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Theorem 55.7. If \( \Gamma \vDash \varphi \) then \( \Gamma \vdash \varphi \) . | Proof. We prove the contrapositive: Suppose \( \Gamma \nvdash \varphi \) . Then by Lemma 55.4, there is a prime set \( {\Gamma }^{ * } \supseteq \Gamma \) such that \( {\Gamma }^{ * } \nvdash \varphi \) . Consider the canonical model \( \mathfrak{M}\left( {\Gamma }^{ * }\right) \) for \( {\Gamma }^{ * } \) as defined i... | Yes |
Lemma 56.6. If \( M\left\lbrack {{N}^{\varphi }/{x}^{\varphi }}\right\rbrack \) is a redex and \( M \neq x \), then one of the following cases holds:\n\n1. \( M \) is itself a redex, or\n\n2. \( M \) is of the form \( {\mathrm{p}}_{i}\left( x\right) \), and \( N \) is of the form \( \left\langle {{P}_{1},{P}_{2}}\right... | Proof. Proof by induction on \( M \) .\n\n1. If \( M \) is a single variable \( y \) and \( y ≢ x \), then \( y\left\lbrack {N/x}\right\rbrack \) is \( y \), hence not a redex.\n\n2. If \( M \) is of the form \( \left\langle {{N}_{1},{N}_{2}}\right\rangle \), or \( {\lambda x}.N \), or \( {\operatorname{in}}_{i}^{\varp... | Yes |
Lemma 56.7. If \( M \) contracts to \( {M}^{\prime } \), and \( \operatorname{cr}\left( M\right) > \operatorname{cr}\left( N\right) \) for all proper redex sub-terms \( N \) of \( M \), then \( \operatorname{cr}\left( M\right) > \operatorname{mr}\left( {M}^{\prime }\right) \) . | Proof. Proof by cases.\n\n1. If \( M \) is of the form \( {\mathrm{p}}_{i}\left( \left\langle {{M}_{1},{M}_{2}}\right\rangle \right) \), then \( {M}^{\prime } \) is \( {M}_{i} \) ; since any sub-term of \( {M}_{i} \) is also proper sub-term of \( M \), the claim holds.\n\n2. If \( M \) is of the form \( \left( {\lambda... | Yes |
Theorem 56.8. All proof terms reduce to normal form; all derivations reduce to normal derivations. | Proof. The second follows from the first. We prove the first by complete induction on \( m = \operatorname{mr}\left( M\right) \), where \( M \) is a proof term.\n\n1. If \( m = 0, M \) is already normal.\n\n2. Otherwise, we proceed by induction on \( n \), the number of redexes in \( M \) with cut rank equal to \( m \)... | Yes |
The sphere semantics invalidates the inference, i.e., we have \( p▱ \rightarrow r \mathrel{\text{\vDash \not{} }} \left( {p \land q}\right) ▱ \rightarrow r \) . | Consider the model \( \mathfrak{M} = \langle W, O, V\rangle \) where \( W = \left\{ {w,{w}_{1},{w}_{2}}\right\} ,{O}_{w} = \left\{ {\{ w\} ,\left\{ {w,{w}_{1}}\right\} ,\left\{ {w,{w}_{1},{w}_{2}}\right\} }\right\}, V\left( p\right) = \left\{ {{w}_{1},{w}_{2}}\right\}, V\left( q\right) = \left\{ {w}_{2}\right\} \), and... | Yes |
Example 58.4. The sphere semantics invalidates the inference, i.e., we have \( p▱ \rightarrow q, q▱ \rightarrow r \mathrel{\text{\vDash \not{} }} p▱ \rightarrow r \) . | Consider the model \( \mathfrak{M} = \langle W, O, V\rangle \) where \( W = \) \( \left\{ {w,{w}_{1},{w}_{2}}\right\} ,{O}_{w} = \left\{ {\{ w\} ,\left\{ {w,{w}_{1}}\right\} ,\left\{ {w,{w}_{1},{w}_{2}}\right\} }\right\}, V\left( p\right) = \left\{ {w}_{2}\right\}, V\left( q\right) = \left\{ {{w}_{1},{w}_{2}}\right\} \... | Yes |
The sphere semantics invalidates contraposition, i.e., we have \( p▱ \rightarrow q \mathrel{\text{\vDash \not{} }} \neg q▱ \rightarrow \neg p \) . | Think of \( p \) as \ | No |
Theorem 59.1 (Russell’s Paradox). There is no set \( R = \{ x : x \notin x\} \) | Proof. For reductio, suppose that \( R = \{ x : x \notin x\} \) exists. Then \( R \in R \) iff \( R \notin R \), by Extensionality. Contradiction! | Yes |
Lemma 59.2 (working in Grundgesetze). \( \forall F\forall a\left( {a \in {\epsilon xF}\left( x\right) \leftrightarrow {Fa}}\right) \) | Proof. Fix \( F \) and \( a \) . Now \( a \in {\epsilon xF}\left( x\right) \) iff \( \exists G\left( {{\epsilon xF}\left( x\right) = {\epsilon xG}\left( x\right) \land {Ga}}\right) \) (by the definition of membership) iff \( \exists G\left( {\forall x\left( {{Fx} \leftrightarrow {Gx}}\right) \land {Ga}}\right) \) (by B... | Yes |
Lemma 59.3 (working in Grundgesetze.). \( \forall F\exists s\forall a\left( {a \in s \leftrightarrow {Fa}}\right) \) | Proof. Fix \( F \) ; now Lemma 59.2 yields \( \forall a\left( {a \in {exF}\left( x\right) \leftrightarrow {Fa}}\right) \) ; so \( \exists s\forall a(a \in s \leftrightarrow \) \( {Fa} \) ) by existential generalisation. The result follows since \( F \) was arbitrary. | Yes |
Theorem 60.1. There is no universal set, i.e., \( \{ x : x = x\} \) does not exist. | Proof. For reductio, suppose \( V \) is a universal set. Then by Separation, \( R = \) \( \{ x \in V : x \notin x\} = \{ x : x \notin x\} \) exists, contradicting Russell’s Paradox. | Yes |
Proposition 60.3. \( A \smallsetminus B \) exists for any sets \( A \) and \( B \) | Proof. \( A \smallsetminus B = \{ x \in A : x \notin B\} \) exists by Separation. | Yes |
Proposition 60.4. If \( A \neq \varnothing \), then \( \cap A = \{ x : \left( {\forall y \in A}\right) x \in y\} \) exists. | Proof. Let \( A \neq \varnothing \), so there is some \( c \in A \) . Then \( \cap A = \{ x : \left( {\forall y \in A}\right) x \in y\} = \) \( \{ x \in c : \left( {\forall y \in A}\right) x \in y\} \), which exists by Separation. | Yes |
