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1,001 | The primary function of a web server is to store, process and deliver web pages to clients. The communication between client and server takes place using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol . Pages delivered are most frequently HTML documents, which may include images, style sheets and scripts in addition to the text conte... |
1,002 | A user agent, commonly a web browser or web crawler, initiates communication by making a request for a specific resource using HTTP and the server responds with the content of that resource or an error message if unable to do so. The resource is typically a real file on the server's secondary storage, but this is not n... |
1,003 | While the primary function is to serve content, full implementation of HTTP also includes ways of receiving content from clients. This feature is used for submitting web forms, including uploading of files. |
1,004 | Many generic web servers also support server-side scripting using Active Server Pages , PHP , or other scripting languages. This means that the behavior of the webserver can be scripted in separate files, while the actual server software remains unchanged. Usually, this function is used to generate HTML documents dynam... |
1,005 | Web servers can also frequently be found embedded in devices such as printers, routers, webcams and serving only a local network. The web server may then be used as a part of a system for monitoring or administering the device in question. This usually means that no additional software has to be installed on the client... |
1,006 | An HTTP cookie is a small piece of data sent from a website and stored on the user's computer by the user's web browser while the user is browsing. Cookies were designed to be a reliable mechanism for websites to remember stateful information or to record the user's browsing activity . They can also be used to rememb... |
1,007 | Cookies perform essential functions in the modern web. Perhaps most importantly, authentication cookies are the most common method used by web servers to know whether the user is logged in or not, and which account they are logged in with. Without such a mechanism, the site would not know whether to send a page contain... |
1,008 | Tracking cookies, and especially third-party tracking cookies, are commonly used as ways to compile long-term records of individuals' browsing histories – a potential privacy concern that prompted European and U.S. lawmakers to take action in 2011. European law requires that all websites targeting European Union member... |
1,009 | Google Project Zero researcher Jann Horn describes ways cookies can be read by intermediaries, like Wi-Fi hotspot providers. He recommends using the browser in incognito mode in such circumstances. |
1,010 | A web search engine or Internet search engine is a software system that is designed to carry out web search , which means to search the World Wide Web in a systematic way for particular information specified in a web search query. The search results are generally presented in a line of results, often referred to as sea... |
1,011 | The deep web, invisible web, or hidden web are parts of the World Wide Web whose contents are not indexed by standard web search engines. The opposite term to the deep web is the surface web, which is accessible to anyone using the Internet. Computer scientist Michael K. Bergman is credited with coining the term deep w... |
1,012 | The content of the deep web is hidden behind HTTP forms, and includes many very common uses such as web mail, online banking, and services that users must pay for, and which is protected by a paywall, such as video on demand, some online magazines and newspapers, among others. |
1,013 | The content of the deep web can be located and accessed by a direct URL or IP address and may require a password or other security access past the public website page. |
1,014 | A web cache is a server computer located either on the public Internet or within an enterprise that stores recently accessed web pages to improve response time for users when the same content is requested within a certain time after the original request. Most web browsers also implement a browser cache by writing recen... |
1,015 | For criminals, the Web has become a venue to spread malware and engage in a range of cybercrimes, including identity theft, fraud, espionage and intelligence gathering. Web-based vulnerabilities now outnumber traditional computer security concerns, and as measured by Google, about one in ten web pages may contain mali... |
1,016 | Proposed solutions vary. Large security companies like McAfee already design governance and compliance suites to meet post-9/11 regulations, and some, like Finjan have recommended active real-time inspection of programming code and all content regardless of its source. Some have argued that for enterprises to see Web s... |
1,017 | Every time a client requests a web page, the server can identify the request's IP address. Web servers usually log IP addresses in a log file. Also, unless set not to do so, most web browsers record requested web pages in a viewable history feature, and usually cache much of the content locally. Unless the server-brows... |
