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27.
Experts also agreed to build the EDGE methodology on existing national data collection instruments to ensure the sustainability of data collection, and to focus on household-based surveys since most women entrepreneurs are concentrated in micro or small enterprises, which are often household-based.
28. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
28.
As for data collection strategies, experts from NSOs involved in the development of a conceptual framework to measure entrepreneurship for gender analysis expressed a preference for adding a few questions or appending a module on entrepreneurship to an existing labor force or other relevant household surveys to re... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
As a result of the two technical meetings described above and additional expert consultations, it was agreed for EDGE to pilot test data collection on entrepreneurship according to the following operational broad definition: Entrepreneurs are defined as persons who have direct control over the activities of an enterpri... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
19 The measurement of entrepreneurs according to this broad EDGE definition was operationalized as follows44: - The participation of women and men in entrepreneurship can be measured by the number of individuals who are business owners and also participate in managing the enterprise (control over enterprise activities)... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
However, they are included if they are entrepreneurs as a second job.
30.
It was also recognized that measuring women’s “participation” in entrepreneurial activity is critical for informing evidence-based policies but is not sufficient.
Drivers of gender gaps in entrepreneurial participation as well as in “performan... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Therefore, a full set of entrepreneurship indicators were discussed including in terms of definition/scope and 44 The International Classification of Status in Employment (ICSE) has been revised at the 20th International Conference of Labour Statisticians (ICLS) in October 2018.
A new definition (to be operationalized... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
45 A person owning the enterprise in terms of investment only and who does not control/participate in operating the enterprise may not be treated as an entrepreneur but rather as a capitalist earning return on his/her investment as a property income.
46 The criterion for distinguishing between privately and publicly o... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Public units are owned or controlled by government units.
By contrast, privately owned units are owned or controlled by private parties.
Public authorities or private parties are considered to be the owners of a given enterprise if they own all, or a majority, of the unit’s shares, or of its other forms of capital pa... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
In other words, dependent contractors are dependent for acces s to the market, determination of price of the goods and/or services produced, raw material or capital items, on another economic unit that directly benefits from the work performed by them.
48 Owner-operators of incorporated enterprises are included even t... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
20 measurability.
The EDGE indicators that were agreed are presented together with the conceptual framework later in this chapter.
31.
Furthermore, a classification/breakdown of entrepreneurs based on a set of key variables of interest, for gender analysis, was identified and added to the conceptual framework and to... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Necessity vs.
Opportunity Based Entrepreneurs 32.
The 2008 Report on Women and Entrepreneurship based on data collected by the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 49 observed that the percent of women entrepreneurs is higher in countries where the general income per capita is small and where women have no other option fo... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
This has been explained as a result of the difference between ‘necessity’ and ‘opportunity’ entrepreneurship, with necessity entrepreneurship found to be more prevalent among women50,51,52.
33.
The necessity entrepreneurship is associated with entrepreneurship as a last resort i.e.
due to impossibility of finding ot... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
The former manages microbusinesses that do not grow beyond providing employment for the owner, or at most, for his/her family.
The latter type of entrepreneurship is the real engine of growth for the economy, since these entrepreneurs start businesses that grow and create jobs and innovation in the economy.
49 Bosma,... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
50 Allen, I.E., Langowitz, N. and Minniti, M. (2006).
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Report on Women and Entrepreneurship, Babson College, Babson Park, MA and London Business School, London.
Reynolds et al., 2003; Bosma et al., 2009.
51 Allen, I.E., Elam, N., Langowitz, N. and Dean, M. (2007), Global Entrepreneursh... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
and Hay, M. (2003), Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) Executive Report, Babson College, Babson Park, MA, London Business School, London, Ewing Marion Kaufman Foundation, Kansas City, MO.
21 34.
Related terms used in the entrepreneurial literature are ‘push’ vs ‘pull’ factors, where ‘push’ factors force people to ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
35.
Necessity entrepreneurship is an important feature of both developing and high-income countries.
It deserves special consideration both as a signal of vulnerability of the entrepreneurial eco-system and as a resource for household adjustment to poverty and economic shocks.
b.
Main job versus secondary activity ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
The secondary activity entrepreneurs are those who pursue entrepreneurial activities as a secondary job.
c. Own account versus employer entrepreneurs 37.