Proposition 60.5. For any sets \( a \) and \( b \), the following sets exist:\n\n1. \( \{ a\} \)\n\n2. \( a \cup b \)\n\n3. \( \langle a, b\rangle \) | Proof. (1). By Pairs, \( \{ a, a\} \) exists, which is \( \{ a\} \) by Extensionality.\n\n(2). By Pairs, \( \{ a, b\} \) exists. Now \( a \cup b = \bigcup \{ a, b\} \) exists by Union.\n\n(3). By (1), \( \{ a\} \) exists. By Pairs, \( \{ a, b\} \) exists. Now \( \{ \{ a\} ,\{ a, b\} \} = \langle a, b\rangle \) exists, ... | Yes |
Proposition 60.6. Given any sets \( A, B \), their Cartesian product \( A \times B \) exists. | Proof. The set \( \wp \left( {\wp \left( {A \cup B}\right) }\right) \) exists by Powersets and Proposition 60.5. So by Separation, this set exists:\n\n\[ \nC = \{ z \in \wp \left( {\wp \left( {A \cup B}\right) }\right) : \left( {\exists x \in A}\right) \left( {\exists y \in B}\right) z = \langle x, y\rangle \} .\n\]\n\... | Yes |
Proposition 60.8. No natural number is Dedekind infinite. | Proof. The proof is by induction, i.e., Theorem 6.6. Clearly \( 0 = \varnothing \) is not Dedekind infinite. For the induction step, we will establish the contrapositive: if (absurdly) \( s\left( n\right) \) is Dedekind infinite, then \( n \) is Dedekind infinite.\n\nSo suppose that \( s\left( n\right) \) is Dedekind i... | Yes |
Proposition 61.2. If \( < \) well-orders \( A \), then every non-empty subset of \( A \) has a \( < \) - least member, and \( < \) is irreflexive, asymmetric and transitive. | Proof. If \( X \) is a non-empty subset of \( A \), it has a \( < \) -minimal element \( m \), i.e., \( \left( {\forall z \in X}\right) z \nless m \) . Since \( < \) is connected, \( \left( {\forall z \in X}\right) m \leq z \) . So \( m \) is \( < \) -least.\n\nFor irreflexivity, fix \( a \in A \) ; since \( \{ a\} \) ... | Yes |
Proposition 61.3. If \( < \) well-orders \( A \), then for any formula \( \varphi \left( x\right) : {}^{1} \)\n\n\[ \text{if}\left( {\forall a \in A}\right) \left( {\left( {\forall b < a}\right) \varphi \left( b\right) \rightarrow \varphi \left( a\right) }\right) \text{, then}\left( {\forall a \in A}\right) \varphi \le... | Proof. We will prove the contrapositive. Suppose \( \neg \left( {\forall a \in A}\right) \varphi \left( a\right) \), i.e., that \( X = \{ x \in A : \neg \varphi \left( x\right) \} \neq \varnothing \) . Then \( X \) has an \( < \) -minimal element, \( a \) . So \( \left( {\forall b < a}\right) \varphi \left( b\right) \)... | Yes |
Lemma 61.5. Compositions of isomorphisms are isomorphisms, i.e.: if \( f : A \rightarrow B \) and \( g : B \rightarrow C \) are isomorphisms, then \( \left( {g \circ f}\right) : A \rightarrow C \) are isomorphisms. (It follows that \( X \cong Y \) is an equivalence relation.) | Proof. Left as an exercise. | No |
Proposition 61.6. If \( \langle A, < \rangle \) and \( \langle B, \lessdot \rangle \) are isomorphic well-orderings, then the isomorphism between them is unique. | Proof. Let \( f \) and \( g \) be isomorphisms \( A \rightarrow B \) . Fix \( a \in A \), and suppose that \( \left( {\forall b < a}\right) f\left( b\right) = g\left( b\right) \), and fix \( x \in B \) . If \( x < f\left( a\right) \), then \( {f}^{-1}\left( x\right) < a \), so \( g\left( {{f}^{-1}\left( x\right) < g\le... | Yes |
Lemma 61.8. If \( \langle A, < \rangle \) is a well-ordering with \( a \in A \), then \( \langle A, a\rangle \ncong \left\langle {{A}_{a},{ < }_{a}}\right\rangle \) | Proof. For reductio, suppose \( f : A \rightarrow {A}_{a} \) is an isomorphism. Since \( f \) is a bijection and \( {A}_{a} \subsetneq A \), let \( b \in A \) be the \( < \) -least element of \( A \) such that \( b \neq f\left( b\right) \) . We’ll show that \( \left( {\forall x \in A}\right) \left( {x < b \leftrightarr... | Yes |
Lemma 61.9. Let \( \langle A, < \rangle \) and \( \langle B, \lessdot \rangle \) be well-orderings. If \( f : A \rightarrow B \) is an isomorphism and \( a \in A \), then \( f{ \upharpoonright }_{{A}_{a}} : {A}_{a} \rightarrow {B}_{f\left( a\right) } \) is an isomorphism. | Proof. Since \( f \) is an isomorphism:\n\n\[ f\left\lbrack {A}_{a}\right\rbrack = f\left\lbrack {\{ x \in A : x < a\} }\right\rbrack \]\n\n\[ = f\left\lbrack \left\{ {{f}^{-1}\left( y\right) \in A : {f}^{-1}\left( y\right) < a}\right\} \right\rbrack \]\n\n\[ = \{ y \in B : y < f\left( a\right) \} \]\n\n\[ = {B}_{f\lef... | Yes |
Lemma 61.10. Let \( \langle A, < \rangle \) and \( \langle B, \lessdot \rangle \) be well-orderings. If \( \left\langle {{A}_{{a}_{1}},{ < }_{{a}_{1}}}\right\rangle \cong \left\langle {{B}_{{b}_{1}},{ \lessdot }_{{b}_{1}}}\right\rangle \) and \( \left\langle {{A}_{{a}_{2}},{ < }_{{a}_{2}}}\right\rangle \cong \left\lang... | Proof. We will prove left to right; the other direction is similar. Suppose both \( \left\langle {{A}_{{a}_{1}},{ < }_{{a}_{1}}}\right\rangle \cong \left\langle {{B}_{{b}_{1}},{ < }_{{b}_{1}}}\right\rangle \) and \( \left\langle {{A}_{{a}_{2}},{ < }_{{a}_{2}}}\right\rangle \cong \left\langle {{B}_{{b}_{2}},{ < }_{{b}_{... | Yes |
Theorem 61.11. Given any two well-orderings, one is isomorphic to an initial segment (not necessarily proper) of the other. | Proof. Let \( \langle A, < \rangle \) and \( \langle B, \lessdot \rangle \) be well-orderings. Using Separation, let\n\n\[ f = \left\{ {\langle a, b\rangle \in A \times B : \left\langle {{A}_{a},{ < }_{a}}\right\rangle \cong \left\langle {{B}_{b},{ \lessdot }_{b}}\right\rangle }\right\} .\n\]\n\nBy Lemma 61.10, \( {a}_... | Yes |
