t o remain at equilibrium in spit e of dis turbanc es is cal led\nresis tanc e. The speed at which an ec osystem r ecovers equilibrium aft er being dis turbed is cal ledresilienc e.\nEcosystem r esistanc e and r esilienc e are especial ly impor tant when c onsidering human impact. The natur e of an\necosystem ma y chang e to such a degr ee that it can lose its r esilienc e entir ely. This pr ocess can lead t o the c omplet e\ndestruction or irr eversible al tering o f the ec osystem.\nFood Chains and F ood W ebs\nAfood chain is a linear sequenc e of organisms thr ough which nutrients and ener gy pas s as one or ganism eats\nanother; the le vels in the f ood chain ar e produc ers, primar y consumers , higher -level consumers , and final ly\ndecomposers . These le vels ar e used t o describe ec osystem s tructur e and dynamics . Ther e is a single path thr ough a\nfood chain. Each or ganism in a f ood chain oc cupies a specific trophic le vel(ener gy level), its position in the f ood\nchain or f ood w eb.\nIn man y ec osystems , the base , or f oundation, o f the f ood chain c onsis ts of phot osynthetic or ganisms (plants or\nphytoplank ton), which ar e cal ledproduc ers. The or ganisms that c onsume the pr oduc ers ar e herbiv ores: the\nprimar y consumers .Secondar y consumers are usual ly carniv ores that eat the primar y consumers .Tertiary\nconsumers are carniv ores that eat other carniv ores. Higher -level consumers f eed on the ne xt lo wer tr ophic le vels,20.1 \u2022 W aterford's Ener gy Flo w thr ough E cosystems 527", "start_char_idx": 2547, "end_char_idx": 4218, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "219137da-9cc5-4a67-912a-60a8ac0f0d60": {"__data__": {"id_": "219137da-9cc5-4a67-912a-60a8ac0f0d60", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "542", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1be50a89-09ae-40f0-98dd-fbe60f5a592d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "542", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "df273f8b542e54398beee1c516ba808369f60c227d0b0d8333716a318c0a67e4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "and so on, up t o the or ganisms at the t op o f the f ood chain: the apex consumers . In the L ake Ontario f ood chain,\nshown in Figure 20.4 , the Chinook salmon is the ape x consumer at the t op o f this f ood chain.\nFIGURE 20.4 These ar e the tr ophic le vels o f a food chain in L ake Ontario at the Unit ed Stat es\u2013Canada bor der. Ener gy and nutrients flo w\nfrom phot osynthetic gr een alg ae at the base t o the t op o f the f ood chain: the Chinook salmon. (cr edit: modification o f work b y National\nOceanic and A tmospheric Adminis tration/NO AA)\nOne major fact or that limits the number o f steps in a f ood chain is ener gy. Ener gy is los t at each tr ophic le vel and\nbetw een tr ophic le vels as heat and in the tr ansfer to dec omposers ( Figure 20.5 ). Thus , after a limit ed number o f\ntrophic ener gy transfers, the amount o f ener gy remaining in the f ood chain ma y not be gr eat enough t o suppor t\nviable populations at y et a higher tr ophic le vel.528 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1049, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "404c83f7-e6f3-4ec3-9349-de7878249b0c": {"__data__": {"id_": "404c83f7-e6f3-4ec3-9349-de7878249b0c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "543", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "90b8b074-d858-4b5a-a9b0-5f272a6e6ba9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "543", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "7fadbe467021d44322d90b0ed1f55f957293bd7dd234bf065541fa5e119396ea", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 20.5 The r elativ e ener gy in tr ophic le vels in a Sil ver Springs , Florida , ecosystem is sho wn. Each tr ophic le vel has les s ener gy\navailable , and usual ly, but not al ways, suppor ts a smal ler mas s of organisms at the ne xt le vel.\nTher e is a one pr oblem when using f ood chains t o describe mos t ecosystems . Even when al l organisms ar e grouped\ninto appr opriat e trophic le vels, some o f these or ganisms can f eed on mor e than one tr ophic le vel; lik ewise , some o f\nthese or ganisms can also be f ed on fr om mul tiple tr ophic le vels. In addition, species f eed on and ar e eat en b y mor e\nthan one species . In other w ords, the linear model o f ecosystems , the f ood chain, is a h ypothetical , overly simplis tic\nrepresentation o f ecosystem s tructur e. A holis tic model \u2014which includes al l the int eractions betw een diff erent\nspecies and their c omple x int erconnect ed relationships with each other and with the en vironment \u2014is a mor e\naccurate and descrip tive model f or ec osystems . Afood w ebis a c oncept that ac counts f or the mul tiple tr ophic\n(feeding ) interactions betw een each species and the man y species it ma y feed on, or that f eed on it. In a f ood w eb,\nthe se veral trophic c onnections betw een each species and the other species that int eract with it ma y cross mul tiple\ntrophic le vels. The mat ter and ener gy mo vements o f virtually all ecosystems ar e mor e ac curately described b y food\nwebs ( Figure 20.6 ).20.1 \u2022 W aterford's Ener gy Flo w thr ough E cosystems 529", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1550, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6c0ee649-3ffd-4ddf-bff1-6c930571e599": {"__data__": {"id_": "6c0ee649-3ffd-4ddf-bff1-6c930571e599", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "544", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "65b532c2-84f4-4b37-8fa4-920a12dae796", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "544", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c0679ac32236f0404c191493f3d9a3471ca333795194a345b7b821166720e86f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 20.6 This f ood w eb sho ws the int eractions betw een or ganisms acr oss trophic le vels. Arr ows point fr om an or ganism that is\nconsumed t o the or ganism that c onsumes it. Al l the pr oduc ers and c onsumers e ventual ly bec ome nourishment f or the dec omposers (fungi,\nmold, ear thworms , and bact eria in the soil). (cr edit \"f ox\": modification o f work b y Kevin Bacher , NPS; cr edit \" owl\": modification o f work b y\nJohn and K aren Hol lings worth, USFWS; cr edit \"snak e\": modification o f work b y Steve Jur vetson; cr edit \"r obin \": modification o f work b y Alan\nVernon; cr edit \"fr og\": modification o f work b y Ales sandr o Cat enazzi; cr edit \"spider \": modification o f work b y \"Sanba38\"/ Wikimedia\nCommons; cr edit \" centipede \": modification o f work b y \u201cBauerph \u201d/Wikimedia Commons; cr edit \"squirr el\": modification o f work b y Da wn\nHucz ek; cr edit \"mouse \": modification o f work b y NIGMS, NIH; cr edit \"sparr ow\": modification o f work b y Da vid F riel; cr edit \"beetle \":\nmodification o f work b y Sc ott Bauer , USD A Agricul tural Resear ch Ser vice; cr edit \"mushr ooms \": modification o f work b y Chris W ee; cr edit\n\"mold\": modification o f work b y Dr. Lucille Geor g, CDC; cr edit \" earthworm \": modification o f work b y Rob Hil le; cr edit \"bact eria\":\nmodification o f work b y Don Stalons , CDC)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nHead t o this online int eractiv e simulat or(http://opens tax.org/l/food_ web)to investigate food w eb function. In the\nInteractiv e Labs box, under Food W eb, click Step 1 . Read the ins tructions firs t, and then click Step 2 for additional\ninstructions . When y ou ar e ready t o create a simulation, in the upper -right c orner o f the Interactiv e Labs box, click\nOPEN SIMUL ATOR.\nTwo gener al types o f food w ebs ar e often sho wn int eracting within a single ec osystem. A grazing f ood w ebhas\nplants or other phot osynthetic or ganisms at its base , followed b y herbiv ores and v arious carniv ores. Adetrital f ood\nwebconsis ts of a base o f organisms that f eed on deca ying or ganic mat ter (dead or ganisms), including dec omposers\n(which br eak do wn dead and deca ying or ganisms) and detritiv ores (which c onsume or ganic detritus). These\norganisms ar e usual ly bact eria, fungi, and in vertebrate animals that r ecycle or ganic mat erial back int o the biotic par t\nof the ec osystem as the y themsel ves ar e consumed b y other or ganisms . As ec osystems r equir e a method t o recycle\nmaterial fr om dead or ganisms , grazing f ood w ebs ha ve an as sociat ed detrital f ood w eb. For example , in a meado w\necosystem, plants ma y suppor t a gr azing f ood w eb o f diff erent or ganisms , primar y and other le vels o f consumers ,\nwhile at the same time suppor ting a detrital f ood w eb o f bact eria and fungi f eeding o ff dead plants and animals .\nSimul taneousl y, a detrital f ood w eb can c ontribut e ener gy to a gr azing f ood w eb, as when a r obin eats an ear thworm.\nunderline end underline530 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3075, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "89c37061-bad0-4500-8375-4e2749bb6577": {"__data__": {"id_": "89c37061-bad0-4500-8375-4e2749bb6577", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "545", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e6225475-9abf-45a8-9541-943b1bf24b14", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "545", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3edeb75fcdb02cd984cc084df0f4d4fc69f4ca978b91a71286df47704e6b56ce", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "d1964238-7084-47a1-a582-756b009c30ec", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "d4a3a595266f721dc06ec6918edb2d8c976f0fecfd3aeaa2da37ce897daa0ca3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "How Or ganisms A cquire Ener gy in a F ood W eb\nAll living things r equir e ener gy in one f orm or another . Ener gy is used b y mos t comple x metabolic path ways (usual ly\nin the f orm o f ATP), especial ly those r esponsible f or building lar ge molecules fr om smal ler c ompounds . Living\norganisms w ould not be able t o as semble macr omolecules (pr oteins , lipids , nucleic acids , and c omple x\ncarboh ydrates) fr om their monomers without a c onstant ener gy input.\nFood-w eb diagr ams il lustrate ho w ener gy flo ws dir ectional ly thr ough ec osystems . The y can also indicat e ho w\nefficientl y organisms ac quire ener gy, use it, and ho w much r emains f or use b y other or ganisms o f the f ood w eb.\nEner gy is ac quired b y living things in tw o ways: aut otrophs harnes s light or chemical ener gy and het erotrophs\nacquire ener gy thr ough the c onsump tion and dig estion o f other living or pr eviousl y living or ganisms .\nPhot osynthetic and chemos ynthetic or ganisms ar eautotrophs , which ar e organisms capable o f synthesizing their\nown f ood (mor e specifical ly, capable o f using inor ganic carbon as a carbon sour ce). Phot osynthetic aut otrophs\n(photoaut otrophs ) use sunlight as an ener gy sour ce, and chemos ynthetic aut otrophs ( chemoaut otrophs ) use\ninorganic molecules as an ener gy sour ce. Aut otrophs ar e critical f or mos t ecosystems: the y are the pr oduc er tr ophic\nlevel. Without these or ganisms , ener gy would not be a vailable t o other living or ganisms , and lif e itself w ould not be\npossible .\nPhot oaut otrophs , such as plants , alg ae, and phot osynthetic bact eria, are the ener gy sour ce for a majority o f the\nworld\u2019 s ecosystems . These ec osystems ar e often described b y grazing and detrital f ood w ebs. Phot oaut otrophs\nharnes s the Sun \u2019s solar ener gy by converting it t o chemical ener gy in the f orm o f ATP (and NADP). The ener gy stored\nin ATP is used t o synthesiz e comple x organic molecules , such as gluc ose. The r ate at which phot osynthetic\nproduc ers inc orpor ate ener gy from the Sun is cal ledgross primar y pr oductivity . Ho wever, not al l of the ener gy\nincorpor ated b y produc ers is a vailable t o the other or ganisms in the f ood w eb because pr oduc ers mus t also gr ow\nand r eproduc e, which c onsumes ener gy.Net primar y pr oductivity is the ener gy that r emains in the pr oduc ers aft er\naccounting f or these or ganisms\u2019 r espir ation and heat los s. The net pr oductivity is then a vailable t o the primar y\nconsumers at the ne xt tr ophic le vel.\nChemoaut otrophs ar e primaril y bact eria and ar chaea that ar e found in r are ec osystems wher e sunlight is not\navailable , such as those as sociat ed with dark ca ves or h ydrothermal v ents at the bot tom o f the oc ean ( Figure 20.7 ).\nMan y chemoaut otrophs in h ydrothermal v ents use h ydrogen sulfide (H 2S), which is r eleased fr om the v ents as a\nsour ce of chemical ener gy; this al lows them t o synthesiz e comple x organic molecules , such as gluc ose, for their o wn\nener gy and, in turn, supplies ener gy to the r est of the ec osystem.\nFIGURE 20.7 Swimming shrimp , a few squat lobs ters, and hundr eds o f vent mus sels ar e seen at a h ydrothermal v ent at the bot tom o f the\nocean.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3273, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d1964238-7084-47a1-a582-756b009c30ec": {"__data__": {"id_": "d1964238-7084-47a1-a582-756b009c30ec", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "545", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e6225475-9abf-45a8-9541-943b1bf24b14", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "545", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3edeb75fcdb02cd984cc084df0f4d4fc69f4ca978b91a71286df47704e6b56ce", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "89c37061-bad0-4500-8375-4e2749bb6577", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "545", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cc882e24f31e0546c451bc2b40f31a2c747923fc3a6fe8108f8b2f8a7c013c2e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Man y chemoaut otrophs in h ydrothermal v ents use h ydrogen sulfide (H 2S), which is r eleased fr om the v ents as a\nsour ce of chemical ener gy; this al lows them t o synthesiz e comple x organic molecules , such as gluc ose, for their o wn\nener gy and, in turn, supplies ener gy to the r est of the ec osystem.\nFIGURE 20.7 Swimming shrimp , a few squat lobs ters, and hundr eds o f vent mus sels ar e seen at a h ydrothermal v ent at the bot tom o f the\nocean. As no sunlight penetr ates to this dep th, the ec osystem is suppor ted b y chemoaut otrophic bact eria and or ganic mat erial that sink s\nfrom the oc ean\u2019s sur face. This pictur e was tak en in 2006 at the submer ged NW Eifuk u volcano o ff the c oast of Japan b y the National\nOceanic and A tmospheric Adminis tration (NO AA). The summit o f this highl y activ e volcano lies 1535 m belo w the sur face.20.1 \u2022 W aterford's Ener gy Flo w thr ough E cosystems 531", "start_char_idx": 2810, "end_char_idx": 3737, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5e0156a6-f103-4d2e-bb9b-010f743bf12a": {"__data__": {"id_": "5e0156a6-f103-4d2e-bb9b-010f743bf12a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "546", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "da8ae125-0d33-4ec6-adc9-2ff738edf747", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "546", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9e58fc8f27d7c382f4d38be87eaa43fab197eb106b492c4dccab5aeb31a7c3c4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Consequenc es of Food W ebs: Biologic al Magnific ation\nOne o f the mos t impor tant c onsequenc es o f ecosystem dynamics in t erms o f human impact is biomagnification.\nBiomagnifica tion is the incr easing c oncentr ation o f persis tent, t oxic subs tanc es in or ganisms at each suc cessive\ntrophic le vel. These ar e subs tanc es that ar e fat soluble , not w ater soluble , and ar e stored in the fat r eser ves o f each\norganism. Man y subs tanc es ha ve been sho wn t o biomagnif y, including clas sical s tudies with the pes ticide\ndichlor odiphen yltrichlor oethane (DD T), which w ere described in the 1960s bes tseller,Silent Spring by Rachel\nCarson. DD T was a c ommonl y used pes ticide bef ore its dang ers t o ape x consumers , such as the bald eagle , became\nknown. In aquatic ec osystems , organisms fr om each tr ophic le vel consumed man y organisms in the lo wer le vel,\nwhich caused DD T to incr ease in bir ds (ape x consumers) that at e fish. Thus , the bir ds ac cumulat ed sufficient\namounts o f DD T to cause fr agility in their eg gshel ls. This eff ect incr eased eg g breakage during nes ting and w as\nshown t o ha ve de vastating eff ects on these bir d populations . The use o f DD T was banned in the Unit ed Stat es in the\n1970s .\nOther subs tanc es that biomagnif y are pol ychlorinat ed biphen yls (PCB), which w ere used as c oolant liquids in the\nUnit ed Stat es until their use w as banned in 1979, and hea vy metals , such as mer cury, lead, and cadmium. These\nsubs tanc es ar e bes t studied in aquatic ec osystems , wher e predat ory fish species ac cumulat e very high\nconcentr ations o f toxic subs tanc es that ar e at quit e low concentr ations in the en vironment and in pr oduc ers. As\nillustrated in a s tudy per formed b y the NO AA in the Sagina w Ba y of Lake Hur on o f the Nor th American Gr eat L akes\n(Figure 20.8 ), PCB c oncentr ations incr eased fr om the pr oduc ers o f the ec osystem (ph ytoplank ton) thr ough the\ndifferent tr ophic le vels o f fish species . The ape x consumer , the w alleye, has mor e than f our times the amount o f\nPCBs c ompar ed to ph ytoplank ton. Also , based on r esul ts from other s tudies , birds that eat these fish ma y ha ve PCB\nlevels at leas t one or der o f magnitude higher than those f ound in the lak e fish.\nFIGURE 20.8 This char t sho ws the PCB c oncentr ations f ound at the v arious tr ophic le vels in the Sagina w Ba y ec osystem o f Lake Hur on.\nNotic e that the fish in the higher tr ophic le vels ac cumulat e mor e PCBs than those in lo wer tr ophic le vels. (credit: P atricia V an Hoo f, NO AA)\nOther c oncerns ha ve been r aised b y the biomagnification o f hea vy metals , such as mer cury and cadmium, in c ertain\ntypes o f seaf ood. The Unit ed Stat es En vironmental P rotection Ag ency r ecommends that pr egnant people and y oung\nchildr en should not c onsume an y swordfish, shark, king mack erel, or tilefish because o f their high mer cury content.\nThese individuals ar e advised t o eat fish lo w in mer cury: salmon, shrimp , pol lock, and cat fish. Biomagnification is a\ngood e xample o f how ec osystem dynamics can aff ect our e veryday lives, even influencing the f ood w e eat.532 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3282, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "abe8e682-4bd2-4271-8db6-f35b884a55be": {"__data__": {"id_": "abe8e682-4bd2-4271-8db6-f35b884a55be", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "547", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ad177d28-fe6e-4038-8dd5-41247f4166b6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "547", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6b7051e24d56af0427d6f1d567c8ee47fe08ea2ad8a6628fb48995398c076ee8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "2845fff9-e659-4385-a47f-05f78354dc30", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "d15148774267329c1a26bd00858134d543bd5e9f93d111bca57297dc414d1728", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "20.2 Biogeochemic al Cycles\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Discus s the biog eochemical cy cles o f water, carbon, nitr ogen, phosphorus , and sulfur\n\u2022Explain ho w human activities ha ve impact ed these cy cles and the r esul ting pot ential c onsequenc es for\nEarth\nEner gy flo ws dir ectional ly thr ough ec osystems , ent ering as sunlight (or inor ganic molecules f or chemoaut otrophs)\nand lea ving as heat during the tr ansfers betw een tr ophic le vels. Rather than flo wing thr ough an ec osystem, the\nmatter that mak es up living or ganisms is c onser ved and r ecycled. The six mos t common elements as sociat ed with\norganic molecules \u2014carbon, nitr ogen, h ydrogen, o xygen, phosphorus , and sulfur \u2014tak e a v ariety o f chemical f orms\nand ma y exist for long periods in the atmospher e, on land, in w ater, or beneath Ear th\u2019s sur face. Geologic pr ocesses,\nsuch as w eathering , erosion, w ater dr ainag e, and the subduction o f the c ontinental plat es, all pla y a r ole in the\ncycling o f elements on Ear th. Because g eolog y and chemis try ha ve major r oles in the s tudy o f this pr ocess, the\nrecycling o f inor ganic mat ter betw een living or ganisms and their nonliving en vironment is cal led a biog eochemical\ncycle.\nWater, which c ontains h ydrogen and o xygen, is es sential t o all living pr ocesses. The hydrospher eis the ar ea o f Ear th\nwher e water mo vement and s torage oc curs: as liquid w ater on the sur face (riv ers, lak es, oceans) and beneath the\nsurface (groundw ater) or ic e, (polar ic e caps and glaciers), and as w ater vapor in the atmospher e. Carbon is f ound in\nall organic macr omolecules and is an impor tant c onstituent o f fossil fuels . Nitr ogen is a major c omponent o f our\nnucleic acids and pr oteins and is critical t o human agricul ture. Phosphorus , a major c omponent o f nucleic acids , is\none o f the main ingr edients (along with nitr ogen) in ar tificial f ertilizers used in agricul ture, which has en vironmental\nimpacts on our sur face water. Sulfur , critical t o the thr ee-dimensional f olding o f proteins (as in disulfide binding ), is\nreleased int o the atmospher e by the burning o f fossil fuels .\nThe cy cling o f these elements is int erconnect ed. F or example , the mo vement o f water is critical f or the leaching o f\nnitrogen and phosphat e int o riv ers, lak es, and oc eans . The oc ean is also a major r eser voir for carbon. Thus , miner al\nnutrients ar e cy cled, either r apidl y or slo wly, thr ough the entir e biospher e betw een the biotic and abiotic w orld and\nfrom one living or ganism t o another .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nHead t o this websit e(http://opens tax.org/l/biog eochemical) to learn mor e about biog eochemical cy cles .\nThe W ater Cycle\nWater is es sential f or al l living pr ocesses. The human body is mor e than one -half w ater and human c ells ar e mor e\nthan 70 per cent w ater. Thus , mos t land animals need a suppl y of fresh w ater to sur vive. Of the s tores o f water on\nEarth, 97.5 per cent is sal t water (Figure 20.9 ). Of the r emaining w ater, 99 per cent is lock ed as under ground w ater or\nice.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3172, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2845fff9-e659-4385-a47f-05f78354dc30": {"__data__": {"id_": "2845fff9-e659-4385-a47f-05f78354dc30", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "547", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ad177d28-fe6e-4038-8dd5-41247f4166b6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "547", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6b7051e24d56af0427d6f1d567c8ee47fe08ea2ad8a6628fb48995398c076ee8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "abe8e682-4bd2-4271-8db6-f35b884a55be", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "547", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "314732317f6c262c07a00e3df01b9095b5291d3de044b1ab77cac87c8fc26ad7", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "LINK T O LE ARNING\nHead t o this websit e(http://opens tax.org/l/biog eochemical) to learn mor e about biog eochemical cy cles .\nThe W ater Cycle\nWater is es sential f or al l living pr ocesses. The human body is mor e than one -half w ater and human c ells ar e mor e\nthan 70 per cent w ater. Thus , mos t land animals need a suppl y of fresh w ater to sur vive. Of the s tores o f water on\nEarth, 97.5 per cent is sal t water (Figure 20.9 ). Of the r emaining w ater, 99 per cent is lock ed as under ground w ater or\nice. Thus , les s than one per cent o f fresh w ater is pr esent in lak es and riv ers. Man y living things ar e dependent on\nthis smal l amount o f sur face fresh w ater suppl y, a lack o f which can ha ve impor tant eff ects on ec osystem dynamics .\nHumans , of course , have de veloped t echnologies t o incr ease w ater availability , such as dig ging w ells to har vest\ngroundw ater, storing r ainwater, and using desalination t o ob tain drink able w ater fr om the oc ean. Al though this\npursuit o f drink able w ater has been ong oing thr oughout human his tory, the suppl y of fresh w ater continues t o be a\nmajor is sue in modern times .\n20.2 \u2022 Biogeochemic al Cycles 533", "start_char_idx": 2649, "end_char_idx": 3850, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2cd3d77a-7a9b-4dbb-8abb-a2e62f294c09": {"__data__": {"id_": "2cd3d77a-7a9b-4dbb-8abb-a2e62f294c09", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "548", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8821f0ec-8cad-492d-b92f-7cfb1d05fe54", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "548", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3cf31d443084450c46d89078e8caff5f2e5d7db7c076bc08ee92a182a389b286", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "5caa083f-0947-49fb-9f97-9c68d8822a50", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "42b7d8f1ef3025d3be8cd6cd861762ef915e5180d2658e4d30bfa177d7cf989e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 20.9 Only 2.5 per cent o f water on Ear th is fr esh w ater, and les s than 1 per cent o f fresh w ater is easil y accessible t o living things .\nThe v arious pr ocesses that oc cur during the cy cling o f water ar e illustrated in Figure 20.10 . The pr ocesses include\nthe f ollowing:\n\u2022evapor ation and sublimation\n\u2022condensation and pr ecipitation\n\u2022subsur face water flo w\n\u2022surface runo ff and sno wmel t\n\u2022streamflo w\nThe w ater cy cle is driv en b y the Sun \u2019s ener gy as it w arms the oc eans and other sur face waters. This leads t o\nevapor ation (w ater to water vapor) o f liquid sur face water and sublimation (ic e to water vapor) o f frozen w ater, thus\nmoving lar ge amounts o f water int o the atmospher e as w ater vapor . Over time , this w ater vapor c ondenses int o\nclouds as liquid or fr ozen dr oplets and e ventual ly leads t o precipitation (r ain or sno w), which r eturns w ater to Ear th\u2019s\nsurface. Rain r eaching Ear th\u2019s sur face ma y evapor ate ag ain, flo w over the sur face, or per colate int o the gr ound. Mos t\neasil y obser ved is sur face runo ff: the flo w of fresh w ater either fr om r ain or mel ting ic e. Runo ff can mak e its w ay\nthrough s treams and lak es to the oc eans or flo w dir ectly to the oc eans themsel ves.\nIn mos t natur al terrestrial en vironments r ain enc ount ers v egetation bef ore it r eaches the soil sur face. A significant\npercentag e of water evapor ates immediat ely from the sur faces o f plants . What is left r eaches the soil and begins t o\nmove do wn. Sur face runo ff wil l occur onl y if the soil bec omes satur ated with w ater in a hea vy rainfal l. Mos t water in\nthe soil wil l be tak en up b y plant r oots . The plant wil l use some o f this w ater for its o wn metabolism, and some o f\nthat wil l find its w ay int o animals that eat the plants , but much o f it wil l be los t back t o the atmospher e thr ough a\nprocess kno wn as e vapotr anspir ation. W ater ent ers the v ascular s ystem o f the plant thr ough the r oots and\nevapor ates, or tr anspir es, thr ough the s tomata o f the lea ves. Water in the soil that is not tak en up b y a plant and that\ndoes not e vapor ate is able t o per colate int o the subsoil and bedr ock. Her e it f orms gr oundw ater.\nGroundw ater is a significant r eser voir o f fresh w ater. It e xists in the por es betw een par ticles in sand and gr avel, or in\nthe fis sures in r ocks. Shal low gr oundw ater flo ws slo wly thr ough these por es and fis sures and e ventual ly finds its\nway to a s tream or lak e wher e it bec omes a par t of the sur face water ag ain. Str eams do not flo w because the y are\nreplenished fr om r ainwater dir ectly; the y flo w because ther e is a c onstant inflo w from gr oundw ater belo w. Some\ngroundw ater is f ound v ery deep in the bedr ock and can persis t ther e for mil lennia . Mos t groundw ater reser voirs, or\naquif ers, are the sour ce of drinking or irrig ation w ater dr awn up thr ough w ells. In man y cases these aquif ers ar e\nbeing deplet ed fas ter than the y are being r eplenished b y water per colating do wn fr om abo ve.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3110, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5caa083f-0947-49fb-9f97-9c68d8822a50": {"__data__": {"id_": "5caa083f-0947-49fb-9f97-9c68d8822a50", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "548", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8821f0ec-8cad-492d-b92f-7cfb1d05fe54", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "548", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3cf31d443084450c46d89078e8caff5f2e5d7db7c076bc08ee92a182a389b286", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "2cd3d77a-7a9b-4dbb-8abb-a2e62f294c09", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "548", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "57d8944dcc7a1dc8f89f56591ee09cd58b39ad6d1554b54165f4ca9f20714e9a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Str eams do not flo w because the y are\nreplenished fr om r ainwater dir ectly; the y flo w because ther e is a c onstant inflo w from gr oundw ater belo w. Some\ngroundw ater is f ound v ery deep in the bedr ock and can persis t ther e for mil lennia . Mos t groundw ater reser voirs, or\naquif ers, are the sour ce of drinking or irrig ation w ater dr awn up thr ough w ells. In man y cases these aquif ers ar e\nbeing deplet ed fas ter than the y are being r eplenished b y water per colating do wn fr om abo ve.\nRain and sur face runo ff ar e major w ays in which miner als, including carbon, nitr ogen, phosphorus , and sulfur , are\ncycled fr om land t o water. The en vironmental eff ects o f runo ff wil l be discus sed lat er as these cy cles ar e described.534 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2598, "end_char_idx": 3434, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "06a0ef03-e289-44e3-8434-47a6b4fca972": {"__data__": {"id_": "06a0ef03-e289-44e3-8434-47a6b4fca972", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "549", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3af44ce3-bc9f-4ba7-acba-ff5a54e7e133", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "549", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "44c79b6b7cf6ec20c0c65f7ca63908f813d9a8ea06548e380b32ce31a5886ec4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 20.10 Water fr om the land and oc eans ent ers the atmospher e by evapor ation or sublimation, wher e it c ondenses int o clouds and\nfalls as r ain or sno w. Precipitat ed w ater ma y ent er fr eshwater bodies or infil trate the soil . The cy cle is c omplet e when sur face or\ngroundw ater reent ers the oc ean. (cr edit: modification o f work b y John M. Ev ans and Ho ward Perlman, USGS)\nThe C arbon C ycle\nCarbon is the f ourth mos t abundant element in living or ganisms . Carbon is pr esent in al l organic molecules , and its\nrole in the s tructur e of macr omolecules is o f primar y impor tanc e to living or ganisms . Carbon c ompounds c ontain\nener gy, and man y of these c ompounds fr om plants and alg ae ha ve remained s tored as f ossilized carbon, which\nhumans use as fuel . Sinc e the 1800s , the use o f fossil fuels has ac celerated. As global demand f or Ear th\u2019s limit ed\nfossil fuel supplies has risen sinc e the beginning o f the Indus trial R evolution, the amount o f carbon dio xide in our\natmospher e has incr eased as the fuels ar e burned. This incr ease in carbon dio xide has been as sociat ed with climat e\nchang e and is a major en vironmental c oncern w orldwide .\nThe carbon cy cle is mos t easil y studied as tw o int erconnect ed subcy cles: one dealing with r apid carbon e xchang e\namong living or ganisms and the other dealing with the long-t erm cy cling o f carbon thr ough g eologic pr ocesses. The\nentir e carbon cy cle is sho wn in Figure 20.11 .20.2 \u2022 Biogeochemic al Cycles 535", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1531, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "356f8bcf-8ad2-4761-aee3-9b1a2cf32247": {"__data__": {"id_": "356f8bcf-8ad2-4761-aee3-9b1a2cf32247", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "550", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e71880a0-ebe1-4c8d-897b-823f8bc6e059", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "550", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cd6f63dca522849c3d97d9b601f334c11b26695f5f4ce91ae4fbca0274afd51d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 20.11 Carbon dio xide g as e xists in the atmospher e and is dis solved in w ater. Phot osynthesis c onverts carbon dio xide g as to\norganic carbon, and r espir ation cy cles the or ganic carbon back int o carbon dio xide g as. Long-t erm s torage of organic carbon oc curs when\nmatter fr om living or ganisms is buried deep under ground and bec omes f ossilized. V olcanic activity and, mor e recently, human emis sions\nbring this s tored carbon back int o the carbon cy cle. (credit: modification o f work b y John M. Ev ans and Ho ward Perlman, USGS)\nThe Biologic al Carbon C ycle\nLiving or ganisms ar e connect ed in man y ways, even betw een ec osystems . A g ood e xample o f this c onnection is the\nexchang e of carbon betw een het erotrophs and aut otrophs within and betw een ec osystems b y way of atmospheric\ncarbon dio xide . Carbon dio xide is the basic building block that aut otrophs use t o build mul ti-carbon, high-ener gy\ncompounds , such as gluc ose. The ener gy harnes sed fr om the Sun is used b y these or ganisms t o form the c ovalent\nbonds that link carbon at oms t ogether . These chemical bonds s tore this ener gy for lat er use in the pr ocess of\nrespir ation. Mos t terrestrial aut otrophs ob tain their carbon dio xide dir ectly from the atmospher e, while marine\nautotrophs ac quire it in the dis solved form (carbonic acid, HC O3\u2013). Ho wever the carbon dio xide is ac quired, a\nbyproduct o f fixing carbon in or ganic c ompounds is o xygen. Phot osynthetic or ganisms ar e responsible f or\nmaintaining appr oximat ely 21 per cent o f the o xygen c ontent o f the atmospher e that w e obser ve today.\nThe par tners in biological carbon e xchang e are the het erotrophs (especial ly the primar y consumers , largely\nherbiv ores). Het erotrophs ac quire the high-ener gy carbon c ompounds fr om the aut otrophs b y consuming them and\nbreaking them do wn b y respir ation t o ob tain c ellular ener gy, such as A TP. The mos t efficient type o f respir ation,\naerobic r espir ation, r equir es o xygen ob tained fr om the atmospher e or dis solved in w ater. Thus , ther e is a c onstant\nexchang e of oxygen and carbon dio xide betw een the aut otrophs (which need the carbon) and the het erotrophs\n(which need the o xygen). Aut otrophs also r espir e and c onsume the or ganic molecules the y form: using o xygen and\nreleasing carbon dio xide . The y release mor e oxygen g as as a w aste product o f phot osynthesis than the y use f or their\nown r espir ation; ther efore, ther e is e xcess available f or the r espir ation o f other aer obic or ganisms . Gas e xchang e\nthrough the atmospher e and w ater is one w ay that the carbon cy cle c onnects al l living or ganisms on Ear th.\nThe Biogeochemic al Carbon C ycle\nThe mo vement o f carbon thr ough land, w ater, and air is c omple x, and, in man y cases , it oc curs much mor e slo wly\ngeological ly than the mo vement betw een living or ganisms . Carbon is s tored for long periods in what ar e kno wn as\ncarbon r eser voirs, which include the atmospher e, bodies o f liquid w ater (mos tly oc eans), oc ean sediment, soil ,\nrocks (including f ossil fuels), and Ear th\u2019s int erior .\nAs s tated, the atmospher e is a major r eser voir o f carbon in the f orm o f carbon dio xide that is es sential t o the536 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3372, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7cf567fa-2055-49e7-807e-d074cfcdf00d": {"__data__": {"id_": "7cf567fa-2055-49e7-807e-d074cfcdf00d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "551", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "32dec24d-f9ec-4f84-8abc-131914459f30", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "551", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "16cb2fdad22c0e3dc683755c8d202d2dad26dce9db79ef129d1bfe5d630b76ca", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "c81c03b1-d466-4c72-a104-70e011a6efd9", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "a23a29340cf0b8521c823a1b0893bf2acac87e9ddd693e16df9bd9646574c291", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "process of phot osynthesis . The le vel of carbon dio xide in the atmospher e is gr eatly influenc ed b y the r eser voir o f\ncarbon in the oc eans . The e xchang e of carbon betw een the atmospher e and w ater reser voirs influenc es ho w much\ncarbon is f ound in each, and each one aff ects the other r ecipr ocal ly. Carbon dio xide (C O2) from the atmospher e\ndissolves in w ater and, unlik e oxygen and nitr ogen g as, reacts with w ater molecules t o form ionic c ompounds . Some\nof these ions c ombine with calcium ions in the sea water to form calcium carbonat e (CaC O3), a major c omponent o f\nthe shel ls of marine or ganisms . These or ganisms e ventual ly form sediments on the oc ean floor . Over geologic time ,\nthe calcium carbonat e forms limes tone, which c omprises the lar gest carbon r eser voir on Ear th.\nOn land, carbon is s tored in soil as or ganic carbon as a r esul t of the dec omposition o f living or ganisms or fr om\nweathering o f terrestrial r ock and miner als. Deeper under the gr ound, at land and at sea , are fossil fuels , the\nanaer obical ly dec omposed r emains o f plants that tak e mil lions o f years t o form. F ossil fuels ar e consider ed a non-\nrenewable r esour ce because their use far e xceeds their r ate of formation. A non-r enewable r esour ceis either\nregener ated v ery slo wly or not at al l. Another w ay for carbon t o ent er the atmospher e is fr om land (including land\nbeneath the sur face of the oc ean) b y the erup tion o f volcanoes and other g eothermal s ystems . Carbon sediments\nfrom the oc ean floor ar e tak en deep within Ear th by the pr ocess ofsubduction : the mo vement o f one t ectonic plat e\nbeneath another . Carbon is r eleased as carbon dio xide when a v olcano erup ts or fr om v olcanic h ydrothermal v ents .