1,018 | When a web page asks for, and the user supplies, personally identifiable information—such as their real name, address, e-mail address, etc. web-based entities can associate current web traffic with that individual. If the website uses HTTP cookies, username, and password authentication, or other tracking techniques, it... |
1,019 | Social networking sites usually try to get users to use their real names, interests, and locations, rather than pseudonyms, as their executives believe that this makes the social networking experience more engaging for users. On the other hand, uploaded photographs or unguarded statements can be identified to an indivi... |
1,020 | Web standards include many interdependent standards and specifications, some of which govern aspects of the Internet, not just the World Wide Web. Even when not web-focused, such standards directly or indirectly affect the development and administration of websites and web services. Considerations include the interoper... |
1,021 | Web standards, in the broader sense, consist of the following: |
1,022 | Web standards are not fixed sets of rules but are constantly evolving sets of finalized technical specifications of web technologies. Web standards are developed by standards organizations—groups of interested and often competing parties chartered with the task of standardization—not technologies developed and declared... |
1,023 | There are methods for accessing the Web in alternative mediums and formats to facilitate use by individuals with disabilities. These disabilities may be visual, auditory, physical, speech-related, cognitive, neurological, or some combination. Accessibility features also help people with temporary disabilities, like a b... |
1,024 | The W3C Internationalisation Activity assures that web technology works in all languages, scripts, and cultures. Beginning in 2004 or 2005, Unicode gained ground and eventually in December 2007 surpassed both ASCII and Western European as the Web's most frequently used character encoding. Originally RFC 3986 allowed re... |
1,025 | The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network was the first wide-area packet-switched network with distributed control and one of the first computer networks to implement the TCP/IP protocol suite. Both technologies became the technical foundation of the Internet. The ARPANET was established by the Advanced Research P... |
1,026 | Building on the ideas of J. C. R. Licklider, Bob Taylor initiated the ARPANET project in 1966 to enable resource sharing between remote computers. Taylor appointed Larry Roberts as program manager. Roberts made the key decisions about the request for proposal to build the network. He incorporated Donald Davies' concept... |
1,027 | The first computers were connected in 1969 and the Network Control Protocol was implemented in 1970, development of which was led by Steve Crocker at UCLA and other graduate students, including Jon Postel and Vint Cerf. The network was declared operational in 1971. Further software development enabled remote login and ... |
1,028 | Bob Kahn moved to DARPA and, together with Vint Cerf at Stanford University, formulated the Transmission Control Program, which incorporated concepts from the French CYCLADES project directed by Louis Pouzin. As this work progressed, a protocol was developed by which multiple separate networks could be joined into a ne... |
1,029 | Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network . In the early 1980s, the NSF funded the establishment of national supercomputing centers at several universities and provided network access and network interconnectivity with the NSFNET project in 1986... |
1,030 | Historically, voice and data communications were based on methods of circuit switching, as exemplified in the traditional telephone network, wherein each telephone call is allocated a dedicated end-to-end electronic connection between the two communicating stations. The connection is established by switching systems th... |
1,031 | The traditional model of the circuit-switched telecommunication network was challenged in the early 1960s by Paul Baran at the RAND Corporation, who had been researching systems that could sustain operation during partial destruction, such as by nuclear war. He developed the theoretical model of distributed adaptive me... |
1,032 | The earliest ideas for a computer network intended to allow general communications among computer users were formulated by computer scientist J. C. R. Licklider of Bolt Beranek and Newman , in April 1963, in memoranda discussing the concept of the "Intergalactic Computer Network". Those ideas encompassed many of the fe... |
1,033 | Sutherland and Taylor continued their interest in creating the network, in part, to allow ARPA-sponsored researchers at various corporate and academic locales to utilize computers provided by ARPA, and, in part, to quickly distribute new software and other computer science results. Taylor had three computer terminals i... |