Lemma 61.13. Every element of an ordinal is an ordinal. | Proof. Let \( \alpha \) be an ordinal with \( b \in \alpha \) . Since \( \alpha \) is transitive, \( b \subseteq \alpha \) . So \( \in \) well-orders \( b \) as \( \in \) well-orders \( \alpha \) . For transitivity, suppose \( x \in c \in b \) . So \( c \in \alpha \) as \( b \subseteq \alpha \) . Again, as \( \alpha \)... | Yes |
Corollary 61.14. \( \alpha = \{ \beta \in \alpha : \beta \) is an ordinal \( \} \), for any ordinal \( \alpha \) | Proof. Immediate from Lemma 61.13. | No |
Theorem 61.15 (Transfinite Induction). For any formula \( \varphi \left( x\right) { : }^{2} \)\n\n\[ \n\text{if}\exists {\alpha \varphi }\left( \alpha \right) \text{, then}\exists \alpha \left( {\varphi \left( \alpha \right) \land \left( {\forall \beta \in \alpha }\right) \neg \varphi \left( \beta \right) }\right)\n\]\... | Proof. Suppose \( \varphi \left( \alpha \right) \), for some ordinal \( \alpha \) . If \( \left( {\forall \beta \in \alpha }\right) \neg \varphi \left( \beta \right) \), then we are done. Otherwise, as \( \alpha \) is an ordinal, it has some \( \in \) -least element which is \( \varphi \), and this is an ordinal by Lem... | No |
Theorem 61.16 (Trichotomy). \( \alpha \in \beta \vee \alpha = \beta \vee \beta \in \alpha \), for any ordinals \( \alpha \) and \( \beta \) . | Proof. The proof is by double induction, i.e., using Theorem 61.15 twice. Say that \( x \) is comparable with \( y \) iff \( x \in y \vee x = y \vee y \in x \) . For induction, suppose that every ordinal in \( \alpha \) is comparable with every ordinal. For further induction, suppose that \( \alpha \) is comparable wit... | Yes |
Corollary 61.17. If \( \exists {\alpha \varphi }\left( \alpha \right) \), then \( \exists \alpha \left( {\varphi \left( \alpha \right) \land \forall \beta \left( {\varphi \left( \beta \right) \rightarrow \alpha \leq \beta }\right) }\right) \) . Moreover, for any ordinals \( \alpha ,\beta ,\gamma \), both \( \alpha \not... | Proof. Just like Proposition 61.2. | No |
Corollary 61.18. \( A \) is an ordinal iff \( A \) is a transitive set of ordinals. | Proof. Left-to-right. By Lemma 61.13. Right-to-left. If \( A \) is a transitive set of ordinals, then \( \in \) well-orders \( A \) by Theorem 61.15 and Theorem 61.16. | Yes |
Theorem 61.19 (Burali-Forti Paradox). There is no set of all the ordinals | Proof. For reductio, suppose \( O \) is the set of all ordinals. If \( \alpha \in \beta \in O \), then \( \alpha \) is an ordinal, by Lemma 61.13, so \( \alpha \in O \) . So \( O \) is transitive, and hence \( O \) is an ordinal by Corollary 61.18. Hence \( O \in O \), contradicting Corollary 61.17. | Yes |
Proposition 61.20. Any strictly descending sequence of ordinals is finite. | Proof. Any infinite strictly descending sequence of ordinals \( \ldots \in {\alpha }_{3} \in {\alpha }_{2} \in \) \( {\alpha }_{1} \in {\alpha }_{0} \) has no \( \in \) -minimal member, contradicting Theorem 61.15. | Yes |
Proposition 61.21. \( \alpha \subseteq \beta \vee \beta \subseteq \alpha \), for any ordinals \( \alpha ,\beta \) . | Proof. If \( \alpha \in \beta \), then \( \alpha \subseteq \beta \) as \( \beta \) is transitive. Similarly, if \( \beta \in \alpha \), then \( \beta \subseteq \alpha \) . And if \( \alpha = \beta \), then \( \alpha \subseteq \beta \) and \( \beta \subseteq \alpha \) . So by Theorem 61.16 we are done. | Yes |
Proposition 61.22. \( \alpha = \beta \) iff \( \alpha \cong \beta \), for any ordinals \( \alpha ,\beta \) . | Proof. The ordinals are well-orders; so this is immediate from Trichotomy (Theorem 61.16) and Lemma 61.8. | No |
Corollary 61.23. For any term \( \tau \left( x\right) ,{}^{6} \) and any set \( A \), this set exists:\n\n\[ \{ \tau \left( x\right) : x \in A\} = \{ y : \left( {\exists x \in A}\right) y = \tau \left( x\right) \} . \] | Proof. Since \( \tau \) is a term, \( \forall x\exists !{y\tau }\left( x\right) = y \) . A fortiori, \( \left( {\forall x \in A}\right) \exists !{y\tau }\left( x\right) = y \) . So \( \{ y : \left( {\exists x \in A}\right) \tau \left( x\right) = y\} \) exists by Replacement. | Yes |
Theorem 61.25. Every well-ordering is isomorphic to a unique ordinal. | Proof. Let \( \langle A, < \rangle \) be a well-order. By Proposition 61.22, it is isomorphic to at most one ordinal. So, for reductio, suppose \( \langle A, < \rangle \) is not isomorphic to any ordinal. We will first \ | No |
Corollary 61.27. Where \( \langle A, < \rangle \) and \( \langle B, \lessdot \rangle \) are well-orderings:\n\n\[ \operatorname{ord}\left( {A, < }\right) = \operatorname{ord}\left( {B, < }\right) \text{iff}\langle A, < \rangle \cong \langle B, < \rangle \]\n\n\[ \operatorname{ord}\left( {A, < }\right) \in \operatorname... | Proof. The identity holds as isomorphism is an equivalence relation. To prove the second claim, let \( \operatorname{ord}\left( {A, < }\right) = \alpha \) and \( \operatorname{ord}\left( {B, < }\right) = \beta \), and let \( f : \beta \rightarrow \langle B, < \rangle \) be our isomorphism. Then:\n\n\[ \alpha \in \beta ... | Yes |
Proposition 61.29. For any ordinal \( \alpha \) :\n\n1. \( \alpha \in {\alpha }^{ + } \) ;\n\n2. \( {\alpha }^{ + } \) is an ordinal;\n\n3. there is no ordinal \( \beta \) such that \( \alpha \in \beta \in {\alpha }^{ + } \) . | Proof. Trivially, \( \alpha \in \alpha \cup \{ \alpha \} = {\alpha }^{ + } \) . Equally, \( {\alpha }^{ + } \) is a transitive set of ordinals, and hence an ordinal by Corollary 61.18. And it is impossible that \( \alpha \in \beta \in {\alpha }^{ + } \) , since then either \( \beta \in \alpha \) or \( \beta = \alpha \)... | Yes |
