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c_s7boh2qk5rtx | Piezo1 has been shown to sense RNA in the gut and relay this information through serotonin synthesis to the bone by acting as a sensor of single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) governing 5-HT production. Intestinal epithelium-specific deletion of mouse Piezo1 profoundly disturbed gut peristalsis, impeded experimental colitis, and... | Serotonin |
c_8penh3l8oyg7 | Notably, fecal ssRNA was identified as a natural Piezo1 ligand, and ssRNA-stimulated 5-HT synthesis from the gut was evoked in a MyD88/TRIF-independent manner. Colonic infusion of RNase A suppressed gut motility and increased bone mass. These findings suggest gut ssRNA as a master determinant of systemic 5-HT levels, i... | Serotonin |
c_jv9pkom3nq6l | In mice it seems to be an immune factor regulating T-cell checkpoints, and it could be a target for future checkpoint inhibitor anti-cancer drugs.PSGL-1 has been shown to bind to VISTA (V-domain Ig suppressor of T cell activation) but this binding only occurs under acidic pH conditions (pH < 6.5) such as can be found i... | P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 |
c_lrspdlchosmv | In mice models, mutations in the Nbs1 subunit of MRN alone (producing the phenotypic analog of Nijmegen Breakage Syndrome in humans) have failed to produce tumorigenesis. However, double knockout mice with mutated Nbs1 which were also null of the p53 tumor suppressor gene displayed tumor onset significantly earlier tha... | MRN complex |
c_usz3uhek84pj | Knockdown of MRE11 in various human cancer cell lines has also been associated with a 3-fold increase in the level of p16INK4a tumor suppressor protein, which is capable of inducing cellular senescence and subsequently halting tumor cell proliferation. This is thought primarily to be the result of methylation of the p1... | MRN complex |
c_l26grty9686d | In mice the intraperitoneal LD50 of HWTX-I is 0.70 mg/kg, the intracisternal LD50 has been determined as 9.40 µg/kg. Neurotoxic symptoms after intraperitoneal injection were gasping, excitation, spastic paralysis of the hindlimb and asynergia.HWTX-I is a potential novel analgesic pharmaceutic. Epidural administration o... | Huwentoxin |
c_ua06gxu17q2a | In mice where the Doublecortin gene has been knocked out, cortical layers are still correctly formed. However, the hippocampi of these mice show disorganisation in the CA3 region. The normally single layer of pyramidal cells in mutants is seen as a double layer. These mice also have different behavior than their wild t... | Doublecortin |
c_2w1869pdz3w4 | In mice, EP4 receptor agonists reduce the acute rejection of transplanted hearts, prolong the survival of heart-transplanted animals, and reduce cardiac damage in a model of ischemic reperfusion injury but also stimulate cardiac hypertrophy accompanied by poor cardiac function. EP4 receptor-depleted mice exhibit more s... | EP4 receptor |
c_6f0jspdg65sv | In mice, Lim-1 acts in the early development of the mesoderm and ectoderm layers of the developing embryo. The factor is induced by the increasing concentrations of Cerberus, DKK1, and Nodal around day 7–9 in the mouse embryo. Lim-1 contributes to the formation of the anterior portion of the developing head containing ... | Transcription factor Lim-1 |
c_loob583yht8g | In mice, PGCs are specified in the proximal epiblast and subsequently migrate through the primitive streak towards the endoderm. The PGCs then embed themselves within the epithelium of the hind-gut and from there will migrate towards the mesoderm via the dorsal mesentery. There is then bilateral migration of the PGCs t... | Primordial germ cell migration |
c_c88d10ntyqnc | In mice, Ts8 increases earlier nociception with higher doses. Elimination or inhibition of Kv4.2 channels via intraplantar injections was seen to induce hypersensitivity to mechanical stimuli. Via intrathecal injection this effect was prolonged and a prolongation plateau of mechanical hypersensitivity was observed. Thu... | Ts8 |
c_w34wa8fchghz | In mice, a one-year study of 50 males and 50 females was performed. The mice received diets containing methiocarb at doses of 0, 15, 43 and 130 mg/kg bw per day in males and 0, 20, 57, and 170 mg/kg bw per day in females. Food consumption, behaviour and mortality rate were not affected at any dose. At one month the dec... | Methiocarb |