\nCarbon dio xide is also added t o the atmospher e by the animal husbandr y practic es o f humans . The lar ge number o f\nland animals r aised t o feed Ear th\u2019s growing human population r esul ts in incr eased carbon-dio xide le vels in the\natmospher e caused b y their r espir ation. This is another e xample o f how human activity indir ectly aff ects\nbiog eochemical cy cles in a significant w ay. Although much o f the debat e about the futur e eff ects o f incr easing\natmospheric carbon on climat e chang e focuses on f ossils fuels , scientis ts tak e natur al pr ocesses, such as\nvolcanoes , plant gr owth, soil carbon le vels, and r espir ation, int o ac count as the y model and pr edict the futur e\nimpact o f this incr ease .\nThe Nitr ogen C ycle\nGetting nitr ogen int o the living w orld is difficul t. Plants and ph ytoplank ton ar e not equipped t o inc orpor ate nitr ogen\nfrom the atmospher e (which e xists as tightl y bonded, triple c ovalent N 2) even though this molecule c omprises\nappr oximat ely 78 per cent o f the atmospher e. Nitr ogen ent ers the living w orld via fr ee-living and s ymbiotic bact eria,\nwhich inc orpor ate nitr ogen int o their macr omolecules thr ough nitr ogen fixation (c onversion o f N2). Cy anobact eria\nlive in mos t aquatic ec osystems wher e sunlight is pr esent; the y pla y a k ey role in nitr ogen fixation.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3161, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c81c03b1-d466-4c72-a104-70e011a6efd9": {"__data__": {"id_": "c81c03b1-d466-4c72-a104-70e011a6efd9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "551", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "32dec24d-f9ec-4f84-8abc-131914459f30", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "551", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "16cb2fdad22c0e3dc683755c8d202d2dad26dce9db79ef129d1bfe5d630b76ca", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "7cf567fa-2055-49e7-807e-d074cfcdf00d", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "551", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "728f14da06d4ea7afad018255f6883b8288e35e7202ab2b562a1e87d05576e81", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The Nitr ogen C ycle\nGetting nitr ogen int o the living w orld is difficul t. Plants and ph ytoplank ton ar e not equipped t o inc orpor ate nitr ogen\nfrom the atmospher e (which e xists as tightl y bonded, triple c ovalent N 2) even though this molecule c omprises\nappr oximat ely 78 per cent o f the atmospher e. Nitr ogen ent ers the living w orld via fr ee-living and s ymbiotic bact eria,\nwhich inc orpor ate nitr ogen int o their macr omolecules thr ough nitr ogen fixation (c onversion o f N2). Cy anobact eria\nlive in mos t aquatic ec osystems wher e sunlight is pr esent; the y pla y a k ey role in nitr ogen fixation. Cy anobact eria\nare able t o use inor ganic sour ces o f nitr ogen to \u201cfix\u201d nitr ogen.Rhiz obium bact eria liv e symbiotical ly in the r oot\nnodules o f leg umes (such as peas , beans , and peanuts) and pr ovide them with the or ganic nitr ogen the y need. F ree-\nliving bact eria, such as Azotobact er, are also impor tant nitr ogen fix ers.\nOrganic nitr ogen is especial ly impor tant t o the s tudy o f ecosystem dynamics sinc e man y ec osystem pr ocesses, such\nas primar y production and dec omposition, ar e limit ed b y the a vailable suppl y of nitr ogen. As sho wn in Figure 20.12 ,\nthe nitr ogen that ent ers living s ystems b y nitr ogen fixation is e ventual ly converted fr om or ganic nitr ogen back int o\nnitrogen g as b y bact eria. This pr ocess oc curs in thr ee s teps in t errestrial s ystems: ammonification, nitrification, and\ndenitrification. Firs t, the ammonification pr ocess converts nitr ogenous w aste from living animals or fr om the\nremains o f dead animals int o ammonium (NH 4+) by certain bact eria and fungi. Sec ond, this ammonium is then\nconverted to nitrit es (NO 2\u2212) by nitrif ying bact eria, such as Nitrosomonas , thr ough nitrification. Subsequentl y, nitrit es\nare converted to nitr ates (NO 3\u2212) by similar or ganisms . Lastly, the pr ocess of denitrification oc curs , wher eby bact eria,\nsuch as Pseudomonas and Clos tridium , convert the nitr ates int o nitr ogen g as, thus al lowing it t o re-ent er the\natmospher e.20.2 \u2022 Biogeochemic al Cycles 537", "start_char_idx": 2534, "end_char_idx": 4659, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "efaa1de1-3e22-4460-a986-861c056d7e8e": {"__data__": {"id_": "efaa1de1-3e22-4460-a986-861c056d7e8e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "552", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f286fa45-5e20-4192-8c87-e346810e498b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "552", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "088dec1f6c1cb19b72d1bb039394b6555f42bfc187202e5c6824e04aa6159c57", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "VISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 20.12 Nitrogen ent ers the living w orld fr om the atmospher e thr ough nitr ogen-fixing bact eria. This nitr ogen and nitr ogenous w aste\nfrom animals is then pr ocessed back int o gaseous nitr ogen b y soil bact eria, which also suppl y terrestrial f ood w ebs with the or ganic\nnitrogen the y need. (cr edit: modification o f work b y John M. Ev ans and Ho ward Perlman, USGS)\nWhich o f the f ollowing s tatements about the nitr ogen cy cle is false?\na.Ammonification c onverts or ganic nitr ogenous mat ter fr om living or ganisms int o ammonium (NH 4+).\nb.Denitrification b y bact eria c onverts nitr ates (NO 3\u2212)to nitr ogen g as (N 2).\nc.Nitrification b y bact eria c onverts nitr ates (NO 3\u2212)to nitrit es (NO 2\u2212)\nd.Nitrogen fixing bact eria c onvert nitr ogen g as (N 2) into organic c ompounds .\nHuman activity can r elease nitr ogen int o the en vironment b y tw o primar y means: the c ombus tion o f fossil fuels ,\nwhich r eleases diff erent nitr ogen o xides , and b y the use o f artificial f ertilizers (which c ontain nitr ogen and\nphosphorus c ompounds) in agricul ture, which ar e then w ashed int o lak es, streams , and riv ers b y sur face runo ff.\nAtmospheric nitr ogen (other than N 2) is as sociat ed with se veral eff ects on Ear th\u2019s ecosystems including the\nproduction o f acid r ain (as nitric acid, HNO 3) and gr eenhouse g as eff ects (as nitr ous o xide , N2O), pot ential ly causing\nclimat e chang e. A major eff ect fr om f ertilizer runo ff is sal twater and fr eshwatereutr ophica tion , a pr ocess wher eby\nnutrient runo ff causes the o vergrowth o f alg ae and a number o f consequential pr oblems .\nA similar pr ocess oc curs in the marine nitr ogen cy cle, wher e the ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification\nprocesses ar e per formed b y marine bact eria and ar chaea . Some o f this nitr ogen fal ls to the oc ean floor as sediment,\nwhich can then be mo ved to land in g eologic time b y uplift o f Ear th\u2019s sur face, and ther eby inc orpor ated int o\nterrestrial r ock. Al though the mo vement o f nitr ogen fr om r ock dir ectly int o living s ystems has been tr aditional ly seen\nas insignificant c ompar ed with nitr ogen fix ed fr om the atmospher e, a recent s tudy sho wed that this pr ocess ma y\nindeed be significant and should be included in an y study o f the global nitr ogen cy cle.1\nThe Phosphorus C ycle\nPhosphorus is an es sential nutrient f or living pr ocesses; it is a major c omponent o f nucleic acids and phospholipids ,\n1Scott L. Mor ford, Benjamin Z . Houl ton, and R andy A . Dahlgr en, \u201cIncr eased F orest Ecosystem Carbon and Nitr ogen St orage from Nitr ogen\nRich Bedr ock, \u201dNatur e477, no . 7362 (2011): 78\u201381.538 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2791, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b6ddbf4e-3ce6-421c-bb76-d7aa1d344945": {"__data__": {"id_": "b6ddbf4e-3ce6-421c-bb76-d7aa1d344945", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "553", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "21012a1e-6a6e-4217-9ac3-a1f53a80d357", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "553", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1e28c1e1525705ce35ca4ad67f0034bee9eec44656a2691e95dee15b90ed4427", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "and, as calcium phosphat e, mak es up the suppor tive components o f our bones . Phosphorus is o ften the limiting\nnutrient (nec essary for gr owth) in aquatic, par ticularl y freshwater, ecosystems .\nPhosphorus oc curs in natur e as the phosphat e ion (PO 43-). In addition t o phosphat e runo ff as a r esul t of human\nactivity , natur al sur face runo ff oc curs when it is leached fr om phosphat e-containing r ock b y weathering , thus\nsending phosphat es int o riv ers, lak es, and the oc ean. This r ock has its origins in the oc ean. Phosphat e-containing\nocean sediments f orm primaril y from the bodies o f ocean or ganisms and fr om their e xcretions . Ho wever, volcanic\nash, aer osols , and miner al dus t ma y also be significant phosphat e sour ces. This sediment then is mo ved to land\nover geologic time b y the uplifting o f Ear th\u2019s sur face. (Figure 20.13 )\nPhosphorus is also r ecipr ocal ly exchang ed betw een phosphat e dis solved in the oc ean and marine or ganisms . The\nmovement o f phosphat e from the oc ean t o the land and thr ough the soil is e xtremel y slo w, with the a verage\nphosphat e ion ha ving an oc eanic r esidenc e time betw een 20,000 and 100,000 y ears .\nFIGURE 20.13 In natur e, phosphorus e xists as the phosphat e ion (PO 43-). Weathering o f rocks and v olcanic activity r eleases phosphat e\ninto the soil , water, and air , wher e it bec omes a vailable t o terrestrial f ood w ebs. Phosphat e ent ers the oc eans in sur face runo ff,\ngroundw ater flo w, and riv er flo w. Phosphat e dis solved in oc ean w ater cy cles int o marine f ood w ebs. Some phosphat e from the marine f ood\nwebs fal ls to the oc ean floor , wher e it f orms sediment. (cr edit: modification o f work b y John M. Ev ans and Ho ward Perlman, USGS)\nExcess phosphorus and nitr ogen that ent er these ec osystems fr om f ertilizer runo ff and fr om se wage cause\nexcessive growth o f alg ae. The subsequent death and deca y of these or ganisms deplet es dis solved o xygen, which\nleads t o the death o f aquatic or ganisms , such as shel lfish and finfish. This pr ocess is r esponsible f or dead z ones in\nlakes and at the mouths o f man y major riv ers and f or mas sive fish kil ls, which o ften oc cur during the summer\nmonths (see Figure 20.14 ).20.2 \u2022 Biogeochemic al Cycles 539", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2307, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7a4f7158-e19e-43ba-b3ae-709ed700bafb": {"__data__": {"id_": "7a4f7158-e19e-43ba-b3ae-709ed700bafb", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "554", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d2e022b8-ebb0-493f-a623-cd4526e79309", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "554", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5b25a352f5e51d47765f168696e91eec988b0b1fd165bd945349ef4fa451cb3a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 20.14 Dead z ones oc cur when phosphorus and nitr ogen fr om f ertilizers cause e xcessive growth o f micr oorganisms , which deplet es\noxygen and kil ls fauna . Worldwide , large dead z ones ar e found in ar eas o f high population density . (credit: R ober t Simmon, Jes se Al len,\nNASA Ear th Obser vatory)\nAdead z one is an ar ea in lak es and oc eans near the mouths o f rivers wher e lar ge areas ar e periodical ly deplet ed o f\ntheir normal flor a and fauna; these z ones can be caused b y eutr ophication, oil spil ls, dumping t oxic chemicals , and\nother human activities . The number o f dead z ones has incr eased f or se veral years , and mor e than 400 o f these\nzones w ere present as o f 2008. One o f the w orst dead z ones is o ff the c oast of the Unit ed Stat es in the Gulf o f\nMexico: fertilizer runo ff from the Mis sissippi Riv er basin cr eated a dead z one o f over 8,463 squar e miles . Phosphat e\nand nitr ate runo ff from f ertilizers also neg atively aff ect se veral lak e and ba y ec osystems including the Chesapeak e\nBay in the eas tern Unit ed Stat es.540 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1167, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "872b4274-bc67-4bce-a657-af4ea7446a43": {"__data__": {"id_": "872b4274-bc67-4bce-a657-af4ea7446a43", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "555", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "235a5d40-e20d-4422-bbdf-44d7e8a15f6d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "555", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d27f5da82a2b9c0383d66db6530f2870e12fac7fdb4a73a6cf72f6995d465461", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "70e4e826-c6d4-4cbf-b9f2-e5d0ae7ea831", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "5f0a64bab789c55d250f8cf518e89fc85a9e15f1e146467d9b6a525caa571247", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "CAREER C ONNE CTION\nChesapeak e Ba y\nFIGURE 20.15 This (a) sat ellite imag e sho ws the Chesapeak e Ba y, an ec osystem aff ected b y phosphat e and nitr ate runo ff. A (b) member o f\nthe Arm y Corps o f Engineers holds a clump o f oysters being used as a par t of the o yster restoration eff ort in the ba y. (credit a: modification\nof work b y NASA/MODIS; cr edit b: modification o f work b y U.S. Arm y)\nThe Chesapeak e Ba y (Figure 20.15 a) is one o f the mos t scenic ar eas on Ear th; it is no w in dis tress and is r ecogniz ed\nas a case s tudy o f a declining ec osystem. In the 1970s , the Chesapeak e Ba y was one o f the firs t aquatic ec osystems\nto ha ve identified dead z ones , which c ontinue t o kil l man y fish and bot tom-dw elling species such as clams , oysters,\nand w orms . Several species ha ve declined in the Chesapeak e Ba y because sur face water runo ff contains e xcess\nnutrients fr om ar tificial f ertilizer use on land. The sour ce of the f ertilizers (with high nitr ogen and phosphat e content)\nis not limit ed to agricul tural pr actic es. Ther e are man y nearb y urban ar eas and mor e than 150 riv ers and s treams\nemp ty int o the ba y that ar e carr ying f ertilizer runo ff from la wns and g ardens . Thus , the decline o f the Chesapeak e\nBay is a c omple x issue and r equir es the c ooper ation o f indus try, agricul ture, and individual homeo wners .\nOf par ticular int erest to conser vationis ts is the o yster population ( Figure 20.15 b); it is es timat ed that mor e than\n200,000 acr es o f oyster reefs e xisted in the ba y in the 1700s , but that number has no w declined t o onl y 36,000\nacres. Oyster har vesting w as onc e a major indus try for Chesapeak e Ba y, but it declined 88 per cent betw een 1982\nand 2007. This decline w as caused not onl y by fertilizer runo ff and dead z ones , but also because o f overhar vesting.\nOysters r equir e a c ertain minimum population density because the y mus t be in close pr oximity t o reproduc e.\nHuman activity has al tered the o yster population and locations , thus gr eatly disrup ting the ec osystem.\nThe r estoration o f the o yster population in the Chesapeak e Ba y has been ong oing f or se veral years with mix ed\nsuccess. Not onl y do man y people find o ysters g ood t o eat, but the o ysters also clean up the ba y. The y are filter\nfeeders , and as the y eat, the y clean the w ater ar ound them. Fil ter feeders eat b y pumping a c ontinuous s tream o f\nwater over finel y divided appendag es (gills in the case o f oysters) and cap turing pr okaryotes, plank ton, and fine\norganic par ticles in their mucus . In the 1700s , it w as es timat ed that it t ook onl y a f ew da ys for the o yster population\nto filter the entir e volume o f the ba y. Today, with the chang ed w ater conditions , it is es timat ed that the pr esent\npopulation w ould tak e nearl y a y ear t o do the same job .\nRestoration eff orts ha ve been ong oing f or se veral years b y non-pr ofit or ganizations such as the Chesapeak e Ba y\nFoundation.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3042, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "70e4e826-c6d4-4cbf-b9f2-e5d0ae7ea831": {"__data__": {"id_": "70e4e826-c6d4-4cbf-b9f2-e5d0ae7ea831", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "555", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "235a5d40-e20d-4422-bbdf-44d7e8a15f6d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "555", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d27f5da82a2b9c0383d66db6530f2870e12fac7fdb4a73a6cf72f6995d465461", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "872b4274-bc67-4bce-a657-af4ea7446a43", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "555", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "955a47f3dec3680b00daeeda9941e6596a2b90d0c7dec8fa85177941e5faf96b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Fil ter feeders eat b y pumping a c ontinuous s tream o f\nwater over finel y divided appendag es (gills in the case o f oysters) and cap turing pr okaryotes, plank ton, and fine\norganic par ticles in their mucus . In the 1700s , it w as es timat ed that it t ook onl y a f ew da ys for the o yster population\nto filter the entir e volume o f the ba y. Today, with the chang ed w ater conditions , it is es timat ed that the pr esent\npopulation w ould tak e nearl y a y ear t o do the same job .\nRestoration eff orts ha ve been ong oing f or se veral years b y non-pr ofit or ganizations such as the Chesapeak e Ba y\nFoundation. The r estoration g oal is t o find a w ay to incr ease population density so the o ysters can r eproduc e mor e\nefficientl y. Man y disease -resistant v arieties (de veloped at the Vir ginia Ins titut e of Marine Scienc e for the Col lege of\n20.2 \u2022 Biogeochemic al Cycles 541", "start_char_idx": 2415, "end_char_idx": 3318, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7a85fc53-82a1-4a71-aaee-38d0b996f47c": {"__data__": {"id_": "7a85fc53-82a1-4a71-aaee-38d0b996f47c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "556", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6e29499f-9365-4d08-a931-0260844801b1", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "556", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "30adf5037d807be728bce462b3e0fea91c1c6f2a19e339f35d1800e21d6d7e50", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "William and Mar y) ar e no w available and ha ve been used in the c onstruction o f experimental o yster reefs . Efforts by\nVirginia and Dela ware to clean and r estore the ba y ha ve been hamper ed because much o f the pol lution ent ering the\nbay comes fr om other s tates, which emphasiz es the need f or int erstate cooper ation t o gain suc cessful restoration.\nThe ne w, hear ty oyster strains ha ve also spa wned a ne w and ec onomical ly viable indus try\u2014oyster\naquacul ture\u2014which not onl y supplies o ysters f or food and pr ofit, but also has the added benefit o f cleaning the ba y.\nThe Sulfur C ycle\nSulfur is an es sential element f or the macr omolecules o f living things . As par t of the amino acid cy steine , it is\ninvolved in the f ormation o f proteins . As sho wn in Figure 20.16 , sulfur cy cles betw een the oc eans , land, and\natmospher e. Atmospheric sulfur is f ound in the f orm o f sulfur dio xide (SO 2), which ent ers the atmospher e in thr ee\nways: firs t, from the dec omposition o f organic molecules; sec ond, fr om v olcanic activity and g eothermal v ents; and,\nthird, fr om the burning o f fossil fuels b y humans .\nFIGURE 20.16 Sulfur dio xide fr om the atmospher e bec omes a vailable t o terrestrial and marine ec osystems when it is dis solved in\nprecipitation as w eak sulfur ous acid or when it fal ls dir ectly to Ear th as fal lout. W eathering o f rocks also mak es sulfat es a vailable t o\nterrestrial ec osystems . Dec omposition o f living or ganisms r eturns sulfat es to the oc ean, soil , and atmospher e. (credit: modification o f work\nby John M. Ev ans and Ho ward Perlman, USGS)\nOn land, sulfur is deposit ed in f our major w ays: pr ecipitation, dir ect fal lout fr om the atmospher e, rock w eathering ,\nand g eothermal v ents ( Figure 20.17 ). Atmospheric sulfur is f ound in the f orm o f sulfur dio xide (SO 2), and as r ain fal ls\nthrough the atmospher e, sulfur is dis solved in the f orm o f weak sulfur ous acid (H 2SO3). Sulfur can also fal l directly\nfrom the atmospher e in a pr ocess cal ledfallout . Also , as sulfur -containing r ocks weather , sulfur is r eleased int o the\nsoil. These r ocks originat e from oc ean sediments that ar e mo ved to land b y the g eologic uplifting o f ocean\nsediments . Terrestrial ec osystems can then mak e use o f these soil sulfat es (SO 42-), which ent er the f ood w eb b y\nbeing tak en up b y plant r oots . When these plants dec ompose and die , sulfur is r eleased back int o the atmospher e as\nhydrogen sulfide (H 2S) gas.542 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2608, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c9c6d67f-98fd-4ace-a69f-d207793e1e06": {"__data__": {"id_": "c9c6d67f-98fd-4ace-a69f-d207793e1e06", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "557", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f33b99ca-7f8e-4d67-a4fe-68bb5f37a1d6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "557", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b33450a81c1f2afffa098cff5eeb6faf1923a68869bdb99a5e0f8bacce3c3d8f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 20.17 At this sulfur v ent in L assen V olcanic National P ark in nor theas tern Calif ornia , the y ellowish sulfur deposits ar e visible near\nthe mouth o f the v ent. (cr edit: \u201c Calbear22\u201d/ Wikimedia Commons)\nSulfur ent ers the oc ean in runo ff from land, fr om atmospheric fal lout, and fr om under water geothermal v ents . Some\necosystems r ely on chemoaut otrophs using sulfur as a biological ener gy sour ce. This sulfur then suppor ts marine\necosystems in the f orm o f sulfat es.\nHuman activities ha ve pla yed a major r ole in al tering the balanc e of the global sulfur cy cle. The burning o f large\nquantities o f fossil fuels , especial ly from c oal, releases lar ger amounts o f hydrogen sulfide g as int o the atmospher e.\nAs rain fal ls thr ough this g as, it cr eates the phenomenon kno wn as acid r ain, which damag es the natur al\nenvironment b y lowering the pH o f lak es, thus kil ling man y of the r esident plants and animals .Acid r ainis corrosiv e\nrain caused b y rainwater fal ling t o the gr ound thr ough sulfur dio xide g as, turning it int o weak sulfuric acid, which\ncauses damag e to aquatic ec osystems . Acid r ain also aff ects the man-made en vironment thr ough the chemical\ndegr adation o f buildings . For example , man y marble monuments , such as the Linc oln Memorial in W ashingt on, DC,\nhave suff ered significant damag e from acid r ain o ver the y ears . These e xamples sho w the wide -ranging eff ects o f\nhuman activities on our en vironment and the chal leng es that r emain f or our futur e.\n20.3 Terrestrial Biomes\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Identif y the tw o major abiotic fact ors that det ermine the type o f terrestrial biome in an ar ea\n\u2022Recogniz e dis tinguishing char acteristics o f each o f the eight major t errestrial biomes\nEarth\u2019s biomes can be either t errestrial or aquatic. T errestrial biomes ar e based on land, while aquatic biomes\ninclude both oc ean and fr eshwater biomes . The eight major t errestrial biomes on Ear th ar e each dis tinguished b y\nchar acteristic temper atur es and amount o f precipitation. Annual t otals and fluctuations o f precipitation aff ect the\nkinds o f vegetation and animal lif e that can e xist in br oad g eogr aphical r egions . Temper atur e variation on a dail y and\nseasonal basis is also impor tant f or pr edicting the g eogr aphic dis tribution o f a biome . Sinc e a biome is defined b y\nclimat e, the same biome can oc cur in g eogr aphical ly dis tinct ar eas with similar climat es (Figure 20.18 ). Ther e are\nalso lar ge areas on Antar ctica , Greenland, and in mountain r anges that ar e covered b y permanent glaciers and\nsuppor t very little lif e. Strictl y speaking , these ar e not c onsider ed biomes and in addition t o extremes o f cold, the y\nare also o ften deser ts with v ery low pr ecipitation.20.3 \u2022 T errestrial Biomes 543", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2917, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3f03f544-cbb3-4282-9b79-e44c4018aa33": {"__data__": {"id_": "3f03f544-cbb3-4282-9b79-e44c4018aa33", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "558", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b9266911-d07b-4525-8797-59fa09fb69b5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "558", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a5e368e9b119d1a5eab1c3a1b74e32c7d126f2d9555fcf5a923239abfe26202f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "f4c8a0bf-a8c1-4987-8f0b-3e88f93d8323", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "b25fa5d47d100575e6a182ffceccd6900ca17b74f9bf5bb3dc5a451a57c380c3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 20.18 Each o f the w orld\u2019 s eight major biomes is dis tinguished b y char acteristic temper atur es and amount o f precipitation. P olar ic e\ncaps and mountains ar e also sho wn.\nTropical Forest\nTropical r ainf orestsare also r eferred to as tr opical w et forests. This biome is f ound in equat orial r egions ( Figure\n20.18 ). Tropical r ainforests ar e the mos t div erse t errestrial biome . This biodiv ersity is s till largely unkno wn t o\nscienc e and is under e xtraordinar y thr eat primaril y thr ough log ging and def orestation f or agricul ture. Tropical\nrainforests ha ve also been described as natur e\u2019s pharmacy because o f the pot ential f or ne w drugs that is lar gely\nhidden in the chemicals pr oduc ed b y the hug e div ersity o f plants , animals , and other or ganisms . The v egetation is\nchar acterized b y plants with spr eading r oots and br oad lea ves that fal l off thr oughout the y ear, unlik e the tr ees o f\ndeciduous f orests that lose their lea ves in one season. These f orests ar e \u201cevergreen, \u201d year-round.\nThe t emper atur e and sunlight pr ofiles o f tropical r ainforests ar e stable in c omparison t o that o f other t errestrial\nbiomes , with a verage temper atur es ranging fr om 20oC to 34oC (68oF to 93oF). Month-t o-month t emper atur es ar e\nrelativ ely constant in tr opical r ainforests, in c ontr ast to forests fur ther fr om the equat or. This lack o f temper atur e\nseasonality leads t o year-round plant gr owth, r ather than the seasonal gr owth seen in other biomes . In c ontr ast to\nother ec osystems , a mor e constant dail y amount o f sunlight (11\u201312 hours per da y) pr ovides mor e solar r adiation,\nther eby a long er period o f time f or plant gr owth.\nThe annual r ainfal l in tr opical r ainforests ranges fr om 250 cm t o mor e than 450 cm (8.2\u201314.8 ft) with c onsider able\nseasonal v ariation. T ropical r ainforests ha ve wet months in which ther e can be mor e than 30 cm (11\u201312 in) o f\nprecipitation, as w ell as dr y months in which ther e are fewer than 10 cm (3.5 in) o f rainfal l. Ho wever, the dries t\nmonth o f a tr opical r ainforest can s till exceed the annual rainfal l of some other biomes , such as deser ts.\nTropical r ainforests ha ve high net primar y productivity because the annual t emper atur es and pr ecipitation v alues\nsuppor t rapid plant gr owth ( Figure 20.19 ). Ho wever, the high r ainfal l quickl y leaches nutrients fr om the soils o f\nthese f orests, which ar e typical ly low in nutrients . Tropical r ainforests ar e char acterized b y vertical la yering o f\nvegetation and the f ormation o f dis tinct habitats f or animals within each la yer. On the f orest floor is a sparse la yer of\nplants and deca ying plant mat ter. Abo ve that is an unders tory of shor t, shrubb y foliag e. A la yer of trees rises abo ve\nthis unders tory and is t opped b y a closed upper canop y\u2014the uppermos t overhead la yer of branches and lea ves.\nSome additional tr ees emer ge thr ough this closed upper canop y. These la yers pr ovide div erse and c omple x habitats\nfor the v ariety o f plants , animals , and other or ganisms within the tr opical w et forests.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3162, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f4c8a0bf-a8c1-4987-8f0b-3e88f93d8323": {"__data__": {"id_": "f4c8a0bf-a8c1-4987-8f0b-3e88f93d8323", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "558", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b9266911-d07b-4525-8797-59fa09fb69b5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "558", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a5e368e9b119d1a5eab1c3a1b74e32c7d126f2d9555fcf5a923239abfe26202f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "3f03f544-cbb3-4282-9b79-e44c4018aa33", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "558", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "78fe189e8f49e7f38ccbc68e736693158b666d0bfb4a99bffdd85451c51d228f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Tropical r ainforests ar e char acterized b y vertical la yering o f\nvegetation and the f ormation o f dis tinct habitats f or animals within each la yer. On the f orest floor is a sparse la yer of\nplants and deca ying plant mat ter. Abo ve that is an unders tory of shor t, shrubb y foliag e. A la yer of trees rises abo ve\nthis unders tory and is t opped b y a closed upper canop y\u2014the uppermos t overhead la yer of branches and lea ves.\nSome additional tr ees emer ge thr ough this closed upper canop y. These la yers pr ovide div erse and c omple x habitats\nfor the v ariety o f plants , animals , and other or ganisms within the tr opical w et forests. Man y species o f animals use\nthe v ariety o f plants and the c omple x structur e of the tr opical w et forests for food and shel ter. Some or ganisms liv e\nseveral met ers abo ve ground r arely ever desc ending t o the f orest floor .\nRainforests ar e not the onl y forest biome in the tr opics; ther e are also tr opical dr y forests, which ar e char acterized\nby a dr y season o f varying lengths . These f orests commonl y experienc e leaf los s during the dr y season t o one\ndegr ee or another . The los s of lea ves fr om tal ler tr ees during the dr y season opens up the canop y and al lows\nsunlight t o the f orest floor that al lows the gr owth o f thick gr ound-le vel brush, which is absent in tr opical r ainforests.\nExtensiv e tropical dr y forests oc cur in Africa (including Madag ascar), India , southern Me xico, and South America .544 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2505, "end_char_idx": 4088, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bda718df-a244-47f7-86e4-c688b7eff8a1": {"__data__": {"id_": "bda718df-a244-47f7-86e4-c688b7eff8a1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "559", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6070a284-cb1e-4085-ab83-3ec779fbc509", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "559", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "67e68cf93ed474e6582f1a504c418b5ec005aa9b9c5bcaf51841bf1d92a43ea3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 20.19 Species div ersity is v ery high in tr opical w et forests, such as these f orests of Madr e de Dios , Peru, near the Amaz on Riv er.\n(credit: R oose velt Gar cia)\nSavannas\nSavannas are grasslands with scat tered tr ees, and the y are found in Africa , South America , and nor thern Aus tralia\n(Figure 20.18 ). Sa vannas ar e hot, tr opical ar eas with t emper atur es a veraging fr om 24oC\u201329oC (75oF\u201384oF) and an\nannual r ainfal l of 51\u2013127 cm (20\u201350 in). Sa vannas ha ve an e xtensiv e dry season and c onsequent fir es. As a r esul t,\nscat tered in the gr asses and f orbs (herbac eous flo wering plants) that dominat e the sa vanna , ther e are relativ ely few\ntrees ( Figure 20.20 ). Sinc e fire is an impor tant sour ce of dis turbanc e in this biome , plants ha ve evolved w ell-\ndeveloped r oot s ystems that al low them t o quickl y re-spr out aft er a fir e.\nFIGURE 20.20 Although sa vannas ar e dominat ed b y grasses, smal l woodlands , such as this one in Mount Ar cher National P ark in\nQueensland, Aus tralia, ma y dot the landscape . (credit: \"Ethel A ardvark\"/ Wikimedia Commons)\nDeser ts\nSub tropical deser tsexist betw een 15oand 30onorth and south latitude and ar e centered on the T ropic o f Canc er\nand the T ropic o f Capric orn ( Figure 20.18 ). Deser ts ar e frequentl y locat ed on the do wnwind or lee side o f mountain\nranges, which cr eate a r ain shado w aft er pr evailing winds dr op their w ater content on the mountains . This is typical\nof the Nor th American deser ts, such as the Moha ve and Sonor an deser ts. Deser ts in other r egions , such as the20.3 \u2022 T errestrial Biomes 545", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1633, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "50780472-d5aa-45fc-947c-cc2107db67eb": {"__data__": {"id_": "50780472-d5aa-45fc-947c-cc2107db67eb", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "560", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8511ae6b-af60-47c8-994b-22c68686689f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "560", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f3cd71785e8263633d74fe9e02dd81ff8f9f280bf36e4e897879e862fd94bfda", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "947ada64-f2a2-43c9-a595-5b319953d0d4", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "aea59ae1e4d0f5f9d5f8fe9ebd7f9efb2c8ad3ac71ca44b6f36b97db35dc86ac", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Sahar a Deser t in nor thern Africa or the Namib Deser t in south western Africa ar e dry because o f the high-pr essure,\ndry air desc ending at those latitudes . Sub tropical deser ts ar e very dry; evapor ation typical ly exceeds pr ecipitation.\nSubtropical hot deser ts can ha ve da ytime soil sur face temper atur es abo ve 60oC (140oF) and night time\ntemper atur es appr oaching 0oC (32oF). The t emper atur e drops so far because ther e is lit tle w ater vapor in the air t o\nprevent r adiativ e cooling o f the land sur face. Sub tropical deser ts ar e char acterized b y low annual pr ecipitation o f\nfewer than 30 cm (12 in) with lit tle monthl y variation and lack o f predictability in r ainfal l. Some y ears ma y receive\ntiny amounts o f rainfal l, while others r eceive mor e. In some cases , the annual r ainfal l can be as lo w as 2 cm (0.8 in)\nin sub tropical deser ts locat ed in c entr al Aus tralia (\u201c the Outback \u201d) and nor thern Africa .\nThe lo w species div ersity o f this biome is closel y related to its lo w and unpr edictable pr ecipitation. Despit e the\nrelativ ely low div ersity , deser t species e xhibit fascinating adap tations t o the harshnes s of their en vironment. V ery\ndry deser ts lack per ennial v egetation that liv es fr om one y ear t o the ne xt; ins tead, man y plants ar e annuals that\ngrow quickl y and r eproduc e when r ainfal l does oc cur, then the y die . Perennial plants in deser ts ar e char acterized b y\nadap tations that c onser ve water: deep r oots , reduc ed foliag e, and w ater-storing s tems ( Figure 20.21 ). Seed plants\nin the deser t produc e seeds that can lie dormant f or extended periods betw een r ains . Mos t animal lif e in sub tropical\ndeser ts has adap ted to a nocturnal lif e, spending the hot da ytime hours beneath the gr ound. The Namib Deser t is\nthe oldes t on the planet, and has pr obabl y been dr y for mor e than 55 mil lion y ears . It suppor ts a number o f endemic\nspecies (species f ound onl y ther e) because o f this gr eat ag e. For example , the unusual g ymnosperm Welwitschia\nmirabilis is the onl y extant species o f an entir e order o f plants . Ther e are also fiv e species o f reptiles c onsider ed\nendemic t o the Namib .\nIn addition t o sub tropical deser ts ther e are cold deser ts that e xperienc e freezing t emper atur es during the wint er\nand an y precipitation is in the f orm o f sno wfal l. The lar gest of these deser ts ar e the Gobi Deser t in nor thern China\nand southern Mong olia, the T aklimak an Deser t in w estern China , the T urkestan Deser t, and the Gr eat Basin Deser t\nof the Unit ed Stat es.\nFIGURE 20.21 Man y deser t plants ha ve tin y lea ves or no lea ves at al l to reduc e water los s. The lea ves o f ocotillo, sho wn her e in the\nChihuahuan Deser t in Big Bend National P ark, T exas, appear onl y aft er rainfal l and then ar e shed. (cr edit \u201cbar e oc otillo\u201d:\n\"Leaflet\"/ Wikimedia Commons)\nChaparr al\nThe chaparr alis also cal led scrub f orest and is f ound in Calif ornia , along the Medit erranean Sea , and along the\nsouthern c oast of Aus tralia ( Figure 20.18 ).", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3114, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "947ada64-f2a2-43c9-a595-5b319953d0d4": {"__data__": {"id_": "947ada64-f2a2-43c9-a595-5b319953d0d4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "560", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8511ae6b-af60-47c8-994b-22c68686689f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "560", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f3cd71785e8263633d74fe9e02dd81ff8f9f280bf36e4e897879e862fd94bfda", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "50780472-d5aa-45fc-947c-cc2107db67eb", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "560", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c22520b5dddd14183a962c175c665fb26721a75424713cf881d776b8674f1642", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 20.21 Man y deser t plants ha ve tin y lea ves or no lea ves at al l to reduc e water los s. The lea ves o f ocotillo, sho wn her e in the\nChihuahuan Deser t in Big Bend National P ark, T exas, appear onl y aft er rainfal l and then ar e shed. (cr edit \u201cbar e oc otillo\u201d:\n\"Leaflet\"/ Wikimedia Commons)\nChaparr al\nThe chaparr alis also cal led scrub f orest and is f ound in Calif ornia , along the Medit erranean Sea , and along the\nsouthern c oast of Aus tralia ( Figure 20.18 ). The annual r ainfal l in this biome r anges fr om 65 cm t o 75 cm (25.6\u201329.5\nin) and the majority o f the r ain fal ls in the wint er. Summers ar e very dry and man y chaparr al plants ar e dormant\nduring the summer time . The chaparr al vegetation is dominat ed b y shrubs and is adap ted to periodic fir es, with\nsome plants pr oducing seeds that g erminat e onl y aft er a hot fir e. The ashes left behind aft er a fir e are rich in\nnutrients lik e nitr ogen that f ertilize the soil and pr omot e plant r egrowth. Fir e is a natur al par t of the maint enanc e of\nthis biome and fr equentl y thr eatens human habitation in this biome in the U .S. (Figure 20.22 ).546 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2627, "end_char_idx": 3855, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e984a224-d10c-46b4-8e8c-38b6dbbfa1e9": {"__data__": {"id_": "e984a224-d10c-46b4-8e8c-38b6dbbfa1e9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "561", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f3bb1362-3303-4ee8-b552-f276eecd8a5b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "561", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "13dd56840b94b99155c4bf4fad6f7b86e0da81904120dec68b1f4459929d84ff", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 20.22 The chaparr al is dominat ed b y shrubs . (credit: Mig uel Vieir a)\nTemper ate Grasslands\nTemper ate grasslands are found thr oughout c entr al Nor th America , wher e the y are also kno wn as pr airies , and in\nEurasia , wher e the y are kno wn as s teppes ( Figure 20.18 ). Temper ate grasslands ha ve pronounc ed annual\nfluctuations in t emper atur e with hot summers and c old wint ers. The annual t emper atur e variation pr oduc es specific\ngrowing seasons f or plants . Plant gr owth is pos sible when t emper atur es ar e warm enough t o sus tain plant gr owth,\nwhich oc curs in the spring , summer , and fal l.