Theorem 61.30 (Simple Transfinite Induction). Let \( \varphi \left( x\right) \) be a formula such that: \( {}^{8} \n\n1. \( \varphi \left( \varnothing \right) \) ; and\n\n2. for any ordinal \( \alpha \), if \( \varphi \left( \alpha \right) \) then \( \varphi \left( {\alpha }^{ + }\right) \) ; and\n\n3. if \( \alpha \) ... | Proof. We prove the contrapositive. So, suppose there is some ordinal which is \( \neg \varphi \) ; let \( \gamma \) be the least such ordinal. Then either \( \gamma = \varnothing \), or \( \gamma = {\alpha }^{ + } \) for some \( \alpha \) such that \( \varphi \left( \alpha \right) \) ; or \( \gamma \) is a limit ordin... | No |
Proposition 61.32. If \( X \) is a set of ordinals, \( \operatorname{lsub}\left( X\right) \) is the least ordinal greater than every ordinal in \( X \). | Proof. Let \( Y = \left\{ {{\alpha }^{ + } : \alpha \in X}\right\} \), so that \( \operatorname{Isub}\left( X\right) = \bigcup Y \) . Since ordinals are transitive and every member of an ordinal is an ordinal, \( \operatorname{lsub}\left( X\right) \) is a transitive set of ordinals, and so is an ordinal by Corollary 61... | Yes |
Theorem 62.2 (Bounded Recursion). For any term \( \tau \left( x\right) \) and any ordinal \( \alpha ,{}^{2} \) there is a unique function \( f \) with domain \( \alpha \) such that \( \left( {\forall \beta \in \alpha }\right) f\left( \beta \right) = \tau \left( {f{ \upharpoonright }_{\beta }}\right) \) | Proof. We will show that, for any \( \delta \leq \alpha \), there is a unique \( {g}_{\delta } \) with domain \( \delta \) such that \( \left( {\forall \beta \in \delta }\right) g\left( \beta \right) = \tau \left( {\left. g\right| }_{\beta }\right) \). We first establish uniqueness. Given \( {g}_{{\delta }_{1}} \) and ... | Yes |
Theorem 62.3 (General Recursion). For any term \( \tau \left( x\right) \) we can explicitly define a term \( \sigma \left( x\right) ,{}^{3} \) such that \( \sigma \left( \alpha \right) = \tau \left( {\sigma { \upharpoonright }_{\alpha }}\right) \) for any ordinal \( \alpha \) . | Proof. For each \( \alpha \), by Theorem 62.2 are unique \( {\alpha }^{ + } \) -approximations, \( {f}_{{\alpha }^{ + }} \), and:\n\n\[ \n{f}_{{\alpha }^{ + }}\left( \alpha \right) = \tau \left( {{f}_{{\alpha }^{ + }}{ \upharpoonright }_{\alpha }}\right) = \tau \left( \left\{ {\left\langle {\gamma ,{f}_{{\alpha }^{ + }... | Yes |
Theorem 62.4 (Simple Recursion). For any terms \( {\tau }_{1}\left( x\right) \) and \( {\tau }_{2}\left( x\right) \) and any set \( A \), we can explicitly define a term \( \sigma \left( x\right) \) such that: \( {}^{4} \)\n\n\[ \sigma \left( \varnothing \right) = A \]\n\n\[ \sigma \left( {\alpha }^{ + }\right) = {\tau... | Proof. We start by defining a term, \( \xi \left( x\right) \), as follows:\n\n\[ \xi \left( x\right) = \left\{ \begin{matrix} A & \text{ if }x\text{ is not a function whose domain is an ordinal; } \\ & \text{ otherwise: } \\ {\tau }_{1}\left( {x\left( \alpha \right) }\right) & \text{ if dom }\left( x\right) = {\alpha }... | Yes |
Lemma 62.5. For each ordinal \( \alpha \) :\n\n1. Each \( {V}_{\alpha } \) is a transitive set.\n\n2. Each \( {V}_{\alpha } \) is a sublative set, \( {}^{5} \) i.e., \( \forall A\left( {\exists B\left( {A \subseteq B \in {V}_{\alpha }}\right) \rightarrow A \in {V}_{\alpha }}\right) \) .\n\n3. If \( \gamma \in \alpha \)... | Proof. We prove this by a (simultaneous) transfinite induction. For induction, suppose that (1)-(3) holds for each ordinal \( \beta < \alpha \) .\n\nThe case of \( \alpha = \varnothing \) is trivial.\n\nSuppose \( \alpha = {\beta }^{ + } \) . To show (3), if \( \gamma \in \alpha \) then \( {V}_{\gamma } \subseteq {V}_{... | No |
Lemma 62.6. For each ordinal \( \alpha ,{V}_{\alpha } \notin {V}_{\alpha } \) . | Proof. By transfinite induction. Evidently \( {V}_{\varnothing } \notin {V}_{\varnothing } \) .\n\nIf \( {V}_{{\alpha }^{ + }} \in {V}_{{\alpha }^{ + }} = \wp \left( {V}_{\alpha }\right) \), then \( {V}_{{\alpha }^{ + }} \subseteq {V}_{\alpha } \) ; and since \( {V}_{\alpha } \in {V}_{{\alpha }^{ + }} \) by Lemma 62.5,... | Yes |
For any ordinals \( \alpha ,\beta : \alpha \in \beta \) iff \( {V}_{\alpha } \in {V}_{\beta } \) | Proof. Lemma 62.5 gives one direction. Conversely, suppose \( {V}_{\alpha } \in {V}_{\beta } \) . Then \( \alpha \neq \beta \) by Lemma 62.6; and \( \beta \notin \alpha \), for otherwise we would have \( {V}_{\beta } \in {V}_{\alpha } \) and hence \( {V}_{\beta } \in {V}_{\beta } \) by Lemma 62.5 (twice), contradicting... | Yes |
Proposition 62.9. \( A \subseteq \operatorname{trcl}\left( A\right) \) and \( \operatorname{trcl}\left( A\right) \) is a transitive set. | Proof. Evidently \( A = {\operatorname{cl}}_{0}\left( A\right) \subseteq \operatorname{trcl}\left( A\right) \) . And if \( x \in b \in \operatorname{trcl}\left( A\right) \), then \( b \in \) \( {\operatorname{cl}}_{n}\left( A\right) \) for some \( n \), so \( x \in {\operatorname{cl}}_{n + 1}\left( A\right) \subseteq \... | Yes |
Lemma 62.10. If \( A \) is a transitive set, then there is some \( \alpha \) such that \( A \subseteq {V}_{\alpha } \) . | Proof. Recalling the definition of \ | No |
Theorem 62.11. Regularity holds. | Proof. Fix \( A \) ; now \( A \subseteq \operatorname{trcl}\left( A\right) \) by Proposition 62.9, which is transitive. So there is some \( \alpha \) such that \( A \subseteq \operatorname{trcl}\left( A\right) \subseteq {V}_{\alpha } \) by Lemma 62.10 | Yes |