c_azejzida2nc9 | Brain acetylcholinesterase activity was also lowered, more in males than in females. In rats a two-year study of 60 rats was performed. | Methiocarb |
c_plbjrytrb54i | The rats received diets containing 0, 3.3, 9.3 and 29 mg/kg bw per day for males and 0, 5, 14, and 42 mg/kg bw per day for females. Food consumption, behaviour and mortality rate were not affected at any dose. The total protein concentrations were raised at higher doses of methiocarb. The plasma acetylcholinesterase ac... | Methiocarb |
c_agxnebbbz6hl | In mice, both males and females choose MHC-dissimilar partners. Mice develop the ability to identify family members during early growth and are known to avoid inbreeding with kin, which would support the MHC-mediated mate choice hypothesis for inbreeding avoidance.Fish are another group of vertebrates shown to display ... | Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection |
c_eqnmppqp829f | The results showed that the offspring of the artificially bred salmon were more infected with parasites: almost four times more than the naturally-spawned offspring were. In addition, wild offspring were more MHC-heterozygous than the artificially-bred offspring. These results support the Heterozygous Advantage hypothe... | Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection |
c_fsz9jje7gqvq | In another fish, the three-spined stickleback, it has been shown that females desire MHC diversity in their offspring, which affects their mate choice.Female Savannah sparrows, Passerculus sandwichensis, chose MHC-dissimilar males to mate with. Females are more likely to engage in extra-pair relationships if paired wit... | Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection |
c_tahyugf278ut | Females preferred to associate with odor samples obtained from males more distantly related at the MHC I loci.Even though many species are socially monogamous, females can accept or actively seek mating outside of the relationship; extra-pair paternity is a mating pattern known to be affiliated with MHC-associated mate... | Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection |
c_l8t8k5w0568d | In the Seychelles warbler Acrocephalus sechellensis, there was no evidence of MHC variation between social mates. However, when females' social mates were MHC-similar, they were more likely to participate in extra-pair paternity; in most cases, the extra-pair male was significantly more MHC-dissimilar than the social m... | Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection |
c_c92aryld7nhw | Atlantic salmon males have higher rates of successful fertilization when competing for eggs from females genetically similar at the class I genes of the MHC.Another species that exhibits MHC-associated cryptic choice is the Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus. In this case, however, it seems that sperm selection is more de... | Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection |
c_hoh5x64amn5f | It is proposed that there is a chemo-attraction system responsible for the egg itself being able to discriminate and selectively choose between MHC-heterozygous and MHC-homozygous males.Contrary to the Atlantic salmon and the Arctic char, red junglefowl Gallus gallus males instead of females exert cryptic preference. M... | Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection |
c_z303tmu42cxq | Initial copulation between a male and a female without any rivals was shown to be extended when the male sensed a higher female fecundity. However, second males adjusted the duration of their copulation depending on the relatedness between the female and the first male, believed to be determined by the MHC-odor of the ... | Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection |
c_vaeovccpgt13 | In mice, complete inactivation of the FXN homolog (Frda) is lethal in the early embryonic stage. Although nearly all organisms express a frataxin homologue, the GAA repeat in intron 1 only exists in humans and other primates, so the mutation that causes FDRA can't occur naturally in other animals. Scientists have devel... | Frataxin |
