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---
language: as
language_name: AS
language_family: indoaryan_eastern
tags:
- wikilangs
- nlp
- tokenizer
- embeddings
- n-gram
- markov
- wikipedia
- monolingual
- family-indoaryan_eastern
license: mit
library_name: wikilangs
pipeline_tag: feature-extraction
datasets:
- omarkamali/wikipedia-monthly
dataset_info:
name: wikipedia-monthly
description: Monthly snapshots of Wikipedia articles across 300+ languages
metrics:
- name: best_compression_ratio
type: compression
value: 4.519
- name: best_isotropy
type: isotropy
value: 0.8484
- name: vocabulary_size
type: vocab
value: 69383
generated: 2025-12-27
---
# AS - Wikilangs Models
## Comprehensive Research Report & Full Ablation Study
This repository contains NLP models trained and evaluated by Wikilangs, specifically on **AS** Wikipedia data.
We analyze tokenizers, n-gram models, Markov chains, vocabulary statistics, and word embeddings.
## 📋 Repository Contents
### Models & Assets
- Tokenizers (8k, 16k, 32k, 64k)
- N-gram models (2, 3, 4-gram)
- Markov chains (context of 1, 2, 3 and 4)
- Subword N-gram and Markov chains
- Embeddings in various sizes and dimensions
- Language Vocabulary
- Language Statistics

### Analysis and Evaluation
- [1. Tokenizer Evaluation](#1-tokenizer-evaluation)
- [2. N-gram Model Evaluation](#2-n-gram-model-evaluation)
- [3. Markov Chain Evaluation](#3-markov-chain-evaluation)
- [4. Vocabulary Analysis](#4-vocabulary-analysis)
- [5. Word Embeddings Evaluation](#5-word-embeddings-evaluation)
- [6. Summary & Recommendations](#6-summary--recommendations)
- [Metrics Glossary](#appendix-metrics-glossary--interpretation-guide)
- [Visualizations Index](#visualizations-index)
---
## 1. Tokenizer Evaluation

### Results
| Vocab Size | Compression | Avg Token Len | UNK Rate | Total Tokens |
|------------|-------------|---------------|----------|--------------|
| **8k** | 3.390x | 3.36 | 0.0640% | 1,495,826 |
| **16k** | 3.830x | 3.80 | 0.0723% | 1,324,012 |
| **32k** | 4.212x | 4.18 | 0.0795% | 1,203,836 |
| **64k** | 4.519x 🏆 | 4.48 | 0.0853% | 1,122,074 |
### Tokenization Examples
Below are sample sentences tokenized with each vocabulary size:
**Sample 1:** `ইউৰেনাচ নামে তলৰ প্ৰৱন্ধসমূহ বুজাব পাৰে:
ইউৰেনাচ: সৌৰজগতৰ সপ্তম গ্ৰহ
ইউৰেনাচ (...`
| Vocab | Tokens | Count |
|-------|--------|-------|
| 8k | `▁ইউ ৰে না চ ▁নামে ▁তলৰ ▁প্ৰৱ ন্ধ সমূহ ▁বুজাব ... (+28 more)` | 38 |
| 16k | `▁ইউৰে না চ ▁নামে ▁তলৰ ▁প্ৰৱ ন্ধ সমূহ ▁বুজাব ▁পাৰে ... (+23 more)` | 33 |
| 32k | `▁ইউৰে নাচ ▁নামে ▁তলৰ ▁প্ৰৱন্ধ সমূহ ▁বুজাব ▁পাৰে : ▁ইউৰে ... (+18 more)` | 28 |
| 64k | `▁ইউৰে নাচ ▁নামে ▁তলৰ ▁প্ৰৱন্ধ সমূহ ▁বুজাব ▁পাৰে : ▁ইউৰে ... (+17 more)` | 27 |
**Sample 2:** `শ্ৰেণী:ভাৰতীয় অভিনেত্ৰী
শ্ৰেণী:জীৱিত ব্যক্তি
শ্ৰেণী:ভাৰতীয় ৰাজনীতিবিদ
শ্ৰেণী:ভ...`
| Vocab | Tokens | Count |
|-------|--------|-------|
| 8k | `▁শ্ৰেণী : ভাৰতীয় ▁অভিনেত্ৰী ▁শ্ৰেণী : জীৱিত ▁ব্যক্তি ▁শ্ৰেণী : ... (+9 more)` | 19 |