Proposition 62.14. For any ordinal \( \alpha ,{V}_{\alpha } = \{ x : \operatorname{rank}\left( x\right) \in \alpha \} \) . | Proof. If \( \operatorname{rank}\left( x\right) \in \alpha \) then \( x \subseteq {V}_{\operatorname{rank}\left( x\right) } \in {V}_{\alpha } \), so \( x \in {V}_{\alpha } \) as \( {V}_{\alpha } \) is sublative (invoking Lemma 62.5 multiple times). Conversely, by definition of \ | No |
Proposition 62.15. If \( B \in A \), then \( \operatorname{rank}\left( B\right) \in \operatorname{rank}\left( A\right) \) . | Proof. \( A \subseteq {V}_{\operatorname{rank}\left( A\right) } = \{ x : \operatorname{rank}\left( x\right) \in \operatorname{rank}\left( A\right) \} \) by Proposition 62.14. | No |
Theorem 62.16 ( \( \\in \) -Induction Scheme). For any formula \( \\varphi : {}^{7} \n\n\[ \n\\forall A\\left( {\\left( {\\forall x \\in A}\\right) \\varphi \\left( x\\right) \\rightarrow \\varphi \\left( A\\right) }\\right) \\rightarrow \\forall {A\\varphi }\\left( A\\right) .\n\] | Proof. We will prove the contrapositive. So, suppose \( \\neg \\forall {A\\varphi }\\left( A\\right) \) . Since every set has a rank, Transfinite Induction (Theorem 61.15) tells us that there is a non- \( \\varphi \) of least possible rank. That is: there is some \( A \) such that \( \\neg \\varphi \\left( A\\right) \)... | Yes |
Proposition 62.17. \( \operatorname{rank}\left( A\right) = {\operatorname{lsub}}_{x \in A}\operatorname{rank}\left( x\right) \) . | Proof. Let \( \alpha = {\operatorname{lsub}}_{x \in A}\operatorname{rank}\left( x\right) \) . By Proposition 62.15, \( \alpha \leq \operatorname{rank}\left( A\right) \) . But if \( x \in A \) then \( \operatorname{rank}\left( x\right) \in \alpha \), so that \( x \in {V}_{\alpha } \), and hence \( A \subseteq {V}_{\alph... | Yes |
For any ordinal \( \alpha ,\operatorname{rank}\left( \alpha \right) = \alpha \) . | Proof. Suppose for transfinite induction that \( \operatorname{rank}\left( \beta \right) = \beta \) for all \( \beta \in \alpha \) . Now \( \operatorname{rank}\left( \alpha \right) = {\operatorname{lsub}}_{\beta \in \alpha }\operatorname{rank}\left( \beta \right) = {\operatorname{lsub}}_{\beta \in \alpha }\beta = \alph... | Yes |
Proposition 62.19 (working in \( {\mathrm{{ZF}}}^{ - } + \) Regularity). Foundation holds. | Proof. Fix \( A \neq \varnothing \), and some \( B \in A \) of least possible rank. If \( c \in B \) then \( \operatorname{rank}\left( c\right) \in \operatorname{rank}\left( B\right) \) by Proposition 62.15, so that \( c \notin A \) by choice of \( B \) . | Yes |
Lemma 63.2. For each \( 1 \leq i \leq k \), let \( {\varphi }_{i}\left( {{\bar{v}}_{i}, x}\right) \) be a formula. \( {}^{5} \) Then for each \( \alpha \) there is some \( \beta > \alpha \) such that, for any \( {\bar{a}}_{1},\ldots ,{\bar{a}}_{k} \in {V}_{\beta } \) and each \( 1 \leq i \leq k \):\n\n\[ \exists x{\var... | Proof. We define a term \( \mu \) as follows: \( \mu \left( {{\bar{a}}_{1},\ldots ,{\bar{a}}_{k}}\right) \) is the least stage, \( V \), which satisfies all of the following conditionals, for \( 1 \leq i \leq k \):\n\n\[ \left. {\exists x{\varphi }_{i}\left( {{\bar{a}}_{i}, x}\right) \rightarrow \left( {\exists x \in V... | Yes |
Lemma 63.3 (in \( \mathbf{Z} + \) Weak-Reflection.). For any formulas \( \psi ,\chi \), there is a transitive set \( S \) such that 0 and 1 (and any parameters to the formulas) are elements of \( S \) , and \( \left( {\forall \bar{x} \in S}\right) \left( {\left( {\psi \leftrightarrow {\psi }^{S}}\right) \land \left( {\... | Proof. Let \( \varphi \) be the formula \( \left( {z = 0 \land \psi }\right) \vee \left( {z = 1 \land \chi }\right) \). Here we use an abbreviation; we should spell out \ | No |
Theorem 63.4 (in \( \mathrm{Z} \) + Weak-Reflection). For any formula \( \varphi \left( {v, w}\right) ,{}^{7} \) and any \( A \) , if \( \left( {\forall x \in A}\right) \exists !{y\varphi }\left( {x, y}\right) \), then \( \{ y : \left( {\exists x \in A}\right) \varphi \left( {x, y}\right) \) exists. | Proof. Fix \( A \) such that \( \left( {\forall x \in A}\right) \exists !{y\varphi }\left( {x, y}\right) \), and define some formulas:\n\n\[ \psi \text{is}\left( {\varphi \left( {x, z}\right) \land A = A}\right) \]\n\n\[ \chi \text{is}\exists {y\varphi }\left( {x, y}\right) \]\n\nUsing Lemma 63.3, since \( A \) is a pa... | Yes |
Lemma 64.4. \( \langle \alpha \sqcup \beta , \vartriangleleft \rangle \) is a well-order, for any ordinals \( \alpha \) and \( \beta \) . | Proof. Obviously \( \vartriangleleft \) is connected on \( \alpha \sqcup \beta \) . To show it is well-founded, fix a non-empty \( X \subseteq \alpha \sqcup \beta \), and let\n\n\[ \n{X}_{0} = \{ \langle a, b\rangle \in X : \left( {\forall \langle x, y\rangle \in X}\right) b \leq y\} .\n\]\n\nNow choose the element of ... | No |
Proposition 64.5. \( \alpha + 1 = {\alpha }^{ + } \), for any ordinal \( \alpha \) . | Proof. Consider the isomorphism \( f \) from \( {\alpha }^{ + } = \alpha \cup \{ \alpha \} \) to \( \alpha \sqcup 1 = \left( {\alpha \times \{ 0\} }\right) \sqcup \) \( \left( {\{ 0\} \times \{ 1\} }\right) \) given by \( f\left( \gamma \right) = \langle \gamma ,0\rangle \) for \( \gamma \in \alpha \), and \( f\left( \... | Yes |