\nAnnual pr ecipitation r anges fr om 25.4 cm t o 88.9 cm (10\u201335 in). T emper ate grasslands ha ve few trees e xcept for\nthose f ound gr owing along riv ers or s treams . The dominant v egetation t ends t o consis t of grasses. The tr eeles s\ncondition is maintained b y low pr ecipitation, fr equent fir es, and gr azing ( Figure 20.23 ). The v egetation is v ery dense\nand the soils ar e fertile because the subsur face of the soil is pack ed with the r oots and rhiz omes (under ground\nstems) o f these gr asses. The r oots and rhiz omes act t o anchor plants int o the gr ound and r eplenish the or ganic\nmaterial (humus) in the soil when the y die and deca y.\nFIGURE 20.23 The American bison ( Bison bison ), mor e commonl y cal led the buffalo , is a gr azing mammal that onc e populat ed American\nprairies in hug e numbers . (credit: Jack Dyking a, USD A ARS)\nFires, which ar e a natur al dis turbanc e in t emper ate grasslands , can be ignit ed b y lightning s trikes. It also appears\nthat the lightning-caused fir e regime in Nor th American gr asslands w as enhanc ed b y int entional burning b y humans .\nWhen fir e is suppr essed in t emper ate grasslands , the v egetation e ventual ly converts to scrub and dense f orests.20.3 \u2022 T errestrial Biomes 547", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1898, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "267f75e3-5ca8-4b49-8814-9a8dc51d932c": {"__data__": {"id_": "267f75e3-5ca8-4b49-8814-9a8dc51d932c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "562", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a6062bd1-2512-40bb-a023-d465ae15ade8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "562", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6591f9be2f44c75c469c586525cbe6d13f534fdfe90121f5c80fc96a54d6eada", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Often, the r estoration or manag ement o f temper ate grasslands r equir es the use o f contr olled burns t o suppr ess the\ngrowth o f trees and maintain the gr asses.\nTemper ate Forests\nTemper ate forestsare the mos t common biome in eas tern Nor th America , Western Eur ope, Eas tern Asia , Chile , and\nNew Zealand ( Figure 20.18 ). This biome is f ound thr oughout mid-latitude r egions . Temper atur es range betw een\n\u201330oC and 30oC (\u201322oF to 86oF) and dr op to belo w freezing on an annual basis . These t emper atur es mean that\ntemper ate forests ha ve defined gr owing seasons during the spring , summer , and earl y fal l. Precipitation is r elativ ely\nconstant thr oughout the y ear and r anges betw een 75 cm and 150 cm (29.5\u201359 in).\nDeciduous tr ees ar e the dominant plant in this biome with f ewer evergreen c onifers. Deciduous tr ees lose their\nleaves each fal l and r emain leafles s in the wint er. Thus , little phot osynthesis oc curs during the dormant wint er\nperiod. Each spring , new lea ves appear as t emper atur e incr eases . Because o f the dormant period, the net primar y\nproductivity o f temper ate forests is les s than that o f tropical r ainforests. In addition, t emper ate forests sho w far les s\ndiversity o f tree species than tr opical r ainforest biomes .\nThe tr ees o f the t emper ate forests leaf out and shade much o f the gr ound; ho wever, mor e sunlight r eaches the\nground in this biome than in tr opical r ainforests because tr ees in t emper ate forests do not gr ow as tal l as the tr ees\nin tropical r ainforests. The soils o f the t emper ate forests ar e rich in inor ganic and or ganic nutrients c ompar ed to\ntropical r ainforests. This is because o f the thick la yer of leaf lit ter on f orest floors and r educ ed leaching o f nutrients\nby rainfal l. As this leaf lit ter deca ys, nutrients ar e returned t o the soil . The leaf lit ter also pr otects soil fr om er osion,\ninsulat es the gr ound, and pr ovides habitats f or in vertebrates and their pr edat ors ( Figure 20.24 ).\nFIGURE 20.24 Deciduous tr ees ar e the dominant plant in the t emper ate forest. (cr edit: Oliv er Her old)\nBoreal F orests\nThe boreal f orest, also kno wn as taig a or c oniferous f orest, is f ound r oughl y betw een 50oand 60onorth latitude\nacross mos t of Canada , Alask a, Rus sia, and nor thern Eur ope ( Figure 20.18 ). Bor eal f orests ar e also f ound abo ve a\ncertain ele vation (and belo w high ele vations wher e trees cannot gr ow) in mountain r anges thr oughout the Nor thern\nHemispher e. This biome has c old, dr y wint ers and shor t, cool, wet summers . The annual pr ecipitation is fr om 40 cm\nto 100 cm (15.7\u201339 in) and usual ly tak es the f orm o f sno w; lit tle e vapor ation oc curs because o f the c old\ntemper atur es.\nThe long and c old wint ers in the bor eal f orest have led t o the pr edominanc e of cold-t olerant c one-bearing plants .\nThese ar e evergreen c oniferous tr ees lik e pines , spruc e, and fir , which r etain their needle -shaped lea ves year-round.\nEvergreen tr ees can phot osynthesiz e earlier in the spring than deciduous tr ees because les s ener gy from the Sun is548 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3231, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "dd75c48c-9ced-4af3-9969-3f7d1e294b5c": {"__data__": {"id_": "dd75c48c-9ced-4af3-9969-3f7d1e294b5c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "563", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "eda07cfc-42aa-4815-a07c-a140c63d19f8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "563", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cf5a684d0454b704e61adb7f717721109a873143d6991ad84441775d770f9e16", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "requir ed to warm a needle -like leaf than a br oad leaf . Evergreen tr ees gr ow fas ter than deciduous tr ees in the bor eal\nforest. In addition, soils in bor eal f orest regions t end t o be acidic with lit tle a vailable nitr ogen. L eaves ar e a nitr ogen-\nrich s tructur e and deciduous tr ees mus t produc e a ne w set o f these nitr ogen-rich s tructur es each y ear. Ther efore,\nconiferous tr ees that r etain nitr ogen-rich needles in a nitr ogen limiting en vironment ma y ha ve had a c ompetitiv e\nadvantag e over the br oad-leaf ed deciduous tr ees.\nThe net primar y productivity o f bor eal f orests is lo wer than that o f temper ate forests and tr opical w et forests. The\naboveground biomas s of bor eal f orests is high because these slo w-growing tr ee species ar e long-liv ed and\naccumulat e standing biomas s over time . Species div ersity is les s than that seen in t emper ate forests and tr opical\nrainforests. Bor eal f orests lack the la yered forest structur e seen in tr opical r ainforests or , to a les ser degr ee,\ntemper ate forests. The s tructur e of a bor eal f orest is o ften onl y a tr ee la yer and a gr ound la yer. When c onifer\nneedles ar e dropped, the y dec ompose mor e slo wly than br oad lea ves; ther efore, fewer nutrients ar e returned t o the\nsoil t o fuel plant gr owth ( Figure 20.25 ).\nFIGURE 20.25 The bor eal f orest (taig a) has lo w lying plants and c onifer tr ees. (credit: L .B. Brubak er, NO AA)\nArctic Tundr a\nThe Arctic tundr alies nor th of the subar ctic bor eal f orests and is locat ed thr oughout the Ar ctic r egions o f the\nNorthern Hemispher e (Figure 20.18 ). Tundr a also e xists at ele vations abo ve the tr ee line on mountains . The a verage\nwint er temper atur e is \u201334\u00b0C (\u201329.2\u00b0F ) and the a verage summer t emper atur e is 3\u00b0C \u201312\u00b0C (37\u00b0F \u201352\u00b0F ). Plants in\nthe Ar ctic tundr a ha ve a shor t growing season o f appr oximat ely 50\u201360 da ys. Ho wever, during this time , ther e are\nalmos t 24 hours o f daylight and plant gr owth is r apid. The annual pr ecipitation o f the Ar ctic tundr a is lo w (15\u201325 cm\nor 6\u201310 in) with lit tle annual v ariation in pr ecipitation. And, as in the bor eal f orests, ther e is lit tle e vapor ation\nbecause o f the c old t emper atur es.\nPlants in the Ar ctic tundr a are gener ally low to the gr ound and include lo w shrubs , grasses, lichens , and smal l\nflowering plants ( Figure 20.26 ). Ther e is lit tle species div ersity , low net primar y productivity , and lo w abo veground\nbiomas s. The soils o f the Ar ctic tundr a ma y remain in a per ennial ly frozen s tate referred to as permafr ost. The\npermafr ost mak es it impos sible f or roots t o penetr ate far int o the soil and slo ws the deca y of organic mat ter, which\ninhibits the r elease o f nutrients fr om or ganic mat ter. The mel ting o f the permafr ost in the brief summer pr ovides\nwater for a burs t of productivity while t emper atur es and long da ys permit it. During the gr owing season, the gr ound\nof the Ar ctic tundr a can be c omplet ely covered with plants or lichens .20.3 \u2022 T errestrial Biomes 549", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3102, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a570dadf-a58f-4f31-a2d4-4ab12f15e865": {"__data__": {"id_": "a570dadf-a58f-4f31-a2d4-4ab12f15e865", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "564", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "1213f7f0-370a-42e9-bec9-cd149bc10ef6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "564", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "435972b978ae337903b2fec7ec9b4ed1fc2750b25d898a4d5b486bd95c216422", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 20.26 Low-growing plants such as shrub wil low dominat e the tundr a landscape during the summer , sho wn her e in the Ar ctic\nNational Wildlif e Refug e. (credit: Ar ctic National Wildlif e Refug e, USFWS)\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nWatch this Assignment Disc overy: Biomes (http://opens tax.org/l/biomes) video f or an o verview of biomes . To explor e\nfurther, select one o f the biomes on the e xtended pla ylist: deser t, sa vanna , temper ate forest, temper ate grassland,\ntropic, tundr a.\n20.4 Aquatic and Marine Biomes\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe the eff ects o f abiotic fact ors on the c omposition o f plant and animal c ommunities in aquatic\nbiomes\n\u2022Compar e the char acteristics o f the oc ean z ones\n\u2022Summariz e the char acteristics o f standing w ater and flo wing w ater in fr eshwater biomes\nLike terrestrial biomes , aquatic biomes ar e influenc ed b y abiotic fact ors. In the case o f aquatic biomes the abiotic\nfactors include light, t emper atur e, flow regime , and dis solved solids . The aquatic medium\u2014 water\u2014 has diff erent\nphysical and chemical pr oper ties than air . Even if the w ater in a pond or other body o f water is per fectly clear (ther e\nare no suspended par ticles), w ater, on its o wn, absorbs light. As one desc ends deep enough int o a body o f water,\neventual ly ther e wil l be a dep th at which the sunlight cannot r each. While ther e are some abiotic and biotic fact ors\nin a t errestrial ec osystem that shade light (lik e fog, dus t, or insect s warms), these ar e not usual ly permanent\nfeatur es o f the en vironment. The impor tanc e of light in aquatic biomes is c entr al to the c ommunities o f organisms\nfound in both fr eshwater and marine ec osystems because it c ontr ols pr oductivity thr ough phot osynthesis .\nIn addition t o light, solar r adiation w arms bodies o f water and man y exhibit dis tinct la yers o f water at diff ering\ntemper atur es. The w ater temper atur e aff ects the or ganisms\u2019 r ates o f growth and the amount o f dis solved o xygen\navailable f or respir ation.\nThe mo vement o f water is also impor tant in man y aquatic biomes . In riv ers, the or ganisms mus t obviousl y be\nadap ted to the c onstant mo vement o f the w ater ar ound them, but e ven in lar ger bodies o f water such as the oc eans ,\nregular curr ents and tides impact a vailability o f nutrients , food r esour ces, and the pr esenc e of the w ater itself .\nFinal ly, all natur al w ater contains dis solved solids , or sal ts. Fresh w ater contains lo w le vels o f such dis solved\nsubs tanc es because the w ater is r apidl y recycled thr ough e vapor ation and pr ecipitation. The oc eans ha ve a\nrelativ ely constant high sal t content. Aquatic habitats at the int erface of marine and fr eshwater ec osystems ha ve\ncomple x and v ariable sal t environments that r ange betw een fr eshwater and marine le vels. These ar e kno wn as\nbrackish w ater en vironments . Lakes locat ed in closed dr ainag e basins c oncentr ate sal t in their w aters and can ha ve\n550 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3149, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "221e3c9f-bdcc-4189-9f6f-b0681df6fc78": {"__data__": {"id_": "221e3c9f-bdcc-4189-9f6f-b0681df6fc78", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "565", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4918f5df-48e7-4230-9568-1a954bc5b992", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "565", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "56c0c42b629f3cbf29d907e6907a4dcfa45f55fd7215293971856515bd2c2855", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "5d585685-665c-433c-a861-f90a15e0cace", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "e1b23e1643f02a4ddab06d666e16d3d3c045a9696810f0871a9e06a0175f9c8b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "extremel y high sal t content that onl y a f ew and highl y specializ ed species ar e able t o inhabit.\nMarine Biomes\nThe oc ean is a c ontinuous body o f sal t water that is r elativ ely unif orm in chemical c omposition. It is a w eak solution\nof miner al sal ts and deca yed biological mat ter. Within the oc ean, c oral reefs ar e a sec ond type o f marine biome .\nEstuaries , coastal ar eas wher e sal t water and fr esh w ater mix, f orm a thir d unique marine biome .\nThe oc ean is cat egorized b y several zones ( Figure 20.28 ). All of the oc ean\u2019s open w ater is r eferred to as the pelagic\nrealm (or z one). The benthic r ealm (or z one) e xtends along the oc ean bot tom fr om the shor eline t o the deepes t\nparts of the oc ean floor . From the sur face to the bot tom or the limit t o which phot osynthesis oc curs is the photic\nzone (appr oximat ely 200 m or 650 ft). A t dep ths gr eater than 200 m, light cannot penetr ate; thus , this is r eferred to\nas the apho tic z one. The majority o f the oc ean is aphotic and lack s sufficient light f or phot osynthesis . The deepes t\npart of the oc ean, the Chal leng er Deep (in the Mariana T rench, locat ed in the w estern P acific Oc ean), is about\n11,000 m (about 6.8 mi) deep . To giv e some perspectiv e on the dep th of this tr ench, the oc ean is , on a verage, 4267\nm or 14,000 ft deep .\nOcean\nThe ph ysical div ersity o f the oc ean has a significant influenc e on the div ersity o f organisms that liv e within it. The\nocean is cat egorized int o diff erent z ones based on ho w far light r eaches int o the w ater. Each z one has a dis tinct\ngroup o f species adap ted to the biotic and abiotic c onditions par ticular t o that z one.\nThe intertidal z one (Figure 20.28 ) is the oc eanic r egion that is closes t to land. With each tidal cy cle, the int ertidal\nzone al ternat es betw een being inundat ed with w ater and left high and dr y. Gener ally, mos t people think o f this\nportion o f the oc ean as a sandy beach. In some cases , the int ertidal z one is indeed a sandy beach, but it can also be\nrocky , muddy , or dense with tangled r oots in mangr ove forests. The int ertidal z one is an e xtremel y variable\nenvironment because o f tides . Organisms ma y be e xposed t o air at lo w tide and ar e under water during high tide .\nTher efore, living things that thriv e in the int ertidal z one ar e often adap ted to being dr y for long periods o f time . The\nshor e of the int ertidal z one is also r epeat edly struck b y waves and the or ganisms f ound ther e are adap ted to\nwiths tand damag e from the pounding action o f the w aves (Figure 20.27 ). The e xoskeletons o f shor eline crus taceans\n(such as the shor e crab,Carcinus maenas ) are tough and pr otect them fr om desic cation (dr ying out) and w ave\ndamag e. Another c onsequenc e of the pounding w aves is that f ew alg ae and plants es tablish themsel ves in\nconstantl y mo ving sand or mud.\nFIGURE 20.27 Sea s tars, sea ur chins , and mus sel shel ls ar e often found in the int ertidal z one, sho wn her e in K achemak Ba y, Alask a.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3087, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5d585685-665c-433c-a861-f90a15e0cace": {"__data__": {"id_": "5d585685-665c-433c-a861-f90a15e0cace", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "565", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4918f5df-48e7-4230-9568-1a954bc5b992", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "565", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "56c0c42b629f3cbf29d907e6907a4dcfa45f55fd7215293971856515bd2c2855", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "221e3c9f-bdcc-4189-9f6f-b0681df6fc78", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "565", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1cc3134eb8c2f5861ad068b941d2c1709c5a4e64de7619a3df2592c4adeccd93", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The e xoskeletons o f shor eline crus taceans\n(such as the shor e crab,Carcinus maenas ) are tough and pr otect them fr om desic cation (dr ying out) and w ave\ndamag e. Another c onsequenc e of the pounding w aves is that f ew alg ae and plants es tablish themsel ves in\nconstantl y mo ving sand or mud.\nFIGURE 20.27 Sea s tars, sea ur chins , and mus sel shel ls ar e often found in the int ertidal z one, sho wn her e in K achemak Ba y, Alask a. (credit:\nNOAA)\nThe neritic z one (Figure 20.28 ) extends fr om the mar gin o f the int ertidal z one t o dep ths o f about 200 m (or 650 ft)\nat the edg e of the c ontinental shelf . When the w ater is r elativ ely clear , phot osynthesis can oc cur in the neritic z one.20.4 \u2022 A quatic and Marine Biomes 551", "start_char_idx": 2640, "end_char_idx": 3395, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b090f54b-d3af-4526-9b74-bf483f23e5cb": {"__data__": {"id_": "b090f54b-d3af-4526-9b74-bf483f23e5cb", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "566", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0f81c5ee-8d4c-436c-96fe-64dcdd3783be", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "566", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "47ac93aa4a140746efed89f73496fc396e075150c1f158543101f9a4aac071ad", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "c5b452b4-d5db-413f-9c74-e480c282a01e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "527b57dbbc58e1e5fe8a3b83233f338238b29425b04549569746a19df07d1c20", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The w ater contains sil t and is w ell-oxygenat ed, lo w in pr essure, and s table in t emper atur e. These fact ors al l\ncontribut e to the neritic z one ha ving the highes t productivity and biodiv ersity o f the oc ean. Ph ytoplank ton, including\nphot osynthetic bact eria and lar ger species o f alg ae, are responsible f or the bulk o f this primar y productivity .\nZooplank ton, pr otists, smal l fishes , and shrimp f eed on the pr oduc ers and ar e the primar y food sour ce for mos t of\nthe w orld\u2019 s fisheries . The majority o f these fisheries e xist within the neritic z one.\nBeyond the neritic z one is the open oc ean ar ea kno wn as the oceanic z one (Figure 20.28 ). Within the oc eanic z one\nther e is thermal s tratification. Abundant ph ytoplank ton and z ooplank ton suppor t populations o f fish and whales .\nNutrients ar e scar ce and this is a r elativ ely les s productiv e par t of the marine biome . When phot osynthetic\norganisms and the or ganisms that f eed on them die , their bodies fal l to the bot tom o f the oc ean wher e the y remain;\nthe open oc ean lack s a pr ocess for bringing the or ganic nutrients back up t o the sur face.\nBeneath the pelagic z one is the benthic r ealm, the deep water region be yond the c ontinental shelf ( Figure 20.28 ).\nThe bot tom o f the benthic r ealm is c omprised o f sand, sil t, and dead or ganisms . Temper atur e decr eases as w ater\ndepth incr eases . This is a nutrient -rich por tion o f the oc ean because o f the dead or ganisms that fal l from the upper\nlayers o f the oc ean. Because o f this high le vel of nutrients , a div ersity o f fungi, spong es, sea anemones , marine\nworms , sea s tars, fishes , and bact eria e xists.\nThe deepes t par t of the oc ean is the abyssal z one, which is at dep ths o f 4000 m or gr eater. The ab yssal z one ( Figure\n20.28 ) is v ery cold and has v ery high pr essure, very low or no o xygen c ontent, and high nutrient c ontent as the dead\nand dec omposing mat erial that drifts do wn fr om the la yers abo ve. Ther e are a v ariety o f invertebrates and fishes\nfound in this z one, but the ab yssal z one does not ha ve phot osynthetic or ganisms . Chemos ynthetic bact eria use the\nhydrogen sulfide and other miner als emit ted fr om deep h ydrothermal v ents . These chemos ynthetic bact eria use the\nhydrogen sulfide as an ener gy sour ce and ser ve as the base o f the f ood chain f ound ar ound the v ents .\nVISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 20.28 The oc ean is divided int o diff erent z ones based on w ater dep th, dis tanc e from the shor eline , and light penetr ation.\nIn which o f the f ollowing r egions w ould y ou e xpect t o find phot osynthetic or ganisms?\na.The aphotic z one, the neritic z one, the oc eanic z one, and the benthic r ealm.\nb.The photic z one, the int ertidal z one, the neritic z one, and the oc eanic z one.\nc.The photic z one, the ab yssal z one, the neritic z one, and the oc eanic z one.\nd.The pelagic r ealm, the aphotic z one, the neritic z one, and the oc eanic z one.\nCoral Reefs\nCoral reefs are oc ean ridg es formed b y marine in vertebrates living in w arm shal low waters within the photic z one o f\nthe oc ean.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3175, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c5b452b4-d5db-413f-9c74-e480c282a01e": {"__data__": {"id_": "c5b452b4-d5db-413f-9c74-e480c282a01e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "566", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0f81c5ee-8d4c-436c-96fe-64dcdd3783be", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "566", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "47ac93aa4a140746efed89f73496fc396e075150c1f158543101f9a4aac071ad", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "b090f54b-d3af-4526-9b74-bf483f23e5cb", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "566", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "17e800a53cb96eac9fe360ae6beac2b27009861c153d9d8718dbd3b8b833ea5e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In which o f the f ollowing r egions w ould y ou e xpect t o find phot osynthetic or ganisms?\na.The aphotic z one, the neritic z one, the oc eanic z one, and the benthic r ealm.\nb.The photic z one, the int ertidal z one, the neritic z one, and the oc eanic z one.\nc.The photic z one, the ab yssal z one, the neritic z one, and the oc eanic z one.\nd.The pelagic r ealm, the aphotic z one, the neritic z one, and the oc eanic z one.\nCoral Reefs\nCoral reefs are oc ean ridg es formed b y marine in vertebrates living in w arm shal low waters within the photic z one o f\nthe oc ean. The y are found within 30\u02da nor th and south o f the equat or. The Gr eat Barrier R eef is a w ell-kno wn r eef\n552 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2597, "end_char_idx": 3360, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a7b9d1f1-a544-4df7-88b6-f00398089863": {"__data__": {"id_": "a7b9d1f1-a544-4df7-88b6-f00398089863", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "567", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d4d8f2f9-0840-4862-887a-8c739c56fb64", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "567", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b4446c90686292dc42d49d18ee4cffbddc444adbbdc7d5785ce7eb54172ce512", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "system locat ed se veral miles o ff the nor theas tern c oast of Aus tralia. Other c oral reefs ar e fringing islands , which ar e\ndirectly adjac ent t o land, or at olls, which ar e cir cular r eefs surr ounding a f ormer island that is no w under water. The\ncoral-forming c olonies o f organisms (members o f phylum Cnidaria) secr ete a calcium carbonat e sk eleton. These\ncalcium-rich sk eletons slo wly accumulat e, thus f orming the under water reef ( Figure 20.29 ). Cor als f ound in\nshal lower w aters (at a dep th of appr oximat ely 60 m or about 200 ft) ha ve a mutualis tic relationship with\nphot osynthetic unic ellular pr otists. The r elationship pr ovides c orals with the majority o f the nutrition and the ener gy\nthey requir e. The w aters in which these c orals liv e are nutritional ly poor and, without this mutualism, it w ould not be\npossible f or lar ge corals t o grow because ther e are few plank tonic or ganisms f or them t o feed on. Some c orals living\nin deeper and c older w ater do not ha ve a mutualis tic relationship with pr otists; these c orals mus t obtain their\nener gy exclusiv ely by feeding on plank ton using s tinging c ells on their t entacles .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nIn this National Oc eanic and A tmospheric Adminis tration (NO AA)video (http://opens tax.org/l/coral_organisms) ,\nmarine ec ologis t Dr. Peter Etno yer discus ses his r esear ch on c oral or ganisms .\nCoral reefs ar e one o f the mos t div erse biomes . It is es timat ed that mor e than 4000 fish species inhabit c oral reefs .\nThese fishes can f eed on c oral, the cryptofauna (invertebrates found within the calcium carbonat e structur es o f the\ncoral reefs), or the sea weed and alg ae that ar e as sociat ed with the c oral. These species include pr edat ors,\nherbiv ores, or plank tivores. Predat ors ar e animal species that hunt and ar e carniv ores or \u201c flesh eat ers.\u201d Herbiv ores\neat plant mat erial , and plank tivoreseat plank ton.\nFIGURE 20.29 Coral reefs ar e formed b y the calcium carbonat e sk eletons o f coral or ganisms , which ar e marine in vertebrates in the ph ylum\nCnidaria . (credit: T erry Hughes)\n20.4 \u2022 A quatic and Marine Biomes 553", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2176, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "209cefab-6012-4558-a198-26f23597005c": {"__data__": {"id_": "209cefab-6012-4558-a198-26f23597005c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "568", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "471f823e-99fe-4adf-8208-60d672efb6ba", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "568", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "06c4ae9d7488f37796f87a5f3c47ce1b4ace2e076201f076fbb3a9f3fc5d530a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "d5ca4403-2ad3-4100-95ac-1acba71e45be", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "35df9f5eb31adac7c717fd8b1ff777ad9a8053a5a3e49877e76d82b228748b26", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "EVOLUTION C ONNE CTION\nGlobal Decline o f Coral Reefs\nIt tak es a long time t o build a c oral reef. The animals that cr eate coral reefs do so o ver thousands o f years ,\ncontinuing t o slo wly deposit the calcium carbonat e that f orms their char acteristic oc ean homes . Bathed in w arm\ntropical w aters, the c oral animals and their s ymbiotic pr otist par tners e volved to sur vive at the upper limit o f ocean\nwater temper atur e.\nTogether , climat e chang e and human activity pose dual thr eats t o the long-t erm sur vival of the w orld\u2019 s coral reefs .\nThe main cause o f killing o f coral reefs is w armer -than-usual sur face water. As global w arming r aises oc ean\ntemper atur es, coral reefs ar e suff ering . The e xcessive warmth causes the c oral or ganisms t o expel their\nendos ymbiotic, f ood-pr oducing pr otists, resul ting in a phenomenon kno wn as bleaching . The c olors o f corals ar e a\nresul t of the par ticular pr otist endos ymbiont, and when the pr otists lea ve, the c orals lose their c olor and turn whit e,\nhenc e the t erm \u201cbleaching .\u201d\nRising le vels o f atmospheric carbon dio xide fur ther thr eaten the c orals in other w ays; as carbon dio xide dis solves in\nocean w aters, it lo wers pH, thus incr easing oc ean acidity . As acidity incr eases , it int erferes with the calcification that\nnormal ly oc curs as c oral animals build their calcium carbonat e homes .\nWhen a c oral reef begins t o die , species div ersity plummets as animals lose f ood and shel ter. Cor al reefs ar e also\neconomical ly impor tant t ouris t des tinations , so the decline o f coral reefs poses a serious thr eat t o coastal\neconomies .\nHuman population gr owth has damag ed c orals in other w ays, too. As human c oastal populations incr ease , the runo ff\nof sediment and agricul tural chemicals has incr eased, causing some o f the onc e-clear tr opical w aters t o bec ome\ncloudy . At the same time , overfishing o f popular fish species has al lowed the pr edat or species that eat c orals t o go\nuncheck ed.\nAlthough a rise in global t emper atur es o f 1\u00b0C \u20132\u00b0C (a c onser vative scientific pr ojection) in the c oming decades ma y\nnot seem lar ge, it is v ery significant t o this biome . When chang e oc curs r apidl y, species can bec ome e xtinct bef ore\nevolution leads t o ne wly adap ted species . Man y scientis ts belie ve that global w arming , with its r apid (in t erms o f\nevolutionar y time) and ine xorable incr eases in t emper atur e, is tipping the balanc e be yond the point at which man y\nof the w orld\u2019 s coral reefs can r ecover.\nEstuaries: Wher e the Oc ean Mee ts Fresh W ater\nEstuaries are biomes that oc cur wher e a riv er, a sour ce of fresh w ater, meets the oc ean. Ther efore, both fr esh w ater\nand sal t water ar e found in the same vicinity; mixing r esul ts in a dilut ed (br ackish) sal t water. Estuaries f orm\nprotected ar eas wher e man y of the o ffspring o f crus taceans , mol lusk s, and fish begin their liv es. Salinity is an\nimpor tant fact or that influenc es the or ganisms and the adap tations o f the or ganisms f ound in es tuaries . The salinity\nof estuaries v aries and is based on the r ate of flow of its fr eshwater sour ces.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3214, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d5ca4403-2ad3-4100-95ac-1acba71e45be": {"__data__": {"id_": "d5ca4403-2ad3-4100-95ac-1acba71e45be", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "568", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "471f823e-99fe-4adf-8208-60d672efb6ba", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "568", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "06c4ae9d7488f37796f87a5f3c47ce1b4ace2e076201f076fbb3a9f3fc5d530a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "209cefab-6012-4558-a198-26f23597005c", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "568", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9245c71484f357e610c13d3bce7af3eed7a7899cd724ffca66b53d4006bf1443", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Ther efore, both fr esh w ater\nand sal t water ar e found in the same vicinity; mixing r esul ts in a dilut ed (br ackish) sal t water. Estuaries f orm\nprotected ar eas wher e man y of the o ffspring o f crus taceans , mol lusk s, and fish begin their liv es. Salinity is an\nimpor tant fact or that influenc es the or ganisms and the adap tations o f the or ganisms f ound in es tuaries . The salinity\nof estuaries v aries and is based on the r ate of flow of its fr eshwater sour ces. Onc e or twic e a da y, high tides bring\nsalt water int o the es tuar y. Low tides oc curring at the same fr equency r everse the curr ent o f sal t water (Figure\n20.30 ).\n554 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2729, "end_char_idx": 3460, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a888c9da-d388-4ff3-84dd-bb4ffba74ec6": {"__data__": {"id_": "a888c9da-d388-4ff3-84dd-bb4ffba74ec6", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "569", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7438353a-9177-4e1d-acce-d504d9e59ce7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "569", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d80d15cbf51e72848634bde61774c6196c3c66ba77fd22dd2238be56a14e5ae8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "4ca52d86-66bc-473e-89c6-ba381f0a2192", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "3e7b940fae03a144be866cd749a4c6842735c6495fc1e7508b8360347641135a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 20.30 As es tuar y is wher e fresh w ater and sal t water meet, such as the mouth o f the Klamath Riv er in Calif ornia , sho wn her e.\n(credit: U .S. Arm y Corps o f Engineers)\nThe dail y mixing o f fresh w ater and sal t water is a ph ysiological chal leng e for the plants and animals that inhabit\nestuaries . Man y estuarine plant species ar e haloph ytes, plants that can t olerate sal ty conditions . Haloph ytic plants\nare adap ted to deal with sal t water spr ay and sal t water on their r oots . In some haloph ytes, filters in the r oots\nremo ve the sal t from the w ater that the plant absorbs . Animals , such as mus sels and clams (ph ylum Mol lusca), ha ve\ndeveloped beha vioral adap tations that e xpend a lot o f ener gy to function in this r apidl y changing en vironment. When\nthese animals ar e exposed t o low salinity , the y stop feeding , close their shel ls, and s witch fr om aer obic r espir ation\n(in which the y use gil ls) to anaer obic r espir ation (a pr ocess that does not r equir e oxygen). When high tide r eturns t o\nthe es tuar y, the salinity and o xygen c ontent o f the w ater incr eases , and these animals open their shel ls, begin\nfeeding , and r eturn t o aer obic r espir ation.\nFreshwater Biomes\nFreshwater biomes include lak es, ponds , and w etlands (s tanding w ater) as w ell as riv ers and s treams (flo wing\nwater). Humans r ely on fr eshwater biomes t o provide aquatic r esour ces for drinking w ater, crop irrig ation,\nsanitation, r ecreation, and indus try. These v arious r oles and human benefits ar e referred to as ecosystem ser vices.\nLakes and ponds ar e found in t errestrial landscapes and ar e ther efore connect ed with abiotic and biotic fact ors\ninfluencing these t errestrial biomes .\nLakes and P onds\nLakes and ponds can r ange in ar ea fr om a f ew squar e met ers t o thousands o f squar e kilomet ers. Temper atur e is an\nimpor tant abiotic fact or aff ecting living things f ound in lak es and ponds . During the summer in t emper ate regions ,\nthermal s tratification o f deep lak es oc curs when the upper la yer of water is w armed b y the Sun and does not mix\nwith deeper , cooler w ater. The pr ocess produc es a sharp tr ansition betw een the w arm w ater abo ve and c old w ater\nbeneath. The tw o layers do not mix until c ooling t emper atur es and winds br eak do wn the s tratification and the\nwater in the lak e mix es fr om t op to bot tom. During the period o f stratification, mos t of the pr oductivity oc curs in the\nwarm, w ell-illuminat ed, upper la yer, while dead or ganisms slo wly rain do wn int o the c old, dark la yer belo w wher e\ndecomposing bact eria and c old-adap ted species such as lak e trout e xist. Lik e the oc ean, lak es and ponds ha ve a\nphotic la yer in which phot osynthesis can oc cur. Phytoplank ton (alg ae and cy anobact eria) ar e found her e and pr ovide\nthe base o f the f ood w eb o f lak es and ponds . Zooplank ton, such as r otifers and smal l crus taceans , consume these\nphytoplank ton. A t the bot tom o f lak es and ponds , bact eria in the aphotic z one br eak do wn dead or ganisms that sink\nto the bot tom.\nNitrogen and par ticularl y phosphorus ar e impor tant limiting nutrients in lak es and ponds .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3242, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4ca52d86-66bc-473e-89c6-ba381f0a2192": {"__data__": {"id_": "4ca52d86-66bc-473e-89c6-ba381f0a2192", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "569", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "7438353a-9177-4e1d-acce-d504d9e59ce7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "569", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d80d15cbf51e72848634bde61774c6196c3c66ba77fd22dd2238be56a14e5ae8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "a888c9da-d388-4ff3-84dd-bb4ffba74ec6", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "569", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b302fe0a0e27634a54181b6164094ac46d6a14d3854db66964861fe19f536a0b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Lik e the oc ean, lak es and ponds ha ve a\nphotic la yer in which phot osynthesis can oc cur. Phytoplank ton (alg ae and cy anobact eria) ar e found her e and pr ovide\nthe base o f the f ood w eb o f lak es and ponds . Zooplank ton, such as r otifers and smal l crus taceans , consume these\nphytoplank ton. A t the bot tom o f lak es and ponds , bact eria in the aphotic z one br eak do wn dead or ganisms that sink\nto the bot tom.