| 16k | `▁শ্ৰেণী : ভাৰতীয় ▁অভিনেত্ৰী ▁শ্ৰেণী : জীৱিত ▁ব্যক্তি ▁শ্ৰেণী : ... (+8 more)` | 18 |
| 32k | `▁শ্ৰেণী : ভাৰতীয় ▁অভিনেত্ৰী ▁শ্ৰেণী : জীৱিত ▁ব্যক্তি ▁শ্ৰেণী : ... (+8 more)` | 18 |
| 64k | `▁শ্ৰেণী : ভাৰতীয় ▁অভিনেত্ৰী ▁শ্ৰেণী : জীৱিত ▁ব্যক্তি ▁শ্ৰেণী : ... (+7 more)` | 17 |
**Sample 3:** `তাল বুলিলে তলৰ পৃষ্ঠাসমূহ বুজাব পাৰে:
তাল (বাদ্যযন্ত্ৰ)
তাল (সংগীত)
তাল (ফল)`
| Vocab | Tokens | Count |
|-------|--------|-------|
| 8k | `▁তাল ▁বুল িলে ▁তলৰ ▁পৃষ্ঠ াসমূহ ▁বুজাব ▁পাৰে : ▁তাল ... (+13 more)` | 23 |
| 16k | `▁তাল ▁বুলিলে ▁তলৰ ▁পৃষ্ঠ াসমূহ ▁বুজাব ▁পাৰে : ▁তাল ▁( ... (+11 more)` | 21 |
| 32k | `▁তাল ▁বুলিলে ▁তলৰ ▁পৃষ্ঠ াসমূহ ▁বুজাব ▁পাৰে : ▁তাল ▁( ... (+11 more)` | 21 |
| 64k | `▁তাল ▁বুলিলে ▁তলৰ ▁পৃষ্ঠাসমূহ ▁বুজাব ▁পাৰে : ▁তাল ▁( বাদ্যযন্ত্ৰ ... (+9 more)` | 19 |
### Key Findings
- **Best Compression:** 64k achieves 4.519x compression
- **Lowest UNK Rate:** 8k with 0.0640% unknown tokens
- **Trade-off:** Larger vocabularies improve compression but increase model size
- **Recommendation:** 32k vocabulary provides optimal balance for production use
---
## 2. N-gram Model Evaluation


### Results
| N-gram | Perplexity | Entropy | Unique N-grams | Top-100 Coverage | Top-1000 Coverage |
|--------|------------|---------|----------------|------------------|-------------------|
| **2-gram** | 2,255 🏆 | 11.14 | 144,083 | 37.8% | 74.6% |
| **2-gram** | 712 🏆 | 9.48 | 14,933 | 47.2% | 91.5% |
| **3-gram** | 20,803 | 14.34 | 558,435 | 14.3% | 40.2% |
| **3-gram** | 6,279 | 12.62 | 135,792 | 17.8% | 52.9% |
| **4-gram** | 109,133 | 16.74 | 1,749,119 | 7.8% | 23.0% |
| **4-gram** | 34,064 | 15.06 | 727,754 | 9.4% | 29.5% |
### Top 5 N-grams by Size
**2-grams:**
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|------|--------|-------|
| 1 | `া ৰ` | 608,846 |
| 2 | `য ়` | 511,382 |
| 3 | `্ ৰ` | 409,497 |
| 4 | `প ্` | 302,441 |
| 5 | `ি ল` | 296,895 |
**3-grams:**
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|------|--------|-------|
| 1 | `য ় া` | 192,871 |
| 2 | `ি য ়` | 190,336 |
| 3 | `ী য ়` | 164,267 |
| 4 | `ত ে ও` | 138,798 |
| 5 | `ে ও ঁ` | 138,171 |
**4-grams:**
| Rank | N-gram | Count |
|------|--------|-------|
| 1 | `ত ে ও ঁ` | 137,993 |
| 2 | `ি য ় া` | 118,996 |
| 3 | `ছ ি ল ।` | 81,488 |
| 4 | `ি ছ ি ল` | 71,229 |
| 5 | `শ ্ ৰ ে` | 58,374 |
### Key Findings
- **Best Perplexity:** 2-gram with 712
- **Entropy Trend:** Decreases with larger n-grams (more predictable)
- **Coverage:** Top-1000 patterns cover ~29% of corpus
- **Recommendation:** 4-gram or 5-gram for best predictive performance
---
## 3. Markov Chain Evaluation


### Results
| Context | Avg Entropy | Perplexity | Branching Factor | Unique Contexts | Predictability |
|---------|-------------|------------|------------------|-----------------|----------------|
| **1** | 0.5873 | 1.502 | 6.01 | 178,570 | 41.3% |
| **1** | 1.0627 | 2.089 | 7.96 | 5,555 | 0.0% |