Lemma 64.6. For any ordinals \( \alpha ,\beta \), we have:\n\n\[ \alpha + 0 = \alpha \]\n\n\[ \alpha + \left( {\beta + 1}\right) = \left( {\alpha + \beta }\right) + 1 \]\n\n\[ \alpha + \beta = \mathop{\operatorname{lsub}}\limits_{{\delta < \beta }}\left( {\alpha + \delta }\right) \] if \( \beta \) is a limit ordinal | Proof. We check case-by-case; first:\n\n\[ \alpha + 0 = \operatorname{ord}\left( {\left( {\alpha \times \{ 0\} }\right) \sqcup \left( {0\times \{ 1\} }\right) , \vartriangleleft }\right) \]\n\n\[ = \operatorname{ord}\left( {\left( {\alpha \times \{ 0\} }\right) \times \{ 0\} , \vartriangleleft }\right) \]\n\n\[ = \alph... | Yes |
Lemma 64.7. If \( \alpha ,\beta ,\gamma \) are ordinals, then:\n\n1. if \( \beta < \gamma \), then \( \alpha + \beta < \alpha + \gamma \)\n\n2. if \( \alpha + \beta = \alpha + \gamma \), then \( \beta = \gamma \)\n\n3. \( \alpha + \left( {\beta + \gamma }\right) = \left( {\alpha + \beta }\right) + \gamma \), i.e., addi... | Proof. We prove (3), leaving the rest as an exercise. The proof is by Simple Transfinite Induction on \( \gamma \), using Lemma 64.6. When \( \gamma = 0 \) :\n\n\[ \left( {\alpha + \beta }\right) + 0 = \alpha + \beta = \alpha + \left( {\beta + 0}\right) \]\n\nWhen \( \gamma = \delta + 1 \), suppose for induction that \... | No |
Proposition 64.8. Ordinal addition is not commutative; \( 1 + \omega = \omega < \omega + 1 \) . | Proof. Note that \( 1 + \omega = {\operatorname{lsub}}_{n < \omega }\left( {1 + n}\right) = \omega \in \omega \cup \{ \omega \} = {\omega }^{ + } = \omega + 1 \) . | Yes |
Lemma 64.9. If \( \operatorname{rank}\left( A\right) = \alpha \) and \( \operatorname{rank}\left( B\right) = \beta \), then:\n\n1. \( \operatorname{rank}\left( {\wp \left( A\right) }\right) = \alpha + 1 \) | Proof. Throughout, we invoke Proposition 62.17 repeatedly.\n\n(1). If \( x \subseteq A \) then \( \operatorname{rank}\left( x\right) \leq \operatorname{rank}\left( A\right) \) . So \( \operatorname{rank}\left( {\wp \left( A\right) }\right) \leq \alpha + 1 \) . Since \( A \in \wp \left( A\right) \) in particular, \( \op... | Yes |
Lemma 64.10. For any ordinal \( \alpha \), the following are equivalent:\n\n1. \( \alpha \notin \omega \), i.e., \( \alpha \) is not a natural number\n\n2. \( \omega \leq \alpha \)\n\n3. \( 1 + \alpha = \alpha \)\n\n4. \( \alpha \approx \alpha + 1 \), i.e., \( \alpha \) and \( \alpha + 1 \) are equinumerous\n\n5. \( \a... | Proof. \( \left( 1\right) \Rightarrow \left( 2\right) \) . By Trichotomy.\n\n\( \left( 2\right) \Rightarrow \left( 3\right) \) . Fix \( \alpha \geq \omega \) . By Transfinite Induction, there is some least ordinal \( \gamma \) (possibly 0 ) such that there is a limit ordinal \( \beta \) with \( \alpha = \beta + \gamma ... | Yes |
Lemma 64.12. \( \langle \alpha \times \beta , \vartriangleleft \rangle \) is a well-order, for any ordinals \( \alpha \) and \( \beta \) . | Proof. Exactly as for Lemma 64.4. | No |
Lemma 64.13. For any ordinals \( \alpha ,\beta \) :\n\n\[ \alpha \cdot 0 = 0 \]\n\n\[ \alpha \cdot \left( {\beta + 1}\right) = \left( {\alpha \cdot \beta }\right) + \alpha \]\n\n\[ \alpha \cdot \beta = \mathop{\operatorname{lub}}\limits_{{\delta < \beta }}\left( {\alpha \cdot \delta }\right) \;\text{when}\beta \text{is... | Proof. Left as an exercise. | No |
Lemma 64.14. If \( \alpha ,\beta ,\gamma \) are ordinals, then:\n\n1. if \( \alpha \neq 0 \) and \( \beta < \gamma \), then \( \alpha \cdot \beta < \alpha \cdot \gamma \) ;\n\n2. if \( \alpha \neq 0 \) and \( \alpha \cdot \beta = \alpha \cdot \gamma \), then \( \beta = \gamma \) ;\n\n3. \( \alpha \cdot \left( {\beta \c... | Proof. Left as an exercise. | No |
Proposition 64.15. Ordinal multiplication is not commutative: \( 2 \cdot \omega = \omega < \omega \cdot 2 \) | Proof. \( 2 \cdot \omega = {\operatorname{lsub}}_{n < \omega }\left( {2 \cdot n}\right) = \omega \in {\operatorname{lsub}}_{n < \omega }\left( {\omega + n}\right) = \omega + \omega = \omega \cdot 2 \) . | Yes |
Lemma 65.2. For every set \( A \) :\n\n1. \( \left| A\right| \) exists and is unique;\n\n2. \( \left| A\right| \approx A \) ;\n\n3. \( \left| A\right| \) is a cardinal, i.e., \( \left| A\right| = \parallel A\parallel \) ; | Proof. Fix \( A \) . By Well-Ordering, there is a well-ordering \( \langle A, R\rangle \) . By Theorem 61.25, \( \langle A, R\rangle \) is isomorphic to a unique ordinal, \( \beta \) . So \( A \approx \beta \) . By Transfinite Induction, there is a uniquely least ordinal, \( \gamma \), such that \( A \approx \gamma \) ... | Yes |
Lemma 65.3. For any sets \( A \) and \( B \) :\n\n\[ A \approx B\text{ iff }\left| A\right| = \left| B\right| \]\n\n\[ A \preccurlyeq B\text{iff}\left| A\right| \leq \left| B\right| \]\n\n\[ A \prec B\text{ iff }\left| A\right| < \left| B\right| \] | Proof. We will prove the left-to-right direction of the second claim (the other cases are similar, and left as an exercise). So, consider the following diagram:\n\n\n\nThe double-headed arrows indicate bijections, wh... | No |
Proposition 65.5. Let \( n, m \in \omega \) . Then \( n = m \) iff \( n \approx m \) . | Proof. Left-to-right is trivial. To prove right-to-left, suppose \( n \approx m \) although \( n \neq m \) . By Trichotomy, either \( n \in m \) or \( m \in n \) ; suppose \( n \in m \) without loss of generality. Then \( n \subsetneq m \) and there is a bijection \( f : m \rightarrow n \), so that \( m \) is Dedekind ... | Yes |
Corollary 65.6. If \( n \in \omega \), then \( n \) is a cardinal. | Proof. Immediate. | No |