\nNitrogen and par ticularl y phosphorus ar e impor tant limiting nutrients in lak es and ponds . Ther efore, the y are\ndetermining fact ors in the amount o f phytoplank ton gr owth in lak es and ponds . When ther e is a lar ge input o f\nnitrogen and phosphorus (e .g., from se wage and runo ff from f ertilized la wns and farms), the gr owth o f alg ae\nskyr ockets, resul ting in a lar ge ac cumulation o f alg ae cal led an algal bloom . Alg al blooms ( Figure 20.31 ) can\nbecome so e xtensiv e that the y reduc e light penetr ation in w ater. As a r esul t, the lak e or pond bec omes aphotic and\nphot osynthetic plants cannot sur vive. When the alg ae die and dec ompose , severe oxygen depletion o f the w ater\noccurs . Fishes and other or ganisms that r equir e oxygen ar e then mor e lik ely to die .20.4 \u2022 A quatic and Marine Biomes 555", "start_char_idx": 2715, "end_char_idx": 3989, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "27db48a5-252d-4851-bdff-a6f5bc4376b4": {"__data__": {"id_": "27db48a5-252d-4851-bdff-a6f5bc4376b4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "570", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "60f378c9-4712-4528-90b6-620214fa17d3", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "570", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "993e9d6a6965d57f931a55fe9df125e48af45b3d0294136ec09e04313a05dbe2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 20.31 The unc ontr olled gr owth o f alg ae in this w aterway has r esul ted in an alg al bloom.\nRivers and S treams\nRivers and the narr ower streams that f eed int o the riv ers ar e continuousl y mo ving bodies o f water that carr y water\nfrom the sour ce or headw ater to the mouth at a lak e or oc ean. The lar gest rivers include the Nile Riv er in Africa , the\nAmaz on Riv er in South America , and the Mis sissippi Riv er in Nor th America ( Figure 20.32 ).\nFIGURE 20.32 Rivers r ange from (a) narr ow and shal low to (b) wide and slo w mo ving . (credit a: modification o f work b y Cor y Zank er; cr edit\nb: modification o f work b y Da vid DeHetr e)\nAbiotic f eatur es o f rivers and s treams v ary along the length o f the riv er or s tream. Str eams begin at a point o f origin\nreferred to as sour ce water. The sour ce water is usual ly cold, lo w in nutrients , and clear . The channel (the width o f\nthe riv er or s tream) is narr ower her e than at an y other plac e along the length o f the riv er or s tream. Headw ater\nstreams ar e of nec essity at a higher ele vation than the mouth o f the riv er and o ften originat e in r egions with s teep\ngrades leading t o higher flo w rates than lo wer ele vation s tretches o f the riv er.\nFaster-mo ving w ater and the shor t dis tanc e from its origin r esul ts in minimal sil t levels in headw ater streams;\nther efore, the w ater is clear . Phot osynthesis her e is mos tly attribut ed to alg ae that ar e growing on r ocks; the s wift\ncurr ent inhibits the gr owth o f phytoplank ton. Phot osynthesis ma y be fur ther r educ ed b y tree c over reaching o ver the\nnarr ow stream. This shading also k eeps t emper atur es lo wer. An additional input o f ener gy can c ome fr om lea ves or\nother or ganic mat erial that fal ls int o a riv er or s tream fr om the tr ees and other plants that bor der the w ater. When\nthe lea ves dec ompose , the or ganic mat erial and nutrients in the lea ves ar e returned t o the w ater. The lea ves also\nsuppor t a food chain o f invertebrates that eat them and ar e in turn eat en b y predat ory invertebrates and fish. Plants\nand animals ha ve adap ted to this fas t-mo ving w ater. For ins tanc e, some species o f ma yfly (ph ylum Ar thropoda) ha ve556 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2334, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "41ad9e23-626f-4fcc-8aaa-8a4017a5fc4c": {"__data__": {"id_": "41ad9e23-626f-4fcc-8aaa-8a4017a5fc4c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "571", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "77c7cceb-7266-483a-a9b2-447e325ad8d7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "571", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6598b1373c4f75598b7835483cc2e242f114c62b1d53f17bdc0e405695d95db5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "bc1f4821-7094-41d1-9be7-f2c44bd8bb0a", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "865d8934ee345e6aabce9897233ab771786f27ff0db9b8c392ecd2e73e2016b7", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "flattened bodies and legs with modified cla ws to help them cling t o the underside o f submer ged rocks. This body\nform r educ es dr ag and al lows these species t o benefit fr om the high o xygen c oncentr ations in fas t-mo ving curr ents\nwithout being dislodg ed. F reshwater tr out species (ph ylum Chor data) ar e an impor tant pr edat or in these fas t-\nmoving riv ers and s treams .\nAs the riv er or s tream flo ws away from the sour ce, the width o f the channel gr adual ly widens , the curr ent slo ws, and\nthe t emper atur e char acteristical ly incr eases . The incr easing width r esul ts from the incr eased v olume o f water fr om\nmor e and mor e tributaries . Gradients ar e typical ly lower far ther along the riv er, which ac counts f or the slo wing flo w.\nWith incr easing v olume can c ome incr eased sil t, and as the flo w rate slo ws, the sil t ma y set tle, thus incr easing the\ndeposition o f sediment. Ph ytoplank ton can also be suspended in slo w-mo ving w ater. Ther efore, the w ater wil l not\nbe as clear as it is near the sour ce. The w ater is also w armer as a r esul t of long er exposur e to sunlight and the\nabsenc e of tree c over over wider e xpanses betw een bank s. Worms (ph ylum Annelida) and insects (ph ylum\nArthropoda) can be f ound burr owing int o the mud. P redat ory vertebrates (ph ylum Chor data) include w aterfowl,\nfrogs, and fishes . In hea vily silt-laden riv ers, these pr edat ors mus t find f ood in the murky w aters, and, unlik e the\ntrout in the clear w aters at the sour ce, these v ertebrates cannot use vision as their primar y sense t o find f ood.\nInstead, the y are mor e lik ely to use tas te or chemical cues t o find pr ey.\nWhen a riv er reaches the oc ean or a lar ge lak e, the w ater typical ly slo ws dramatical ly and an y silt in the riv er w ater\nwill set tle. Riv ers with high sil t content dischar ging int o oc eans with minimal curr ents and w ave action wil l build\ndeltas, low-elevation ar eas o f sand and mud, as the sil t set tles ont o the oc ean bot tom. Riv ers with lo w sil t content or\nin ar eas wher e oc ean curr ents or w ave action ar e high cr eate es tuarine ar eas wher e the fr esh w ater and sal t water\nmix.\nWetlands\nWetlands are en vironments in which the soil is either permanentl y or periodical ly satur ated with w ater. Wetlands\nare diff erent fr om lak es and ponds because w etlands e xhibit a near c ontinuous c over of emer gent v egetation.\nEmer gent v egetation consis ts of wetland plants that ar e rooted in the soil but ha ve por tions o f lea ves, stems , and\nflowers e xtending abo ve the w ater\u2019s sur face. Ther e are se veral types o f wetlands including marshes , swamps , bogs ,\nmudflats , and sal t marshes ( Figure 20.33 ).\nFIGURE 20.33 Locat ed in southern Florida , Everglades National P ark is v ast arr ay of wetland en vironments , including sa wgrass marshes ,\ncypr ess swamps , and es tuarine mangr ove forests. Her e, a gr eat egr et w alks among cypr ess trees. (credit: NPS)\nFreshwater marshes and s wamps ar e char acterized b y slo w and s teady w ater flo w. Bogs de velop in depr essions\nwher e water flo w is lo w or none xistent.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3174, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bc1f4821-7094-41d1-9be7-f2c44bd8bb0a": {"__data__": {"id_": "bc1f4821-7094-41d1-9be7-f2c44bd8bb0a", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "571", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "77c7cceb-7266-483a-a9b2-447e325ad8d7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "571", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6598b1373c4f75598b7835483cc2e242f114c62b1d53f17bdc0e405695d95db5", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "41ad9e23-626f-4fcc-8aaa-8a4017a5fc4c", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "571", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0886dac954e5a3893278251e4a784209c949a42c8219c6625c087c6b0efce60e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Ther e are se veral types o f wetlands including marshes , swamps , bogs ,\nmudflats , and sal t marshes ( Figure 20.33 ).\nFIGURE 20.33 Locat ed in southern Florida , Everglades National P ark is v ast arr ay of wetland en vironments , including sa wgrass marshes ,\ncypr ess swamps , and es tuarine mangr ove forests. Her e, a gr eat egr et w alks among cypr ess trees. (credit: NPS)\nFreshwater marshes and s wamps ar e char acterized b y slo w and s teady w ater flo w. Bogs de velop in depr essions\nwher e water flo w is lo w or none xistent. Bogs usual ly oc cur in ar eas wher e ther e is a cla y bot tom with poor\npercolation. P ercolation is the mo vement o f water thr ough the por es in the soil or r ocks. The w ater found in a bog is\nstagnant and o xygen deplet ed because the o xygen that is used during the dec omposition o f organic mat ter is not\nreplac ed. As the o xygen in the w ater is deplet ed, dec omposition slo ws. This leads t o organic acids and other acids20.4 \u2022 A quatic and Marine Biomes 557", "start_char_idx": 2631, "end_char_idx": 3649, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2758b957-6308-43cf-ade0-dda556bf4f39": {"__data__": {"id_": "2758b957-6308-43cf-ade0-dda556bf4f39", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "572", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "eeea2b74-278d-4603-a96c-c5215c17cf4b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "572", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dea83d731ea4d84d9200d992978ea8f66b15065ed601aed7d79e41cbaf78ff99", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "building up and lo wering the pH o f the w ater. At a lo wer pH, nitr ogen bec omes una vailable t o plants . This cr eates a\nchal leng e for plants because nitr ogen is an impor tant limiting r esour ce. Some types o f bog plants (such as sunde ws,\npitcher plants , and V enus fl ytraps) cap ture insects and e xtract the nitr ogen fr om their bodies . Bogs ha ve low net\nprimar y productivity because the w ater found in bogs has lo w le vels o f nitr ogen and o xygen.558 20 \u2022 E cosystems and the Biospher e\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 544, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "42495df6-2653-484c-a0f2-af87048abebe": {"__data__": {"id_": "42495df6-2653-484c-a0f2-af87048abebe", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "573", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b6d02f87-4fdc-41f0-aa22-1e40a38f8d39", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "573", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "67ca2ff2582972e7197439954a3cdeac7003e2f19d66cb81c63b3d27dc437631", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "98f6a407-539d-4c65-b53a-696bb180f537", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "c3c4bf36ac453979df1d924b334eb717b6966c1f933a45b4c9b7d34163db424f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nabyssal z one the deepes t par t of the oc ean at dep ths\nof 4000 m or gr eater\nacid r ain a corrosiv e rain caused b y rainwater mixing\nwith sulfur dio xide g as as it fal l thr ough the\natmospher e, turning it int o weak sulfuric acid,\ncausing damag e to aquatic ec osystems\nalgal bloom a rapid incr ease o f alg ae in an aquatic\nsystem\napex consumer an or ganism at the t op o f the f ood\nchain\napho tic z one the par t of the oc ean wher e\nphot osynthesis cannot oc cur\narctic tundr aa biome char acterized b y low average\ntemper atur es, brief gr owing seasons , the pr esenc e\nof permafr ost, and limit ed pr ecipitation lar gely in\nthe f orm o f sno w in which the dominant v egetation\nare low shrubs , lichens , mos ses, and smal l\nherbac eous plants\nautotroph an or ganism capable o f synthesizing its\nown f ood molecules fr om smal ler inor ganic\nmolecules\nbenthic r ealm (also , benthic z one) the par t of the\nocean that e xtends along the oc ean bot tom fr om the\nshor eline t o the deepes t par ts of the oc ean floor\nbiog eochemical cy cle the cy cling o f miner als and\nnutrients thr ough the biotic and abiotic w orld\nbiomagnifica tion an incr easing c oncentr ation o f\npersis tent, t oxic subs tanc es in or ganisms at each\ntrophic le vel, from the pr oduc ers t o the ape x\nconsumers\nbiome a lar ge-scale c ommunity o f organisms ,\nprimaril y defined on land b y the dominant plant\ntypes that e xist in g eogr aphic r egions o f the planet\nwith similar climatic c onditions\nboreal f oresta biome f ound in t emper ate and\nsubar ctic r egions char acterized b y shor t growing\nseasons and dominat ed s tructur ally by coniferous\ntrees\ncanop ythe br anches and f oliag e of trees that f orm a\nlayer of overhead c overage in a f orest\nchannel the bed and bank s of a riv er or s tream\nchaparr al a biome f ound in t emper ate coastal\nregions char acterized b y low trees and dr y-adap ted\nshrubs and f orbs\nchemoaut otroph an or ganism capable o f\nsynthesizing its o wn f ood using ener gy from\ninorganic molecules\ncoral reef an oc ean ridg e formed b y marine\ninvertebrates living in w arm shal low waters within\nthe photic z one\ncryptofauna the in vertebrates found within the\ncalcium carbonat e subs trate of coral reefsdead z one an ar ea in a lak e and oc ean near the\nmouths o f rivers wher e lar ge areas ar e deplet ed o f\ntheir normal flor a and fauna; these z ones can be\ncaused b y eutr ophication, oil spil ls, dumping o f toxic\nchemicals , and other human activities\ndetrital f ood w eb a type o f food w eb that is\nsuppor ted b y dead or deca ying or ganisms r ather\nthan b y living aut otrophs; these ar e often as sociat ed\nwith gr azing f ood w ebs within the same ec osystem\necosystem a community o f living or ganisms and their\ninteractions with their abiotic en vironment\necosystem ser vices the human benefits pr ovided b y\nnatur al ec osystems\nemer gent v egetation the plants living in bodies o f\nwater that ar e rooted in the soil but ha ve por tions o f\nleaves, stems ,", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3021, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "98f6a407-539d-4c65-b53a-696bb180f537": {"__data__": {"id_": "98f6a407-539d-4c65-b53a-696bb180f537", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "573", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "b6d02f87-4fdc-41f0-aa22-1e40a38f8d39", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "573", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "67ca2ff2582972e7197439954a3cdeac7003e2f19d66cb81c63b3d27dc437631", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "42495df6-2653-484c-a0f2-af87048abebe", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "573", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "821239ac86ccdd282eeab909070823e6a5c021235e830663395af7fe31ca48be", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "these z ones can be\ncaused b y eutr ophication, oil spil ls, dumping o f toxic\nchemicals , and other human activities\ndetrital f ood w eb a type o f food w eb that is\nsuppor ted b y dead or deca ying or ganisms r ather\nthan b y living aut otrophs; these ar e often as sociat ed\nwith gr azing f ood w ebs within the same ec osystem\necosystem a community o f living or ganisms and their\ninteractions with their abiotic en vironment\necosystem ser vices the human benefits pr ovided b y\nnatur al ec osystems\nemer gent v egetation the plants living in bodies o f\nwater that ar e rooted in the soil but ha ve por tions o f\nleaves, stems , and flo wers e xtending abo ve the\nwater\u2019s sur face\nequilibrium the s teady s tate of a s ystem in which the\nrelationships betw een elements o f the s ystem do\nnot chang e\nestuar ya region wher e fresh w ater and sal t water\nmix wher e a riv er dischar ges int o an oc ean or sea\neutr ophica tion the pr ocess wher eby nutrient runo ff\ncauses the e xcess growth o f micr oorganisms and\nplants in aquatic s ystems\nfallout the dir ect deposition o f solid miner als on land\nor in the oc ean fr om the atmospher e\nfood chain a linear sequenc e of trophic (f eeding )\nrelationships o f produc ers, primar y consumers , and\nhigher le vel consumers\nfood w eb a web o f trophic (f eeding ) relationships\namong pr oduc ers, primar y consumers , and higher\nlevel consumers in an ec osystem\ngrazing f ood w eb a type o f food w eb in which the\nproduc ers ar e either plants on land or\nphytoplank ton in the w ater; o ften as sociat ed with a\ndetrital f ood w eb within the same ec osystem\ngross primar y pr oductivity the r ate at which\nphot osynthetic pr oduc ers inc orpor ate ener gy from\nthe Sun\nhydrospher ethe r egion o f the planet in which w ater\nexists, including the atmospher e that c ontains w ater\nvapor and the r egion beneath the gr ound that\ncontains gr oundw ater\nintertidal z one the par t of the oc ean that is closes t to\nland; par ts extend abo ve the w ater at lo w tide\nneritic z one the par t of the oc ean that e xtends fr om\nlow tide t o the edg e of the c ontinental shelf\nnet primar y pr oductivity the ener gy that r emains in\nthe pr oduc ers aft er ac counting f or the or ganisms\u2019\nrespir ation and heat los s\nnon-r enewable r esour cea resour ce, such as a f ossil20 \u2022 K ey Terms 559", "start_char_idx": 2389, "end_char_idx": 4726, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "dcf16892-228c-4d35-9e04-68c645f5df15": {"__data__": {"id_": "dcf16892-228c-4d35-9e04-68c645f5df15", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "574", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "516457cd-6bf7-4c81-813d-28c4395e60da", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "574", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d18480b73eb6cd26f3883525cbcd58cf17e728ec15f049828b2d18aab8ff6ed9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "e701230c-aece-4952-b6da-c25e5f83a123", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "888819f6b529582a70ffcc7392d991101cf242ecae7867c0d9ed357a3f2607ef", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "fuel, that is either r egener ated v ery slo wly or not at\nall\noceanic z one the par t of the oc ean that begins\noffshor e wher e the w ater measur es 200 m deep or\ndeeper\npelagic r ealm (also , pelagic z one) the open oc ean\nwaters that ar e not close t o the bot tom or near the\nshor e\npermafr osta per ennial ly frozen por tion o f the Ar ctic\ntundr a soil\nphotic z one the upper la yer of ocean w ater in which\nphot osynthesis is able t o tak e plac e\nphotoaut otroph an or ganism that uses sunlight as an\nener gy sour ce to synthesiz e its o wn f ood molecules\nplank tivorean animal that eats plank ton\nprimar y consumer the tr ophic le vel that ob tains its\nener gy from the pr oduc ers o f an ec osystem\nproduc er the tr ophic le vel that ob tains its ener gy\nfrom sunlight, inor ganic chemicals , or dead or\ndeca ying or ganic mat erial\nresilienc e (ec ological) the speed at which an\necosystem r ecovers equilibrium aft er being\ndisturbed\nresis tanc e (ec ological) the ability o f an ec osystem t o\nremain at equilibrium in spit e of dis turbanc es\nsavanna a biome locat ed in the tr opics with an\nextended dr y season and char acterized b y agrassland with sparsel y dis tribut ed tr ees\nsecondar y consumer a trophic le vel in an ec osystem,\nusual ly a carniv ore that eats a primar y consumer\nsour ce water the point o f origin o f a riv er or s tream\nsubduction the mo vement o f one t ectonic plat e\nbeneath another\nsubtropical deser ta biome f ound in the sub tropics\nwith hot dail y temper atur es, very low and\nunpr edictable pr ecipitation, and char acterized b y a\nlimit ed dr y-adap ted v egetation\ntemper ate foresta biome f ound in t emper ate regions\nwith moder ate rainfal l and dominat ed s tructur ally\nby deciduous tr ees\ntemper ate grassland a biome dominat ed b y grasses\nand herbac eous plants due t o low pr ecipitation,\nperiodic fir es, and gr azing\ntertiary consumer a trophic le vel in an ec osystem,\nusual ly carniv ores that eat other carniv ores\ntrophic le velthe position o f a species or gr oup o f\nspecies in a f ood chain or a f ood w eb\ntropical r ainf oresta biome f ound near the equat or\nchar acterized b y stable t emper atur es with abundant\nand seasonal r ainfal l in which tr ees f orm the\nstructur ally impor tant v egetation\nwetland environment in which the soil is either\npermanentl y or periodical ly satur ated with w ater\nChap ter Summar y\n20.1 Waterford's Ener gy Flo w thr ough\nEcosystems\nEcosystems e xist under ground, on land, at sea , and in\nthe air . Organisms in an ec osystem ac quire ener gy in a\nvariety o f ways, which is tr ansferred betw een tr ophic\nlevels as the ener gy flo ws from the base t o the t op o f\nthe f ood w eb, with ener gy being los t at each tr ansfer.\nTher e is ener gy los t at each tr ophic le vel, so the\nlengths o f food chains ar e limit ed because ther e is a\npoint wher e not enough ener gy remains t o suppor t a\npopulation o f consumers . Fat soluble c ompounds\nbiomagnif y up a f ood chain causing damag e to top\nconsumers . even when en vironmental c oncentr ations\nof a toxin ar e low.\n20.2 Biogeochemic al Cycles\nMiner al nutrients ar e cy cled thr ough ec osystems and\ntheir en vironment.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3191, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e701230c-aece-4952-b6da-c25e5f83a123": {"__data__": {"id_": "e701230c-aece-4952-b6da-c25e5f83a123", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "574", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "516457cd-6bf7-4c81-813d-28c4395e60da", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "574", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d18480b73eb6cd26f3883525cbcd58cf17e728ec15f049828b2d18aab8ff6ed9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "dcf16892-228c-4d35-9e04-68c645f5df15", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "574", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "88393429ba1b25749fee3e84ecd82f8a0caf49b991782ed1dff99472c2b1079b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Ther e is ener gy los t at each tr ophic le vel, so the\nlengths o f food chains ar e limit ed because ther e is a\npoint wher e not enough ener gy remains t o suppor t a\npopulation o f consumers . Fat soluble c ompounds\nbiomagnif y up a f ood chain causing damag e to top\nconsumers . even when en vironmental c oncentr ations\nof a toxin ar e low.\n20.2 Biogeochemic al Cycles\nMiner al nutrients ar e cy cled thr ough ec osystems and\ntheir en vironment. Of par ticular impor tanc e are water,\ncarbon, nitr ogen, phosphorus , and sulfur . All of these\ncycles ha ve major impacts on ec osystem s tructur e and\nfunction. As human activities ha ve caused major\ndisturbanc es to these cy cles , their s tudy and modeling\nis especial ly impor tant. E cosystems ha ve beendamag ed b y a v ariety o f human activities that al ter the\nnatur al biog eochemical cy cles due t o pol lution, oil\nspills, and e vents causing global climat e chang e. The\nheal th of the biospher e depends on unders tanding\nthese cy cles and ho w to protect the en vironment fr om\nirreversible damag e.\n20.3 Terrestrial Biomes\nEarth has t errestrial and aquatic biomes . Aquatic\nbiomes include both fr eshwater and marine\nenvironments . Ther e are eight major t errestrial biomes:\ntropical r ainforests, savannas , sub tropical deser ts,\nchaparr al, temper ate grasslands , temper ate forests,\nboreal f orests, and Ar ctic tundr a. The same biome can\noccur in diff erent g eogr aphic locations with similar\nclimat es. Temper atur e and pr ecipitation, and v ariations\nin both, ar e key abiotic fact ors that shape the\ncomposition o f animal and plant c ommunities in\nterrestrial biomes . Some biomes , such as t emper ate\ngrasslands and t emper ate forests, have dis tinct\nseasons with c old and hot w eather al ternating\nthroughout the y ear. In w arm, mois t biomes , such as\nthe tr opical r ainforest, net primar y productivity is high\nas w arm t emper atur es, abundant w ater, and a y ear-560 20 \u2022 Chap ter Summar y\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2741, "end_char_idx": 4760, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8a019029-0d7d-451f-8a65-530e1da0a056": {"__data__": {"id_": "8a019029-0d7d-451f-8a65-530e1da0a056", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "575", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "35f2554c-3bfe-4d2a-95cf-069dd9ddbbe8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "575", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ec526e917e3598451a22c0ca410ed1d086d6b72e070fd702ef425351922a13b0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "eff976c4-78d1-4397-bf0c-7c642a8d12a1", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "aeece5571d2f974ff639a67153aa10474af035baea7e1be35b00cb424535e4eb", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "round gr owing season fuel plant gr owth. Other biomes ,\nsuch as deser ts and tundr a, have low primar y\nproductivity due t o extreme t emper atur es and a\nshor tage of water.\n20.4 Aquatic and Marine Biomes\nAquatic biomes include both sal twater and fr eshwater\nbiomes . The abiotic fact ors impor tant f or the\nstructuring o f aquatic biomes can be diff erent than\nthose seen in t errestrial biomes . Sunlight is an\nimpor tant fact or in bodies o f water, especial ly those\nthat ar e very deep , because o f the r ole o f\nphot osynthesis in sus taining c ertain or ganisms . Other\nimpor tant fact ors include t emper atur e, watermovement, and sal t content. Oc eans ma y be thought o f\nas consis ting o f diff erent z ones based on w ater dep th,\ndistanc e from the shor eline , and light penetr ance.\nDifferent kinds o f organisms ar e adap ted to the\nconditions f ound in each z one. Cor al reefs ar e unique\nmarine ec osystems that ar e home t o a wide v ariety o f\nspecies . Estuaries ar e found wher e riv ers meet the\nocean; their shal low waters pr ovide nourishment and\nshel ter for young crus taceans , mol lusk s, fishes , and\nman y other species . Freshwater biomes include lak es,\nponds , rivers, streams , and w etlands . Bogs ar e an\ninteresting type o f wetland char acterized b y standing\nwater, a lo wer pH, and a lack o f nitr ogen.\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 20.12 Which o f the f ollowing s tatements\nabout the nitr ogen cy cle is false?\na.Ammonification c onverts or ganic nitr ogenous\nmatter fr om living or ganisms int o ammonium\n(NH4+).\nb.Denitrification b y bact eria c onverts nitr ates\n(NO3-) to nitr ogen g as (N 2).\nc.Nitrification b y bact eria c onverts nitr ates\n(NO3-) to nitrit es (NO 2-).\nd.Nitrogen fixing bact eria c onvert nitr ogen g as\n(N2) into organic c ompounds .2.Figure 20.28 In which o f the f ollowing r egions\nwould y ou e xpect t o find phot osynthetic or ganisms?\na.The aphotic z one, the neritic z one, the oc eanic\nzone, and the benthic r ealm.\nb.The photic z one, the int ertidal z one, the neritic\nzone, and the oc eanic z one.\nc.The photic z one, the ab yssal z one, the neritic\nzone, and the oc eanic z one.\nd.The pelagic r ealm, the aphotic z one, the neritic\nzone, and the oc eanic z one.\nReview Ques tions\n3.Decomposers ar e as sociat ed with which clas s of\nfood w eb?\na.grazing\nb.detrital\nc.inverted\nd.aquatic\n4.The pr oduc er in an oc ean gr azing f ood w eb is\nusual ly a ________.\na.plant\nb.animal\nc.fungi\nd.plank ton\n5.Which t erm describes the pr ocess wher eby toxic\nsubs tanc es incr ease along tr ophic le vels o f an\necosystem?\na.biomas sification\nb.biomagnification\nc.bioentr opy\nd.heterotrophy6.The majority o f the w ater found on Ear th is:\na.ice\nb.water vapor\nc.fresh w ater\nd.salt water\n7.The pr ocess wher eby oxygen is deplet ed b y the\ngrowth o f micr oorganisms due t o excess nutrients\nin aquatic s ystems is cal led ________.\na.dead z oning\nb.eutr ophication\nc.retrophication\nd.depletion\n8.Which o f the f ollowing biomes is char acterized b y\nabundant w ater resour ces?", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3068, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "eff976c4-78d1-4397-bf0c-7c642a8d12a1": {"__data__": {"id_": "eff976c4-78d1-4397-bf0c-7c642a8d12a1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "575", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "35f2554c-3bfe-4d2a-95cf-069dd9ddbbe8", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "575", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ec526e917e3598451a22c0ca410ed1d086d6b72e070fd702ef425351922a13b0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "8a019029-0d7d-451f-8a65-530e1da0a056", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "575", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cc8bc7d32aaff7a90757ceab6d36ddd313dce8f620d0d55739dad97283090144", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "a.biomas sification\nb.biomagnification\nc.bioentr opy\nd.heterotrophy6.The majority o f the w ater found on Ear th is:\na.ice\nb.water vapor\nc.fresh w ater\nd.salt water\n7.The pr ocess wher eby oxygen is deplet ed b y the\ngrowth o f micr oorganisms due t o excess nutrients\nin aquatic s ystems is cal led ________.\na.dead z oning\nb.eutr ophication\nc.retrophication\nd.depletion\n8.Which o f the f ollowing biomes is char acterized b y\nabundant w ater resour ces?\na.deser ts\nb.boreal f orests\nc.savanna\nd.tropical w et forests20 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions 561", "start_char_idx": 2613, "end_char_idx": 3170, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "608fea0d-9aca-47cb-a17c-e26748b723fa": {"__data__": {"id_": "608fea0d-9aca-47cb-a17c-e26748b723fa", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "576", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f5d4940c-3cdc-4fa5-ba27-1104361d961f", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "576", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "af16c6d295bbac494d037794816d29b93c9bae7ef61b44be290cb4b44a9d0bef", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "9.Which o f the f ollowing biomes is char acterized b y\nshor t growing seasons?\na.deser ts\nb.tropical w et forests\nc.Arctic tundr a\nd.savanna\n10.Why is the tundr a treeles s?\na.lack o f sufficient w ater\nb.permanentl y frozen gr ound\nc.wint ers t oo harsh\nd.too man y fires11.Wher e would y ou e xpect t o find the mos t\nphot osynthesis in an oc ean biome?\na.aphotic z one\nb.abyssal z one\nc.benthic r ealm\nd.intertidal z one\n12.A key featur e of estuaries is\na.low light c onditions and high pr oductivity\nb.salt water and fr esh w ater\nc.frequent alg al blooms\nd.little or no v egetation\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n13.Compar e grazing and detrital f ood w ebs. Wh y\nwould the y both be pr esent in the same\necosystem?\n14.Why are drinking w ater supplies s till a major\nconcern f or man y countries?15.The e xtremel y low pr ecipitation o f sub tropical\ndeser t biomes might lead one t o expect fir e to be\na major dis turbanc e fact or; ho wever, fire is mor e\ncommon in the t emper ate grassland biome than in\nthe sub tropical deser t biome . Wh y is this?\n16.In what w ays are the sub tropical deser t and the\nArctic tundr a similar?\n17.Describe the c onditions and chal leng es facing\norganisms living in the int ertidal z one.562 20 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1306, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "53b07e7a-2d0c-480a-b010-a9a7cf0b24f1": {"__data__": {"id_": "53b07e7a-2d0c-480a-b010-a9a7cf0b24f1", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "577", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "98494814-aef0-4a9f-b9cf-e971f1747e27", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "577", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "909deb0688da6bf697535cf5e2e30e8820cf2006aa34e1498edbb85b644c7212", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INTR ODUCT IONCHAP TER 21\nConser vation and Biodiv ersit y\n21.1 Impor tanc e of Biodiv ersity\n21.2 Threats to Biodiv ersity\n21.3 Preser ving Biodiv ersity\nBiologis ts es timat e that species e xtinctions ar e curr ently 500\u20131000 times the\nrate seen pr eviousl y in Ear th\u2019s his tory when ther e were no unusual g eological or climatic e vents\noccurring . Biologis ts cal l the pr evious r ate the \u201cback ground\u201d r ate of extinction. The curr ent high\nrates wil l cause a pr ecipit ous decline in the biodiv ersity (the div ersity o f species) o f the planet in\nthe ne xt centur y or tw o. The los ses wil l include man y species w e kno w today. Although it is\nsometimes difficul t to predict which species wil l bec ome e xtinct, man y are lis ted as endang ered\n(at gr eat risk o f extinction). Ho wever, the majority o f extinctions wil l be o f species that scienc e has\nnot y et even described.\nMos t of these \u201cin visible \u201d species that wil l bec ome e xtinct curr ently live in tr opical r ainforests lik e\nthose o f the Amaz on basin. These r ainforests ar e the mos t div erse ec osystems on the planet and\nare being des troyed rapidl y by def orestation, which biologis ts belie ve is driving man y rare species\nwith limit ed dis tributions e xtinct. Betw een 1970 and 2011, almos t 20 per cent o f the Amaz on\nrainforest was los t. Rates ar e higher in other tr opical r ainforests. What w e are lik ely to notic e on a\nday-to-day basis as a r esul t of biodiv ersity los s is that f ood wil l be mor e difficul t to produc e, clean\nwater wil l be mor e difficul t to find, and the r ate of development o f new medicines wil l bec ome\nslower, as w e depend upon other species f or much o f these ser vices. This incr eased los s of\nbiodiv ersity is almos t entir ely a r esul t of human activities as w e des troy species\u2019 habitats ,FIGURE 21.1 Habitat des truction thr ough def orestation, especial ly of tropical r ainforests as seen in this sat ellite vie w\nof Amaz on rainforests in Br azil, is a major cause o f the curr ent decline in biodiv ersity . (credit: modification o f work b y\nJesse Al len and R ober t Simmon, NASA Ear th Obser vatory)\nCHAP TER OUTLINE", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2177, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0bbccf1b-479c-4cf2-a75a-9b52384e19bc": {"__data__": {"id_": "0bbccf1b-479c-4cf2-a75a-9b52384e19bc", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "578", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "6f865e1a-6a03-4cd9-aa10-effa86d48112", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "578", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "9a4fa94d496e5cca55eccb9bb5025ebbe3676e9ec81ac9f7c675148b1dd4ed8b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "introduc e disrup tive species int o ec osystems , hunt some species t o extinction, c ontinue t o warm\nthe planet with gr eenhouse g ases , and influenc e natur e in other w ays. Slo wing the los s of\nbiodiv ersity is within our abilities if w e mak e dramatic chang es in our c onsump tive beha vior and\nidentif y and pr otect the elements o f our ec osystems that w e depend on f or our liv es and w elfar e.\n21.1 Impor tanc e of Biodiv ersity\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe biodiv ersity as the equilibrium o f natur ally fluctuating r ates o f extinction and\nspeciation\n\u2022Identif y benefits o f biodiv ersity t o humans\nFIGURE 21.2 This tr opical lo wland r ainforest in Madag ascar is an e xample o f a high biodiv ersity habitat. This\nparticular location is pr otected within a national f orest, yet onl y 10 per cent o f the original c oastal lo wland f orest\nremains , and r esear ch sug gests half the original biodiv ersity has been los t. (cr edit: F rank V assen)\nBiodiv ersity is a br oad t erm f or biological v ariety , and it can be measur ed at a number o f\norganizational le vels. Traditional ly, ecologis ts ha ve measur edbiodiv ersity by taking int o ac count\nboth the number o f species and the number o f individuals in each o f those species . Ho wever,\nbiologis ts ar e using measur es o f biodiv ersity at se veral le vels o f biological or ganization (including\ngenes , populations , and ec osystems) t o help f ocus eff orts to preser ve the biological ly and\ntechnological ly impor tant elements o f biodiv ersity .\nWhen biodiv ersity los s thr ough e xtinction is thought o f as the los s of the pas seng er pig eon, the\ndodo , or, even, the w oolly mammoth ther e seems t o be no r eason t o car e about it because these\nevents happened long ag o. Ho w is the los s practical ly impor tant f or the w elfar e of the human\nspecies? W ould these species ha ve made our liv es an y bet ter? F rom the perspectiv e of evolution\nand ec olog y, the los s of a par ticular individual species , with some e xceptions , ma y seem\nunimpor tant, but the curr ent ac celerated e xtinction r ate means the los s of tens o f thousands o f\nspecies within our lif etimes . Much o f this los s is oc curring in tr opical r ainforests lik e the one\npictur ed in Figure 21.2 , which ar e especial ly high-div ersity ec osystems that ar e being clear ed for\ntimber and agricul ture. This is lik ely to ha ve dramatic eff ects on human w elfar e thr ough the\ncollapse o f ecosystems and in added c osts to maintain f ood pr oduction, clean air and w ater, and\nimpr ove human heal th.