Own-account entrepreneurs are those managing businesses that do not employ any worker on a regular basis while employer entrepreneurs are those who employ one or mo... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Conceptual framework and relevant indicators 38.
After expert consultations, EDGE proposed the following conceptual framework that defines the objectives of the data collection for measuring entrepreneurship from a gender perspective as two main sets of outcomes, namely, entrepreneurial participation and entrepreneuri... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
It followed the framework of the OECD-Eurostat Entrepreneurship Indicators Programme,55 adapting it to yield a more nuanced International 53 Orhan, M. & Scott, D. (2001).
Why women enter into entrepreneurship: An explanatory model, Women in Management Review, Vol.
16, pp.232-43 54 https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/pu... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
OECD Statistics Working Paper.
ICLS/20/2018/Resolution Organisation document (2018), Labour 22 view on the drivers/determinants of differences in the entrepreneurial behavior and outcomes of women and men.
56 Furthermore, experts recommended for countries to also assess the presence/impact of an “enabling environment... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
the socio-cultural and political environment such as existing laws or policies that give incentives to female entrepreneurs), when adapting the EDGE framework to their own country context. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Fig 1: Conceptual Framework for entrepreneurship indicators Determinants Outcomes Impacts Motivations and Aspirations Entrepreneurial Participation Employment Creation Economic Growth with Poverty Reduction Entrepreneurial Resource and Constraints Enterprise Performance Women’s Empowerment EDGE/OECD Indicators on Entre... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
In particular, the framework identifies three separate but inter-connected flows, which are important in the formulation, assessment and appraisal of policy measures, namely ‘determinants’, ‘outcomes’, and ‘impact’.
‘Determinants’ reflect the key factors that affect entrepreneurship like motivations and aspirations fo... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Finally, ‘Impacts’ reflect the contributions of entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship to the economy 56 See Annex 2 for additional information.
23 as well as to overall better lives, and these can be identified in a number of ways including through economic growth, job creation, poverty reduction and women’s empowerment.... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
40.
More specifically, a set of indicators were identified to provide a comprehensive description of gender differentials in entrepreneurial outcomes and help policy-makers understand the main individual and contextual drivers of these differentials. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
As gender gaps in entrepreneurship manifest themselves either in a relatively low number of female entrepreneurs or in a relatively low business size and dynamism of women-owned businesses, two main sets of outcome variables were targeted: (i) variables describing gender differences in entrepreneurial participation, an... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
As for the determinants of gender gaps, they were divided into (i) those linked to motivation and aspiration differences, and (ii) those related to gender-unequal availability of entrepreneurial resources and constraints, such as access to training and credit.
41.
The collection of gender-sensitive indicators on entr... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
The framework highlights three likely impacts of a reduction of gender gaps in entrepreneurship: (i) sustained creation of new jobs, with improved quality of employment especially for the vulnerable, micro-entrepreneurs, (ii) poverty-reducing economic growth, supported by increased diversity of the business population ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Such analyses would help build a constructive dialogue on the importance of women’s entrepreneurship as a policy target and unlock public and private initiatives that can reduce gender-specific constraints in the start and growth of businesses.
42.
It should be noted that the different elements of the framework are s... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Although, economic growth and women’s empowerment are classified as ‘impacts’ of women’s entrepreneurship, they also act as drivers in many contexts, relaxing for example, liquidity constraints that hinder the creation of women-owned enterprises.
24 KEY DIMENSIONS OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP 1.4.1.
Determinants of entreprene... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
The relatively low number of female business owners in many countries is partly explained by gender differences in aspirations or preferences for entrepreneurship.
The evidence on gender differences in aspirations to become an entrepreneur is abundant in the OECD countries.
For example, the 2012 Eurobarometer Survey ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
44.
There are also considerable differences in the motivation of men and women who become entrepreneurs.
Several studies examining the OECD countries demonstrate that women, more than men, start their ventures for non–pecuniary reasons such as satisfaction with their work, possibility of making a difference in their ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Furthermore, more women than men start a business out of “necessity” because of lack of other options in the labor market.
45.