1,034 | Donald Davies' work caught the attention of ARPANET developers at Symposium on Operating Systems Principles in October 1967. He gave the first public presentation, having coined the term packet switching, in August 1968 and incorporated it into the NPL network in England. The NPL network and ARPANET were the first two ... |
1,035 | In February 1966, Bob Taylor successfully lobbied ARPA's Director Charles M. Herzfeld to fund a network project. Herzfeld redirected funds in the amount of one million dollars from a ballistic missile defense program to Taylor's budget. Taylor hired Larry Roberts as a program manager in the ARPA Information Processing ... |
1,036 | Roberts asked Frank Westervelt to explore the initial design questions for a network. In April 1967, ARPA held a design session on technical standards. The initial standards for identification and authentication of users, transmission of characters, and error checking and retransmission procedures were discussed. Rober... |
1,037 | The plan was presented at the inaugural Symposium on Operating Systems Principles in October 1967. Donald Davies' work on packet switching and the NPL network, presented by a colleague , came to the attention of the ARPA investigators at this conference. Roberts applied Davies' concept of packet switching for the ARPAN... |
1,038 | By mid-1968, Roberts and Barry Wessler wrote a final version of the IMP specification based on a Stanford Research Institute report that ARPA commissioned to write detailed specifications describing the ARPANET communications network. Roberts gave a report to Taylor on 3 June, who approved it on 21 June. After approva... |
1,039 | The initial, seven-person BBN team were much aided by the technical specificity of their response to the ARPA RFQ, and thus quickly produced the first working system. The "IMP guys" were led by Frank Heart and the theoretical design of the network was led by Bob Kahn; the team included Dave Walden, Severo Omstein, Will... |
1,040 | The first-generation IMPs were built by BBN Technologies using a rugged computer version of the Honeywell DDP-516 computer, configured with 24KB of expandable magnetic-core memory, and a 16-channel Direct Multiplex Control direct memory access unit. The DMC established custom interfaces with each of the host computers... |
1,041 | According to Charles Herzfeld, ARPA Director : |
1,042 | According to Stephen J. Lukasik, who as deputy director and Director of DARPA was the person who signed most of the checks for Arpanet's development, the goal was "command and control": |
1,043 | The ARPANET did use distributed computation, and incorporated frequent re-computation of routing tables . These features increased the survivability of the network in the event of significant interruption. Furthermore, the ARPANET was designed to survive subordinate-network losses. However, the Internet Society agrees ... |
1,044 | Paul Baran, the first to put forward a theoretical model for communication using packet switching, conducted the RAND study referenced above. Though the ARPANET did not exactly share Baran's project's goal, he said his work did contribute to the development of the ARPANET. Minutes taken by Elmer Shapiro of Stanford Res... |
1,045 | The first four nodes were designated as a testbed for developing and debugging the 1822 protocol, which was a major undertaking. While they were connected electronically in 1969, network applications were not possible until the Network Control Protocol was implemented in 1970 enabling the first two host-host protocols,... |
1,046 | The first four IMPs were: |
1,047 | The first successful host-to-host connection on the ARPANET was made between Stanford Research Institute and UCLA, by SRI programmer Bill Duvall and UCLA student programmer Charley Kline, at 10:30 pm PST on 29 October 1969 . Kline connected from UCLA's SDS Sigma 7 Host computer to the Stanford Research Institute's SD... |
1,048 | Elizabeth Feinler created the first Resource Handbook for ARPANET in 1969 which led to the development of the ARPANET directory. The directory, built by Feinler and a team made it possible to navigate the ARPANET. |
1,049 | Roberts engaged Howard Frank to consult on the topological design of the network. Frank made recommendations to increase throughput and reduce costs in a scaled-up network. By March 1970, the ARPANET reached the East Coast of the United States, when an IMP at BBN in Cambridge, Massachusetts was connected to the network... |
1,050 | Support for inter-IMP circuits of up to 230.4 kbit/s was added in 1970, although considerations of cost and IMP processing power meant this capability was not actively used. |
1,051 | Larry Roberts saw the ARPANET and NPL projects as complementary and sought in 1970 to connect them via a satellite link. Peter Kirstein's research group at University College London was subsequently chosen in 1971 in place of NPL for the UK connection. In June 1973, a transatlantic satellite link connected ARPANET to ... |
1,052 | 1971 saw the start of the use of the non-ruggedized Honeywell 316 as an IMP.