\nBiologis ts recogniz e that human populations ar e embedded in ec osystems and ar e dependent on\nthem, jus t as is e very other species on the planet. Agricul ture beg an aft er earl y hunt er-gather er\nsocieties firs t set tled in one plac e and hea vily modified their immediat e en vironment: the\necosystem in which the y existed. This cul tural transition has made it difficul t for humans t o\nrecogniz e their dependenc e on living things other than cr ops and domes ticat ed animals on the\nplanet. T oday our t echnolog y smoothes out the e xtremes o f existence and al lows man y of us t o564 21 \u2022 C onser vation and Biodiv ersity\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3319, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f08f6691-527b-4fb9-a90c-2ab8664cfab2": {"__data__": {"id_": "f08f6691-527b-4fb9-a90c-2ab8664cfab2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "579", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "64d70778-5d01-41ca-814d-427070c72c47", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "579", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b1ee4402b27362a545d3a499eddf19da55537f8924171bf4f5365ccae03210c7", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "0ef62579-9071-4ff3-a1d5-164a3df15dc2", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "6d49eb258619243545aed6c74c35a2d78058f94691146aa5f282b8268685fa97", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "live long er, mor e comfortable liv es, but ul timat ely the human species cannot e xist without its surr ounding\necosystems . Our ec osystems pr ovide our f ood. This includes living plants that gr ow in soil ec osystems and the\nanimals that eat these plants (or other animals) as w ell as phot osynthetic or ganisms in the oc eans and the other\norganisms that eat them. Our ec osystems ha ve provided and wil l provide man y of the medications that maintain our\nheal th, which ar e commonl y made fr om c ompounds f ound in living or ganisms . Ecosystems pr ovide our clean w ater,\nwhich is held in lak e and riv er ec osystems or pas ses thr ough t errestrial ec osystems on its w ay int o groundw ater.\nTypes o f Biodiv ersity\nA common meaning o f biodiv ersity is simpl y the number o f species in a location or on Ear th; for example , the\nAmerican Ornithologis ts\u2019 Union lis ts 2078 species o f birds in Nor th and Centr al America . This is one measur e of the\nbird biodiv ersity on the c ontinent. Mor e sophis ticat ed measur es o f div ersity tak e int o ac count the r elativ e\nabundanc es o f species . For example , a forest with 10 equal ly common species o f trees is mor e div erse than a f orest\nthat has 10 species o f trees wher ein jus t one o f those species mak es up 95 per cent o f the tr ees r ather than them\nbeing equal ly dis tribut ed. Biologis ts ha ve also identified al ternat e measur es o f biodiv ersity , some o f which ar e\nimpor tant in planning ho w to preser ve biodiv ersity .\nGene tic and Chemic al Biodiv ersity\nGenetic div ersity is one al ternat e concept of biodiv ersity .Genetic div ersity (or v ariation) is the r aw mat erial f or\nadap tation in a species . A species\u2019 futur e pot ential f or adap tation depends on the g enetic div ersity held in the\ngenomes o f the individuals in populations that mak e up the species . The same is true f or higher tax onomic\ncategories . A g enus with v ery diff erent types o f species wil l have mor e genetic div ersity than a g enus with species\nthat look alik e and ha ve similar ec ologies . The g enus with the gr eatest pot ential f or subsequent e volution is the\nmos t genetical ly div erse one .\nMos t genes c ode f or pr oteins , which in turn carr y out the metabolic pr ocesses that k eep or ganisms aliv e and\nreproducing . Genetic div ersity can also be c onceived o f as chemical div ersity in that species with diff erent g enetic\nmak eups pr oduc e diff erent as sortments o f chemicals in their c ells (pr oteins as w ell as the pr oducts and b yproducts\nof metabolism). This chemical div ersity is impor tant f or humans because o f the pot ential uses f or these chemicals ,\nsuch as medications . For example , the drug ep tifibatide is deriv ed fr om r attlesnak e venom and is used t o prevent\nhear t attack s in individuals with c ertain hear t conditions .\nAt present, it is far cheaper t o disc over compounds made b y an or ganism than t o imagine them and then s ynthesiz e\nthem in a labor atory. Chemical div ersity is one w ay to measur e div ersity that is impor tant t o human heal th and\nwelfar e. Thr ough selectiv e breeding , humans ha ve domes ticat ed animals , plants , and fungi, but e ven this div ersity is\nsuffering los ses because o f mark et forces and incr easing globalism in human agricul ture and migr ation.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3347, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0ef62579-9071-4ff3-a1d5-164a3df15dc2": {"__data__": {"id_": "0ef62579-9071-4ff3-a1d5-164a3df15dc2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "579", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "64d70778-5d01-41ca-814d-427070c72c47", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "579", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b1ee4402b27362a545d3a499eddf19da55537f8924171bf4f5365ccae03210c7", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "f08f6691-527b-4fb9-a90c-2ab8664cfab2", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "579", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "aa7059c10f4c9885505ff6a901ca23a1499f52d86f4363bc0da4a49e4dd8a6a2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "For example , the drug ep tifibatide is deriv ed fr om r attlesnak e venom and is used t o prevent\nhear t attack s in individuals with c ertain hear t conditions .\nAt present, it is far cheaper t o disc over compounds made b y an or ganism than t o imagine them and then s ynthesiz e\nthem in a labor atory. Chemical div ersity is one w ay to measur e div ersity that is impor tant t o human heal th and\nwelfar e. Thr ough selectiv e breeding , humans ha ve domes ticat ed animals , plants , and fungi, but e ven this div ersity is\nsuffering los ses because o f mark et forces and incr easing globalism in human agricul ture and migr ation. F or\nexample , international seed c ompanies pr oduc e onl y a v ery few varieties o f a giv en cr op and pr ovide inc entiv es\naround the w orld f or farmers t o buy these f ew varieties while abandoning their tr aditional v arieties , which ar e far\nmor e div erse . The human population depends on cr op div ersity dir ectly as a s table f ood sour ce and its decline is\ntroubling t o biologis ts and agricul tural scientis ts.\nEcosystems Div ersity\nIt is also useful t o define ecosystem div ersity : the number o f diff erent ec osystems on Ear th or in a g eogr aphical\narea. Whole ec osystems can disappear e ven if some o f the species might sur vive by adap ting t o other ec osystems .\nThe los s of an ec osystem means the los s of the int eractions betw een species , the los s of unique f eatur es o f\ncoadap tation, and the los s of biological pr oductivity that an ec osystem is able t o create. An e xample o f a lar gely\nextinct ec osystem in Nor th America is the pr airie ec osystem ( Figure 21.3 ). Prairies onc e spanned c entr al Nor th\nAmerica fr om the bor eal f orest in nor thern Canada do wn int o Me xico. The y are no w al l but g one, replac ed b y crop\nfields , pas ture lands , and suburban spr awl. Man y of the species sur vive, but the hug ely productiv e ec osystem that\nwas responsible f or cr eating our mos t productiv e agricul tural soils is no w gone. As a c onsequenc e, their soils ar e\nnow being deplet ed unles s the y are maintained ar tificial ly at gr eater expense . The decline in soil pr oductivity oc curs\nbecause the int eractions in the original ec osystem ha ve been los t; this w as a far mor e impor tant los s than the\nrelativ ely few species that w ere driv en e xtinct when the pr airie ec osystem w as des troyed.21.1 \u2022 Impor tanc e of Biodiv ersity 565", "start_char_idx": 2708, "end_char_idx": 5162, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "6fb812b2-4c45-4562-8598-3793ec44b1b0": {"__data__": {"id_": "6fb812b2-4c45-4562-8598-3793ec44b1b0", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "580", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "00e8dd5a-34d9-4a2c-a90e-29002e4363b6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "580", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b9b1578e76e0216c250e2dd0db57f73bbe9ae914ef75cc455be50d0722771249", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 21.3 The v ariety o f ecosystems on Ear th\u2014fr om c oral reef t o prairie \u2014enables a gr eat div ersity o f species t o exist. (cr edit \u201c coral\nreef\u201d: modification o f work b y Jim Mar agos, USFWS; cr edit: \u201c prairie \u201d: modification o f work b y Jim Minner ath, USFWS)\nCurrent Species Div ersity\nDespit e consider able eff ort, kno wledg e of the species that inhabit the planet is limit ed. A r ecent es timat e sug gests\nthat the euk aryote species f or which scienc e has names , about 1.5 mil lion species , account f or les s than 20 per cent\nof the t otal number o f euk aryote species pr esent on the planet (8.7 mil lion species , by one es timat e). Es timat es o f\nnumbers o f prokaryotic species ar e lar gely guesses, but biologis ts agr ee that scienc e has onl y jus t beg un to catalog\ntheir div ersity . Even with what is kno wn, ther e is no c entr alized reposit ory of names or samples o f the described\nspecies; ther efore, ther e is no w ay to be sur e that the 1.5 mil lion descrip tions is an ac curate number . It is a bes t\nguess based on the opinions o f exper ts on diff erent tax onomic gr oups . Giv en that Ear th is losing species at an\naccelerating pac e, scienc e kno ws little about what is being los t.Table 21.1 presents r ecent es timat es o f biodiv ersity\nin diff erent gr oups .\nEstimat ed Numbers o f Described and P redict ed species\nSour ce: Mor a et al 2011 Sour ce: Chapman 2009Sour ce: Gr oombridge and\nJenkins 2002\nDescribed Predict ed Described Predict ed Described Predict ed\nAnimals 1,124,516 9,920,000 1,424,153 6,836,330 1,225,500 10,820,000\nPhot osynthetic\nprotists17,892 34,900 25,044 200,500 \u2014 \u2014\nFungi 44,368 616,320 98,998 1,500,000 72,000 1,500,000\nPlants 224,244 314,600 310,129 390,800 270,000 320,000\nNon-phot osynthetic\nprotists16,236 72,800 28,871 1,000,000 80,000 600,000\nProkaryotes \u2014 \u2014 10,307 1,000,000 10,175 \u2014\nTotal 1,438,769 10,960,000 1,897,502 10,897,630 1,657,675 13,240,000\nTABLE 21.1 This table sho ws the es timat ed number o f species b y tax onomic gr oup\u2014including both described (named and s tudied) and\npredict ed (yet to be named) species .\nTher e are various initiativ es to catalog described species in ac cessible and mor e organiz ed w ays, and the int ernet is\nfacilitating that eff ort. Ne vertheles s, at the curr ent r ate of species descrip tion, which ac cording t o the Stat e of\nObser ved Species1repor ts is 17,000\u201320,000 ne w species a y ear, it w ould tak e close t o 500 y ears t o describe al l of\nthe species curr ently in e xistence. The task, ho wever, is bec oming incr easingl y impos sible o ver time as extinction\nremo ves species fr om Ear th fas ter than the y can be described.566 21 \u2022 C onser vation and Biodiv ersity\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2764, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d4c51c6c-0ce9-4681-8752-958ca5fda9cd": {"__data__": {"id_": "d4c51c6c-0ce9-4681-8752-958ca5fda9cd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "581", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e4aa0547-2e60-4e31-8621-461f130451c5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "581", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "127ec547b951cd5f807773f9cdeef55ae409ec98dfd855d8597291fc9466a49f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "fc56687e-98aa-48e5-95fc-13530a958260", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "eabf41897d9ec632c762e135303e5f141c862ac748a907d15321b0d3d23c3a6a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Naming and c ounting species ma y seem an unimpor tant pursuit giv en the other needs o f humanity , but it is not\nsimpl y an ac counting . Describing species is a c omple x process by which biologis ts det ermine an or ganism \u2019s unique\nchar acteristics and whether or not that or ganism belongs t o an y other described species . It al lows biologis ts to find\nand r ecogniz e the species aft er the initial disc overy to follow up on ques tions about its biolog y. That subsequent\nresear ch wil l produc e the disc overies that mak e the species v aluable t o humans and t o our ec osystems . Without a\nname and descrip tion, a species cannot be s tudied in dep th and in a c oordinat ed w ay by mul tiple scientis ts.\nPatterns o f Biodiv ersity\nBiodiv ersity is not e venly dis tribut ed on the planet. L ake Vict oria c ontained almos t 500 species o f cichlids (onl y one\nfamil y of fishes pr esent in the lak e) bef ore the intr oduction o f an e xotic species in the 1980s and 1990s caused a\nmas s extinction. Al l of these species w ere found onl y in L ake Vict oria, which is t o sa y the y were endemic. Endemic\nspecies are found in onl y one location. F or example , the blue ja y is endemic t o Nor th America , while the Bar ton\nSprings salamander is endemic t o the mouth o f one spring in Aus tin, T exas. Endemics with highl y restrict ed\ndistributions , like the Bar ton Springs salamander , are par ticularl y vulner able t o extinction. Higher tax onomic le vels,\nsuch as g ener a and families , can also be endemic.\nLake Hur on c ontains about 79 species o f fish, al l of which ar e found in man y other lak es in Nor th America . What\naccounts f or the diff erence in div ersity betw een L ake Vict oria and L ake Hur on? L ake Vict oria is a tr opical lak e, while\nLake Hur on is a t emper ate lak e. Lake Hur on in its pr esent f orm is onl y about 7,000 y ears old, while L ake Vict oria in\nits pr esent f orm is about 15,000 y ears old. These tw o fact ors, latitude and ag e, are tw o of several hypotheses\nbiog eogr aphers ha ve sug gested to explain biodiv ersity pat terns on Ear th.\nCAREER C ONNE CTION\nBiogeogr aphy\nBiog eogr aphy is the s tudy o f the dis tribution o f the w orld\u2019 s species both in the pas t and in the pr esent. The w ork o f\nbiog eogr aphers is critical t o unders tanding our ph ysical en vironment, ho w the en vironment aff ects species , and ho w\nchang es in en vironment impact the dis tribution o f a species .\nTher e are thr ee main fields o f study under the heading o f biog eogr aphy: ec ological biog eogr aphy, his torical\nbiog eogr aphy (cal led paleobiog eogr aphy), and c onser vation biog eogr aphy. Ecological biog eogr aphy studies the\ncurr ent fact ors aff ecting the dis tribution o f plants and animals . His torical biog eogr aphy, as the name implies , studies\nthe pas t dis tribution o f species . Conser vation biog eogr aphy, on the other hand, is f ocused on the pr otection and\nrestoration o f species based upon the kno wn his torical and curr ent ec ological inf ormation. Each o f these fields\nconsiders both z oogeogr aphy and ph ytogeogr aphy\u2014the pas t and pr esent dis tribution o f animals and plants .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3191, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fc56687e-98aa-48e5-95fc-13530a958260": {"__data__": {"id_": "fc56687e-98aa-48e5-95fc-13530a958260", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "581", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "e4aa0547-2e60-4e31-8621-461f130451c5", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "581", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "127ec547b951cd5f807773f9cdeef55ae409ec98dfd855d8597291fc9466a49f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "d4c51c6c-0ce9-4681-8752-958ca5fda9cd", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "581", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "36e4dfb0049c7d74f30207ab3466d5815fe8ef87ed031ea42fd3aad5fcae13b1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Ecological biog eogr aphy studies the\ncurr ent fact ors aff ecting the dis tribution o f plants and animals . His torical biog eogr aphy, as the name implies , studies\nthe pas t dis tribution o f species . Conser vation biog eogr aphy, on the other hand, is f ocused on the pr otection and\nrestoration o f species based upon the kno wn his torical and curr ent ec ological inf ormation. Each o f these fields\nconsiders both z oogeogr aphy and ph ytogeogr aphy\u2014the pas t and pr esent dis tribution o f animals and plants .\nOne o f the oldes t obser ved pat terns in ec olog y is that biodiv ersity in almos t every tax onomic gr oup o f organism\nincreases as latitude declines . In other w ords, biodiv ersity incr eases closer t o the equat or (Figure 21.4 ).\n1International Ins titut e for Species Explor ation (IISE), 2011 Stat e of Obser ved Species (SOS) . Tempe , AZ: IISE, 2011. Ac cessed Ma y, 20,\n2012. ht tp://species .asu. edu/SOS.21.1 \u2022 Impor tanc e of Biodiv ersity 567", "start_char_idx": 2670, "end_char_idx": 3651, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "d5f0eba6-51d7-47b2-a44c-91dd8e220e2e": {"__data__": {"id_": "d5f0eba6-51d7-47b2-a44c-91dd8e220e2e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "582", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "2736c32e-32ea-4fa7-a6ae-7a5590529f84", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "582", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b4668373ff838795e9d9f40e951b07c62d630c0e208cf5cb973317748dda45fa", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 21.4 This map il lustrates the number o f amphibian species acr oss the globe and sho ws the tr end t oward higher biodiv ersity at\nlower latitudes . A similar pat tern is obser ved for mos t tax onomic gr oups .\nIt is not y et clear wh y biodiv ersity incr eases closer t o the equat or, but h ypotheses include the gr eater ag e of the\necosystems in the tr opics v ersus t emper ate regions , which w ere lar gely de void o f life or dr astical ly impo verished\nduring the las t ice ag e. The gr eater ag e provides mor e time f or speciation. Another pos sible e xplanation is the\ngreater ener gy the tr opics r eceive from the sun v ersus the les ser ener gy input in t emper ate and polar r egions . But\nscientis ts ha ve not been able t o explain ho w gr eater ener gy input c ould tr anslat e int o mor e species . The c omple xity\nof tropical ec osystems ma y promot e speciation b y incr easing the habita t het erogeneity , or number o f ecological\nniches , in the tr opics r elativ e to higher latitudes . The gr eater het erogeneity pr ovides mor e oppor tunities f or\ncoevolution, specialization, and perhaps gr eater selection pr essures leading t o population diff erentiation. Ho wever,\nthis h ypothesis suff ers fr om some cir cularity \u2014ecosystems with mor e species enc ourage speciation, but ho w did\nthey get mor e species t o begin with? The tr opics ha ve been per ceived as being mor e stable than t emper ate regions ,\nwhich ha ve a pr onounc ed climat e and da y-length seasonality . The tr opics ha ve their o wn f orms o f seasonality , such\nas rainfal l, but the y are gener ally assumed t o be mor e stable en vironments and this s tability might pr omot e\nspeciation.\nRegardles s of the mechanisms , it is c ertainl y true that biodiv ersity is gr eatest in the tr opics . The number o f endemic\nspecies is higher in the tr opics . The tr opics also c ontain mor e biodiv ersity hotspots . At the same time , our\nknowledg e of the species living in the tr opics is lo west and because o f recent, hea vy human activity the pot ential f or\nbiodiv ersity los s is gr eatest.\nImpor tanc e of Biodiv ersity\nLoss of biodiv ersity e ventual ly thr eatens other species w e do not impact dir ectly because o f their\ninterconnect ednes s; as species disappear fr om an ec osystem other species ar e thr eatened b y the chang es in\navailable r esour ces. Biodiv ersity is impor tant t o the sur vival and w elfar e of human populations because it has\nimpacts on our heal th and our ability t o feed oursel ves thr ough agricul ture and har vesting populations o f wild\nanimals .\nHuman Health\nMan y medications ar e deriv ed fr om natur al chemicals made b y a div erse gr oup o f organisms . For example , man y\nplants pr oduc esecondar y plant c ompounds , which ar e toxins used t o protect the plant fr om insects and other\nanimals that eat them. Some o f these sec ondar y plant c ompounds also w ork as human medicines . Cont empor ary\nsocieties that liv e close t o the land o ften ha ve a br oad kno wledg e of the medicinal uses o f plants gr owing in their\narea. For centuries in Eur ope, older kno wledg e about the medical uses o f plants w as compiled in herbals \u2014book s\nthat identified the plants and their uses . Humans ar e not the onl y animals t o use plants f or medicinal r easons . The\nother gr eat apes , orangutans , chimpanz ees, bonobos , and g orillas ha ve all been obser ved self-medicating with\nplants .568 21 \u2022 C onser vation and Biodiv ersity\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3534, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ccf6b368-783b-450b-88e9-fa7fa7e92402": {"__data__": {"id_": "ccf6b368-783b-450b-88e9-fa7fa7e92402", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "583", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "caf1ab6d-f103-4cd3-ba64-6d990b49ef72", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "583", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f2c44f97b8bd9dd78ccf0fe76370da3f960af6517a5fbd05f398e86bdebc57d4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "a1a356f3-3784-478c-91ac-1ee4d3dad6b8", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "2693f9be3be0ae7e9242ad36ad9a4c3bee692277961e85a449749f1b08f51839", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Modern pharmac eutical scienc e also r ecogniz es the impor tanc e of these plant c ompounds . Examples o f significant\nmedicines deriv ed fr om plant c ompounds include aspirin, c odeine , dig oxin, atr opine , and vincris tine ( Figure 21.5 ).\nMan y medications w ere onc e deriv ed fr om plant e xtracts but ar e no w synthesiz ed. It is es timat ed that, at one time ,\n25 per cent o f modern drugs c ontained at leas t one plant e xtract. That number has pr obabl y decr eased t o about 10\npercent as natur al plant ingr edients ar e replac ed b y synthetic v ersions o f the plant c ompounds . Antibiotics , which\nare responsible f or extraordinar y impr ovements in heal th and lif espans in de veloped c ountries , are compounds\nlargely deriv ed fr om fungi and bact eria.\nFIGURE 21.5 Cathar anthus r oseus , the Madag ascar periwinkle , has v arious medicinal pr oper ties. Among other uses , it is a sour ce of\nvincris tine, a drug used in the tr eatment o f lymphomas . (credit: F orest and Kim Starr)\nIn recent y ears , animal v enoms and poisons ha ve excited int ense r esear ch for their medicinal pot ential . By 2007,\nthe FD A had appr oved fiv e drugs based on animal t oxins t o treat diseases such as h yper tension, chr onic pain, and\ndiabet es. Another fiv e drugs ar e under going clinical trials and at leas t six drugs ar e being used in other c ountries .\nOther t oxins under in vestigation c ome fr om mammals , snak es, lizar ds, various amphibians , fish, snails , oct opuses ,\nand sc orpions .\nAside fr om r epresenting bil lions o f dol lars in pr ofits, these medications impr ove people \u2019s lives. Pharmac eutical\ncompanies ar e activ ely looking f or ne w natur al compounds that can function as medicines . It is es timat ed that one\nthird of pharmac eutical r esear ch and de velopment is spent on natur al compounds and that about 35 per cent o f new\ndrugs br ought t o mark et betw een 1981 and 2002 w ere from natur al compounds .\nFinal ly, it has been ar gued that humans benefit ps ychological ly from living in a biodiv erse w orld. The chief pr oponent\nof this idea is ent omologis t E. O . Wilson. He ar gues that human e volutionar y his tory has adap ted us t o living in a\nnatur al en vironment and that buil t environments g ener ate stresses that aff ect human heal th and w ell-being . Ther e\nis consider able r esear ch int o the ps ychological ly regener ative benefits o f natur al landscapes that sug gest the\nhypothesis ma y hold some truth.\nAgricultur al\nSinc e the beginning o f human agricul ture mor e than 10,000 y ears ag o, human gr oups ha ve been br eeding and\nselecting cr op v arieties . This cr op div ersity mat ched the cul tural div ersity o f highl y subdivided populations o f\nhumans . For example , potat oes w ere domes ticat ed beginning ar ound 7,000 y ears ag o in the c entr al Andes o f Peru\nand Bolivia . The people in this r egion tr aditional ly lived in r elativ ely isolat ed set tlements separ ated b y mountains .\nThe potat oes gr own in that r egion belong t o se ven species and the number o f varieties lik ely is in the thousands .\nEach v ariety has been br ed to thriv e at par ticular ele vations and soil and climat e conditions . The div ersity is driv en\nby the div erse demands o f the dr amatic ele vation chang es, the limit ed mo vement o f people , and the demands\ncreated b y crop rotation f or diff erent v arieties that wil l do w ell in diff erent fields .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3458, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "a1a356f3-3784-478c-91ac-1ee4d3dad6b8": {"__data__": {"id_": "a1a356f3-3784-478c-91ac-1ee4d3dad6b8", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "583", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "caf1ab6d-f103-4cd3-ba64-6d990b49ef72", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "583", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "f2c44f97b8bd9dd78ccf0fe76370da3f960af6517a5fbd05f398e86bdebc57d4", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "ccf6b368-783b-450b-88e9-fa7fa7e92402", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "583", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ec2eb416d186595ea940f01b92ea9730f4b364460a5fa07f12307f5e1b5c6706", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "For example , potat oes w ere domes ticat ed beginning ar ound 7,000 y ears ag o in the c entr al Andes o f Peru\nand Bolivia . The people in this r egion tr aditional ly lived in r elativ ely isolat ed set tlements separ ated b y mountains .\nThe potat oes gr own in that r egion belong t o se ven species and the number o f varieties lik ely is in the thousands .\nEach v ariety has been br ed to thriv e at par ticular ele vations and soil and climat e conditions . The div ersity is driv en\nby the div erse demands o f the dr amatic ele vation chang es, the limit ed mo vement o f people , and the demands\ncreated b y crop rotation f or diff erent v arieties that wil l do w ell in diff erent fields .\nPotat oes ar e onl y one e xample o f agricul tural div ersity . Every plant, animal , and fung us that has been cul tivated b y\nhumans has been br ed fr om original wild anc estor species int o div erse v arieties arising fr om the demands f or food\nvalue , adap tation t o growing c onditions , and r esistanc e to pes ts. The potat o demons trates a w ell-kno wn e xample o f\nthe risk s of low cr op div ersity: during the tr agic Irish potat o famine (1845\u20131852 AD), the single potat o variety gr own\nin Ir eland became susc eptible t o a potat o blight \u2014wiping out the cr op. The los s of the cr op led t o famine , death, and\nmas s emigr ation. R esistanc e to disease is a chief benefit t o maintaining cr op biodiv ersity and lack o f div ersity in21.1 \u2022 Impor tanc e of Biodiv ersity 569", "start_char_idx": 2756, "end_char_idx": 4255, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "70309783-3762-447a-a0be-65d7e6441fc7": {"__data__": {"id_": "70309783-3762-447a-a0be-65d7e6441fc7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "584", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fc955cff-32c8-4da7-b94a-d8d1201d7123", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "584", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2695c10e0a41eb7ebde69610d5df59c53fd63ceb806fe4a86166c07141822f9c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "2956f82e-36a0-4e24-9cc0-cc5b41b3c06d", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "7d3d855204d0eb5baab25023519c07e62ec70f5cc9934e0da780a459b7285506", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "contempor ary crop species carries similar risk s. Seed c ompanies , which ar e the sour ce of mos t crop v arieties in\ndeveloped c ountries , mus t continual ly breed ne w varieties t o keep up with e volving pes t organisms . These same\nseed c ompanies , however, have par ticipat ed in the decline o f the number o f varieties a vailable as the y focus on\nselling f ewer varieties in mor e areas o f the w orld r eplacing tr aditional local v arieties .\nThe ability t o create ne w cr op v arieties r elies on the div ersity o f varieties a vailable and the a vailability o f wild f orms\nrelated to the cr op plant. These wild f orms ar e often the sour ce of new gene v ariants that can be br ed with e xisting\nvarieties t o create varieties with ne w at tribut es. Loss of wild species r elated to a cr op wil l mean the los s of pot ential\nin cr op impr ovement. Maintaining the g enetic div ersity o f wild species r elated to domes ticat ed species ensur es our\ncontinued suppl y of food.\nSinc e the 1920s , government agricul ture depar tments ha ve maintained seed bank s of crop v arieties as a w ay to\nmaintain cr op div ersity . This s ystem has fla ws because o ver time seed v arieties ar e los t thr ough ac cidents and ther e\nis no w ay to replac e them. In 2008, the Sv albar d Global seed V ault, locat ed on Spitsber gen island, Nor way, (Figure\n21.6 ) beg an s toring seeds fr om ar ound the w orld as a back up s ystem t o the r egional seed bank s. If a r egional seed\nbank s tores varieties in Sv albar d, los ses can be r eplac ed fr om Sv albar d should something happen t o the r egional\nseeds . The Sv albar d seed v ault is deep int o the r ock o f the ar ctic island. Conditions within the v ault are maintained\nat ideal t emper atur e and humidity f or seed sur vival, but the deep under ground location o f the v ault in the ar ctic\nmeans that failur e of the v ault\u2019s systems wil l not c ompr omise the climatic c onditions inside the v ault.\nVISU AL C ONNE CTION\nFIGURE 21.6 The Sv albar d Global Seed V ault is a s torage facility f or seeds o f Ear th\u2019s div erse cr ops. (credit: Mari T efre, Svalbar d Global Seed\nVault)\nThe Sv albar d seed v ault is locat ed on Spitsber gen island in Nor way, which has an ar ctic climat e. Wh y might an ar ctic\nclimat e be g ood f or seed s torage?\nAlthough cr ops ar e lar gely under our c ontr ol, our ability t o grow them is dependent on the biodiv ersity o f the\necosystems in which the y are grown. That biodiv ersity cr eates the c onditions under which cr ops ar e able t o grow\nthrough what ar e kno wn as ec osystem ser vices\u2014valuable c onditions or pr ocesses that ar e carried out b y an\necosystem. Cr ops ar e not gr own, f or the mos t par t, in buil t environments . The y are grown in soil . Although some\nagricul tural soils ar e render ed s terile using c ontr oversial pes ticide tr eatments , mos t contain a hug e div ersity o f\norganisms that maintain nutrient cy cles \u2014breaking do wn or ganic mat ter int o nutrient c ompounds that cr ops need f or\ngrowth. These or ganisms also maintain soil t extur e that aff ects w ater and o xygen dynamics in the soil that ar e\nnecessary for plant gr owth. R eplacing the w ork o f these or ganisms in f orming ar able soil is not pr actical ly pos sible .\nThese kinds o f processes ar e cal led ec osystem ser vices.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3353, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2956f82e-36a0-4e24-9cc0-cc5b41b3c06d": {"__data__": {"id_": "2956f82e-36a0-4e24-9cc0-cc5b41b3c06d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "584", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "fc955cff-32c8-4da7-b94a-d8d1201d7123", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "584", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2695c10e0a41eb7ebde69610d5df59c53fd63ceb806fe4a86166c07141822f9c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "70309783-3762-447a-a0be-65d7e6441fc7", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "584", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "abb734f9efe84fe5efd0448cee604a2169e06231fda5dd7fbd825d448e55f04f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Cr ops ar e not gr own, f or the mos t par t, in buil t environments . The y are grown in soil . Although some\nagricul tural soils ar e render ed s terile using c ontr oversial pes ticide tr eatments , mos t contain a hug e div ersity o f\norganisms that maintain nutrient cy cles \u2014breaking do wn or ganic mat ter int o nutrient c ompounds that cr ops need f or\ngrowth. These or ganisms also maintain soil t extur e that aff ects w ater and o xygen dynamics in the soil that ar e\nnecessary for plant gr owth. R eplacing the w ork o f these or ganisms in f orming ar able soil is not pr actical ly pos sible .\nThese kinds o f processes ar e cal led ec osystem ser vices. The y oc cur within ec osystems , such as soil ec osystems , as\na resul t of the div erse metabolic activities o f the or ganisms living ther e, but the y provide benefits t o human f ood\nproduction, drinking w ater availability , and br eathable air .\nOther k ey ec osystem ser vices related to food pr oduction ar e plant pol lination and cr op pes t contr ol. It is es timat ed\nthat hone ybee pol lination within the Unit ed Stat es brings in $1.6 bil lion per y ear; other pol linat ors c ontribut e up t o\n570 21 \u2022 C onser vation and Biodiv ersity\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2685, "end_char_idx": 3940, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f3287149-a8f0-45dd-b39e-232d87e03b8e": {"__data__": {"id_": "f3287149-a8f0-45dd-b39e-232d87e03b8e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "585", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a43b3035-c551-4fe4-a679-3a2263264261", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "585", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "61bd10ceb4c548e759ad54afe2136692a0577b389e95d2d2cd81a32691268766", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "16a4da05-dcea-4b34-a132-0fe8a4044ee2", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "09850674414677a249564279ec8b9b6c260848e844342094c8e90ada0367325d", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "$6.7 bil lion. Ov er 150 cr ops in the Unit ed Stat es requir e pol lination t o produc e. Man y hone ybee populations ar e\nmanag ed b y beek eepers who r ent out their hiv es\u2019 ser vices to farmers . Hone ybee populations in Nor th America ha ve\nbeen suff ering lar ge los ses caused b y a s yndr ome kno wn as c olon y collapse disor der, a ne w phenomenon with an\nunclear cause . Other pol linat ors include a div erse arr ay of other bee species and v arious insects and bir ds. Loss of\nthese species w ould mak e growing cr ops r equiring pol lination impos sible , incr easing dependenc e on other cr ops.\nFinal ly, humans c ompet e for their f ood with cr op pes ts, mos t of which ar e insects . Pesticides c ontr ol these\ncompetit ors, but these ar e costly and lose their eff ectiv enes s over time as pes t populations adap t. The y also lead t o\ncollateral damag e by kil ling non-pes t species as w ell as beneficial insects lik e hone ybees , and risking the heal th of\nagricul tural w orkers and c onsumers . Mor eover, these pes ticides ma y migr ate from the fields wher e the y are applied\nand do damag e to other ec osystems lik e streams , lak es, and e ven the oc ean. E cologis ts belie ve that the bulk o f the\nwork in r emo ving pes ts is actual ly done b y predat ors and par asites o f those pes ts, but the impact has not been w ell\nstudied. A r eview found that in 74 per cent o f studies that look ed for an eff ect o f landscape c omple xity (f orests and\nfallow fields near t o crop fields) on natur al enemies o f pes ts, the gr eater the c omple xity, the gr eater the eff ect o f\npest-suppr essing or ganisms . Another e xperimental s tudy f ound that intr oducing mul tiple enemies o f pea aphids (an\nimpor tant alfalfa pes t) incr eased the yield o f alfalfa significantl y. This s tudy sho ws that a div ersity o f pes ts is mor e\neffectiv e at c ontr ol than one single pes t. Loss of div ersity in pes t enemies wil l ine vitabl y mak e it mor e difficul t and\ncostly to grow food. The w orld\u2019 s growing human population fac es significant chal leng es in the incr easing c osts and\nother difficul ties as sociat ed with pr oducing f ood.\nWild F ood Sour ces\nIn addition t o growing cr ops and r aising f ood animals , humans ob tain f ood r esour ces fr om wild populations ,\nprimaril y wild fish populations . For about one bil lion people , aquatic r esour ces pr ovide the main sour ce of animal\nprotein. But sinc e 1990, pr oduction fr om global fisheries has declined. Despit e consider able eff ort, few fisheries on\nEarth ar e manag ed sus tainability .\nFisher y extinctions r arely lead t o complet e extinction o f the har vested species , but r ather t o a r adical r estructuring\nof the marine ec osystem in which a dominant species is so o ver-har vested that it bec omes a minor pla yer,\necological ly. In addition t o humans losing the f ood sour ce, these al terations aff ect man y other species in w ays that\nare difficul t or impos sible t o predict. The c ollapse o f fisheries has dr amatic and long-las ting eff ects on local human\npopulations that w ork in the fisher y. In addition, the los s of an ine xpensiv e protein sour ce to populations that cannot\nafford to replac e it wil l incr ease the c ost of living and limit societies in other w ays. In g ener al, the fish tak en fr om\nfisheries ha ve shift ed to smal ler species and the lar ger species ar e overfished.