Theorem 65.7. For any set \( A \), the following are equivalent:\n\n1. \( \left| A\right| \notin \omega \), i.e., \( A \) is not a natural number;\n\n2. \( \omega \leq \left| A\right| \) ;\n\n3. A is Dedekind infinite. | Proof. From Lemma 64.10, Lemma 65.3, and Corollary 65.6. | No |
Corollary 65.9. \( \omega \) is the least infinite cardinal. | Proof. \( \omega \) is a cardinal, since \( \omega \) is Dedekind infinite and if \( \omega \approx n \) for any \( n \in \omega \) then \( n \) would be Dedekind infinite, contradicting Proposition 60.8. Now \( \omega \) is the least infinite cardinal by definition. | No |
Corollary 65.10. Every infinite cardinal is a limit ordinal. | Proof. Let \( \alpha \) be an infinite successor ordinal, so \( \alpha = \beta + 1 \) for some \( \beta \) . By Proposition 65.5, \( \beta \) is also infinite, so \( \beta \approx \beta + 1 \) by Lemma 64.10. Now \( \left| \beta \right| = \) \( \left| {\beta + 1}\right| = \left| \alpha \right| \) by Lemma 65.3, so that... | Yes |
Proposition 65.11. \( A \) is enumerable iff \( \left| A\right| \leq \omega \), and \( A \) is non-enumerable iff \( \omega < \) \( \left| A\right| \) . | Proof. By Trichotomy, the two claims are equivalent, so it suffices to prove that \( A \) is enumerable iff \( \left| A\right| \leq \omega \) . For right-to-left: if \( \left| A\right| \leq \omega \), then \( A \preccurlyeq \omega \) by Lemma 65.3 and Corollary 65.9. For left-to-right: suppose \( A \) is enumerable; th... | Yes |
Corollary 65.12. \( \omega \) is the only enumerable infinite cardinal. | Proof. Let \( \mathfrak{a} \) be a enumerable infinite cardinal. Since \( \mathfrak{a} \) is infinite, \( \omega \leq \mathfrak{a} \) . Since \( \mathfrak{a} \) is a enumerable cardinal, \( \mathfrak{a} = \left| \mathfrak{a}\right| \leq \omega \) . So \( \mathfrak{a} = \omega \) by Trichotomy. | Yes |
Proposition 65.13. If every member of \( X \) is a cardinal, then \( \bigcup X \) is a cardinal. | Proof. It is easy to check that \( \bigcup X \) is an ordinal. Let \( \alpha \in \bigcup X \) be an ordinal; then \( \alpha \in \mathfrak{b} \in X \) for some cardinal \( \mathfrak{b} \). Since \( \mathfrak{b} \) is a cardinal, \( \alpha \prec \mathfrak{b} \). Since \( \mathfrak{b} \subseteq \bigcup X \), we have \( \m... | Yes |
Theorem 65.14. There is no largest cardinal. | Proof. For any cardinal \( \mathfrak{a} \), Cantor’s Theorem (Theorem 4.24) and Lemma 65.2 entail that \( \mathfrak{a} < \left| {\wp \left( \mathfrak{a}\right) }\right| \) . | Yes |
Theorem 65.15. The set of all cardinals does not exist. | Proof. For reductio, suppose \( C = \{ \mathfrak{a} : \mathfrak{a} \) is a cardinal \( \} \) . Now \( \cup C \) is a cardinal by Proposition 65.13, so by Theorem 65.14 there is a cardinal \( \mathfrak{b} > \bigcup C \) . By definition \( \mathfrak{b} \in C \), so \( \mathfrak{b} \subseteq \cup C \), so that \( \mathfra... | Yes |
Proposition 66.2. \( \oplus \) and \( \otimes \) are commutative and associative. | Proof. For commutativity, by Lemma 65.3 it suffices to observe that \( \left( {\mathfrak{a} \sqcup \mathfrak{b}}\right) \approx \) \( \left( {\mathfrak{b} \sqcup \mathfrak{a}}\right) \) and \( \left( {\mathfrak{a} \times \mathfrak{b}}\right) \approx \left( {\mathfrak{b} \times \mathfrak{a}}\right) \) . We leave associa... | No |
Lemma 66.4. \( \\left| {\\wp \\left( A\\right) }\\right| = {2}^{\\left| A\\right| } \), for any \( A \) . | Proof. For each subset \( B \\subseteq A \), let \( {\\chi }_{B} \\in {}^{A}2 \) be given by:\n\n\[ \n{\\chi }_{B}\\left( x\\right) \\mathrel{\\text{:=}} \\left\\{ \\begin{array}{ll} 1 & \\text{ if }x \\in B \\\\ 0 & \\text{ otherwise. } \\end{array}\\right.\n\]\n\nNow let \( f\\left( B\\right) = {\\chi }_{B} \) ; this... | Yes |
Corollary 66.5. \( \mathfrak{a} < {2}^{\mathfrak{a}} \) for any cardinal \( \mathfrak{a} \) . | Proof. From Cantor's Theorem (Theorem 4.24) and Lemma 66.4. | No |
Theorem 66.6. \( \\left| \\mathbb{R}\\right| = {2}^{\\omega } \) | Proof skeleton. There are plenty of ways to prove this. The most straightforward is to argue that \( \\wp \\left( \\omega \\right) \\preccurlyeq \\mathbb{R} \) and \( \\mathbb{R} \\preccurlyeq \\wp \\left( \\omega \\right) \), and then use Schröder-Bernstein to infer that \( \\mathbb{R} \\approx \\wp \\left( \\omega \\... | No |
Lemma 66.8. \( \langle \alpha \times \alpha , \vartriangleleft \rangle \) is a well-order, for any ordinal \( \alpha \) . | Proof. Evidently \( \vartriangleleft \) is connected on \( \alpha \times \alpha \) . For suppose that neither \( \left\langle {{\alpha }_{1},{\alpha }_{2}}\right\rangle \) nor \( \left\langle {{\beta }_{1},{\beta }_{2}}\right\rangle \) is \( \vartriangleleft \) -less than the other. Then \( \max \left( {{\alpha }_{1},{... | Yes |
Lemma 66.10. \( \\alpha \\approx \\alpha \\times \\alpha \), for any infinite ordinal \( \\alpha \) | Proof. For reductio, let \( \\alpha \) be the least infinite ordinal for which this is false. Proposition 4.12 shows that \( \\omega \\approx \\omega \\times \\omega \), so \( \\omega \\in \\alpha \). Moreover, \( \\alpha \) is a cardinal: suppose otherwise, for reductio; then \( \\left| \\alpha \\right| \\in \\alpha \... | Yes |