| **2** | 0.3625 | 1.286 | 2.70 | 1,073,346 | 63.7% |
| **2** | 0.9491 | 1.931 | 6.70 | 44,224 | 5.1% |
| **3** | 0.2925 | 1.225 | 2.07 | 2,893,182 | 70.7% |
| **3** | 0.8311 | 1.779 | 4.51 | 296,427 | 16.9% |
| **4** | 0.2472 🏆 | 1.187 | 1.70 | 5,984,484 | 75.3% |
| **4** | 0.6476 🏆 | 1.567 | 2.96 | 1,337,967 | 35.2% |
### Generated Text Samples
Below are text samples generated from each Markov chain model:
**Context Size 1:**
1. `া লয ় যদ ি ল ৰ া ন ে । পৰ ি ছ া উৰ`
2. `্ চত ভ া শ ্ ট ো ক ভ ু ১ট া ’ ল ্`
3. `ি য ় , ক া ল । ইয ় ন কৰ ম ৃ ষকসকলক প`
**Context Size 2:**
1. `া ৰ ব ি ব া গ া ঁ ৱত কচ ্ ২০০৫ – ২০১০ চনত`
2. `য ় া ৰ ব ি প ি ছত anthropological survey of hinduism today , march 2009`
3. `্ ৰ া থম ি ক ব ি ন ্ দ ্ ব া ৰ ব ি`
**Context Size 3:**
1. `য ় া ষ ্ ট ে চনত আশ ্ ৰফ ে চৰ১৯৬৮ফ ি ল ্ ল ী`
2. `ি য ় া ধ ী ন হয ় আৰ ু মহ ি ল া ৰ দ ৌ`
3. `ী য ় া ল ো কগ া থ া ক ে ব ি ব া হৰ ব`
**Context Size 4:**
1. `ত ে ও ঁ ৰ প ু ৰণ ি ড ি মৰ ু গছৰ পৰ া প ্ ৰ`
2. `ি য ় া চ ি ন ্ ত ু স ে ই বছৰত ে ত ে ও ঁ`
3. `ছ ি ল । ইয ় া ৰ অন ু ম ো দ ী ৰ ্ ঘদ ি ন`
### Key Findings
- **Best Predictability:** Context-4 with 75.3% predictability
- **Branching Factor:** Decreases with context size (more deterministic)
- **Memory Trade-off:** Larger contexts require more storage (1,337,967 contexts)
- **Recommendation:** Context-3 or Context-4 for text generation
---
## 4. Vocabulary Analysis



### Statistics
| Metric | Value |
|--------|-------|
| Vocabulary Size | 69,383 |
| Total Tokens | 22,699,994 |
| Mean Frequency | 327.17 |
| Median Frequency | 4 |
| Frequency Std Dev | 13137.34 |
### Most Common Words
| Rank | Word | Frequency |
|------|------|-----------|
| 1 | ৰ | 1,751,445 |
| 2 | ত | 1,226,468 |
| 3 | ব | 988,164 |
| 4 | য | 983,360 |
| 5 | ক | 951,103 |
| 6 | ন | 878,240 |
| 7 | ল | 815,336 |
| 8 | প | 750,050 |
| 9 | ম | 610,982 |
| 10 | স | 521,058 |
### Least Common Words (from vocabulary)
| Rank | Word | Frequency |
|------|------|-----------|
| 1 | zns | 2 |
| 2 | tuklas | 2 |
| 3 | bilqees | 2 |
| 4 | surbhi | 2 |
| 5 | ullasamga | 2 |
| 6 | utsahamga | 2 |
| 7 | manchস | 2 |
| 8 | swfl | 2 |
| 9 | manhunt | 2 |
| 10 | megamodel | 2 |
### Zipf's Law Analysis
| Metric | Value |
|--------|-------|
| Zipf Coefficient | 1.5303 |
| R² (Goodness of Fit) | 0.997399 |
| Adherence Quality | **excellent** |
### Coverage Analysis
| Top N Words | Coverage |
|-------------|----------|
| Top 100 | 78.6% |
| Top 1,000 | 93.9% |
| Top 5,000 | 97.8% |
| Top 10,000 | 98.6% |
### Key Findings
- **Zipf Compliance:** R²=0.9974 indicates excellent adherence to Zipf's law
- **High Frequency Dominance:** Top 100 words cover 78.6% of corpus
- **Long Tail:** 59,383 words needed for remaining 1.4% coverage
---
## 5. Word Embeddings Evaluation




### Model Comparison
| Model | Vocab Size | Dimension | Avg Norm | Std Norm | Isotropy |
|-------|------------|-----------|----------|----------|----------|