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3433, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "16a4da05-dcea-4b34-a132-0fe8a4044ee2": {"__data__": {"id_": "16a4da05-dcea-4b34-a132-0fe8a4044ee2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "585", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "a43b3035-c551-4fe4-a679-3a2263264261", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "585", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "61bd10ceb4c548e759ad54afe2136692a0577b389e95d2d2cd81a32691268766", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "f3287149-a8f0-45dd-b39e-232d87e03b8e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "585", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "3b69f6617f9554b5e403ea74c5e52021d5143b435493b23037698bf28d0dc530", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "In addition t o humans losing the f ood sour ce, these al terations aff ect man y other species in w ays that\nare difficul t or impos sible t o predict. The c ollapse o f fisheries has dr amatic and long-las ting eff ects on local human\npopulations that w ork in the fisher y. In addition, the los s of an ine xpensiv e protein sour ce to populations that cannot\nafford to replac e it wil l incr ease the c ost of living and limit societies in other w ays. In g ener al, the fish tak en fr om\nfisheries ha ve shift ed to smal ler species and the lar ger species ar e overfished. The ul timat e out come c ould clearl y\nbe the los s of aquatic s ystems as f ood sour ces.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nVisit this websit e(http://opens tax.org/l/decliningfish2) to vie w a brief video discus sing a s tudy o f declining fisheries .\n21.2 Threats t o Biodiv ersity\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Identif y significant thr eats t o biodiv ersity\n\u2022Explain the eff ects o f habitat los s, exotic species , and hunting on biodiv ersity\n\u2022Identif y the earl y and pr edict ed eff ects o f climat e chang e on biodiv ersity\nThe c ore thr eat t o biodiv ersity on the planet, and ther efore a thr eat t o human w elfar e, is the c ombination o f human\npopulation gr owth and the r esour ces used b y that population. The human population r equir es resour ces to sur vive\nand gr ow, and those r esour ces ar e being r emo ved unsus tainabl y from the en vironment. The thr ee gr eatest\nproximat e thr eats t o biodiv ersity ar e habitat los s, overhar vesting, and intr oduction o f exotic species . The firs t two of\nthese ar e a dir ect r esul t of human population gr owth and r esour ce use . The thir d resul ts from incr eased mobility\nand tr ade. A fourth major cause o f extinction, anthr opog enic (human-caused) climat e chang e, has not y et had a\nlarge impact, but it is pr edict ed to bec ome significant during this c entur y. Global climat e chang e is also a\nconsequenc e of human population needs f or ener gy and the use o f fossil fuels t o meet those needs ( Figure 21.7 ).\n21.2 \u2022 Thr eats t o Biodiv ersity 571", "start_char_idx": 2855, "end_char_idx": 5008, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "28220532-f5a4-421f-a251-66003686d49f": {"__data__": {"id_": "28220532-f5a4-421f-a251-66003686d49f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "586", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "084236a9-1022-480a-b92d-2117fd88b815", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "586", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c27358e1de8a05a2043690dcdf9cf8ac14524e16310540f2a7bf7e39744e2065", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Environmental is sues , such as t oxic pol lution, ha ve specific tar geted eff ects on species , but ar e not g ener ally seen\nas thr eats at the magnitude o f the others .\nFIGURE 21.7 Atmospheric carbon dio xide le vels fluctuat e in a cy clical manner . However, the burning o f fossil fuels in r ecent his tory has\ncaused a dr amatic incr ease in the le vels o f carbon dio xide in the Ear th\u2019s atmospher e, which ha ve no w reached le vels ne ver bef ore seen on\nEarth. Scientis ts pr edict that the addition o f this \u201c greenhouse g as\u201d t o the atmospher e is r esul ting in climat e chang e that wil l significantl y\nimpact biodiv ersity in the c oming c entur y.\nHabitat L oss\nHumans r ely on t echnolog y to modif y their en vironment and r eplac e certain functions that w ere onc e per formed b y\nthe natur al ec osystem. Other species cannot do this . Elimination o f their habitat \u2014whether it is a f orest, coral reef,\ngrassland, or flo wing riv er\u2014will kill the individuals in the species . Remo ve the entir e habitat within the r ange of a\nspecies and, unles s the y are one o f the f ew species that do w ell in human-buil t environments , the species wil l\nbecome e xtinct. Human des truction o f habitats (habitats g ener ally refer to the par t of the ec osystem r equir ed b y a\nparticular species) ac celerated in the lat ter half o f the tw entieth c entur y. Consider the e xceptional biodiv ersity o f\nSumatr a: it is home t o one species o f orangutan, a species o f critical ly endang ered elephant, and the Sumatr an tig er,\nbut half o f Sumatr a\u2019s forest is no w gone. The neighboring island o f Borneo , home t o the other species o f orangutan,\nhas los t a similar ar ea o f forest. Forest los s continues in pr otected ar eas o f Borneo . The or angutan in Borneo is lis ted\nas endang ered b y the Int ernational Union f or Conser vation o f Natur e (IUCN), but it is simpl y the mos t visible o f\nthousands o f species that wil l not sur vive the disappear ance of the f orests of Borneo . The f orests ar e remo ved for\ntimber and t o plant palm oil plantations ( Figure 21.8 ). Palm oil is used in man y products including f ood pr oducts ,\ncosmetics , and biodiesel in Eur ope. A 5- year es timat e of global f orest cover los s for the y ears fr om 2000 t o 2005\nwas 3.1 per cent. Much los s (2.4 per cent) oc curr ed in the humid tr opics wher e forest los s is primaril y from timber\nextraction. These los ses c ertainl y also r epresent the e xtinction o f species unique t o those ar eas.572 21 \u2022 C onser vation and Biodiv ersity\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2603, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7999fa82-14f8-4099-90d3-f0103cc0b8d4": {"__data__": {"id_": "7999fa82-14f8-4099-90d3-f0103cc0b8d4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "587", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5ee98698-2b14-45c0-a05e-633cfaf8700c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "587", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cc472204a45c3a9b0d30b35aa1d7e709e07f57900c8a8d27134796d58749374a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "4bfa2e83-1aa2-48db-81fb-c261279afc11", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "847ed898adb158847d103ce48f95b93bc9856e48c884bfb4fe3aa0c6c9e80d13", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 21.8 An oil palm plantation in Sabah pr ovinc e Borneo , Mala ysia, replac es nativ e forest habitat that a v ariety o f species depended\non to liv e. (credit: Lian Pin K oh)\nHabitat des truction can aff ect ec osystems other than f orests. Riv ers and s treams ar e impor tant ec osystems and ar e\nfrequentl y the tar get of habitat modification thr ough building and fr om damming or w ater remo val. Damming o f\nrivers aff ects flo ws and ac cess to all par ts of a riv er. Altering a flo w regime can r educ e or eliminat e populations that\nare adap ted to seasonal chang es in flo w. For example , an es timat ed 91 per cent o f river lengths in the Unit ed Stat es\nhave been modified with damming or bank modifications . Man y fish species in the Unit ed Stat es, especial ly rare\nspecies or species with r estrict ed dis tributions , have seen declines caused b y riv er damming and habitat los s.\nResear ch has c onfirmed that species o f amphibians that mus t carr y out par ts of their lif e cy cles in both aquatic and\nterrestrial habitats ar e at gr eater risk o f population declines and e xtinction because o f the incr eased lik elihood that\none o f their habitats or ac cess betw een them wil l be los t. This is o f par ticular c oncern because amphibians ha ve\nbeen declining in numbers and g oing e xtinct mor e rapidl y than man y other gr oups f or a v ariety o f pos sible r easons .\nHabitat des truction, e ven when under taken on behalf o f humans , can lead t o neg ative eff ects f or us as w ell.\nExcessive soil er osion aft er forest remo val, for example , can r emo ve fertile soil and mak e riv er w ater toxic.\nScientis ts and c onser vationis ts such as W angari Maathai, who f ounded the Gr een Bel t mo vement in K enya, focus on\nreplanting tr ees t o repair habitats and pr event damag e from def orestation. Maathai w as a warded a Nobel P rize forEVERYDAY CONNE CTION\nPreventing Habita t Des truction with Wise W ood Choic es\nMos t consumers do not imagine that the home impr ovement pr oducts the y buy might be c ontributing t o habitat\nloss and species e xtinctions . Yet the mark et for illegally har vested tr opical timber is hug e, and the w ood\nproducts o ften find themsel ves in building suppl y stores in the Unit ed Stat es. One es timat e is that 10 per cent o f\nthe impor ted timber s tream in the Unit ed Stat es, which is the w orld\u2019 s lar gest consumer o f wood pr oducts , is\npotential ly illegally log ged. In 2006, this amount ed to $3.6 bil lion in w ood pr oducts . Mos t of the il legal pr oducts\nare impor ted fr om c ountries that act as int ermediaries and ar e not the originat ors o f the w ood.\nHow is it pos sible t o det ermine if a w ood pr oduct, such as flooring , was har vested sus tainabl y or e ven leg ally?\nThe F orest Stewardship Council (FSC) c ertifies sus tainabl y har vested forest products; ther efore, looking f or their\ncertification on flooring and other har dwood pr oducts is one w ay to ensur e that the w ood has not been tak en\nillegally from a tr opical f orest. Cer tification applies t o specific pr oducts , not t o a pr oduc er; some pr oduc ers\u2019\nproducts ma y not ha ve certification while other pr oducts ar e certified. Ther e are certifications other than the\nFSC, but these ar e run b y timber c ompanies cr eating a c onflict o f interest. Another appr oach is t o buy domes tic\nwood species .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3404, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "4bfa2e83-1aa2-48db-81fb-c261279afc11": {"__data__": {"id_": "4bfa2e83-1aa2-48db-81fb-c261279afc11", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "587", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5ee98698-2b14-45c0-a05e-633cfaf8700c", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "587", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "cc472204a45c3a9b0d30b35aa1d7e709e07f57900c8a8d27134796d58749374a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "7999fa82-14f8-4099-90d3-f0103cc0b8d4", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "587", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "59ce4b7c8933c85822f5ea72967ee09ebbb41265f8c2f81dbfac44f77e0ccc4c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The F orest Stewardship Council (FSC) c ertifies sus tainabl y har vested forest products; ther efore, looking f or their\ncertification on flooring and other har dwood pr oducts is one w ay to ensur e that the w ood has not been tak en\nillegally from a tr opical f orest. Cer tification applies t o specific pr oducts , not t o a pr oduc er; some pr oduc ers\u2019\nproducts ma y not ha ve certification while other pr oducts ar e certified. Ther e are certifications other than the\nFSC, but these ar e run b y timber c ompanies cr eating a c onflict o f interest. Another appr oach is t o buy domes tic\nwood species . While it w ould be gr eat if ther e was a lis t of leg al versus il legal w oods , it is not that simple .\nLogging and f orest manag ement la ws vary from c ountr y to countr y; what is il legal in one c ountr y ma y be leg al in\nanother . Wher e and ho w a pr oduct is har vested and whether the f orest from which it c omes is being sus tainabl y\nmaintained al l fact or int o whether a w ood pr oduct wil l be c ertified b y the FSC. It is al ways a g ood idea t o ask\nques tions about wher e a w ood pr oduct came fr om and ho w the supplier kno ws that it w as har vested leg ally.21.2 \u2022 Thr eats t o Biodiv ersity 573", "start_char_idx": 2792, "end_char_idx": 4028, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "e235e83d-686c-46b5-8ee7-041926a6b9a2": {"__data__": {"id_": "e235e83d-686c-46b5-8ee7-041926a6b9a2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "588", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0530340c-34f4-4fe3-8f37-d99a13ee69da", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "588", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ba6037513c0040cd2983f847ecb0f7726427dc623c229de6ae009890d54bfa49", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "0150a270-bc20-4a81-aa05-5a663bfdf341", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "da0b8125ba3637f450cde9e0baf2747cf870c71198b3fdaae03cca4d7018f345", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "her w ork, but unf ortunat ely pas sed a way in 2011.\nOverhar vesting\nOverhar vesting is a serious thr eat t o man y species , but par ticularl y to aquatic species . Ther e are man y examples o f\nregulated fisheries (including hunting o f marine mammals and har vesting o f crus taceans and other species)\nmonit ored b y fisheries scientis ts that ha ve ne vertheles s collapsed. The w estern A tlantic c od fisher y is the mos t\nspectacular r ecent c ollapse . While it w as a hug ely productiv e fisher y for 400 y ears , the intr oduction o f modern\nfactory trawlers in the 1980s and the pr essure on the fisher y led t o it bec oming unsus tainable . The causes o f fisher y\ncollapse ar e both ec onomic and political in natur e. Mos t fisheries ar e manag ed as a c ommon r esour ce, available t o\nanyone wil ling t o fish, e ven when the fishing t errit ory lies within a c ountr y\u2019s territ orial w aters. Common r esour ces\nare subject t o an ec onomic pr essure kno wn as the tragedy o f the c ommons , in which fishers ha ve little motiv ation\nto exercise r estraint in har vesting a fisher y when the y do not o wn the fisher y. The g ener al out come o f har vests of\nresour ces held in c ommon is their o verexploitation. While lar ge fisheries ar e regulated to attemp t to avoid this\npressure, it s till exists in the back ground. This o verexploitation is e xacerbat ed when ac cess to the fisher y is open\nand unr egulated and when t echnolog y giv es fishers the ability t o overfish. In a f ew fisheries , the biological gr owth o f\nthe r esour ce is les s than the pot ential gr owth o f the pr ofits made fr om fishing if that time and mone y were invested\nelse wher e. In these cases \u2014whales ar e an e xample \u2014economic f orces wil l driv e toward fishing the population t o\nextinction.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nExplor e a U .S. Fish & Wildlif e Ser viceinteractiv e map (http://opens tax.org/l/habitat _map2) of critical habitat f or\nendang ered and thr eatened species in the Unit ed Stat es. To begin, select \u201c Visit the online mapper .\u201d\nFor the mos t par t, fisher y extinction is not equiv alent t o biological e xtinction\u2014the las t fish o f a species is r arely\nfished out o f the oc ean. But ther e are some ins tanc es in which true e xtinction is a pos sibility . Whales ha ve slo w-\ngrowing populations and ar e at risk o f complet e extinction thr ough hunting . Also , ther e are some species o f shark s\nwith r estrict ed dis tributions that ar e at risk o f extinction. The gr oupers ar e another population o f gener ally slo w-\ngrowing fishes that, in the Caribbean, includes a number o f species that ar e at risk o f extinction fr om o verfishing .\nCoral reefs ar e extremel y div erse marine ec osystems that fac e peril fr om se veral pr ocesses. Reefs ar e home t o 1/3\nof the w orld\u2019 s marine fish species \u2014about 4000 species \u2014despit e making up onl y one per cent o f marine habitat. Mos t\nhome marine aquaria house c oral reef species that ar e wild-caught or ganisms \u2014not cul tured or ganisms . Although no\nmarine species is kno wn t o ha ve been driv en e xtinct b y the pet tr ade, ther e are studies sho wing that populations o f\nsome species ha ve declined in r esponse t o har vesting, indicating that the har vest is not sus tainable at those le vels.\nTher e are also c oncerns about the eff ect o f the pet tr ade on some t errestrial species such as tur tles, amphibians ,\nbirds, plants , and e ven the or angutans .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3464, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0150a270-bc20-4a81-aa05-5a663bfdf341": {"__data__": {"id_": "0150a270-bc20-4a81-aa05-5a663bfdf341", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "588", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "0530340c-34f4-4fe3-8f37-d99a13ee69da", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "588", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ba6037513c0040cd2983f847ecb0f7726427dc623c229de6ae009890d54bfa49", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "e235e83d-686c-46b5-8ee7-041926a6b9a2", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "588", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "405de4c9ed8d1e62575b2aa01ecc177eb4f1ecdbd57efdc82ad87d9da4ccb373", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Reefs ar e home t o 1/3\nof the w orld\u2019 s marine fish species \u2014about 4000 species \u2014despit e making up onl y one per cent o f marine habitat. Mos t\nhome marine aquaria house c oral reef species that ar e wild-caught or ganisms \u2014not cul tured or ganisms . Although no\nmarine species is kno wn t o ha ve been driv en e xtinct b y the pet tr ade, ther e are studies sho wing that populations o f\nsome species ha ve declined in r esponse t o har vesting, indicating that the har vest is not sus tainable at those le vels.\nTher e are also c oncerns about the eff ect o f the pet tr ade on some t errestrial species such as tur tles, amphibians ,\nbirds, plants , and e ven the or angutans .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nView a brief video (http://opens tax.org/l/oc ean_mat ters2) discus sing the r ole o f marine ec osystems in suppor ting\nhuman w elfar e and the decline o f ocean ec osystems .\nBush mea tis the g eneric t erm used f or wild animals kil led f or food. Hunting is pr actic ed thr oughout the w orld, but\nhunting pr actic es, par ticularl y in equat orial Africa and par ts of Asia , are belie ved to thr eaten se veral species with\nextinction. T raditional ly, bush meat in Africa w as hunt ed to feed families dir ectly; ho wever, recent c ommer cialization\nof the pr actic e no w has bush meat a vailable in gr ocery stores, which has incr eased har vest rates to the le vel of\nunsus tainability . Additional ly, human population gr owth has incr eased the need f or pr otein f oods that ar e not being\nmet fr om agricul ture. Species thr eatened b y the bush meat tr ade ar e mos tly mammals including man y monk eys and\nthe gr eat apes living in the Cong o basin.\nExotic Species\nExotic species are species that ha ve been int entional ly or unint entional ly intr oduc ed b y humans int o an ec osystem\n574 21 \u2022 C onser vation and Biodiv ersity\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2782, "end_char_idx": 4664, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "204de548-32ef-41be-ac92-685c5e71d93d": {"__data__": {"id_": "204de548-32ef-41be-ac92-685c5e71d93d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "589", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "927e39de-a42d-47cb-a85d-cc98f97d47ce", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "589", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fa1e977b452df2c817eb4fafd7cb8e477ad8599b413c7f87fe9717b742c103cc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "2650c320-b0d5-4940-8484-1048ecc4225f", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "d0bc58e2b0847454e85e526242c979a9045f780cd385f1aa51a6ae7b50c7e4c1", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "in which the y did not e volve. Human tr anspor tation o f people and g oods , including the int entional tr anspor t of\norganisms f or tr ade, has dr amatical ly incr eased the intr oduction o f species int o ne w ec osystems . These ne w\nintroductions ar e sometimes at dis tanc es that ar e well beyond the capacity o f the species t o ever tr avel itself and\noutside the r ange of the species\u2019 natur al pr edat ors.\nMos t exotic species intr oductions pr obabl y fail because o f the lo w number o f individuals intr oduc ed or poor\nadap tation t o the ec osystem the y ent er. Some species , however, have char acteristics that can mak e them especial ly\nsuccessful in a ne w ec osystem. These e xotic species o ften under go dramatic population incr eases in their ne w\nhabitat and r eset the ec ological c onditions in the ne w en vironment, thr eatening the species that e xist ther e. When\nthis happens , the e xotic species also bec omes an in vasive species . Invasive species can thr eaten other species\nthrough c ompetition f or resour ces, predation, or disease .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nExplor e this interactiv e global database (http://opens tax.org/l/exotic_invasiv2) of exotic or in vasive species .\nLakes and islands ar e par ticularl y vulner able t o extinction thr eats fr om intr oduc ed species . In L ake Vict oria, the\nintentional intr oduction o f the Nile per ch w as lar gely responsible f or the e xtinction o f about 200 species o f cichlids .\nThe ac cidental intr oduction o f the br own tr ee snak e via air craft ( Figure 21.9 ) from the Solomon Islands t o Guam in\n1950 has led t o the e xtinction o f thr ee species o f birds and thr ee to fiv e species o f reptiles endemic t o the island.\nSeveral other species ar e still thr eatened. The br own tr ee snak e is adep t at e xploiting human tr anspor tation as a\nmeans t o migr ate; one w as e ven found on an air craft arriving in Corpus Chris ti, Texas. Cons tant vigilanc e on the par t\nof airpor t, militar y, and c ommer cial air craft personnel is r equir ed to prevent the snak e from mo ving fr om Guam t o\nother islands in the P acific, especial ly Ha waii. Islands do not mak e up a lar ge area o f land on the globe , but the y do\ncontain a dispr opor tionat e number o f endemic species because o f their isolation fr om mainland anc estors.\nFIGURE 21.9 The br own tr ee snak e,Boig a irregularis , is an e xotic species that has caused numer ous e xtinctions on the island o f Guam\nsinc e its ac cidental intr oduction in 1950. (cr edit: NPS)\nMan y intr oductions o f aquatic species , both marine and fr eshwater, have oc curr ed when ships ha ve dumped bal last\nwater tak en on at a por t of origin int o waters at a des tination por t. Water fr om the por t of origin is pumped int o tank s\non a ship emp ty of car go to incr ease s tability . The w ater is dr awn fr om the oc ean or es tuar y of the por t and typical ly\ncontains living or ganisms such as plant par ts, micr oorganisms , eggs, larvae, or aquatic animals . The w ater is then\npumped out bef ore the ship tak es on car go at the des tination por t, which ma y be on a diff erent c ontinent. The z ebra\nmus sel w as intr oduc ed to the Gr eat L akes fr om Eur ope prior t o 1988 in ship bal last. The z ebra mus sels in the Gr eat\nLakes ha ve cost the indus try mil lions o f dol lars in clean up c osts to maintain w ater intak es and other facilities .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3419, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "2650c320-b0d5-4940-8484-1048ecc4225f": {"__data__": {"id_": "2650c320-b0d5-4940-8484-1048ecc4225f", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "589", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "927e39de-a42d-47cb-a85d-cc98f97d47ce", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "589", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "fa1e977b452df2c817eb4fafd7cb8e477ad8599b413c7f87fe9717b742c103cc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "204de548-32ef-41be-ac92-685c5e71d93d", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "589", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8f4b1de761296e2328f4ca446665f4fbb5aa67b1126fab55d8a97cd304312a40", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The w ater is dr awn fr om the oc ean or es tuar y of the por t and typical ly\ncontains living or ganisms such as plant par ts, micr oorganisms , eggs, larvae, or aquatic animals . The w ater is then\npumped out bef ore the ship tak es on car go at the des tination por t, which ma y be on a diff erent c ontinent. The z ebra\nmus sel w as intr oduc ed to the Gr eat L akes fr om Eur ope prior t o 1988 in ship bal last. The z ebra mus sels in the Gr eat\nLakes ha ve cost the indus try mil lions o f dol lars in clean up c osts to maintain w ater intak es and other facilities . The\nmus sels ha ve also al tered the ec olog y of the lak es dr amatical ly. The y thr eaten nativ e mol lusk populations , but ha ve\nalso benefit ed some species , such as smal lmouth bas s. The mus sels ar e filter feeders and ha ve dramatical ly\nimpr oved w ater clarity , which in turn has al lowed aquatic plants t o grow along shor elines , providing shel ter for\nyoung fish wher e it did not e xist bef ore. The Eur opean gr een cr ab,Carcinus maenas , was intr oduc ed to San\n21.2 \u2022 Thr eats t o Biodiv ersity 575", "start_char_idx": 2843, "end_char_idx": 3941, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "55039403-b5b0-48dd-9f11-37fc1d55ecb3": {"__data__": {"id_": "55039403-b5b0-48dd-9f11-37fc1d55ecb3", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "590", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "cd38644d-97f2-4e74-82fe-7dd49133d117", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "590", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0f85be6d54ebd518c4f9c827ec61cb611c66e051d47253f7f49bf9d9f44793fe", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Francisc o Ba y in the lat e 1990s , likely in ship bal last water, and has spr ead nor th along the c oast to Washingt on. The\ncrabs ha ve been f ound t o dramatical ly reduc e the abundanc e of nativ e clams and cr abs with r esul ting incr eases in\nthe pr ey of nativ e crabs.\nInvading e xotic species can also be disease or ganisms . It no w appears that the global decline in amphibian species\nrecogniz ed in the 1990s is , in some par t, caused b y the fung usBatr achoch ytrium dendr obatidis , which causes the\ndisease chytridiom ycosis (Figure 21.10 ). Ther e is e videnc e that the fung us is nativ e to Africa and ma y ha ve been\nspread thr oughout the w orld b y transpor t of a c ommonl y used labor atory and pet species: the African cla wed fr og,\nXenopus lae vis. It ma y well be that biologis ts themsel ves ar e responsible f or spr eading this disease w orldwide . The\nNorth American bul lfrog,Rana cat esbeiana , which has also been widel y intr oduc ed as a f ood animal but which\neasil y escapes cap tivity , sur vives mos t infections o fB.dendr obatidis and can act as a r eser voir for the disease .\nFIGURE 21.10 This Limosa harlequin fr og (Atelopus limosus ), an endang ered species fr om P anama , died fr om a fung al disease cal led\nchytridiom ycosis . The r ed lesions ar e symp tomatic o f the disease . (credit: Brian Gr atwick e)\nEarly evidenc e sug gests that another fung al pathog en,Geom yces des tructans , intr oduc ed fr om Eur ope is\nresponsible f orwhit e-nose s yndr ome , which inf ects ca ve-hibernating bats in eas tern Nor th America and has\nspread fr om a point o f origin in w estern Ne w York Stat e (Figure 21.11 ). The disease has decimat ed bat populations\nand thr eatens e xtinction o f species alr eady lis ted as endang ered: the Indiana bat, Myotis sodalis , and pot ential ly the\nVirginia big-ear ed bat, Corynorhinus t ownsendii vir ginianus . Ho w the fung us w as intr oduc ed is unkno wn, but one\nlogical pr esump tion w ould be that r ecreational ca vers unint entional ly brought the fung us on clothes or equipment\nfrom Eur ope.576 21 \u2022 C onser vation and Biodiv ersity\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2169, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "922b9735-edaf-4da1-9372-ebb4e9712233": {"__data__": {"id_": "922b9735-edaf-4da1-9372-ebb4e9712233", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "591", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "268171ae-d561-4153-b78c-f9b0804b7ded", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "591", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "89c9d6da331d5b69a0b00912579ffbc1989796de0dff4d514cc3386532a7d855", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "1b58dca6-5fa5-487d-a0dd-4f600640b67e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "5ab18c318bbd7f080ada40a6788da485ce4d3be164999f98f60ceba0402ad200", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 21.11 This lit tle br own bat in Gr eele y Mine , Vermont, Mar ch 26, 2009, w as found t o ha ve whit e-nose s yndr ome . (credit:\nmodification o f work b y Mar vin Moriar ty, USFWS)\nClimat e Change\nClimat e chang e, and specifical ly the anthr opog enic w arming tr end pr esentl y under way, is r ecogniz ed as a major\nextinction thr eat, par ticularl y when c ombined with other thr eats such as habitat los s. Anthr opog enic w arming o f the\nplanet has been obser ved and is h ypothesiz ed to continue due t o pas t and c ontinuing emis sion o f greenhouse\ngases , primaril y carbon dio xide and methane , into the atmospher e caused b y the burning o f fossil fuels and\ndeforestation. These g ases decr ease the degr ee to which Ear th is able t o radiat e heat ener gy created b y the sunlight\nthat ent ers the atmospher e. The chang es in climat e and ener gy balanc e caused b y incr easing gr eenhouse g ases ar e\ncomple x and our unders tanding o f them depends on pr edictions g ener ated fr om detailed c omput er models .\nScientis ts gener ally agr ee the pr esent w arming tr end is caused b y humans and some o f the lik ely eff ects include\ndramatic and dang erous climat e chang es in the c oming decades . Ho wever, ther e is s till debat e and a lack o f\nunders tanding about specific out comes . Scientis ts disagr ee about the lik ely magnitude o f the eff ects on e xtinction\nrates, with es timat es ranging fr om 15 t o 40 per cent o f species c ommit ted to extinction b y 2050. Scientis ts do agr ee\nthat climat e chang e wil l alter regional climat es, including r ainfal l and sno wfal l pat terns , making habitats les s\nhospitable t o the species living in them. The w arming tr end wil l shift c older climat es toward the nor th and south\npoles , forcing species t o mo ve with their adap ted climat e norms , but also t o fac e habitat g aps along the w ay. The\nshifting r anges wil l impose ne w competitiv e regimes on species as the y find themsel ves in c ontact with other\nspecies not pr esent in their his toric r ange. One such une xpect ed species c ontact is betw een polar bears and grizzl y\nbears . Previousl y, these tw o species had separ ate ranges. No w, their r anges ar e overlapping and ther e are\ndocument ed cases o f these tw o species mating and pr oducing viable o ffspring . Changing climat es also thr ow off the\ndelicat e timing adap tations that species ha ve to seasonal f ood r esour ces and br eeding times . Scientis ts ha ve\nalready document ed man y contempor ary mismat ches t o shifts in r esour ce availability and timing .\nRange shifts ar e alr eady being obser ved: f or example , on a verage, Eur opean bir d species r anges ha ve mo ved 91 km\n(56.5 mi) nor thward. The same s tudy sug gested that the op timal shift based on w arming tr ends w as double that\ndistanc e, sug gesting that the populations ar e not mo ving quickl y enough. R ange shifts ha ve also been obser ved in\nplants , but terflies , other insects , freshwater fishes , reptiles , amphibians , and mammals .\nClimat e gradients wil l also mo ve up mountains , eventual ly crowding species higher in al titude and eliminating the\nhabitat f or those species adap ted to the highes t ele vations . Some climat es wil l complet ely disappear .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3288, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1b58dca6-5fa5-487d-a0dd-4f600640b67e": {"__data__": {"id_": "1b58dca6-5fa5-487d-a0dd-4f600640b67e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "591", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "268171ae-d561-4153-b78c-f9b0804b7ded", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "591", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "89c9d6da331d5b69a0b00912579ffbc1989796de0dff4d514cc3386532a7d855", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "922b9735-edaf-4da1-9372-ebb4e9712233", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "591", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0c4afbb0517af2ae2165081d9538a84eb96bb5e13f31b0010a2585208d4b7472", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Range shifts ar e alr eady being obser ved: f or example , on a verage, Eur opean bir d species r anges ha ve mo ved 91 km\n(56.5 mi) nor thward. The same s tudy sug gested that the op timal shift based on w arming tr ends w as double that\ndistanc e, sug gesting that the populations ar e not mo ving quickl y enough. R ange shifts ha ve also been obser ved in\nplants , but terflies , other insects , freshwater fishes , reptiles , amphibians , and mammals .\nClimat e gradients wil l also mo ve up mountains , eventual ly crowding species higher in al titude and eliminating the\nhabitat f or those species adap ted to the highes t ele vations . Some climat es wil l complet ely disappear . The r ate of\nwarming appears t o be ac celerated in the ar ctic, which is r ecogniz ed as a serious thr eat t o polar bear populations\nthat r equir e sea ic e to hunt seals during the wint er months: seals ar e the onl y sour ce of protein a vailable t o polar\nbears . A tr end t o decr easing sea ic e coverage has oc curr ed sinc e obser vations beg an in the mid-tw entieth c entur y.\nThe r ate of decline obser ved in r ecent y ears is far gr eater than pr eviousl y predict ed b y climat e models ( Figure\n21.12 ).21.2 \u2022 Thr eats t o Biodiv ersity 577", "start_char_idx": 2600, "end_char_idx": 3845, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "00babcea-13ee-48d6-8590-209206d74870": {"__data__": {"id_": "00babcea-13ee-48d6-8590-209206d74870", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "592", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "44241eda-473f-4870-98a0-26a9daf82174", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "592", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d8828920a31ae6d3f26772c4f0bb0e01e96cb3b898b7f6ad230e19b81f073f35", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 21.12 The eff ect o f global w arming can be seen in the c ontinuing r etreat o f Grinnel l Glacier . The mean annual t emper atur e in\nGlacier National P ark has incr eased 1.33\u00b0C sinc e 1900. The los s of a glacier r esul ts in the los s of summer mel twaters, sharpl y reducing\nseasonal w ater supplies and se verely aff ecting local ec osystems . (credit: USGS, GNP Ar chiv es)\nFinal ly, global w arming wil l raise oc ean le vels due t o mel twater fr om glaciers and the gr eater volume oc cupied b y\nwarmer w ater. Shor elines wil l be inundat ed, r educing island siz e, which wil l have an eff ect on some species , and a\nnumber o f islands wil l disappear entir ely. Additional ly, the gr adual mel ting and subsequent r efreezing o f the poles ,\nglaciers , and higher ele vation mountains \u2014a cy cle that has pr ovided fr eshwater to en vironments f or centuries \u2014will\nbe al tered. This c ould r esul t in an o verabundanc e of sal t water and a shor tage of fresh w ater.\n21.3 Preserving Biodiv ersity\nLEARNING OB JECTIVE S\nBy the end o f this section, y ou wil l be able t o:\n\u2022Describe biodiv ersity as the equilibrium o f natur ally fluctuating r ates o f extinction and speciation\n\u2022Explain the legislativ e frame work f or conser vation\n\u2022Identif y the fact ors impor tant in c onser vation pr eser ve design\n\u2022Identif y examples o f the eff ects o f habitat r estoration\n\u2022Identif y the r ole o f zoos in biodiv ersity c onser vation\nPreser ving biodiv ersity is an e xtraordinar y chal leng e that mus t be met b y greater unders tanding o f biodiv ersity\nitself , chang es in human beha vior and beliefs , and v arious pr eser vation s trategies .\nChange in Biodiv ersity thr ough Time\nThe number o f species on the planet, or in an y geogr aphical ar ea, is the r esul t of an equilibrium o f two evolutionar y\nprocesses that ar e ong oing: speciation and e xtinction. Both ar e natur al \u201cbir th\u201d and \u201c death \u201d processes o f\nmacr oevolution. When speciation r ates begin t o outs trip e xtinction r ates, the number o f species wil l incr ease;\nlikewise , the r everse is true when e xtinction r ates begin t o overtake speciation r ates. Thr oughout the his tory of life\non Ear th, as r eflect ed in the f ossil record, these tw o processes ha ve fluctuat ed to a gr eater or les ser e xtent,\nsometimes leading t o dramatic chang es in the number o f species on the planet as r eflect ed in the f ossil record\n(Figure 21.13 ).578 21 \u2022 C onser vation and Biodiv ersity\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2524, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "423452c8-d25a-430e-93d2-ac89e87d6668": {"__data__": {"id_": "423452c8-d25a-430e-93d2-ac89e87d6668", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "593", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5ec9301b-3291-4331-baca-544e768c60e9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "593", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0cd05fec10768de1d364099671cdbeb1f8ac1cfd6ca61843d31ef1b740abca43", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 21.13 Extinction int ensity as r eflect ed in the f ossil record has fluctuat ed thr oughout Ear th\u2019s his tory. Sudden and dr amatic los ses o f\nbiodiv ersity , cal led mas s extinctions , have oc curr ed fiv e times .\nPaleont ologis ts ha ve identified fiv e strata in the f ossil record that appear t o sho w sudden and dr amatic ( greater than\nhalf o f all extant species disappearing fr om the f ossil record) los ses in biodiv ersity . These ar e cal led mas s\nextinctions . Ther e are man y les ser, yet still dramatic, e xtinction e vents , but the fiv e mas s extinctions ha ve attracted\nthe mos t resear ch int o their causes . An ar gument can be made that the fiv e mas s extinctions ar e onl y the fiv e mos t\nextreme e vents in a c ontinuous series o f large extinction e vents thr oughout the f ossil record (sinc e 542 mil lion y ears\nago). In mos t cases , the h ypothesiz ed causes ar e still contr oversial; in one , the mos t recent, the cause seems clear .