c_5nlhvikmbs1p | Another approach involves inserting a GAA expansion into the first intron of the mouse FXN gene, which should inhibit frataxin production, just like in humans. Mice that are homozygous for this modified gene are called KIKI (knock-in knock-in), and the compound heterozygotes formed by crossing KIKI mice with frataxin k... | Frataxin |
c_1qsb76u2dwp2 | The final approach involves creating transgenic mice with a GAA-expanded version of the human frataxin gene. These mice are called YG22R (one GAA sequence of 190 repeats) and YG22R (two GAA sequences of 90 and 190 repeats). These mice show symptoms similar to human patients.An overexpression of frataxin in Drosophila h... | Frataxin |
c_crhedylk6i09 | Fibroblasts from a mouse model of FRDA and FRDA patient fibroblasts show increased levels of DNA double-strand breaks. A lentivirus gene delivery system was used to deliver the frataxin gene to the FRDA mouse model and human patient cells, and this resulted in long-term restored expression of frataxin mRNA and frataxin... | Frataxin |
c_b3b1huexm6pj | In mice, during gastrulation on embryological day 7.5, cells fated to become intermediate mesoderm show the mouse OSR1 homologue, Osr1, expression. A day later, it is expressed in the intermediate mesoderm, lateral to the neural plate. Osr1 expression weakens and shifts posteriorly, to the presumptive kidneys, by day 9... | OSR1 |
c_zi3txzpbrv14 | In mice, haploinsufficiency of the Dgcr8 gene has been linked to improper regulation of the microRNA miR-338 and 22q11.2 deletion phenotypes. | DiGeorge Syndrome |
c_rjlpja0qp2x7 | In mice, it has been estimated that dendritic cells are replenished from the blood at a rate of 4000 cells per hour, and undergo a limited number of divisions during their residence in the spleen over 10 to 14 days. | Dendritic cells |
c_nx9q56275m7g | In mice, knockout of Mixl1 has resulted in embryonic death at E.8.5 due abnormalities in axial morphogenesis and a disruption of definitive endoderm. Overexpression of Mixl1 resulted in impaired hematopoietic differentiation which results in acute myeloid leukemia. In humans Mixl1 has been detected in leukemic cells li... | MIXL1 |
c_zr1759pi8hoz | In mice, knockout studies of Mef2c have demonstrated that crucial role that it plays in heart development. Mice without the Mef2c die during embryonic day 9.5–10 with major heart defects, including improper looping, outflow tract abnormalities, and complete lack of the right ventricle. This indicates improper different... | Mef2 |
c_y4frlu4rd9eg | In mice, monocytes can be divided in two subpopulations. Inflammatory monocytes (CX3CR1low, CCR2pos, Ly6Chigh, PD-L1neg), which are equivalent to human classical CD14++ CD16− monocytes and resident monocytes (CX3CR1high, CCR2neg, Ly6Clow, PD-L1pos), which are equivalent to human non-classical CD14+ CD16+ monocytes. Res... | Monocyte |
c_0u4hnt5cx6vx | In mice, mutation of SMAD3 has been linked to colorectal adenocarcinoma, increased systemic inflammation, and accelerated wound healing. Studies have shown that mutations in SMAD3 gene promote colorectal cancer in mice. The altered activity of SMAD3 was linked to chronic inflammation and somatic mutations that contribu... | Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 3 |
c_em484elacp32 | In mice, prenatal testosterone transfer causes higher blood concentrations of testosterone in 2M females when compared to 1M or 0M females. This has a variety of consequences on later female behavior, physiology, and morphology. Below is a table comparing physiological, morphological, and behavioral differences of 0M a... | Prenatal testosterone transfer |
c_zj3hw05h8570 | In mice, the BMP-15 homologue is not as physiologically important. Upon targeted deletion of a bmp15 exon, the mice presented with only subfertility in homozygotes and no clear aberrant phenotype in heterozygotes. The homozygous mutant mice did not suffer from reduced folliculogenesis or impacted follicle progression, ... | Bone morphogenetic protein 15 |
c_002d5odajh89 | In mice, the absence of L. reuteri has been causally linked to maternal diet. A gut microbial imbalance, lacking in L. reuteri, was linked to behavioral abnormalities consistent with autism in humans. These symptoms were reversible by supplementing L. reuteri. | Lactobacillus reuteri |