It could also be configured as a Terminal Interface Processor , which provided terminal server support for up to 63 ASCII serial terminals through a multi-line controller in place of one of the hosts. The 316 featured a greater degree of inte... |
1,053 | The ARPANET was demonstrated at the International Conference on Computer Communications in October 1972. |
1,054 | In 1975, BBN introduced IMP software running on the Pluribus multi-processor. These appeared in a few sites. In 1981, BBN introduced IMP software running on its own C/30 processor product. |
1,055 | In 1968, Roberts contracted with Kleinrock to measure the performance of the network and find areas for improvement. Building on his earlier work on queueing theory, Kleinrock specified mathematical models of the performance of packet-switched networks, which underpinned the development of the ARPANET as it expanded ra... |
1,056 | ARPA was intended to fund advanced research. The ARPANET was a research project that was communications-oriented, rather than user-oriented in design. Nonetheless, in the summer of 1975, operational control of the ARPANET passed to the Defense Communications Agency. At about this time, the first ARPANET encryption devi... |
1,057 | The ARPANET Completion Report, published in 1981 jointly by BBN and DARPA, concludes that: |
1,058 | Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network . |
1,059 | The transatlantic connectivity with NORSAR and UCL later evolved into the SATNET. The ARPANET, SATNET and PRNET were interconnected in 1977. |
1,060 | The DoD made TCP/IP the standard communication protocol for all military computer networking in 1980. NORSAR and University College London left the ARPANET and began using TCP/IP over SATNET in early 1982. |
1,061 | On January 1, 1983, known as flag day, TCP/IP protocols became the standard for the ARPANET, replacing the earlier Network Control Protocol. |
1,062 | In September 1984 work was completed on restructuring the ARPANET giving U.S. military sites their own Military Network for unclassified defense department communications. Both networks carried unclassified information and were connected at a small number of controlled gateways which would allow total separation in th... |
1,063 | Separating the civil and military networks reduced the 113-node ARPANET by 68 nodes. After MILNET was split away, the ARPANET would continue to be used as an Internet backbone for researchers, but be slowly phased out. |
1,064 | In 1985, the NSF funded the establishment of national supercomputing centers at several universities and provided network access and network interconnectivity with the NSFNET project in 1986. NSFNET became the Internet backbone for government agencies and universities. |
1,065 | The ARPANET project was formally decommissioned in 1990. The original IMPs and TIPs were phased out as the ARPANET was shut down after the introduction of the NSFNet, but some IMPs remained in service as late as July 1990. |
1,066 | In the wake of the decommissioning of the ARPANET on 28 February 1990, Vinton Cerf wrote the following lamentation, entitled "Requiem of the ARPANET": |
1,067 | #NAME? |
1,068 | The technological advancements and practical applications achieved through the ARPANET were instrumental in shaping modern computer networking including the Internet. Development and implementation of the concepts of packet switching, decentralized communication, and the development of protocols like TCP/IP laid the fo... |
1,069 | The ARPANET was related to many other research projects, which either influenced the ARPANET design, or which were ancillary projects or spun out of the ARPANET. |
1,070 | Senator Al Gore authored the High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991, commonly referred to as "The Gore Bill", after hearing the 1988 concept for a National Research Network submitted to Congress by a group chaired by Leonard Kleinrock. The bill was passed on 9 December 1991 and led to the National Inf... |
1,071 | The ARPANET project was honored with two IEEE Milestones, both dedicated in 2009. |
1,072 | Because it was never a goal for the ARPANET to support IMPs from vendors other than BBN, the IMP-to-IMP protocol and message format were not standardized. However, the IMPs did nonetheless communicate amongst themselves to perform link-state routing, to do reliable forwarding of messages, and to provide remote monitori... |
1,073 | In addition to primary routing and forwarding responsibilities, the IMP ran several background programs, titled TTY, DEBUG, PARAMETER-CHANGE, DISCARD, TRACE, and STATISTICS. These were given host numbers in order to be addressed directly and provided functions independently of any connected host. For example, "TTY" all... |
1,074 | The starting point for host-to-host communication on the ARPANET in 1969 was the 1822 protocol, which defined the transmission of messages to an IMP. The message format was designed to work unambiguously with a broad range of computer architectures. An 1822 message essentially consisted of a message type, a numeric hos... |
1,075 | Unlike modern Internet datagrams, the ARPANET was designed to reliably transmit 1822 messages, and to inform the host computer when it loses a message; the contemporary IP is unreliable, whereas the TCP is reliable. Nonetheless, the 1822 protocol proved inadequate for handling multiple connections among different appli... |
1,076 | NCP was developed under the leadership of Steve Crocker, then a graduate student at UCLA. Crocker created and led the Network Working Group which was made up of a collection of graduate students at universities and research laboratories, including Jon Postel and Vint Cerf at UCLA. They were sponsored by ARPA to carry ... |
1,077 | NCP provided a standard set of network services that could be shared by several applications running on a single host computer. This led to the evolution of application protocols that operated, more or less, independently of the underlying network service, and permitted independent advances in the underlying protocols. |