Gender differences in preferences for an entrepreneurial career, in the motivations leading an individual to start a business, and in the organization of working life affect the way a busines... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Evidence also suggests that women have different risk preferences than men, as well as different perceptions about the risk of starting and running a business.57 46.
It is important to study gender differences by type of acquisition of ownership, shedding light on a possible driver of uneven growth of women and men-ow... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
(2009).
Gender Differences in Preferences.
Journal of Economic Literature.
Available at https://rady.ucsd.edu/faculty/directory/gneezy/pub/docs/gender-differences-preference.pdf 25 true entrepreneurship, distinguishing entrepreneurs from the broader population of business owners.
47.
Difference in training creates... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
48.
Furthermore, having access to information represents the starting point to be able to identify an entrepreneurial opportunity: the more unique and exclusive the information that a person has, the higher the probability that a viable and profitable opportunity will be identified by the said person.
Equal access to... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
However, access to information is not equal in all countries partly because in many countries, women and girls do not have equal access to education58.
Indicators on Motivations and Aspirations 49.
The table below provides a set of indicators to measure and monitor motivations to start a business and aspirations abou... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
These and other subsequent indicators were discussed and agreed with national and international experts at the EDGE technical consultation organized in 2014 in Japan59.
All the indicators shall be tabulated/disaggregated by sex.
Focus area Indicators Rationale A1.
Percentage of necessity entrepreneurs among women an... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Necessity entrepreneurs are those individuals who have no other viable option for earning Proposed questions in model questionnaire (Annex 1)60 Question 736 with codes 3, 6 and 9 58 UNESCO (2018).
One in Five Children, Adolescents and Youth is Out of School.
Available at http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/docu... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Available at https://unstats.un.org/edge/meetings/Dec2014/final_report.pdf 60 See proposed set of questions in the model questionnaire in annex 1.
26 Motivations and Aspirations A2.
Percentage of entrepreneurs who unemployed were started before they the working business on A3.
Percentage of business founders who are... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
This indicator complements indicator A1 by providing information on gender differences in transitions from unemployment to business ownership.
The indicator is sourced from questions often included in household surveys This indicator allows studying gender differences by type of acquisition of ownership, shedding ligh... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Question 708 with code 1 Question 732 with code 1 This indicator provides a possible way to measure gender difference in aspirations for business growth.
The decision of entrepreneurs of whether or not to pursue a growth objective in their operations involves trade-offs between financial and non-financial including: f... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
factors versus Entrepreneurial resources and constraints 50.
EDGE focused on the following self-reported “soft” and “hard” resources for starting/growing an enterprise and constraints faced during start-up/management process: Skills and management experience of entrepreneur • Income available to invest in enterprise a... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
The importance of measuring entrepreneurial experience cannot be overstated.
All stages in entrepreneurship are dependent on relevant experience, from the identification of opportunities to the execution of running a business.
Individuals differ in their ability to discover and exploit opportunities.
People have acc... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Therefore, the ability to discover and exploit opportunities depends largely on previous education and work experience.
It has been shown that because of both demand and supply factors, women lack the experience needed to identify and exploit opportunities62.
52.
In general, women have lower personal financial asset... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
This means that for a given opportunity and equally capable individual, women must secure additional resources compared to men in order to exploit the opportunity because they control less capital. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Four areas have been identified as potential or real problems for women when it comes to financing: (a) women may be disadvantaged in raising the initial capital to start a new firm; (b) collateral required for external financing may be above the wealth level of many women; (c) finance for an existing firm may be less ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Evidence indicates that women still perceive a negative attitude from financial institutions such as banks and other lending institutions.
This negative attitude, according to the literature, arises due to two possible reasons: (a) women are not viewed as entrepreneurs due to the attitudes formed by traditional gender... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
53.
Another recurring obstacle for women to engage in entrepreneurship is the perceived lack of time or competing demands on time64.
Because women are more likely to be responsible for 61 Shane, S. (2000).
Prior knowledge and the discovery of entrepreneurial opportunities.
Organization Science, 11(4), 448-469.
62 ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
http://www.oecd.org/cfe/smes/31919215.pdf 63 Carter, S., Anderson, S., & Shaw, E. (2001).
Women's Business Ownership: A Review of the Academic, Popular and Internet Literature.
London, UK: Small Business Service, 64 OECD (2004).