| **mono_32d** | 113,429 | 32 | 3.011 | 0.609 | 0.8484 🏆 |
| **mono_64d** | 113,429 | 64 | 3.498 | 0.644 | 0.8482 |
| **mono_128d** | 113,429 | 128 | 4.089 | 0.704 | 0.8254 |
| **embeddings_enhanced** | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.0000 |
### Key Findings
- **Best Isotropy:** mono_32d with 0.8484 (more uniform distribution)
- **Dimension Trade-off:** Higher dimensions capture more semantics but reduce isotropy
- **Vocabulary Coverage:** All models cover 113,429 words
- **Recommendation:** 100d for balanced semantic capture and efficiency
---
## 6. Summary & Recommendations

### Production Recommendations
| Component | Recommended | Rationale |
|-----------|-------------|-----------|
| Tokenizer | **32k BPE** | Best compression (4.52x) with low UNK rate |
| N-gram | **5-gram** | Lowest perplexity (712) |
| Markov | **Context-4** | Highest predictability (75.3%) |
| Embeddings | **100d** | Balanced semantic capture and isotropy |
---
## Appendix: Metrics Glossary & Interpretation Guide
This section provides definitions, intuitions, and guidance for interpreting the metrics used throughout this report.
### Tokenizer Metrics
**Compression Ratio**
> *Definition:* The ratio of characters to tokens (chars/token). Measures how efficiently the tokenizer represents text.
>
> *Intuition:* Higher compression means fewer tokens needed to represent the same text, reducing sequence lengths for downstream models. A 3x compression means ~3 characters per token on average.
>
> *What to seek:* Higher is generally better for efficiency, but extremely high compression may indicate overly aggressive merging that loses morphological information.
**Average Token Length (Fertility)**
> *Definition:* Mean number of characters per token produced by the tokenizer.
>
> *Intuition:* Reflects the granularity of tokenization. Longer tokens capture more context but may struggle with rare words; shorter tokens are more flexible but increase sequence length.
>
> *What to seek:* Balance between 2-5 characters for most languages. Arabic/morphologically-rich languages may benefit from slightly longer tokens.
**Unknown Token Rate (OOV Rate)**
> *Definition:* Percentage of tokens that map to the unknown/UNK token, indicating words the tokenizer cannot represent.
>
> *Intuition:* Lower OOV means better vocabulary coverage. High OOV indicates the tokenizer encounters many unseen character sequences.
>
> *What to seek:* Below 1% is excellent; below 5% is acceptable. BPE tokenizers typically achieve very low OOV due to subword fallback.
### N-gram Model Metrics
**Perplexity**
> *Definition:* Measures how "surprised" the model is by test data. Mathematically: 2^(cross-entropy). Lower values indicate better prediction.
>
> *Intuition:* If perplexity is 100, the model is as uncertain as if choosing uniformly among 100 options at each step. A perplexity of 10 means effectively choosing among 10 equally likely options.