\nThe mos t recent e xtinction in g eological time , about 65 mil lion y ears ag o, saw the disappear ance of the dinosaurs\nand man y other species . Mos t scientis ts no w agr ee the cause o f this e xtinction w as the impact o f a lar ge as teroid in\nthe pr esent -day Yucat\u00e1n P eninsula and the subsequent ener gy release and global climat e chang es caused b y dus t\neject ed int o the atmospher e.\nRecent and C urrent Extinc tion R ates\nA sixth, or Holoc ene, mas s extinction has mos tly to do with the activities o fHomo sapiens . Ther e are numer ous\nrecent e xtinctions o f individual species that ar e recorded in human writings . Mos t of these ar e coincident with the\nexpansion o f the Eur opean c olonies sinc e the 1500s .\nOne o f the earlier and popularl y kno wn e xamples is the dodo bir d. The dodo bir d liv ed in the f orests of Mauritius , an\nisland in the Indian Oc ean. The dodo bir d became e xtinct ar ound 1662. It w as hunt ed for its meat b y sailors and\nwas eas y prey because the dodo , which did not e volve with humans , would appr oach people without f ear.\nIntroduc ed pigs , rats, and dogs br ought t o the island b y Eur opean ships also kil led dodo y oung and eg gs (Figure\n21.14 ).\nFIGURE 21.14 The dodo bir d was hunt ed to extinction ar ound 1662. (cr edit: E d Uthman, tak en in Natur al His tory Museum, L ondon,21.3 \u2022 P reserving Biodiv ersity 579", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2374, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c191b4a6-1ce5-4092-9221-747d88996d42": {"__data__": {"id_": "c191b4a6-1ce5-4092-9221-747d88996d42", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "594", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ec7d174a-c0f7-4133-b82b-ed4e355081b9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "594", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2b2f2c42ef8bd5c07a3659845b9e9859958ff824ec76a3d322c587cb00c9ec91", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "73b4406c-ebbb-43dc-aba4-6a4abf7a31c4", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "9aa6e60e060dad01f4b38e65cb21b075b18c2558e409e26b7ec18d693b2268cc", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "England)\nSteller\u2019s sea c ow became e xtinct in 1768; it w as related to the manat ee and pr obabl y onc e liv ed along the\nnorthwest coast of Nor th America . Steller\u2019s sea c ow was disc overed b y Eur opeans in 1741, and it w as hunt ed for\nmeat and oil . A total o f 27 y ears elapsed betw een the sea c ow\u2019s firs t contact with Eur opeans and e xtinction o f the\nspecies . The las t Steller\u2019s sea c ow was kil led in 1768. In another e xample , the las t living pas seng er pig eon died in a\nzoo in Cincinnati, Ohio , in 1914. This species had onc e migr ated in the mil lions but declined in numbers because o f\noverhunting and los s of habitat thr ough the clearing o f forests for farmland.\nThese ar e onl y a f ew of the r ecorded e xtinctions in the pas t 500 y ears . The Int ernational Union f or Conser vation o f\nNatur e (IUCN) k eeps a lis t of extinct and endang ered species cal led the R ed Lis t. The lis t is not c omplet e, but it\ndescribes 380 v ertebrates that became e xtinct aft er 1500 AD , 86 o f which w ere driv en e xtinct b y overhunting or\noverfishing .\nEstimat es of Present -day Extinc tion R ates\nEstimat es o fextinction r atesare hamper ed b y the fact that mos t extinctions ar e probabl y happening without being\nobser ved. The e xtinction o f a bir d or mammal is o ften notic ed b y humans , especial ly if it has been hunt ed or used in\nsome other w ay. But ther e are man y organisms that ar e les s notic eable t o humans (not nec essaril y of les s value)\nand man y that ar e undescribed.\nThe back ground e xtinction r ate is es timat ed to be about 1 per mil lion species y ears (E/MS Y). One \u201c species y ear\u201d is\none species in e xistence for one y ear. One mil lion species y ears c ould be one species persis ting f or one mil lion\nyears , or a mil lion species persis ting f or one y ear. If it is the lat ter, then one e xtinction per mil lion species y ears\nwould be one o f those mil lion species bec oming e xtinct in that y ear. For example , if ther e are 10 mil lion species in\nexistence, then w e would e xpect 10 o f those species t o bec ome e xtinct in a y ear. This is the back ground r ate.\nOne c ontempor ary extinction-r ate es timat e uses the e xtinctions in the writ ten record sinc e the y ear 1500. F or bir ds\nalone , this method yields an es timat e of 26 E/MS Y, almos t thir ty times the back ground r ate. Ho wever, this v alue ma y\nbe under estimat ed for thr ee reasons . Firs t, man y existing species w ould not ha ve been described until much lat er in\nthe time period and so their los s would ha ve gone unnotic ed. Sec ond, w e kno w the number is higher than the\nwritten record sug gests because no w extinct species ar e being described fr om sk eletal r emains that w ere ne ver\nmentioned in writ ten his tory. And thir d, some species ar e probabl y alr eady e xtinct e ven though c onser vationis ts ar e\nreluctant t o name them as such. T aking these fact ors int o ac count r aises the es timat ed e xtinction r ate to near er 100\nE/MS Y. The pr edict ed rate by the end o f the c entur y is 1500 E/MS Y.\nA sec ond appr oach t o es timating pr esent -time e xtinction r ates is t o correlate species los s with habitat los s, and it is\nbased on measuring f orest-area los s and unders tanding species \u2013area relationships .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3308, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "73b4406c-ebbb-43dc-aba4-6a4abf7a31c4": {"__data__": {"id_": "73b4406c-ebbb-43dc-aba4-6a4abf7a31c4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "594", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ec7d174a-c0f7-4133-b82b-ed4e355081b9", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "594", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "2b2f2c42ef8bd5c07a3659845b9e9859958ff824ec76a3d322c587cb00c9ec91", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "c191b4a6-1ce5-4092-9221-747d88996d42", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "594", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "118bc227cb3c794fc6af0d4503af6f5e1cdf78ffdbb0029b24baa73ba9fad2b6", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "And thir d, some species ar e probabl y alr eady e xtinct e ven though c onser vationis ts ar e\nreluctant t o name them as such. T aking these fact ors int o ac count r aises the es timat ed e xtinction r ate to near er 100\nE/MS Y. The pr edict ed rate by the end o f the c entur y is 1500 E/MS Y.\nA sec ond appr oach t o es timating pr esent -time e xtinction r ates is t o correlate species los s with habitat los s, and it is\nbased on measuring f orest-area los s and unders tanding species \u2013area relationships . The species-ar ea relationship\nis the r ate at which ne w species ar e seen when the ar ea sur veyed is incr eased ( Figure 21.15 ). Lik ewise , if the habitat\narea is r educ ed, the number o f species seen wil l also decline . This kind o f relationship is also seen in the\nrelationship betw een an island\u2019 s area and the number o f species pr esent on the island: as one incr eases , so does\nthe other , though not in a s traight line . Estimat es o f extinction r ates based on habitat los s and species \u2013area\nrelationships ha ve sug gested that with about 90 per cent o f habitat los s an e xpect ed 50 per cent o f species w ould\nbecome e xtinct. Figure 21.15 shows that r educing f orest area fr om 100 km2to 10 km2, a decline o f 90 per cent,\nreduc es the number o f species b y about 50 per cent. Species \u2013area es timat es ha ve led t o es timat es o f present -day\nspecies e xtinction r ates o f about 1000 E/MS Y and higher . In g ener al, actual obser vations do not sho w this amount\nof los s and one e xplanation put f orward is that ther e is a dela y in e xtinction. Ac cording t o this e xplanation, it tak es\nsome time f or species t o ful ly suff er the eff ects o f habitat los s and the y ling er on f or some time aft er their habitat is\ndestroyed, but e ventual ly the y wil l bec ome e xtinct. R ecent w ork has also cal led int o ques tion the applicability o f the\nspecies -area relationship when es timating the los s of species . This w ork ar gues that the species \u2013area relationship\nleads t o an o verestimat e of extinction r ates. Using an al ternat e method w ould bring es timat es do wn t o around 500\nE/MS Y in the c oming c entur y. Not e that this v alue is s till 500 times the back ground r ate.580 21 \u2022 C onser vation and Biodiv ersity\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2793, "end_char_idx": 5118, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ba87dd19-4448-481b-8ad6-b0c82f050d6e": {"__data__": {"id_": "ba87dd19-4448-481b-8ad6-b0c82f050d6e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "595", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d54a4e5d-878a-4298-8025-ea79e01da51d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "595", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c5684eff739f6155e5aab29efe0a4c5665b95ca1332a04fce63bedbb1177e2e2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "72a72820-025a-4cb9-9057-bf75e901c489", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "f179c1274ff654bfcda7de6efb3ebc2166176d09cc7f09bed9f6d76dc953a6f8", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE 21.15 A typical species -area cur ve sho ws the cumulativ e number o f species f ound as mor e and mor e area is sampled. The cur ve\nhas also been int erpr eted to sho w the eff ect on species numbers o f des troying habitat; a r eduction in habitat o f 90 per cent fr om 100 km2\nto 10 km2reduc es the number o f species suppor ted b y about 50 per cent.\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nGo t o this websit e(http://opens tax.org/l/whats _mis sing2) for an int eractiv e explor ation o f endang ered and e xtinct\nspecies , their ec osystems , and the causes o f their endang erment or e xtinction.\nConser vation o f Biodiv ersity\nThe thr eats t o biodiv ersity at the g enetic, species , and ec osystem le vels ha ve been r ecogniz ed for some time . In the\nUnit ed Stat es, the firs t national park with land set aside t o remain in a wildernes s state was Y ellowstone P ark in\n1890. Ho wever, attemp ts to preser ve natur e for various r easons ha ve oc curr ed for centuries . Today, the main eff orts\nto preser ve biodiv ersity in volve legislativ e appr oaches t o regulate human and c orpor ate beha vior, set ting aside\nprotected ar eas, and habitat r estoration.\nChanging Human Beha vior\nLegislation has been enact ed to protect species thr oughout the w orld. The legislation includes int ernational tr eaties\nas w ell as national and s tate laws. The Con vention on Int ernational T rade in Endang ered Species o f Wild F auna and\nFlora (CI TES) tr eaty came int o force in 1975. The tr eaty , and the national legislation that suppor ts it, pr ovides a leg al\nframe work f or pr eventing \u201clis ted\u201d species fr om being tr anspor ted acr oss nations\u2019 bor ders , thus pr otecting them\nfrom being caught or kil led in the firs t plac e when the purpose in volves int ernational tr ade. The lis ted species that\nare protected to one degr ee or another b y the tr eaty number some 33,000. The tr eaty is limit ed in its r each because\nit onl y deals with int ernational mo vement o f organisms or their par ts. It is also limit ed b y various c ountries\u2019 ability or\nwillingnes s to enf orce the tr eaty and suppor ting legislation. The il legal trade in or ganisms and their par ts is pr obabl y\na mark et in the hundr eds o f mil lions o f dol lars.\nWithin man y countries ther e are laws that pr otect endang ered species and that r egulate hunting and fishing . In the\nUnit ed Stat es, the Endang ered Species Act w as enact ed in 1973. When an at -risk species is lis ted b y the Act, the\nU.S. Fish & Wildlif e Ser vice is r equir ed b y law to de velop a manag ement plan t o protect the species and bring it back\nto sus tainable numbers . The Act, and others lik e it in other c ountries , is a useful t ool, but it suff ers because it is\noften difficul t to get a species lis ted, or t o get an eff ectiv e manag ement plan in plac e onc e a species is lis ted.\nAdditional ly, species ma y be c ontr oversial ly tak en o ff the lis t without nec essaril y ha ving had a chang e in their\nsituation. Mor e fundamental ly, the appr oach t o protecting individual species r ather than entir e ec osystems\n(although the manag ement plans c ommonl y involve protection o f the individual species\u2019 habitat) is both inefficient\nand f ocuses eff orts on a f ew highl y visible and o ften charismatic species , perhaps at the e xpense o f other species\nthat g o unpr otected.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3371, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "72a72820-025a-4cb9-9057-bf75e901c489": {"__data__": {"id_": "72a72820-025a-4cb9-9057-bf75e901c489", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "595", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "d54a4e5d-878a-4298-8025-ea79e01da51d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "595", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c5684eff739f6155e5aab29efe0a4c5665b95ca1332a04fce63bedbb1177e2e2", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "ba87dd19-4448-481b-8ad6-b0c82f050d6e", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "595", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "feab4234d66344f1a0e286503bd6c08373f303c504eed5a1c737eb16bd3b48e0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "The Act, and others lik e it in other c ountries , is a useful t ool, but it suff ers because it is\noften difficul t to get a species lis ted, or t o get an eff ectiv e manag ement plan in plac e onc e a species is lis ted.\nAdditional ly, species ma y be c ontr oversial ly tak en o ff the lis t without nec essaril y ha ving had a chang e in their\nsituation. Mor e fundamental ly, the appr oach t o protecting individual species r ather than entir e ec osystems\n(although the manag ement plans c ommonl y involve protection o f the individual species\u2019 habitat) is both inefficient\nand f ocuses eff orts on a f ew highl y visible and o ften charismatic species , perhaps at the e xpense o f other species\nthat g o unpr otected.\nThe Migr atory Bir d Treaty Act (MB TA) is an agr eement betw een the Unit ed Stat es and Canada that w as signed int o\n21.3 \u2022 P reserving Biodiv ersity 581", "start_char_idx": 2644, "end_char_idx": 3528, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8756256e-6d09-43e2-b3d9-426924fe77fd": {"__data__": {"id_": "8756256e-6d09-43e2-b3d9-426924fe77fd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "596", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5413da6f-72d7-4d2f-bdc3-9686f8d39216", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "596", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "70cb4bca2a1697b0009fe200d03baffad6629b71924e5b84009f895a0a2f2ee0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "3ac2e486-a50f-411d-a587-5b7b0d7eab3c", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "9a66d6a2586a340898eda0d3e460574bdffa87700854ab754f97446a734a602f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "law in 1918 in r esponse t o declines in Nor th American bir d species caused b y hunting . The Act no w lis ts over 800\nprotected species . It mak es it il legal to dis turb or kil l the pr otected species or dis tribut e their par ts (much o f the\nhunting o f birds in the pas t was for their f eathers). Examples o f protected species include nor thern car dinals , the\nred-tailed ha wk, and the American black vul ture.\nGlobal w arming is e xpect ed to be a major driv er of biodiv ersity los s. Man y governments ar e concerned about the\neffects o f anthr opog enic global w arming , primaril y on their ec onomies and f ood r esour ces. Sinc e greenhouse g as\nemis sions do not r espect national boundaries , the eff ort to curb them is an int ernational one . The int ernational\nresponse t o global w arming has been mix ed. The K yoto Protocol, an int ernational agr eement that came out o f the\nUnit ed Nations F rame work Con vention on Climat e Chang e that c ommit ted c ountries t o reducing gr eenhouse g as\nemis sions b y 2012, w as ratified b y some c ountries , but spurned b y others . Two countries that w ere especial ly\nimpor tant in t erms o f their pot ential impact that did not r atify the K yoto protocol w ere the Unit ed Stat es and China .\nSome g oals f or reduction in gr eenhouse g asses w ere met and e xceeded b y individual c ountries , but, w orldwide , the\neffort to limit gr eenhouse g as pr oduction is not suc ceeding . The int ended r eplac ement f or the K yoto Protocol has\nnot mat erializ ed because g overnments cannot agr ee on timelines and benchmark s. Mean while , the r esul ting c osts\nto human societies and biodiv ersity pr edict ed b y a majority o f climat e scientis ts wil l be high.\nAs alr eady mentioned, the non-pr ofit, non-g overnmental sect or pla ys a lar ge role in c onser vation eff ort both in\nNorth America and ar ound the w orld. The appr oaches r ange from species -specific or ganizations t o the br oadl y\nfocused IUCN and T rade R ecords Anal ysis o f Flor a and F auna in Commer ce (TRAFFIC). The Natur e Conser vancy\ntakes a no vel appr oach. It pur chases land and pr otects it in an at temp t to set up pr eser ves for ec osystems .\nUltimat ely, human beha vior wil l chang e when human v alues chang e. At present, the gr owing urbanization o f the\nhuman population is a f orce that mitig ates ag ains t valuing biodiv ersity , because man y people no long er come in\ncontact with natur al en vironments and the species that inhabit them.\nConser vation in P reserves\nEstablishment o f wildlif e and ec osystem pr eser ves is one o f the k ey tools in c onser vation eff orts (Figure 21.16 ). A\npreser ve is an ar ea o f land set aside with v arying degr ees o f protection f or the or ganisms that e xist within the\nboundaries o f the pr eser ve. Preser ves can be eff ectiv e for pr otecting both species and ec osystems , but the y ha ve\nsome serious dr awback s.\nFIGURE 21.16 National park s, such as Gr and T eton National P ark in Wy oming , help c onser ve biodiv ersity . (credit: Don DeBold)\nA simple measur e of suc cess in set ting aside pr eser ves for biodiv ersity pr otection is t o set a tar get per centag e of\nland or marine habitat t o protect.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3240, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "3ac2e486-a50f-411d-a587-5b7b0d7eab3c": {"__data__": {"id_": "3ac2e486-a50f-411d-a587-5b7b0d7eab3c", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "596", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "5413da6f-72d7-4d2f-bdc3-9686f8d39216", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "596", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "70cb4bca2a1697b0009fe200d03baffad6629b71924e5b84009f895a0a2f2ee0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "8756256e-6d09-43e2-b3d9-426924fe77fd", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "596", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "68e72254c8d4efd8349ead40552a5ba774e7f398721c3fef56696f29c155f92c", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "A\npreser ve is an ar ea o f land set aside with v arying degr ees o f protection f or the or ganisms that e xist within the\nboundaries o f the pr eser ve. Preser ves can be eff ectiv e for pr otecting both species and ec osystems , but the y ha ve\nsome serious dr awback s.\nFIGURE 21.16 National park s, such as Gr and T eton National P ark in Wy oming , help c onser ve biodiv ersity . (credit: Don DeBold)\nA simple measur e of suc cess in set ting aside pr eser ves for biodiv ersity pr otection is t o set a tar get per centag e of\nland or marine habitat t o protect. Ho wever, a mor e detailed pr eser ve design and choic e of location is usual ly\nnecessary because o f the w ay protected lands ar e allocat ed and ho w biodiv ersity is dis tribut ed: pr otected lands\ntend t o contain les s economical ly valuable r esour ces rather than being set aside specifical ly for the species or\necosystems at risk. In 2003, the IUCN W orld P arks Congr ess estimat ed that 11.5 per cent o f Ear th\u2019s land sur face\nwas covered b y preser ves o f various kinds . This ar ea is gr eater than pr evious g oals; ho wever, it onl y represents 9 out\nof 14 r ecogniz ed major biomes and r esear ch has sho wn that 12 per cent o f all species liv e outside pr eser ves; these\npercentag es ar e much higher when thr eatened species ar e consider ed and when onl y high quality pr eser ves ar e\nconsider ed. F or example , high quality pr eser ves include onl y about 50 per cent o f thr eatened amphibian species .\nThe c onclusion mus t be that either the per centag e of area pr otected mus t be incr eased, the per centag e of high\nquality pr eser ves mus t be incr eased, or pr eser ves mus t be tar geted with gr eater at tention t o biodiv ersity pr otection.\nResear chers ar gue that mor e attention t o the lat ter solution is r equir ed.582 21 \u2022 C onser vation and Biodiv ersity\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2670, "end_char_idx": 4577, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "8aa1021d-11ac-4d3e-b03b-e4ca51581aba": {"__data__": {"id_": "8aa1021d-11ac-4d3e-b03b-e4ca51581aba", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "597", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "47435161-4055-4155-8015-b72fe694c2c6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "597", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d8f02d48b67d3ef51456384d36ccbda68377a69d721f121efc0b5ce3cb476239", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "390ab92a-fd6b-40cf-ac0d-2a0c1c4f10e4", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "e4a44bb269fe6f4cbf12451debb0d20ac70dd8029842fabeb532fb8aa9d0c465", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Abiodiv ersity ho tspo tis a c onser vation c oncept developed b y Norman My ers in 1988. Hotspots ar e geogr aphical\nareas that c ontain high numbers o f endemic species . The purpose o f the c oncept was to identif y impor tant locations\non the planet f or conser vation eff orts, a kind o f conser vation triag e. By protecting hotspots , governments ar e able t o\nprotect a lar ger number o f species . The original crit eria f or a hotspot included the pr esenc e of 1500 or mor e species\nof endemic plants and 70 per cent o f the ar ea dis turbed b y human activity . Ther e are no w 34 biodiv ersity hotspots\n(Figure 21.17 ) that c ontain lar ge numbers o f endemic species , which include half o f Ear th\u2019s endemic plants .\nFIGURE 21.17 Conser vation Int ernational has identified 34 biodiv ersity hotspots . Although these c over onl y 2.3 per cent o f the Ear th\u2019s\nsurface, 42 per cent o f the t errestrial v ertebrate species and 50 per cent o f the w orld\u2019 s plants ar e endemic t o those hotspots .\nTher e has been e xtensiv e resear ch int o op timal pr eser ve designs f or maintaining biodiv ersity . The fundamental\nprinciples behind much o f the r esear ch ha ve come fr om the seminal theor etical w ork o f Rober t H. Mac Arthur and\nEdward O. Wilson published in 1967 on island biog eogr aphy.2This w ork sought t o unders tand the fact ors aff ecting\nbiodiv ersity on islands . Conser vation pr eser ves can be seen as \u201cislands\u201d o f habitat within \u201c an oc ean\u201d of non-habitat.\nIn gener al, large preser ves ar e bet ter because the y suppor t mor e species , including species with lar ge home r anges;\nthey ha ve mor e core area o f optimal habitat f or individual species; the y ha ve mor e niches t o suppor t mor e species;\nand the y attract mor e species because the y can be f ound and r eached mor e easil y.\nPreser ves per form bet ter when ther e are par tially protected buff er zones ar ound them o f subop timal habitat. The\nbuff er al lows organisms t o exit the boundaries o f the pr eser ve without immediat e neg ative consequenc es fr om\nhunting or lack o f resour ces. One lar ge preser ve is bet ter than the same ar ea o f several smal ler pr eser ves because\nther e is mor e core habitat unaff ected b y les s hospitable ec osystems outside the pr eser ve boundar y. For this same\nreason, pr eser ves in the shape o f a squar e or cir cle wil l be bet ter than a pr eser ve with man y thin \u201c arms .\u201d If\npreser ves mus t be smal ler, then pr oviding wildlif e corridors betw een them so that species and their g enes can mo ve\nbetw een the pr eser ves; f or example , preser ves along riv ers and s treams wil l mak e the smal ler pr eser ves beha ve\nmor e lik e a lar ge one . All of these fact ors ar e tak en int o consider ation when planning the natur e of a pr eser ve bef ore\nthe land is set aside .\nIn addition t o the ph ysical specifications o f a pr eser ve, ther e are a v ariety o f regulations r elated to the use o f a\npreser ve. These can include an ything fr om timber e xtraction, miner al extraction, r egulated hunting , human\nhabitation, and nondes tructiv e human r ecreation. Man y of the decisions t o include these other uses ar e made based\non political pr essures rather than c onser vation c onsider ations .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3277, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "390ab92a-fd6b-40cf-ac0d-2a0c1c4f10e4": {"__data__": {"id_": "390ab92a-fd6b-40cf-ac0d-2a0c1c4f10e4", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "597", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "47435161-4055-4155-8015-b72fe694c2c6", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "597", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d8f02d48b67d3ef51456384d36ccbda68377a69d721f121efc0b5ce3cb476239", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "8aa1021d-11ac-4d3e-b03b-e4ca51581aba", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "597", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ef193cd74771cb136e8da6d3d8b7a12160fa0168fc11f2c2c2710298f662986a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "All of these fact ors ar e tak en int o consider ation when planning the natur e of a pr eser ve bef ore\nthe land is set aside .\nIn addition t o the ph ysical specifications o f a pr eser ve, ther e are a v ariety o f regulations r elated to the use o f a\npreser ve. These can include an ything fr om timber e xtraction, miner al extraction, r egulated hunting , human\nhabitation, and nondes tructiv e human r ecreation. Man y of the decisions t o include these other uses ar e made based\non political pr essures rather than c onser vation c onsider ations . On the other hand, in some cases , wildlif e protection\npolicies ha ve been so s trict that subsis tence-living indig enous populations ha ve been f orced fr om anc estral lands\nthat f ell within a pr eser ve. In other cases , even if a pr eser ve is designed t o protect wildlif e, if the pr otections ar e not\nor cannot be enf orced, the pr eser ve status wil l have little meaning in the fac e of illegal poaching and timber\n2Rober t H. Mac Arthur and E dward O. Wilson, E. O .,The Theor y of Island Biog eogr aphy(Princeton, N.J .: Princeton Univ ersity P ress, 1967).21.3 \u2022 P reserving Biodiv ersity 583", "start_char_idx": 2719, "end_char_idx": 3886, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "cc1af34a-e6fd-447d-8fd2-5fecf0b3c6c7": {"__data__": {"id_": "cc1af34a-e6fd-447d-8fd2-5fecf0b3c6c7", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "598", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "609dc862-c011-45a5-bd89-746a8a2e3b18", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "598", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "eaf700dfc3766851c70effadb7d859a2f77ecd10d51ce931c69151414c0d83c9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "577fc3e0-71f9-43b5-a223-7477dc69d65b", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "c0e2b01acbe474a451122e657e97f3bc77b425b4129f1e90e080de2455dc86b3", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "extraction. This is a widespr ead pr oblem with pr eser ves in the tr opics .\nSome o f the limitations on pr eser ves as c onser vation t ools ar e evident fr om the discus sion o f preser ve design.\nPolitical and ec onomic pr essures typical ly mak e preser ves smal ler, never lar ger, so set ting aside ar eas that ar e lar ge\nenough is difficul t. Enf orcement o f protections is also a significant is sue in c ountries without the r esour ces or\npolitical wil l to prevent poaching and il legal resour ce extraction.\nClimat e chang e wil l create ine vitable pr oblems with the location o f preser ves as the species within them migr ate to\nhigher latitudes as the habitat o f the pr eser ve bec omes les s favorable . Planning f or the eff ects o f global w arming on\nfutur e preser ves, or adding ne w pr eser ves to ac commodat e the chang es e xpect ed fr om global w arming is in\nprogress, but wil l onl y be as eff ectiv e as the ac curacy o f the pr edictions o f the eff ects o f global w arming on futur e\nhabitats .\nFinal ly, an ar gument can be made that c onser vation pr eser ves reinforce the cul tural per ception that humans ar e\nsepar ate from natur e, can e xist outside o f it, and can onl y oper ate in w ays that do damag e to biodiv ersity . Creating\npreser ves reduc es the pr essure on human activities outside the pr eser ves to be sus tainable and non-damaging t o\nbiodiv ersity . Ultimat ely, the political , economic, and human demogr aphic pr essures wil l degr ade and r educ e the siz e\nof conser vation pr eser ves if the activities outside them ar e not al tered to be les s damaging t o biodiv ersity .\nLINK T O LE ARNING\nCheck out this interactiv e global data s ystem(http://opens tax.org/l/pr otected_area2) of protected ar eas. Review\ndata about specific pr otected ar eas b y location or s tudy s tatis tics on pr otected ar eas b y countr y or r egion.\nHabitat R estoration\nHabitat r estoration holds c onsider able pr omise as a mechanism f or maintaining or r estoring biodiv ersity . Of c ourse\nonce a species has bec ome e xtinct, its r estoration is impos sible . Ho wever, restoration can impr ove the biodiv ersity\nof degr aded ec osystems . Reintr oducing w olves, a top pr edat or, to Yellowstone National P ark in 1995 led t o dramatic\nchang es in the ec osystem that incr eased biodiv ersity . The w olves (Figure 21.18 ) function t o suppr ess elk and c oyote\npopulations and pr ovide mor e abundant r esour ces to the g uild o f carrion eat ers. Reducing elk populations has\nallowed revegetation o f riparian (the ar eas along the bank s of a s tream or riv er) ar eas, which has incr eased the\ndiversity o f species in that habitat. Suppr ession o f coyotes has incr eased the species pr eviousl y suppr essed b y this\npredat or. The number o f species o f carrion eat ers has incr eased because o f the pr edat ory activities o f the w olves. In\nthis habitat, the w olf is a k eystone species , meaning a species that is ins trumental in maintaining div ersity within an\necosystem. R emo ving a k eystone species fr om an ec ological c ommunity causes a c ollapse in div ersity . The r esul ts\nfrom the Y ellowstone e xperiment sug gest that r estoring a k eystone species eff ectiv ely can ha ve the eff ect o f\nrestoring biodiv ersity in the c ommunity .", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3316, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "577fc3e0-71f9-43b5-a223-7477dc69d65b": {"__data__": {"id_": "577fc3e0-71f9-43b5-a223-7477dc69d65b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "598", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "609dc862-c011-45a5-bd89-746a8a2e3b18", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "598", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "eaf700dfc3766851c70effadb7d859a2f77ecd10d51ce931c69151414c0d83c9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "cc1af34a-e6fd-447d-8fd2-5fecf0b3c6c7", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "598", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "882ace02ee45bef818c5a1eb045e6a116a54e4868dbf070cddcc8294e59ec54f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Suppr ession o f coyotes has incr eased the species pr eviousl y suppr essed b y this\npredat or. The number o f species o f carrion eat ers has incr eased because o f the pr edat ory activities o f the w olves. In\nthis habitat, the w olf is a k eystone species , meaning a species that is ins trumental in maintaining div ersity within an\necosystem. R emo ving a k eystone species fr om an ec ological c ommunity causes a c ollapse in div ersity . The r esul ts\nfrom the Y ellowstone e xperiment sug gest that r estoring a k eystone species eff ectiv ely can ha ve the eff ect o f\nrestoring biodiv ersity in the c ommunity . Ecologis ts ha ve argued f or the identification o f keystone species wher e\npossible and f or focusing pr otection eff orts on these species . It mak es sense t o return the k eystone species t o the\necosystems wher e the y ha ve been r emo ved.\nFIGURE 21.18 This phot ograph sho ws the Gibbon w olf pack in Y ellowstone National P ark, Mar ch 1, 2007. W olves ha ve been identified as a\nkeystone species . (credit: Doug Smith, NPS)\n584 21 \u2022 C onser vation and Biodiv ersity\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2692, "end_char_idx": 3826, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9fe6b6ef-2b06-448b-9056-e7e3f8cc1415": {"__data__": {"id_": "9fe6b6ef-2b06-448b-9056-e7e3f8cc1415", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "599", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "42080104-2c6f-483a-addf-9136dc8d0d23", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "599", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "a9af478e9ba3767f06b981cb6e62c97e0bbf1d08014377f3482094a66b599d46", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Other lar ge-scale r estoration e xperiments under way involve dam r emo val. In the Unit ed Stat es, sinc e the\nmid-1980s , man y aging dams ar e being c onsider ed for remo val rather than r eplac ement because o f shifting beliefs\nabout the ec ological v alue o f free-flowing riv ers. The measur ed benefits o f dam r emo val include r estoration o f\nnatur ally fluctuating w ater le vels (o ften the purpose o f dams is t o reduc e variation in riv er flo ws), which leads t o\nincreased fish div ersity and impr oved w ater quality . In the P acific Nor thwest, dam r emo val pr ojects ar e expect ed to\nincrease populations o f salmon, which is c onsider ed a k eystone species because it tr anspor ts nutrients t o inland\necosystems during its annual spa wning migr ations . In other r egions , such as the A tlantic c oast, dam r emo val has\nallowed the r eturn o f other spa wning anadr omous fish species (species that ar e born in fr esh w ater, live mos t of\ntheir liv es in sal t water, and r eturn t o fresh w ater to spa wn). Some o f the lar gest dam r emo val pr ojects ha ve yet to\noccur or ha ve happened t oo recently for the c onsequenc es to be measur ed. The lar ge-scale ec ological e xperiments\nthat these r emo val pr ojects c onstitut e wil l provide v aluable data f or other dam pr ojects slat ed either f or remo val or\nconstruction.\nThe R ole o f Zoos and C aptive Breeding\nZoos ha ve sought t o pla y a r ole in c onser vation eff orts both thr ough cap tive breeding pr ograms and education\n(Figure 21.19 ). The tr ansformation o f the mis sions o f zoos fr om c ollection and e xhibition facilities t o organizations\nthat ar e dedicat ed to conser vation is ong oing . In g ener al, it has been r ecogniz ed that, e xcept in some specific\ntargeted cases , cap tive breeding pr ograms f or endang ered species ar e inefficient and o ften pr one t o failur e when\nthe species ar e reintr oduc ed to the wild. Z oo facilities ar e far t oo limit ed to contemplat e cap tive breeding pr ograms\nfor the numbers o f species that ar e no w at risk. E ducation, on the other hand, is a pot ential positiv e impact o f zoos\non c onser vation eff orts, par ticularl y giv en the global tr end t o urbanization and the c onsequent r eduction in c ontacts\nbetw een people and wildlif e. A number o f studies ha ve been per formed t o look at the eff ectiv enes s of zoos on\npeople \u2019s attitudes and actions r egarding c onser vation; at pr esent, the r esul ts tend t o be mix ed.