Women’s Entrepreneurship: Issues and Policies. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Women’s Entrepreneurship: Issues and Policies.
Paper presented at the 2nd OECD conference of ministers responsible for small and medium -sized enterprises (SMEs) 28 domestic chores and childrearing, they may not have enough free time to develop either their entrepreneurial skills to become entrepreneurs or to develop ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
The lack of free time may not allow them to seek support from financial institutions for advice and information on credit, to attend training programmes to acquire skills, or to seek out better customers or suppliers.
54.
The importance of the entrepreneur’s social network has been acknowledged in the literature65. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Entrepreneurs draw on social networks to make key decisions along all the phases of entrepreneurship and social networks have been recognized as an essential factor for entrepreneurial success66.
Formal and informal networks useful for business development are often composed prevalently of men, while women’s personal ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
The table below presents a set of indicators on entrepreneurial resources and constraints.
These indicators build on the previous set of indicators by focusing on self-reported ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ resources that entrepreneurs rely on for starting and growing their activity, and on revealed difficulties during the start-... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Percentage of entrepreneurs with completed secondary education or higher This indicator is useful for an overview of the skill composition of entrepreneurs by gender, given the finer complexity measures of entrepreneurial skills.
building of Proposed questions in model questionnaire (Annex 1)67 From the information re... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
29 B2.
Percentage of entrepreneurs who received training or education on how to start up a business measures indicator This participation entrepreneurial in education, defined as any training or course targeting individuals who wish to start a business.
Question 734 with codes1, 2, 3 and 96 B3.
Percentage of founder... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Percentage of entrepreneurs who from credit used banks finance to investments B6.
Percentage of entrepreneurs identifying lack of time as a major for constraint business growth B7.
Average hours spent working on the business per week Question 709 with codes 11, 12 and possibly 96 Question 733 with code 3 Question 725... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
When appropriate, informal credit sources should also be considered.
This indicator provides a simple description of the extent to which difficult access to credit is an obstacle for business operation.
The indicator is however not sufficient to evaluate gender gaps in access to credit because women business owners h... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
provides indicator This the description of the percentage of entrepreneurs who used credit from banks operating finance investments of their enterprises.
When appropriate, informal credit sources should also be considered.
to This indicator helps understanding whether observed differences in invested time between wom... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Question 733 with code 15 Question 710 The time spent working on the business is a key determinant of success of business ventures.
Female entrepreneurs have often “double works”: they run an enterprise and a household at the “double same assignments” help explain the concentration of women in ‘part- time’ business ac... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
These time.
30 B8.
Percentage of entrepreneurs who regularly receive managerial advice, by advice of source individuals (family, outside family, publicly provided) This indicator measures the share of entrepreneurs who use advice and help from people in their household, outside the households or from Professional pub... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Outcomes of entrepreneurship Entrepreneurial Participation 56.
The single most important objective of international data collection on women’s entrepreneurship is to produce an accurate and comparable measure of the number and characteristics of women and men entrepreneurs.
Participation in entrepreneurship is not a ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
An operational definition was agreed in 2014 and piloted in 2015 and 2016 under the EDGE project.
However, in October 2018, a new definition of entrepreneurs was adopted at the 20th ICLS within the revision of the International Classification of Status in Employment (ICSE-18).
Further research and testing will be nee... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
57.
Evidence on entrepreneurial participation indicates that individuals who personally know an entrepreneur are more likely to participate in entrepreneurial activities at any venture stage.
However, women entrepreneurs, compared with their male counterparts, are less likely to be acquainted with an entrepreneur. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Taken together, it suggests that one of the reasons why women are less likely to become entrepreneurs is that they lack entrepreneurial resource providers or role models in their social networks.
58.
Women have been shown by many studies to be heavily engaged in family businesses, often taking an invisible role.
Whe... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
In such situations, women tend to take a back-seat position engaging in those tasks that are in line with traditional female roles.
In addition, in countries where the 31 government provides incentives for women to start businesses, evidence suggests that in many cases, women are owners only on paper and the real cont... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
With a view to identify women entrepreneurs having actual control on their enterprises, the EDGE project piloted specific questions as described in chapter two of this report.
59.