1,078 | The various application protocols such as TELNET for remote time-sharing access and File Transfer Protocol , the latter used to enable rudimentary electronic mail, were developed and eventually ported to run over the TCP/IP protocol suite. In the 1980s, FTP for email was replaced by the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol an... |
1,079 | Telnet was developed in 1969 beginning with RFC 15, extended in RFC 855. |
1,080 | The original specification for the File Transfer Protocol was written by Abhay Bhushan and published as RFC 114 on 16 April 1971. By 1973, the File Transfer Protocol specification had been defined and implemented, enabling file transfers over the ARPANET. |
1,081 | In 1971, Ray Tomlinson, of BBN sent the first network e-mail . An ARPA study in 1973, a year after network e-mail was introduced to the ARPANET community, found that three-quarters of the traffic over the ARPANET consisted of email messages. E-mail remained a very large part of the overall ARPANET traffic. |
1,082 | The Network Voice Protocol specifications were defined in 1977 , and implemented. But, because of technical shortcomings, conference calls over the ARPANET never worked well; the contemporary Voice over Internet Protocol was decades away. |
1,083 | Stephen J. Lukasik directed DARPA to focus on internetworking research in the early 1970s. Bob Kahn moved from BBN to DARPA in 1972, first as program manager for the ARPANET, under Larry Roberts, then as director of the IPTO when Roberts left to found Telenet. Kahn worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-ba... |
1,084 | The Purdy Polynomial hash algorithm was developed for the ARPANET to protect passwords in 1971 at the request of Larry Roberts, head of ARPA at that time. It computed a polynomial of degree 224 + 17 modulo the 64-bit prime p = 264 − 59. The algorithm was later used by Digital Equipment Corporation to hash passwords in... |
1,085 | Because of its government funding, certain forms of traffic were discouraged or prohibited. |
1,086 | Leonard Kleinrock claims to have committed the first illegal act on the Internet, having sent a request for return of his electric razor after a meeting in England in 1973. At the time, use of the ARPANET for personal reasons was unlawful. |
1,087 | In 1978, against the rules of the network, Gary Thuerk of Digital Equipment Corporation sent out the first mass email to approximately 400 potential clients via the ARPANET. He claims that this resulted in $13 million worth of sales in DEC products, and highlighted the potential of email marketing. |
1,088 | A 1982 handbook on computing at MIT's AI Lab stated regarding network etiquette: |
1,089 | The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is a research and development agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging technologies for use by the military. |
1,090 | Originally known as the Advanced Research Projects Agency , the agency was created on February 7, 1958, by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in response to the Soviet launching of Sputnik 1 in 1957. By collaborating with academia, industry, and government partners, DARPA formulates and executes research and development pr... |
1,091 | The Economist has called DARPA the agency that shaped the modern world, with technologies like "weather satellites, GPS, drones, stealth technology, voice interfaces, the personal computer and the internet on the list of innovations for which DARPA can claim at least partial credit." Its track record of success has ins... |
1,092 | DARPA is independent of other military research and development and reports directly to senior Department of Defense management. DARPA comprises approximately 220 government employees in six technical offices, including nearly 100 program managers, who together oversee about 250 research and development programs. |
1,093 | The name of the organization first changed from its founding name, ARPA, to DARPA, in March 1972, changing back to ARPA in February 1993, then reverted to DARPA in March 1996. |
1,094 | The agency's current director, appointed in March 2021, is Stefanie Tompkins. |
1,095 | As of 2021, their mission statement is "to make pivotal investments in breakthrough technologies for national security". |
1,096 | The Advanced Research Projects Agency was suggested by the President's Scientific Advisory Committee to President Dwight D. Eisenhower in a meeting called after the launch of Sputnik. ARPA was formally authorized by President Eisenhower in 1958 for the purpose of forming and executing research and development project... |
1,097 | Johnson and York were both keen on space projects, but when NASA was established later in 1958 all space projects and most of ARPA's funding were transferred to it. Johnson resigned and ARPA was repurposed to do "high-risk", "high-gain", "far out" basic research, a posture that was enthusiastically embraced by the nati... |
1,098 | Additionally, the political and defense communities recognized the need for a high-level Department of Defense organization to formulate and execute R&D projects that would expand the frontiers of technology beyond the immediate and specific requirements of the Military Services and their laboratories. In pursuit of th... |
1,099 | From 1958 to 1965, ARPA's emphasis centered on major national issues, including space, ballistic missile defense, and nuclear test detection. During 1960, all of its civilian space programs were transferred to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the military space programs to the individual services... |
1,100 | This allowed ARPA to concentrate its efforts on the Project Defender , Project Vela , and Project AGILE programs, and to begin work on computer processing, behavioral sciences, and materials sciences. The DEFENDER and AGILE programs formed the foundation of DARPA sensor, surveillance, and directed energy R&D, particul... |
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