c_mjbuxbclfpnp | In mice, the agouti gene encodes a paracrine signalling molecule that causes hair follicle melanocytes to synthesize the yellow pigment pheomelanin instead of the black or brown pigment eumelanin. Pleiotropic effects of constitutive expression of the mouse gene include adult-onset obesity, increased tumor susceptibilit... | Agouti gene |
c_fv09up6zts3l | These mutations are also associated with yellow obese syndrome which is characterized by early onset obesity, hyperinsulinemia and tumorigenesis. The murine agouti gene locus is found on chromosome 2 and encodes a 131 amino acid protein. | Agouti gene |
c_wv8ypkiu7ekg | This protein signals the distribution of melanin pigments in epithelial melanocytes located at the base of hair follicles with expression being more sensitive on ventral hair than on dorsal hair. Agouti is not directly secreted in the melanocyte as it works as a paracrine factor on dermal papillae cells to inhibit rele... | Agouti gene |
c_pa9xize77e73 | In mice, the genital ridge houses the transcript for SRY, the Y-chromosomal gene responsible for sex determination in mammals. The urogenital ridge is made up of the gonadal anlage and the mesonephros. The mesonephros is involved in the development of the testis, but its role is in differentiation, and not determinatio... | Genital ridge |
c_kycr5yyhpkyi | In mice, the only 20-HETE- and 19-HETE-producing enzymes of the Cyp4a subfamily are two extensively homologous ones, Cyp4a12a and Cyp4a12b; Cyp4a12a is expressed in the male kidney in an androgen hormone-dependent manner. In rats, Cyp4a1, Cyp4a2, Cyp4a3, and Cyp4a8 make 20-HETE. The tissue distribution of these enzymes... | 20-hydroxyarachidonic acid |
c_izn9mr39uf47 | In mice, the projection to CA1, and the subiculum all come primarily from EC layer III.According to Suh et al. (2011 Science 334:1415) the projection to CA3 and dentate gyrus in mice is primarily from layer II of entorhinal cortex, and forms a trisynaptic path with hippocampus (dentate gyrus to CA3 to CA1), distinguish... | Perforant pathway |
c_p7h6wzceb5oe | In mice, there are 80 proteins in the brain, called "sleep need index phosphoproteins" (SNIPPs), which become more and more phosphorylated during waking hours, and are dephosphorylated during sleep. The phosphorylation is aided by the gene Sik3. A type of laboratory mouse (named Sleepy) possesses an altered version of ... | Sleep deficit |
c_jt0uynerlllu | In mice, these IELs are the most abundant at birth and with age their numbers decrease. In humans, these cells are present during gestation but are very rare in adulthood. TCRαβ+ IELs develop in thymus where they undergo agonist positive selection and thereby are self-reactive. Nevertheless, they have regulatory proper... | Intraepithelial lymphocyte |
c_x25ddxvioqgu | In mice, this gene has shown reduced expression in ageing animals causes cognitive long-term memory decline.In Dnmt3a-/- mice, many genes associated with HSC self-renewal increase in expression and some fail to be appropriately repressed during differentiation. This suggests abrogation of differentiation in hematopoiet... | DNA (cytosine-5)-methyltransferase 3A |
c_ztwrze2ek950 | In micro Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (PSH), the same pump/PAT could be used for pumping and generating phases by changing rotational direction and speed. The best efficiency point in pumping usually differs from its reverse mode: a variable-frequency drive coupled to the motor/generator would be needed in order to ... | Pump as turbine |
c_qv8krei3ho4q | In microarray experiments DNA or RNA is labeled with either Cy3 or Cy5 that has been synthesized to carry an N-hydroxysuccinimidyl ester (NHS-ester) reactive group. Since NHS-esters react readily only with aliphatic amine groups, which nucleic acids lack, nucleotides have to be modified with aminoallyl groups. This is ... | Cyanine dye |
c_isyykgpn0n34 | In microbial cells, the cell walls are either Gram-positive or Gram-negative. These outcomes are based on the Gram Stain test. Gram-positive cell walls have thick peptidoglycan layer and no outer lipid membrane while Gram-negative bacteria have a thin peptidoglycan layer and an outer lipid membrane. Although a thick Gr... | Microbial cell factory |