Furthermore, “main job entrepreneurs” are those pursuing entrepreneurial activity in their primary work.
The “secondary activity entrepre... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
They can be identified separately following the majority time criterion on their time spent in operating their enterprises.
60.
For meaningful study of entrepreneurial participation, it is useful to classify entrepreneurs by the size (number of employees) and economic activity of their enterprises.
The size of the e... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
If the average number of persons employed is not available, the total number of persons employed in a single period may be used as the size criterion.
61.
The statistical identification of the entrepreneur in enterprises with legal forms other than sole-proprietorship requires the establishment of rules defining a “s... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
According to the operational definition, significant means high enough to grant influence and control over the key strategic decisions concerning the functioning and the development of the business. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
The distribution of ownership by gender in enterprises with more than one owner can be evaluated following the model of the U.S. Survey on Business Owners: (a) Business ownership is defined as having 51 percent or more of the shares/stock or equity in the business; (b) For jointly owned enterprises, information on gend... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Women (men)-owned businesses are those businesses where one or more women (men) hold 51 percent or more of the shares.
Mixed-owned businesses are those with equal participation in ownership by women and men, and where women and men together hold at least 51 percent of the shares.
This identification 32 strategy gener... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
For complex organizations, gender issues are more related to imbalances in access to management roles, rather than to entrepreneurship.
Even if gender issues in entrepreneurship and senior management are closely interrelated, it is important to keep a distinction between the two domains in measurement and in policy ad... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
sole-proprietorships, partnerships and limited liability companies).
One caveat is that legal categories are defined in different ways in different countries.
Other operational rules can be evaluated, such as the restriction of the relevant universe to companies whose shares are controlled for the majority by physica... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Indicators on entrepreneurial participation 63.
The following set of indicators of entrepreneurial participation is the result of many meetings and consultations with stakeholders to accommodate different understanding of what makes an entrepreneur and evaluate gender gaps in particular ‘types’ of entrepreneurship.
F... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Proposed questions in model questionnaire (Annex 1)69 Questions 705-706f C2.
of Percentage women who are the main owners of and control This indicator refers to the subset of business owners who control the operations and finances of the business by holding a majority Questions 718-721c 68 United Status Census Bureau.... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
33 businesses, by presence of employees on definition share and having responsibility for the management.
This more restrictive of entrepreneurs requires additional screening the questions activities of the individual owner.
An owner is also a manager when he has responsibility for managing and/or day-to-day and the ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
of Percentage enterprises owned by size of women, by enterprise and activity ‘The percentage of firms owned by women, by size’ is included in the of Gender Minimum Indicators.
Set Questions 724 C4.
of Percentage women among owners of unregistered businesses Questions 722 and 723 with code 2 differences Gender in entr... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Producing good quality information on the distribution by the ownership of informal firms is essential the economic vulnerability of women entrepreneurs.
inform about sex of to Percentage C5.
women-owned businesses registered that of are At least one of questions 722 and 723 with code 1 Entrepreneurial Performance 64... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
EDGE considered the following aspects for measuring entrepreneurial performance namely: • Enterprise profit/ income and expenses • Employment growth • Job satisfaction of entrepreneurs • Nascent, new, and established enterprises (average age of enterprises) 34 65.
Although the evidence is mixed, there is some suggesti... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
The evidence is more conclusive on the fact that women-owned businesses realize significantly lower profits than men-owned businesses.
Good measures of gender differences in business profits matter both for evaluating the welfare effects on women of changes in entrepreneurial participation, as well as for examining th... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
66.
For measuring the gender gap in earnings from business ownership, the main issue is to identify a single concept of business earnings that can be applied to the heterogeneous population of business owners as earnings from business ownership tend to mean different things for incorporated enterprises and unincorpora... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Owners of incorporated enterprises earn their income by drawing a salary, by collecting dividends accruing to shareholders or through capital gains, while owners of unincorporated units receive an income that is directly dependent upon the surplus accruing from the production process. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Moreover, in small businesses with negligible capital, the profits of the enterprise approximate well the returns from the labor input of the entrepreneurs, while in larger businesses, the enterprise’s income and profits reflect the returns from the capital invested and its consumption. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Producing a single measure of the returns from entrepreneur’s employment for both contexts would thus require deducting the consumption of fixed capital (or depreciation) as well as the income retained and reinvested in the enterprise.