>
> *What to seek:* Lower is better. Perplexity decreases with larger n-grams (more context). Values vary widely by language and corpus size.
**Entropy**
> *Definition:* Average information content (in bits) needed to encode the next token given the context. Related to perplexity: perplexity = 2^entropy.
>
> *Intuition:* High entropy means high uncertainty/randomness; low entropy means predictable patterns. Natural language typically has entropy between 1-4 bits per character.
>
> *What to seek:* Lower entropy indicates more predictable text patterns. Entropy should decrease as n-gram size increases.
**Coverage (Top-K)**
> *Definition:* Percentage of corpus occurrences explained by the top K most frequent n-grams.
>
> *Intuition:* High coverage with few patterns indicates repetitive/formulaic text; low coverage suggests diverse vocabulary usage.
>
> *What to seek:* Depends on use case. For language modeling, moderate coverage (40-60% with top-1000) is typical for natural text.
### Markov Chain Metrics
**Average Entropy**
> *Definition:* Mean entropy across all contexts, measuring average uncertainty in next-word prediction.
>
> *Intuition:* Lower entropy means the model is more confident about what comes next. Context-1 has high entropy (many possible next words); Context-4 has low entropy (few likely continuations).
>
> *What to seek:* Decreasing entropy with larger context sizes. Very low entropy (<0.1) indicates highly deterministic transitions.
**Branching Factor**
> *Definition:* Average number of unique next tokens observed for each context.
>
> *Intuition:* High branching = many possible continuations (flexible but uncertain); low branching = few options (predictable but potentially repetitive).
>
> *What to seek:* Branching factor should decrease with context size. Values near 1.0 indicate nearly deterministic chains.
**Predictability**
> *Definition:* Derived metric: (1 - normalized_entropy) × 100%. Indicates how deterministic the model's predictions are.
>
> *Intuition:* 100% predictability means the next word is always certain; 0% means completely random. Real text falls between these extremes.
>
> *What to seek:* Higher predictability for text generation quality, but too high (>98%) may produce repetitive output.
### Vocabulary & Zipf's Law Metrics
**Zipf's Coefficient**
> *Definition:* The slope of the log-log plot of word frequency vs. rank. Zipf's law predicts this should be approximately -1.
>
> *Intuition:* A coefficient near -1 indicates the corpus follows natural language patterns where a few words are very common and most words are rare.
>
> *What to seek:* Values between -0.8 and -1.2 indicate healthy natural language distribution. Deviations may suggest domain-specific or artificial text.
**R² (Coefficient of Determination)**
> *Definition:* Measures how well the linear fit explains the frequency-rank relationship. Ranges from 0 to 1.
>
> *Intuition:* R² near 1.0 means the data closely follows Zipf's law; lower values indicate deviation from expected word frequency patterns.
>
> *What to seek:* R² > 0.95 is excellent; > 0.99 indicates near-perfect Zipf adherence typical of large natural corpora.
**Vocabulary Coverage**
> *Definition:* Cumulative percentage of corpus tokens accounted for by the top N words.
>
> *Intuition:* Shows how concentrated word usage is. If top-100 words cover 50% of text, the corpus relies heavily on common words.
>
> *What to seek:* Top-100 covering 30-50% is typical. Higher coverage indicates more repetitive text; lower suggests richer vocabulary.
### Word Embedding Metrics
**Isotropy**
> *Definition:* Measures how uniformly distributed vectors are in the embedding space. Computed as the ratio of minimum to maximum singular values.
>
> *Intuition:* High isotropy (near 1.0) means vectors spread evenly in all directions; low isotropy means vectors cluster in certain directions, reducing expressiveness.
>
> *What to seek:* Higher isotropy generally indicates better-quality embeddings. Values > 0.1 are reasonable; > 0.3 is good. Lower-dimensional embeddings tend to have higher isotropy.
**Average Norm**
> *Definition:* Mean magnitude (L2 norm) of word vectors in the embedding space.
>
> *Intuition:* Indicates the typical "length" of vectors. Consistent norms suggest stable training; high variance may indicate some words are undertrained.
>
> *What to seek:* Relatively consistent norms across models. The absolute value matters less than consistency (low std deviation).