c_vlpdzonrvtm4 | In microbial communities like soil, the C:N ratio is a key indicator as it describes a balance between energetic foods (represented by carbon) and material to build protein with (represented by nitrogen). An optimal C:N ratio of around 24:1 provides for higher microbial activity.The C:N ratio of soil can be modified by... | Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio |
c_n2xoj4enq7yp | Any excess N, on the other hand, will usually just be left behind (mineralization), but too much excess may result in losses to leaching. The recommended C:N ratio for soil materials is therefore 30:1. A soil test may be done to find the C:N ratio of soil itself.The C:N ratio of microbes themselves is generally around ... | Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio |
c_kfa6liwvs9tq | In microbial ecology, the principle of priority effect refers to the competitive advantage some microorganisms gain by colonizing a surface first. It is generally believed that primary colonization occurs by transmission from the mother or their breastmilk (vertical transmission), as well as the environment of the newb... | Oral ecology |
c_j5qf07azea10 | This is advantageous in an environment that is variably exposed to oxygen throughout the day as well as throughout the oral cavity. Despite over 700 unique species of bacteria being associated with the human mouth, in tooth plaque only between 7-9 "major players" have been repeatedly identified as early colonizers, inc... | Oral ecology |
c_hska1g3z5go2 | This colonization occurs by the construction of and adhesion to a pellicle made of glycoproteins from host saliva. Upon adhesion to the pellicle, early colonizing bacteria begin to produce the biofilm intended to anchor the colony to the tooth. As is common in microbiomes, this biofilm does not remain a single genera o... | Oral ecology |
c_yu2momsk6pik | In fact, the vast majority of relevant microbes perform co-aggregation within a biofilm. However, it is understood that not all microbes will co-aggregate together, and ammensal activity does occur between specific species, such as S. mutans and P. gingivalis. The interbacterial interactions as well as the interactions... | Oral ecology |
c_juq4fpca3gs8 | In microbial fuel cells (MFCs), bacterial nanowires generate electricity via extracellular electron transport to the MFC's anode. Nanowire networks have been shown to enhance the electricity output of MFCs with efficient and long-range conductivity. In particular, bacterial nanowires of Geobacter sulfurreducens possess... | Bacterial nanowires |
c_41na72v9cnez | Coating the nanowires with metal oxides also further promotes electrical conductivity. Additionally, these nanowires can transport electrons up to centimeter-scale distances. Long-range electron transfer via microbial nanowire networks allows viable cells that are not in direct contact with an anode to contribute to el... | Bacterial nanowires |
c_nfjt7hcg2jn6 | In microbial genetics, a revertant is a mutant that has reverted to its former genotype or to the original phenotype by means of a suppressor mutation, or else by compensatory mutation somewhere in the gene (second site reversion). | Suppressor mutation |
c_jssl7820jrl5 | In microbiology and bacteriology, Gram stain (Gram staining or Gram's method), is a method of staining used to classify bacterial species into two large groups: gram-positive bacteria and gram-negative bacteria. The name comes from the Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram, who developed the technique in 1884.Gram ... | Gram Stain |
c_xiexkyugq3hg | They are stained pink or red by the counterstain, commonly safranin or fuchsine. Lugol's iodine solution is always added after addition of crystal violet to strengthen the bonds of the stain with the cell membrane. | Gram Stain |
c_kyqhna99cxul | Gram staining is almost always the first step in the identification of a bacterial group. While Gram staining is a valuable diagnostic tool in both clinical and research settings, not all bacteria can be definitively classified by this technique. This gives rise to gram-variable and gram-indeterminate groups. | Gram Stain |
c_p3xdedbyd37u | In microbiology and planktology, a theca is a subcellular structural component out of which the frustules of diatoms and dinoflagellates are constructed. | Theca |