67.
Another issue that is particularly relevant for gender analysis is the sharing... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
The measure of business earnings should correspond to the share of profits accruing to each partner in order to assess the economic welfare of individuals.
A possible solution would be to ask about total enterprise profits and share these profits among the owners according to self-declared ownership shares. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
However, there is no empirical evidence that the net income from family businesses is distributed between men and women according to their ownership share or to their actual contribution to production and management.
35 68. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
35 68.
The decision of entrepreneurs of whether or not to pursue a growth objective in their operations involves trade-offs between financial and non-financial factors including: financial realization versus increased personal demands; personal and social accomplishment versus increasing organizational tensions; and, ... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
On the other hand, when women and men entrepreneurs have equally growth aspirations, women more often establish size thresholds which they do not wish to exceed 74, achieving the level of business operations that enables them to maintain full control and balance work-family life.
Indicators on Entrepreneurial Performa... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Focus area Indicators Rationale Entrepreneurial Performance D1.
Gender gap in earnings from the business Th The main issue with this indicator is that it is difficult to identify a single concept of business earnings that can be applied to the heterogeneous population of business owners. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
The EDGE pilots have canvassed a single the self-reported question about earnings the entrepreneur from instead of collecting detailed data on gross output, operating expenses and Proposed questions in model questionnaire (Annex 1)75 Question 730.
70 Piacentini, M. (2013).
Women Entrepreneurs in the OECD: Key Evidenc... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Who wants to grow up?
Growth intentions and growth profiles of (nascent) entrepre neurs in Germany.
Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research, 91-100.
72 Isaksen, E and Lars Kolvereid (2005).
Growth Objectives in Norwegian Start-up businesses.
International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business.
2(1), 17-26... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Journal of Business Venturing.
13(6), 523-542.
74.
Ibid.
75 See proposed set of questions in the model questionnaire in annex 1.
36 D2.
Gender gap in business turnover D3.
Percentage of business with employment growth D4.
Average age owned enterprises women and by men of by D5.
Job satisfaction of entrepreneur... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
When the interest mainly lies in comparing the economic weight and size of women and men-owned enterprises, it is more convenient to use a simpler indicator on turnover disaggregated by the gender of the entrepreneur.
through The growth dynamics of enterprises owned by women and by men can be approximated simple quest... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
calculates of businesses owned by women and by men whose owner/manager reports an increase in the number of paid continuous employees over the last three years of operation.
percentage the is some evidence There that to be women’s enterprises tend smaller and to be less sustainable than men’s enterprises.
For example... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
the United States This question will measure two aspects of job satisfaction among women entrepreneurs: the overall satisfaction rate among all entrepreneurs, by gender; second, the key job satisfaction, by gender factors affecting first, Question 729 Question 731 Question 707 Question 737 76 De Mel, McKenzie, and Wood... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
This gap is largely due to the fact that the majority of micro-enterprises do not keep regular accounts.
Their conclusion is that a direct question on “net revenue” is a good proxy for profits.
37 CHAPTER TWO.
DEVELOPMENT OF A MODEL QUESTIONNAIRE ON ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND ITS ADAPTATION IN THE EDGE PILOT COUNTRIES 70. | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
The conceptual framework to measure entrepreneurship presented in the previous chapter provided the theoretical structure that was later tested through household surveys in six of the EDGE pilot countries.
Household surveys were considered the most appropriate source of data for most dimensions of entrepreneurship tha... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
Furthermore, women entrepreneurs in micro/small home-based enterprises may not be adequately covered in an enterprise survey or business register77.
71.
This chapter presents the entrepreneurship questions, which were tested in the EDGE pilot surveys.
It introduces the initial model questionnaire proposed by EDGE, i... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
It then presents the revised questionnaire which was used in the sixth and final pilot survey on entrepreneurship, in South Africa (adapted and presented as the EDGE model questionnaire on entrepreneurship in Annex 1).
The chapter concludes with a presentation of key findings from the pilot data for illustrative purpo... | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/1696756522843.pdf | https://unstats.un.org/edge/publications/docs/Technical-Report-on-Entrepreneurship.pdf |
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