**Cosine Similarity**
> *Definition:* Measures angular similarity between vectors, ranging from -1 (opposite) to 1 (identical direction).
>
> *Intuition:* Words with similar meanings should have high cosine similarity. This is the standard metric for semantic relatedness in embeddings.
>
> *What to seek:* Semantically related words should score > 0.5; unrelated words should be near 0. Synonyms often score > 0.7.
**t-SNE Visualization**
> *Definition:* t-Distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding - a dimensionality reduction technique that preserves local structure for visualization.
>
> *Intuition:* Clusters in t-SNE plots indicate groups of semantically related words. Spread indicates vocabulary diversity; tight clusters suggest semantic coherence.
>
> *What to seek:* Meaningful clusters (e.g., numbers together, verbs together). Avoid over-interpreting distances - t-SNE preserves local, not global, structure.
### General Interpretation Guidelines
1. **Compare within model families:** Metrics are most meaningful when comparing models of the same type (e.g., 8k vs 64k tokenizer).
2. **Consider trade-offs:** Better performance on one metric often comes at the cost of another (e.g., compression vs. OOV rate).
3. **Context matters:** Optimal values depend on downstream tasks. Text generation may prioritize different metrics than classification.
4. **Corpus influence:** All metrics are influenced by corpus characteristics. Wikipedia text differs from social media or literature.
5. **Language-specific patterns:** Morphologically rich languages (like Arabic) may show different optimal ranges than analytic languages.
### Visualizations Index
| Visualization | Description |
|---------------|-------------|
| Tokenizer Compression | Compression ratios by vocabulary size |
| Tokenizer Fertility | Average token length by vocabulary |
| Tokenizer OOV | Unknown token rates |
| Tokenizer Total Tokens | Total tokens by vocabulary |
| N-gram Perplexity | Perplexity by n-gram size |
| N-gram Entropy | Entropy by n-gram size |
| N-gram Coverage | Top pattern coverage |
| N-gram Unique | Unique n-gram counts |
| Markov Entropy | Entropy by context size |
| Markov Branching | Branching factor by context |
| Markov Contexts | Unique context counts |
| Zipf's Law | Frequency-rank distribution with fit |
| Vocab Frequency | Word frequency distribution |
| Top 20 Words | Most frequent words |
| Vocab Coverage | Cumulative coverage curve |
| Embedding Isotropy | Vector space uniformity |
| Embedding Norms | Vector magnitude distribution |
| Embedding Similarity | Word similarity heatmap |
| Nearest Neighbors | Similar words for key terms |
| t-SNE Words | 2D word embedding visualization |
| t-SNE Sentences | 2D sentence embedding visualization |
| Position Encoding | Encoding method comparison |
| Model Sizes | Storage requirements |
| Performance Dashboard | Comprehensive performance overview |
---
## About This Project
### Data Source
Models trained on [wikipedia-monthly](https://huggingface.co/datasets/omarkamali/wikipedia-monthly) - a monthly snapshot of Wikipedia articles across 300+ languages.
### Project
A project by **[Wikilangs](https://wikilangs.org)** - Open-source NLP models for every Wikipedia language.
### Maintainer
[Omar Kamali](https://omarkamali.com) - [Omneity Labs](https://omneitylabs.com)
### Citation
If you use these models in your research, please cite:
```bibtex
@misc{wikilangs2025,
author = {Kamali, Omar},
title = {Wikilangs: Open NLP Models for Wikipedia Languages},
year = {2025},
publisher = {HuggingFace},
url = {https://huggingface.co/wikilangs}
institution = {Omneity Labs}
}
```
### License
MIT License - Free for academic and commercial use.
### Links
- 🌐 Website: [wikilangs.org](https://wikilangs.org)
- 🤗 Models: [huggingface.co/wikilangs](https://huggingface.co/wikilangs)
- 📊 Data: [wikipedia-monthly](https://huggingface.co/datasets/omarkamali/wikipedia-monthly)
- 👤 Author: [Omar Kamali](https://huggingface.co/omarkamali)
---
*Generated by Wikilangs Models Pipeline*
*Report Date: 2025-12-27 18:45:07*
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