\nFIGURE 21.19 Zoos and cap tive breeding pr ograms help pr eser ve man y endang ered species , such as this g olden lion tamarin. (cr edit:\nGarr ett Ziegler)21.3 \u2022 P reserving Biodiv ersity 585", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2694, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b54e80ae-8806-4a0e-ae79-01d88f9fc47d": {"__data__": {"id_": "b54e80ae-8806-4a0e-ae79-01d88f9fc47d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "600", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8ddb70d5-722b-46bb-ac8e-c2b4d685a9ea", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "600", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d2166a79223f735c2873e06fa6423350f596345131256ed889c3d8de1c0822bd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "89e1ebd7-563d-4b1d-ba0e-d2a9a292eedc", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "ce63b5145b718c44f1a961e80ad43032e2d94c6ce591fe1bd13164c2da6c7d03", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Key Terms\nbiodiv ersity the v ariety o f a biological s ystem,\ntypical ly conceived as the number o f species , but\nalso appl ying t o genes , biochemis try, and\necosystems\nbiodiv ersity ho tspo ta concept originat ed b y Norman\nMyers t o describe a g eogr aphical r egion with a lar ge\nnumber o f endemic species and a lar ge per centag e\nof degr aded habitat\nbush mea ta wild-caught animal used as f ood\n(typical ly mammals , birds, and r eptiles); usual ly\nreferring t o hunting in the tr opics o f sub -Sahar an\nAfrica , Asia , and the Americas\nchemical div ersity the v ariety o f metabolic\ncompounds in an ec osystem\nchytridiom ycosis a disease o f amphibians caused b y\nthe fung usBatr achoch ytrium dendr obatidis;\nthought t o be a major cause o f the global amphibian\ndecline\necosystem div ersity the v ariety o f ecosystems\nendemic species a species nativ e to one plac e\nexotic species (also , invasive species) a species that\nhas been intr oduc ed to an ec osystem in which it did\nnot e volve\nextinction the disappear ance of a species fr om Ear th;\nlocal e xtinction is the disappear ance of a species\nfrom a r egionextinction r atethe number o f species bec oming\nextinct o ver time , sometimes defined as e xtinctions\nper mil lion species \u2013years t o mak e numbers\nmanag eable (E/MS Y)\ngenetic div ersity the v ariety o f genes and al leles in a\nspecies or other tax onomic gr oup or ec osystem; the\nterm can r efer to allelic div ersity or g enome -wide\ndiversity\nhabita t het erogeneity the number o f ecological\nniches\nsecondar y plant c ompound a compound pr oduc ed\nas a b yproduct o f plant metabolic pr ocesses that is\ntypical ly toxic, but is seques tered b y the plant t o\ndefend ag ains t herbiv ores\nspecies-ar ea relationship the r elationship betw een\narea sur veyed and number o f species enc ount ered;\ntypical ly measur ed b y incr emental ly incr easing the\narea o f a sur vey and det ermining the cumulativ e\nnumbers o f species\ntragedy o f the c ommons an ec onomic principle that\nresour ces held in c ommon wil l ine vitabl y be o ver-\nexploit ed\nwhit e-nose s yndr ome a disease o f cave-hibernating\nbats in the eas tern Unit ed Stat es and Canada\nassociat ed with the fung usGeom yces des tructans\nChap ter Summar y\n21.1 Impor tanc e of Biodiv ersity\nBiodiv ersity e xists at mul tiple le vels o f organization,\nand is measur ed in diff erent w ays depending on the\ngoals o f those taking the measur ements . These include\nnumbers o f species , genetic div ersity , chemical\ndiversity , and ec osystem div ersity . The number o f\ndescribed species is es timat ed to be 1.5 mil lion with\nabout 17,000 ne w species being described each y ear.\nEstimat es for the t otal number o f euk aryotic species on\nEarth vary but ar e on the or der o f 10 mil lion.\nBiodiv ersity is neg atively correlated with latitude f or\nmos t taxa , meaning that biodiv ersity is higher in the\ntropics . The mechanism f or this pat tern is not kno wn\nwith c ertainty , but se veral plausible h ypotheses ha ve\nbeen adv anced.\nHumans use man y compounds that w ere firs t\ndisc overed or deriv ed fr om living or ganisms as\nmedicines: sec ondar y plant c ompounds , animal t oxins ,\nand antibiotics pr oduc ed b y bact eria and fungi.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3242, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "89e1ebd7-563d-4b1d-ba0e-d2a9a292eedc": {"__data__": {"id_": "89e1ebd7-563d-4b1d-ba0e-d2a9a292eedc", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "600", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "8ddb70d5-722b-46bb-ac8e-c2b4d685a9ea", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "600", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d2166a79223f735c2873e06fa6423350f596345131256ed889c3d8de1c0822bd", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "b54e80ae-8806-4a0e-ae79-01d88f9fc47d", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "600", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "8294a2493930a55aca7440416dd38d997d75c5889cd5b82ec863e97732650cce", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Estimat es for the t otal number o f euk aryotic species on\nEarth vary but ar e on the or der o f 10 mil lion.\nBiodiv ersity is neg atively correlated with latitude f or\nmos t taxa , meaning that biodiv ersity is higher in the\ntropics . The mechanism f or this pat tern is not kno wn\nwith c ertainty , but se veral plausible h ypotheses ha ve\nbeen adv anced.\nHumans use man y compounds that w ere firs t\ndisc overed or deriv ed fr om living or ganisms as\nmedicines: sec ondar y plant c ompounds , animal t oxins ,\nand antibiotics pr oduc ed b y bact eria and fungi. Mor e\nmedicines ar e expect ed to be disc overed in natur e.\nLoss of biodiv ersity wil l impact the number o f\npharmac euticals a vailable t o humans . Biodiv ersity ma y\nprovide impor tant ps ychological benefits t o humans .Crop div ersity is a r equir ement f or food security , and it\nis being los t. The los s of wild r elativ es to crops also\nthreatens br eeders\u2019 abilities t o create ne w varieties .\nEcosystems pr ovide ec osystem ser vices that suppor t\nhuman agricul ture: pol lination, nutrient cy cling , pes t\ncontr ol, and soil de velopment and maint enanc e. Loss\nof biodiv ersity thr eatens these ec osystem ser vices and\nrisks making f ood pr oduction mor e expensiv e or\nimpos sible . Wild f ood sour ces ar e mainl y aquatic, but\nfew ar e being manag ed for sus tainability . Fisheries\u2019\nability t o provide pr otein t o human populations is\nthreatened when e xtinction oc curs .\n21.2 Threats t o Biodiv ersity\nThe c ore thr eats t o biodiv ersity ar e human population\ngrowth and unsus tainable r esour ce use . To dat e, the\nmos t significant causes o f extinction ar e habitat los s,\nintroduction o f exotic species , and o verhar vesting.\nClimat e chang e is pr edict ed to be a significant cause o f\nextinction in the c oming c entur y. Habitat los s oc curs\nthrough def orestation, damming o f rivers, and other\nactivities . Overhar vesting is a thr eat par ticularl y to\naquatic species , but the taking o f bush meat in the\nhumid tr opics thr eatens man y species in Asia , Africa ,586 21 \u2022 K ey Terms\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 2677, "end_char_idx": 4804, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "133b58d5-6ab1-4331-a0b1-3c9924f4f358": {"__data__": {"id_": "133b58d5-6ab1-4331-a0b1-3c9924f4f358", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "601", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "dcfe7534-a328-4276-a2c3-8185dfe0a335", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "601", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1ec4a97ca864c6deee8cd6271e2fbbbe6b9c4bc83d9088d87d3165bf12bd4196", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "3": {"node_id": "f960dd7d-77c2-4f5c-8bcc-c2523a04ea6d", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {}, "hash": "7a14fb3555b00cd1a44379b887c03782504f881ef2fc62dfc56379f8479752f9", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "and the Americas . Exotic species ha ve been the cause\nof a number o f extinctions and ar e especial ly damaging\nto islands and lak es. Exotic species\u2019 intr oductions ar e\nincreasing because o f the incr eased mobility o f human\npopulations and gr owing global tr ade and\ntranspor tation. Climat e chang e is f orcing r ange\nchang es that ma y lead t o extinction. It is also aff ecting\nadap tations t o the timing o f resour ce availability that\nnegatively aff ects species in seasonal en vironments .\nThe impacts o f climat e chang e are curr ently greatest in\nthe ar ctic. Global w arming wil l also r aise sea le vels,\neliminating some islands and r educing the ar ea o f all\nothers .\n21.3 Preserving Biodiv ersity\nFive mas s extinctions with los ses o f mor e than 50\npercent o f extant species ar e obser vable in the f ossil\nrecord. Recent e xtinctions ar e recorded in writ ten\nhistory and ar e the basis f or one method o f estimating\ncontempor ary extinction r ates. The other method uses\nmeasur es o f habitat los s and species -area\nrelationships . Estimat es o f contempor ary extinction\nrates vary but ar e as high as 500 times the back ground\nrate, as det ermined fr om the f ossil record, and ar e\npredict ed to rise .\nTher e is a legislativ e frame work f or biodiv ersity\nprotection. Int ernational tr eaties such as CI TES\nregulate the tr anspor tation o f endang ered species\nacross int ernational bor ders . Legislation withinindividual c ountries pr otecting species and agr eements\non global w arming ha ve had limit ed suc cess; ther e is at\npresent no int ernational agr eement on tar gets f or\ngreenhouse g as emis sions . In the Unit ed Stat es, the\nEndang ered Species Act pr otects lis ted species but is\nhamper ed b y procedur al difficul ties and a f ocus on\nindividual species . The Migr atory Bir d Act is an\nagreement betw een Canada and the Unit ed Stat es to\nprotect migr atory bir ds. The non-pr ofit sect or is also\nvery activ e in c onser vation eff orts in a v ariety o f ways.\nConser vation pr eser ves ar e a major t ool in biodiv ersity\nprotection. P resentl y, 11 per cent o f Ear th\u2019s land\nsurface is pr otected in some w ay. The scienc e of island\nbiog eogr aphy has inf ormed the op timal design o f\npreser ves; ho wever, preser ves ha ve limitations\nimposed b y political and ec onomic f orces. In addition,\nclimat e chang e wil l limit the eff ectiv enes s of present\npreser ves in the futur e. A do wnside o f preser ves is that\nthey ma y les sen the pr essure on human societies t o\nfunction mor e sus tainabl y outside the pr eser ves.\nHabitat r estoration has the pot ential t o restore\necosystems t o previous biodiv ersity le vels bef ore\nspecies bec ome e xtinct. Examples o f restoration\ninclude r eintr oduction o f keystone species and r emo val\nof dams on riv ers. Zoos ha ve attemp ted to tak e a mor e\nactiv e role in c onser vation and can ha ve a limit ed role\nin cap tive breeding pr ograms . Zoos also ha ve a useful\nrole in education.\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 21.6 The Sv albar d seed v ault is locat ed on\nSpitsber gen island in Nor way, which has an ar ctic\nclimat e. Wh y might an ar ctic climat e be g ood f or\nseed s torage?\nReview Ques tions\n2.The number o f curr ently described species on the\nplanet is about ________.", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 3308, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "f960dd7d-77c2-4f5c-8bcc-c2523a04ea6d": {"__data__": {"id_": "f960dd7d-77c2-4f5c-8bcc-c2523a04ea6d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "601", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "dcfe7534-a328-4276-a2c3-8185dfe0a335", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "601", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "1ec4a97ca864c6deee8cd6271e2fbbbe6b9c4bc83d9088d87d3165bf12bd4196", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}, "2": {"node_id": "133b58d5-6ab1-4331-a0b1-3c9924f4f358", "node_type": "1", "metadata": {"page_label": "601", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "64cd80e1b7ef7e08de5226124d211fcaca8c7cf409d78ba0278a760af429c4f0", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Examples o f restoration\ninclude r eintr oduction o f keystone species and r emo val\nof dams on riv ers. Zoos ha ve attemp ted to tak e a mor e\nactiv e role in c onser vation and can ha ve a limit ed role\nin cap tive breeding pr ograms . Zoos also ha ve a useful\nrole in education.\nVisual C onnec tion Ques tions\n1.Figure 21.6 The Sv albar d seed v ault is locat ed on\nSpitsber gen island in Nor way, which has an ar ctic\nclimat e. Wh y might an ar ctic climat e be g ood f or\nseed s torage?\nReview Ques tions\n2.The number o f curr ently described species on the\nplanet is about ________.\na.17,000\nb.150,000\nc.1.5 mil lion\nd.10 mil lion\n3.A sec ondar y plant c ompound might be used f or\nwhich o f the f ollowing?\na.a ne w cr op v ariety\nb.a ne w drug\nc.a soil nutrient\nd.a crop pes t4.Pollination is an e xample o f ________.\na.a pos sible sour ce of new drugs\nb.chemical div ersity\nc.an ec osystem ser vice\nd.crop pes t contr ol\n5.Converting a pr airie t o a farm field is an e xample o f\n________.\na.overhar vesting\nb.habitat los s\nc.exotic species\nd.climat e chang e21 \u2022 Visual C onnec tion Ques tions 587", "start_char_idx": 2720, "end_char_idx": 3829, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "fe4aa3b7-6014-435d-a5bd-b08e02b6a790": {"__data__": {"id_": "fe4aa3b7-6014-435d-a5bd-b08e02b6a790", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "602", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "bc60ab88-e8ed-41f7-a762-bec61c359699", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "602", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "e2428e86537def8ff44a2704a3b4e3a5be7f992fa35ca0c6ffdb8e72ce041502", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "6.Which tw o extinction risk s ma y be a dir ect r esul t of\nthe pet tr ade?\na.climat e chang e and e xotic species intr oduction\nb.habitat los s and o verhar vesting\nc.overhar vesting and e xotic species intr oduction\nd.habitat los s and climat e chang e\n7.What kind o f ecosystem ar e exotic species\nespecial ly thr eatening t o?\na.deser ts\nb.marine ec osystems\nc.islands\nd.tropical f orests8.Certain species o f parr ot cannot be br ought t o the\nUnit ed Stat es to be sold as pets . What is the name\nof the legislation that mak es this il legal?\na.Red Lis t\nb.Migr atory Bir d Act\nc.CITES\nd.Endang ered Species Act (ESA)\n9.Which measur es can pr otect biodiv ersity?\na.legal pr otections\nb.conser vation eff orts\nc.restoration eff orts\nd.all of the abo ve\nCritic al Thinking Ques tions\n10.Explain ho w biodiv ersity los s can impact cr op\ndiversity .\n11.Describe tw o types o f compounds fr om living\nthings that ar e used as medications .\n12.Describe the mechanisms b y which human\npopulation gr owth and r esour ce use causes\nincreased e xtinction r ates.13.Explain what e xtinction thr eats a fr og living on a\nmountainside in Cos ta Rica might fac e.\n14.Describe tw o consider ations in c onser vation\npreser ve design.\n15.Describe what happens t o an ec osystem when a\nkeystone species is r emo ved.588 21 \u2022 Critic al Thinking Ques tions\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1380, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "7aabd900-b2ef-430e-921b-18d2017670c2": {"__data__": {"id_": "7aabd900-b2ef-430e-921b-18d2017670c2", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "603", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "99fb59a1-8006-43d7-ab8b-9c2fc9ea416a", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "603", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "5cc0cca6dc412f0b51f6cd211139309c2537d18fc73fd5c4b995c1f146330001", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "APPENDIX A\nThe P eriodic T able o f Elements\nFIGURE A1A \u2022 The P eriodic T able o f Elements 589", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 95, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "bad37c59-ee3e-4ddd-9a16-d1517072b5fb": {"__data__": {"id_": "bad37c59-ee3e-4ddd-9a16-d1517072b5fb", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "604", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "f1f076ce-44cb-438f-932a-02d09606dd0b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "604", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "b4197365a844e7e569a3c3c802ff73431a69e13ae6d3b484183db8003d05227b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "590 A \u2022 The P eriodic T able o f Elements\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 75, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b609dab3-7c2f-4aca-b159-060f8198b9d9": {"__data__": {"id_": "b609dab3-7c2f-4aca-b159-060f8198b9d9", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "605", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3a8144d9-380d-4ef1-9eea-959bd4cadd99", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "605", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6bdd96e52e94ed39ba569977f074a1961eee293e5bff55710edea39fa22bceba", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "APPENDIX B\nGeologic al Time\nFIGURE B1Geological Time ClockB \u2022 Geologic al Time 591", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 82, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9104509f-33c8-4568-86e3-0b1a1597c99b": {"__data__": {"id_": "9104509f-33c8-4568-86e3-0b1a1597c99b", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "606", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "098734c1-e1dd-4ff4-9bad-8baa029a2e8b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "606", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "6983345f700f97e34a866f7c49914ae1b9cbc413acd2ffadb1c80df0b2737d1f", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "FIGURE B2Geological Time Char t\n(credit: Richar d S. Murph y, Jr.)592 B \u2022 Geologic al Time\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 124, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "ba3b6817-9d87-475c-95fe-bfffba107b4d": {"__data__": {"id_": "ba3b6817-9d87-475c-95fe-bfffba107b4d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "607", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "08623872-2b04-4e17-905a-27b671c3af6d", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "607", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ee18c02763df86bf63b6f33d9b3c9cb9ea322e59f5e43b3c3484e01eec5ab063", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "APPENDIX C\nMeasur ements and the Me tric S ystem\nMeasur ements and the Me tric S ystem\nMeasur ements and the Metric Sy stem\nMeasur ement Unit Abbr eviation Metric E quivalentAppr oximat e Standar d\nEquivalent\nLengthnanomet er nm 1 nm = 10\u22129m\n1 mm = 0.039 inch\n1 cm = 0.394 inch\n1 m = 39.37 inches\n1 m = 3.28 f eet\n1 m = 1.093 y ards\n1 km = 0.621 milesmicr omet er \u00b5m 1 \u00b5m = 10\u22126m\nmillimet er mm 1 mm = 0.001 m\ncentimet er cm 1 cm = 0.01 m\nmeter m1 m = 100 cm\n1 m = 1000\nmm\nkilomet er km 1 km = 1000 m\nMas smicr ogram \u00b5g 1 \u00b5g = 10\u22126g\n1 g = 0.035 ounc e\n1 kg = 2.205 poundsmilligram mg 1 mg = 10\u22123g\ngram g 1 g = 1000 mg\nkilogr am kg 1 kg = 1000 g\nVolumemicr oliter \u00b5l 1 \u00b5l = 10\u22126l\n1 ml = 0.034 fluid ounc e\n1 l = 1.057 quar ts\n1 kl = 264.172 g allonsmilliliter ml 1 ml = 10\u22123l\nliter l 1 l = 1000 ml\nkilolit er kl 1 kl = 1000 l\nAreasquar e\ncentimet ercm21 cm2= 100 mm2 1 cm2= 0.155 squar e inch\n1 m2= 10.764 squar e feet\n1 m2= 1.196 squar e yards\n1 ha = 2.471 acr essquar e met er m21 m2= 10,000\ncm2\nTABLE C1C \u2022 Measur ements and the Me tric S ystem 593", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 1050, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "c93ee08d-91bb-4d62-92b0-85a08a59f3ed": {"__data__": {"id_": "c93ee08d-91bb-4d62-92b0-85a08a59f3ed", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "608", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "ad99b4ef-c3a7-4ca2-97e4-799823450596", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "608", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "0cd6596287aa7550a84e8374e7eb1b1d8e3f9637111741d261ef3e15ccbf149e", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "Measur ement Unit Abbr eviation Metric E quivalentAppr oximat e Standar d\nEquivalent\nhectar e ha 1 ha = 10,000 m2\nTemper atur e Celsius \u00b0C \u2014 1 \u00b0C = 5/9 \u00d7 (\u00b0F \u2212 32)\nTABLE C1594 C \u2022 Measur ements and the Me tric S ystem\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 251, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "b96bcb43-b8b8-4332-a022-ae0bf23483cd": {"__data__": {"id_": "b96bcb43-b8b8-4332-a022-ae0bf23483cd", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "609", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4aebfc2e-f3a7-45c5-b152-8b126b7185c4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "609", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "aa6d6f9a3295c94da7c2f549765046e902a31352e2eef24cdc19732b45b88254", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "INDEX\nA\nabsorp tion spectrum 122\nabyssal z one 552\nacellular 446\nacetyl CoA 102\nAcid r ain 543\nAcids 38\nacoelomat es 355\nActinop terygii 383\naction pot ential 428\nactiv ation ener gy95\nactiv e immunity 458\nactiv e sit e96\nActiv e transpor t80\nadap tation 251\nAdap tive immunity 456\nadap tive radiation 262\nadhesion 37\nadrenal glands 417\nAge structur e508\nalgal bloom 555\nalleles 176\nallergy466\nAllopatric speciation 260\nallosteric inhibition 97\nalternation o f gener ations 153\nalternativ e RNA splicing 217\nalveoli 409\nAmino acids 46\namniot es 385\nAmoebocyt es 358\nAmoebo zoa 302\nAmphibia 383\nampul lae o f Lorenzini 382\namygdala 432\namylase 403\nanabolic 91\nanaer obic 288\nanalog ous s tructur e280\nanalog ous s tructur es 251\nanaphase 138\naneuploid 162\nanions 32\nannealing 227Annelida 374\nanoxic 288\nanther 339\nAnthoph yta 343\nAnthr opoids 389\nantibody 457\nantig en 456\nantig en-pr esenting c ell (APC)\n459\nAnur a383\nanus 405\naorta 411\napex consumers 528\naphotic z one 551\napical meris tem 323\nApoda 383\napop tosis 449\nappendicular sk eleton 423\napplied scienc e22\nArchaeplas tida 302\nArctic tundr a549\nArteries 413\nArthropoda 367\nAscomycota 310\nAsexual r eproduction 474\nAsymmetrical 354\natom 9\natomic number 29\nATP 100\nATP s ynthase 104\natrium 411\nattenuation 451\naudit ory os sicles 422\nautoantibody 467\nAutoimmunity 467\nautonomic ner vous s ystem 433\nautosomes 162\nautotroph 116\nautotrophs 531\naxial sk eleton 421\naxon 428\nB\nB cells456\nBasal angiosperms 343basal g anglia 432\nbases 38\nBasic scienc e22\nBasidiom ycota 310\nbenthic r ealm 551\nbicuspid v alve411\nBilat eral symmetr y355\nBile 405\nbinar y fis sion 143\nbinomial nomenclatur e275\nbiodiv ersity 564\nbiodiv ersity hotspot 583\nbioener getics 90\nbiofilm 290\nbiog eochemical cy cle 533\nBiolog y5\nBiomagnification 532\nbiomark er 241\nbiome 527\nbioremediation 297\nbiospher e12\nBiot echnolog y223\nbirth rate501\nBlack Death 293\nblas tocyst479\nbody plan 352\nbolus 403\nbones 387\nboreal f orest548\nbottleneck eff ect 255\nbotulism 295\nbrachiation 389\nbrains tem 433\nbranch point 276\nbronchi 409\nbronchioles 409\nbudding 359 ,475\nBuff ers 38\nbulbour ethr al gland 482\nBush meat 574\nC\nCaecilians 384\nCalvin cy cle 125\ncalyx 339Index595", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2183, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "1c1713bf-9abf-43e6-a4b9-c94525f880ac": {"__data__": {"id_": "1c1713bf-9abf-43e6-a4b9-c94525f880ac", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "610", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "4b7e471c-015b-43cb-897b-28396a41e9a4", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "610", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "ed919dab736d4f99d29fa638881628eaf82189bfccc283a0ce7b3e4d43dbb720", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "canop y544\ncapil laries 413\ncapsid 447\ncapsule 291\nCarboh ydrates 40\ncarbon fixation 125\ncardiac cy cle 412\nCardiac muscle tis sue 425\ncarpel 339\ncarr ying capacity 501\nCartilaginous joints 423\ncatabolic 91\ncations 32\ncell10\ncell cycle 135\ncell cycle checkpoints 140\ncell plat e138\ncell wall69\ncell-mediat ed immune r esponse\n456\nCellulose 41\ncentr al ner vous s ystem (CNS)\n430\ncentr al vacuole 70\ncentrioles 136\nCephalochor data 379\ncephalothor ax 369\ncerebel lum 432\ncerebral cortex431\ncerebrospinal fluid (CSF )430\nchaetae 374\nchannel 556\nchaparr al546\nchelic erae 369\nchemical bonds 31\nchemical div ersity 565\nchemiosmosis 104\nchemoaut otrophs 531\nchiasmata 156\nchitin 42,366\nchlor ophyll118\nchlor ophylla122\nchlor ophyllb122\nchlor oplas t118\nChlor oplas ts69\nchoanocyt e358\nChondrichth yes 382\nChor data 378\nChromal veolata 302chromatin 65\nchromosome 65\nchromosome in version 165\nchyme 404\nchytridiom ycosis 576\nChytridiom ycota 310\ncilia 64\ncitric acid cy cle 102\nclades 282\ncladis tics 282\nclas s275\nclea vage furr ow138\nclimax c ommunity 519\nclitellum 375\nclitoris 483\ncloning 226\nclosed cir culat ory system 411\nclub mos ses 330\nCnidaria 359\ncnidocyt es 359\ncodominanc e184\ncodon 213\ncoelom 355\ncohesion 37\ncolon 405\ncommensalism 297\ncommunity 12\ncompetitiv e exclusion principle\n513\ncompetitiv e inhibition 97\ncomplement s ystem 455\ncomplet e dig estive system 366\nconcentr ation gr adient 77\ncones 334\nConif ers 335\nconjug ation 292\nContinuous v ariation 172\ncontr ol20\nconvergent e volution 251\nCoral reefs 552\ncorolla339\ncorpus cal losum 431\ncorpus lut eum 483\ncotyledons 342\ncovalent bond 32\ncraniat es 381\nCrocodilia 385\ncrossing o ver 156\ncryptofauna 553ctenidia 371\ncutaneous r espir ation 383\ncyanobact eria 289\nCycads 336\ncytokine 454\nCytokinesis 138\ncytopathic 449\ncytoplasm 63\ncytoskeleton 63\ncytosol 63\nD\ndead z one 540\ndeath r ate501\nDeductiv e reasoning 19\ndemogr aphy496\ndenatur ation 46\nDendrit es 427\ndendritic c ell459\ndensity -dependent 504\ndensity -independent 504\ndeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 49\ndeoxyribose 199\ndepolarization 428\nDescrip tive19\ndesmosomes 72\ndetrital f ood w eb 530\nDeut erostomes 356\ndiaphr agm 409\ndias tole 412\ndicots 343\nDiffusion 77\ndihybrid 181\ndioecious 367\ndiph yodonts 388\ndiploblas ts355\ndiploid 134\ndiploid-dominant 153\nDiplontic 321\nDisac charides 41\ndisc ontinuous v ariation 172\ndispersal 261\ndivergent e volution 251\nDNA lig ase 204\nDNA pol ymer ase 204\ndomains 275\nDominant 175\ndorsal hol low ner ve cord378\ndouble helix 200\ndown f eathers 387596 Index\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2551, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "0e1a85c9-479a-4d44-889c-00d88d00cd9d": {"__data__": {"id_": "0e1a85c9-479a-4d44-889c-00d88d00cd9d", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "611", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "52fe03c8-c940-4a36-9162-2cf6aef3d13e", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "611", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "d87b1854c2cfdd44d15c476e455be2f6a679a6147af3b781092aa97173c0b99a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "down-r egulation 416\nE\nEchinodermata 376\necosystem 12,526\necosystem div ersity 565\necosystem ser vices 555\nectotherms 398\neffector cells460\nelectr ocar diogr am (EC G) 412\nelectr ochemical gr adient 81\nelectr omagnetic spectrum 121\nelectr on 28\nelectr on tr ansfer 32\nelectr on tr anspor t chain 102\nelements 28\nEmer gent v egetation 557\nEndemic species 567\nender gonic r eactions 94\nendocrine glands 415\nEndocyt osis 82\nendomembr ane s ystem 65\nendoplasmic r eticulum (ER) 65\nendos ymbiotic theor y298\nendotherm 398\nenvironmental dis turbanc es 518\nEnzymes 45,95\nepidemics 294\nepidermis 360\nepig enetic 216\nepis tasis 190\nEquilibrium 527\nesophag us 402\nessential nutrients 407\nestrogen 487\nEstuaries 554\neucoelomat es 356\neudic ots 343\neukaryotes 10\neukaryotic c ell60\neuploid 162\nEutherian mammals 389\neutr ophication 538\nevapor ation 35\nevolution 12\nExcavata 302\nexergonic r eactions 94\nExocrine glands 415\nExocyt osis 83\nexons 211Exotic species 574\nexponential gr owth 500\nexternal f ertilization 477\nextinction 566\nextinction r ates 580\nextracellular dig estion 361\nextracellular matrix 71\nextremophiles 290\nF\nF1173\nF2173\nfacilitat ed tr anspor t78\nfallout 542\nfalsifiable 20\nfamil y275\nfat 43\nFeedback inhibition 99\nfermentation 105\nferns 331\nfertilization 155\nfibrous joints 423\nfilament 339\nFission 474\nFlag ella64\nfluid mosaic model 74\nfollicle s timulating hormone\n(FSH) 486\nfood chain 527\nfood w eb 529\nfoodborne disease 295\nFoundation species 516\nfounder eff ect 256\nfragmentation 359 ,475\nFrogs 384\nfrontal lobe 432\nFtsZ 144\nG\nG0phase 139\nG1phase 135\nG2phase 136\ngallbladder 405\ngametangia 322\ngamet es 134\ngamet ophyte321\ngamet ophytes 155\nGap junctions 72\ngastrodermis 360\ngastrovascular ca vity 361gastrulation 480\nGel electr ophor esis 225\ngemmules 359\ngene e xpression 215\ngene flo w256\ngene pool 252\nGene ther apy231\ngenes 134\ngenetic c ode 213\nGenetic div ersity 565\ngenetic drift 253\ngenetic engineering 230\ngenetic map 234\ngenetical ly modified or ganism\n230\ngenome 133\ngenomics 234\ngenotype 176\ngenus 275\ngerm c ells153\ngerm la yers 355\ngestation 489\ngestation period 489\ngink gophyte337\nglia 427\nGlomer omycota 310\nGlycogen 41\nGlycolysis 101\nglycoprotein 448\nGnathos tomes 382\nGnet ophytes 337\nGolgi appar atus 66\ngonadotr opin-r eleasing hormone\n(GnRH) 486\nGram-neg ative291\nGram-positiv e291\ngranum 119\ngrazing f ood w eb 530\ngross primar y productivity 531\nGymnosperms 334\ngynoecium 339\nH\nhabitat het erogeneity 568\nHagfishes 381\nhaplodiplontic 321\nhaploid 134\nhaploid-dominant 153\nHaplontic 321\nheat ener gy93Index597", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2545, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "598daff8-6ebd-42dd-ab52-e2a20f09a8ec": {"__data__": {"id_": "598daff8-6ebd-42dd-ab52-e2a20f09a8ec", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "612", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "edacad29-cb0d-4f39-a98d-f6f0a13c71a7", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "612", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "22079df02967fc0cfcb6cf9818abf21fb0fc9768e5b4beed4e1dee6cbdf4a28b", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "helicase 204\nhemizy gous 187\nhemoc oel 367\nherbac eous 344\nHermaphr oditism 476\nheterodont t eeth 387\nheterospor ous 322\nHeterotrophs 116\nheterozygous 176\nhippocampus 432\nHomeos tasis 8\nhomolog ous chr omosomes 134\nhomolog ous s tructur es 252\nhomospor ous 322\nhomo zygous 176\nhormone r eceptors 415\nHormones 45,415\nhorn worts328\nHorsetails 330\nhost515\nhuman beta chorionic\ngonadotr opin (\u03b2 -HCG) 489\nhumor al immune r esponse 456\nhybridizations 173\nhydrogen bond 33\nhydrophilic 35\nhydrophobic 35\nhydrospher e533\nhydrothermal v ent 289\nhyoid bone 422\nhypersensitivity 466\nhyper tonic 79\nhypha 308\nhypothalamus 432\nhypothesis 18\nhypothesis -based scienc e19\nhypot onic 79\nI\nimmune t olerance465\nImmunodeficiency 466\nincomplet e dominanc e184\nInductiv e reasoning 19\ninferior v ena ca va411\ninflammation 454\ninheritanc e of acquired\nchar acteristics 248\ninhibin 487\nInnat e immunity 453\ninner c ell mas s479interferon 454\ninterkinesis 158\ninternal f ertilization 477\ninterphase 135\ninterstitial c ells of Leydig 481\ninterstitial fluid 400\nintertidal z one 551\nintracellular 415\nintracellular dig estion 358\nintraspecific c ompetition 502\nintrons 211\nion 32\nionic bond 32\nIsland biog eogr aphy516\nisotonic 79\nIsot opes 29\nJ\nJ-shaped gr owth cur ve501\njoint 423\nK\nK-select ed species 506\nkaryogram 161\nkaryotype 161\nkeystone species 517\nkidne ys401\nkinetic ener gy93\nkinet ochor e138\nking dom 275\nL\nlabia major a483\nlabia minor a483\nlagging s trand 204\nLampr eys381\nLancelets 380\nlarge int estine 405\nlarynx 409\nlateral382\nlaw of dominanc e177\nlaw of independent as sortment\n181\nlaw of segr egation 179\nleading s trand 204\nLichens 313\nlife cy cles 153\nlife scienc es 18\nlife tables 496\nlight -dependent r eactions 119\nlimbic s ystem 432line 382\nlinkage189\nLipids 42\nlitmus 37\nliver 405\nLiverworts327\nlocus 134\nlogis tic gr owth 501\nLophotr ocho zoa 370\nluteinizing hormone (LH) 486\nLymph 463\nlymphocyt e455\nlysosomes 66\nM\nmacr oevolution 252\nmacr omolecules 9,39\nmacr ophag e454\nmadr eporit e376\nmajor his tocompatibility c omple x\n(MHC) I molecules 455\nMammals 387\nMammar y glands 387\nmantle 371\nmark and r ecap ture497\nMarsupials 388\nmas s number 29\nMas t cells454\nMatter 28\nmaximum parsimon y284\nmedusa 360\nmeg aspor ocyt e334\nmeiosis 152\nmeiosis I 155\nMeiosis II 155\nmemor y cell461\nmening es 430\nmens trual cy cle 487\nmesoglea 360\nmesoh yl358\nmesoph yll118\nmetabolism 90\nMetag enomics 238\nmetamerism 374\nmetaphase 138\nmetaphase plat e138\nMHC clas s II molecule 457\nmicr obial mat 289\nmicr oevolution 252\nmicr oscope 56598 Index\nAccess f or free at opens tax.org", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2562, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "9bd02e63-84d5-44f8-9480-6afd0c69048e": {"__data__": {"id_": "9bd02e63-84d5-44f8-9480-6afd0c69048e", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "613", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "aa0415fe-083e-4d2f-8924-2a749f6cf863", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "613", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "c34dc20c615bbf12a65dbc491559e3b49e41529c7d3b6409b80c6273ee75437a", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "micr ospor ocyt es 334\nmigr ation 253\nmimicr y512\nMiner als 407\nmismat ch repair 207\nMitochondria 68\nmitosis 136\nmitotic 135 ,136\nmodel or ganisms 236\nmodel s ystem 172\nmodern s ynthesis 252\nmolds 309\nmolecular s ystematics 281\nmolecule 9\nMollusca 370\nmonoc ots 343\nmonocyt e454\nmonoecious 359\nmonoh ybrid 178\nmonoph yletic gr oup 282\nMonosac charides 40\nmonosom y162\nmonotr emes 388\nmor tality r ate498\nmos ses 328\nmRNA 209\nmutation 208\nmutualism 514\nmycelium 308\nMycorrhiza 313\nmycoses 311\nmyelin sheath 428\nmyofibrils 425\nmyofilaments 426\nMyxini 381\nN\nnacr e372\nnasal ca vity 409\nnatur al kil ler (NK ) cell455\nnatur al scienc es 18\nNatur al selection 249\nnemat ocysts359\nNemat oda 366\nnephr ons 401\nneritic z one 551\nNet primar y productivity 531\nneur ons 427\nNeutr ons 28\nneutr ophil 454nitrogenous base 199\nnon-r enewable r esour ce537\nnonc ompetitiv e inhibition 97\nnondisjunction 161\nNonpolar c ovalent bonds 33\nnont emplat e strand 210\nnonvascular plants 326\nnotochor d378\nnuclear en velope 65\nnucleic acids 49\nnucleolus 65\nnucleotide e xcision r epair 207\nnucleotides 49\nnucleus 28,65\nO\noccipital lobe 432\noceanic z one 552\noctet rule 32\noils 44\nOkazaki fr agments 204\noncogenes 141\none-child policy 509\noogenesis 484\nOpen cir culat ory systems 411\nOpis thok onta 302\noral ca vity 403\norder 275\norgan s ystem 10\norganel les 10,60\nOrganisms 10\norganog enesis 480\nOrgans 10\norigin 143\nosculum 358\nosmolarity 79\nOsmor egulation 400\nOsmosis 78\nosmotic balanc e400\nOsteichth yes 383\nostracoderms 381\novarian cy cle 487\novary339\noviducts 483\noviparity 478\novoviparity 478\novulation 488\noxidativ e phosphor ylation 102P\npancr eas 405 ,417\npandemics 293\npaper 37\nparasite515\nparasites 301\nparasympathetic ner vous s ystem\n435\nparathyroid glands 417\nparietal lobe 432\nParthenog enesis 476\npassive immune 458\nPassive transpor t77\npathog en 292\npect oral gir dle 423\nPeer-reviewed ar ticles 23\npelagic r ealm 551\npellicles 301\npelvic gir dle 423\npenis 481\npepsin 404\npeptidogl ycan 291\nperiodic table o f elements 29\nperipher al ner vous s ystem (PNS)\n433\nperis talsis 402\npermafr ost549\nPeroxisomes 69\nPetals 339\nPetromyzontidae 381\npH scale 37\nPhag ocyt osis 82\nPharmac ogenomics 238\nPhar yngeal slits 378\nphar ynx 409\nphase 135\nphenotype 176\nphloem 329\nphosphat e group 199\nPhospholipids 45\nphotic z one 551\nphot oaut otrophs 116 ,531\nphot on 122\nphot osystem 122\nphot otrophs 289\nphylog enetic tr ee 13,276\nphylog eny274\nphylum 275\nPhysical maps 234Index599", "start_char_idx": 0, "end_char_idx": 2460, "text_template": "{metadata_str}\n\n{content}", "metadata_template": "{key}: {value}", "metadata_seperator": "\n", "class_name": "TextNode"}, "__type__": "1"}, "5d522e93-57af-46ea-bb1a-3b1975ffed41": {"__data__": {"id_": "5d522e93-57af-46ea-bb1a-3b1975ffed41", "embedding": null, "metadata": {"page_label": "614", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "excluded_embed_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "excluded_llm_metadata_keys": ["file_name", "file_type", "file_size", "creation_date", "last_modified_date", "last_accessed_date"], "relationships": {"1": {"node_id": "3d2b9a98-9d69-4e1f-a849-e3cc087b5b4b", "node_type": "4", "metadata": {"page_label": "614", "file_name": "ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_path": "/content/Biology/ConceptsofBiology-WEB.pdf", "file_type": "application/pdf", "file_size": 153179709, "creation_date": "2024-05-30", "last_modified_date": "2024-05-30"}, "hash": "dc234d65557034366a503f534eb172deded066affe25abc68fdf613c64866116", "class_name": "RelatedNodeInfo"}}, "text": "physical scienc es 18\npigment 118\npinocyt osis 83\npioneer species 518\npistil 339\npituitar y gland 416\nplac enta 489\nplank tivores 553\nplasma membr ane 63\nplasmid 226\nPlasmodesmata 71\nplas tid 299\npneumatic 387\npolar c ovalent bond 33\nPolymer ase chain r eaction (PCR)\n225\npolyp 360\npolypep tide 47\npolyploid 164\npolysaccharide 41\npopulation 12\npopulation density 496\npopulation g enetics 252\npopulation siz e496\nPorifera357\npost-anal tail 378\npost-transcrip tional 216\npost-translational 216\npotential ener gy93\nprimar y bronchi 409\nprimar y consumers 527\nprimar y immune r esponse 461\nprimar y suc cession 518\nPrimat es 389\nprimer 204\nproduc ers 527\nprogesterone 487\nProkaryotes 10\nprokaryotic c ell59\nprometaphase 137\npromot er 209\nprophase 137\nProsimians 389\nprostate gland 482\nprotein signatur e241\nProteins 45\nproteomics 241\nproto-onc ogenes 141\nproton 28Protostomes 356\npseudoc oelomat es 356\npseudopep tidogl ycan 292\npulmonar y cir culation 411\nPunnet t squar e178\nQ\nquadr at 497\nR\nr-select ed species 506\nradial s ymmetr y354\nradioactiv e isot opes 29\nradula 370\nreceptor-mediat ed endocyt osis\n83\nRecessive175\nrecipr ocal cr oss175\nrecombinant 156\nrecombinant DNA 228\nrecombinant pr oteins 228\nrecombination 189\nrectum 405\nreduction division 159\nRelativ e species abundanc e516\nrenal ar tery401\nrenal v ein 401\nreplication f orks204\nReproductiv e cloning 228\nresilienc e527\nresistanc e527\nrestriction enzymes 227\nreverse g enetics 230\nRhizaria 302\nribonucleic acid (RNA) 49\nRibosomes 68\nRNA pol ymer ase 210\nrooted 276\nrough endoplasmic r eticulum\n(RER) 66\nrRNA 212\nS\nS phase 136\nS-shaped cur ve501\nsalamanders 383\nsaliv ary glands 403\nsapr obes 306\nsarcolemma 425\nsarcomer e426\nSarcopterygii 383Satur ated fat ty acids 44\nSavannas 545\nScienc e17,19\nscientific la ws18\nscientific method 18\nscientific theor y18\nscrotum 481\nSebac eous glands 387\nSecondar y consumers 527\nsecondar y immune r esponse\n462\nsecondar y plant c ompounds 568\nsecondar y suc cession 518\nselectiv ely permeable 76\nSemen 481\nsemic onser vative replication\n204\nseminal v esicles 482\nseminif erous tubules 481\nsensor y-somatic ner vous s ystem\n433\nsepals 339\nseptum 143 ,309\nSertoli c ells481\nset point 398\nsex det ermination 477\nsexual r eproduction 474\nshar ed anc estral char acter 283\nshar ed deriv ed char acter 283\nsister taxa 277\nSkeletal muscle tis sue 425\nskull422\nsmal l intestine 404\nsmooth endoplasmic r eticulum\n(SER) 66\nSmooth muscle tis sue 425\nsolut e78\nsolvent 36\nsomatic c ell155\nsour ce water 556\nspeciation 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