Theorem 66.11. If \( \mathfrak{a},\mathfrak{b} \) are infinite cardinals, \( \mathfrak{a} \otimes \mathfrak{b} = \mathfrak{a} \oplus \mathfrak{b} = \max \left( {\mathfrak{a},\mathfrak{b}}\right) \) . | Proof. Without loss of generality, suppose \( \mathfrak{a} = \max \left( {\mathfrak{a},\mathfrak{b}}\right) \) . Then invoking Lemma 66.10, \( \mathfrak{a} \otimes \mathfrak{a} = \mathfrak{a} \leq \mathfrak{a} \oplus \mathfrak{b} \leq \mathfrak{a} \oplus \mathfrak{a} \leq \mathfrak{a} \otimes \mathfrak{a} \) . | Yes |
Proposition 66.12. Let \( \\mathfrak{a} \) be an infinite cardinal. For each ordinal \( \\beta \\in \\mathfrak{a} \), let \( {X}_{\\beta } \) be a set with \( \\left| {X}_{\\beta }\\right| \\leq \\mathfrak{a} \). Then \( \\left| {\\mathop{\\bigcup }\\limits_{{\\beta \\in \\mathfrak{a}}}{X}_{\\beta }}\\right| \\leq \\ma... | Proof. For each \( \\beta \\in \\mathfrak{a} \), fix an injection \( {f}_{\\beta } : {X}_{\\beta } \\rightarrow \\mathfrak{a} \). Define an injection \( g : \\mathop{\\bigcup }\\limits_{{\\beta \\in \\mathfrak{a}}}{X}_{\\beta } \\rightarrow \) \( \\mathfrak{a} \\times \\mathfrak{a} \) by \( g\\left( v\\right) = \\left\... | Yes |
Proposition 66.13. \( {\mathfrak{a}}^{\mathfrak{b} \oplus \mathfrak{c}} = {\mathfrak{a}}^{\mathfrak{b}} \otimes {\mathfrak{a}}^{\mathfrak{c}} \) and \( {\left( {\mathfrak{a}}^{\mathfrak{b}}\right) }^{\mathfrak{c}} = {\mathfrak{a}}^{\mathfrak{b} \otimes \mathfrak{c}} \), for any cardinals \( \mathfrak{a},\mathfrak{b},\m... | Proof. For the first claim, consider a function \( f : \left( {\mathfrak{b} \sqcup \mathfrak{c}}\right) \rightarrow \mathfrak{a} \) . Now \ | No |
Proposition 66.14. If \( 2 \leq \mathfrak{a} \leq \mathfrak{b} \) and \( \mathfrak{b} \) is infinite, then \( {\mathfrak{a}}^{\mathfrak{b}} = {2}^{\mathfrak{b}} \) | Proof.\n\n\[ \n{2}^{\mathfrak{b}} \leq {\mathfrak{a}}^{\mathfrak{b}},\text{ as }2 \leq \mathfrak{a} \n\] \n\n\[ \n\leq {\left( {2}^{\mathfrak{a}}\right) }^{\mathfrak{b}}\text{, by Lemma 66.4} \n\] \n\n\[ \n= {2}^{\mathfrak{a} \otimes \mathfrak{b}}\text{, by Proposition 66.13} \n\] \n\n\[ \n= {2}^{b}\text{, by Theorem 6... | No |
Proposition 66.15. If \( \mathfrak{a} \) is infinite and \( n \in \omega \) then \( {\mathfrak{a}}^{n} = \mathfrak{a} \) | Proof. \( {\mathfrak{a}}^{n} = \mathfrak{a} \otimes \mathfrak{a} \otimes \ldots \otimes \mathfrak{a} = \mathfrak{a} \), by \( n - 1 \) applications of Theorem 66.11. | No |
Proposition 66.16. If \( 2 \leq \mathfrak{b} < \mathfrak{a} \leq {2}^{\mathfrak{b}} \) and \( \mathfrak{b} \) is infinite, then \( {\mathfrak{a}}^{\mathfrak{b}} = {2}^{\mathfrak{b}} \) | Proof. \( {2}^{\mathfrak{b}} \leq {\mathfrak{a}}^{\mathfrak{b}} \leq {\left( {2}^{\mathfrak{b}}\right) }^{\mathfrak{b}} = {2}^{\mathfrak{b} \otimes \mathfrak{b}} = {2}^{\mathfrak{b}} \), reasoning as in Proposition 66.14. | Yes |
Proposition 66.18. Both \( {\aleph }_{\alpha } \) and \( {\beth }_{\alpha } \) are cardinals, for every ordinal \( \alpha \) . | Proof. Both results hold by a simple transfinite induction. \( {\aleph }_{0} = {\beth }_{0} = \omega \) is a cardinal by Corollary 65.9. Assuming \( {\aleph }_{\alpha } \) and \( {\beth }_{\alpha } \) are both cardinals, \( {\aleph }_{\alpha + 1} \) and \( {\beth }_{\alpha + 1} \) are explicitly defined as cardinals. A... | Yes |
Proposition 66.19. If \( \mathfrak{a} \) is an infinite cardinal, then \( \mathfrak{a} = {\aleph }_{\gamma } \) for some \( \gamma \) . | Proof. By transfinite induction on cardinals. For induction, suppose that if \( \mathfrak{b} < \mathfrak{a} \) then \( \mathfrak{b} = {\aleph }_{{\gamma }_{\mathfrak{b}}} \) . If \( \mathfrak{a} = {\mathfrak{b}}^{ \oplus } \) for some \( \mathfrak{b} \), then \( \mathfrak{a} = {\aleph }_{{\gamma }_{\mathfrak{b}}}^{ \op... | Yes |
Proposition 66.20. There is an \( \aleph \) -fixed-point. | Proof. Using recursion, define:\n\n\[{\kappa }_{0} = 0\]\n\n\[{\kappa }_{n + 1} = {\aleph }_{{\kappa }_{n}}\]\n\n\[\kappa = \mathop{\bigcup }\limits_{{n < \omega }}{\kappa }_{n}\]\n\nNow \( \kappa \) is a cardinal by Proposition 65.13. But now:\n\n\[\kappa = \mathop{\bigcup }\limits_{{n < \omega }}{\kappa }_{n + 1} = \... | Yes |
Proposition 66.21. There is a \( \beth \) -fixed-point, i.e., \( {a\kappa } \) such that \( \kappa = {\beth }_{\kappa } \) | Proof. As in Proposition 66.20, using \ | No |
Proposition 66.22. \( \left| {V}_{\omega + \alpha }\right| = {\beth }_{\alpha } \). If \( \omega \cdot \omega \leq \alpha \), then \( \left| {V}_{\alpha }\right| = {\beth }_{\alpha } \). | Proof. The first claim holds by a simple transfinite induction. The second claim follows, since if \( \omega \cdot \omega \leq \alpha \) then \( \omega + \alpha = \alpha \). To establish this, we use facts about ordinal arithmetic from chapter 64. First note that \( \omega \cdot \omega = \omega \cdot \left( {1 + \omega... | Yes |
Corollary 66.23. There is a \( \kappa \) such that \( \left| {V}_{\kappa }\right| = \kappa \) . | Proof. Let \( \kappa \) be a \( \beth \) -fixed point, as given by Proposition 66.21. Clearly \( \omega \cdot \omega < \) \( \kappa \) . So \( \left| {V}_{\kappa }\right| = {\beth }_{\kappa } = \kappa \) by Proposition 66.22. | Yes |
Lemma 67.3 (in \( \mathbf{ZF} \)). For any set \( A \), there is an ordinal \( \alpha \) such that \( \alpha \npreceq A \) | Proof. If \( B \subseteq A \) and \( R \subseteq {B}^{2} \), then \( \langle B, R\rangle \subseteq {V}_{\operatorname{rank}\left( A\right) + 4} \) by Lemma 64.9. So, using Separation, consider:\n\n\[ C = \left\{ {\langle B, R\rangle \in {V}_{\operatorname{rank}\left( A\right) + 5} : B \subseteq A}\right. \text{and}\lan... | Yes |
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