c_lcixmu0so944 | In microbiology and virology, the term variant or genetic variant is used to describe a subtype of a microorganism that is genetically distinct from a main strain, but not sufficiently different to be termed a distinct strain. A similar distinction is made in botany between different cultivated varieties of a species o... | Variant (biology) |
c_nwsmgmw16fte | In microbiology laboratories, E. cloacae is frequently grown at 30°C on nutrient agar or at 35°C in tryptic soy broth. It is a rod-shaped, Gram-negative bacterium, is facultatively anaerobic, and bears peritrichous flagella. It is oxidase-negative and catalase-positive. | Enterobacter cloacae |
c_xf3zu3zrxuny | In microbiology, McFarland standards are used as a reference to adjust the turbidity of bacterial suspensions so that the number of bacteria will be within a given range to standardize microbial testing. An example of such testing is antibiotic susceptibility testing by measurement of minimum inhibitory concentration w... | McFarland standards |
c_a5r4l598na4j | Mixing the two compounds forms a barium sulfate precipitate, which causes turbidity in the solution. A 0.5 McFarland standard is prepared by mixing 0.05 mL of 1.175% barium chloride dihydrate (BaCl2•2H2O), with 9.95 mL of 1% sulfuric acid (H2SO4).Now there are McFarland standards prepared from suspensions of latex part... | McFarland standards |
c_ewyrdztwb5l9 | If the bacterial suspension is too turbid, it can be diluted with more diluent. If the suspension is not turbid enough, more bacteria can be added. McFarland nephelometer standards:{2} *at wavelength of 600 nm McFarland latex standards from Hardy Diagnostics (2014-12-10), measured at the UCSF DeRisi Lab: | McFarland standards |
c_5rfintjnatwj | In microbiology, a cell spreader or plate spreader is a tool used to smoothly spread cells and bacteria on a culture plate, such as a petri dish. Cell spreaders can be made from glass, plastic, or metal, and come in various shapes. A Drigalski spatula is a cell spreader consisting of a cylindrical rod or wire bent in t... | Cell spreader |
c_7szbpeyemw8p | In microbiology, a culture plate is a low flat-bottomed laboratory container for growing a layer of organisms such as bacteria, molds, and cells on a thin layer of nutrient medium. The most common types are the petri dish and multiwell plates. | Culture plate |
c_54qbycu4hfr1 | In microbiology, colonial morphology refers to the visual appearance of bacterial or fungal colonies on an agar plate. Examining colonial morphology is the first step in the identification of an unknown microbe. The systematic assessment of the colonies' appearance, focusing on aspects like size, shape, colour, opacity... | Colonial morphology |
c_u4tfp4dn7oy3 | In microbiology, colony-forming unit (CFU, cfu or Cfu) is a unit which estimates the number of microbial cells (bacteria, fungi, viruses etc.) in a sample that are viable, able to multiply via binary fission under the controlled conditions. Counting with colony-forming units requires culturing the microbes and counts o... | Colony forming unit |
c_8xq7s1jbx3v6 | In microbiology, efflux is the moving of a variety of different compounds out of cells, such as antibiotics, heavy metals, organic pollutants, plant-produced compounds, quorum sensing signals, bacterial metabolites and neurotransmitters. All microorganisms, with a few exceptions, have highly conserved DNA sequences in ... | Drug efflux |
c_muqr3ti8790q | This active efflux mechanism is responsible for various types of resistance to bacterial pathogens within bacterial species - the most concerning being antibiotic resistance because microorganisms can have adapted efflux pumps to divert toxins out of the cytoplasm and into extracellular media.Efflux systems function vi... | Drug efflux |
c_is43l1f6654q | In microbiology, genes can move freely even between distantly related bacteria, possibly extending to the whole bacterial domain. As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that kinds of Bacteria or Archaea with 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by DNA-DNA hyb... | DNA metabarcoding |
c_xd2asbl9g673 | In microbiology, genes can move freely even between distantly related bacteria, possibly extending to the whole bacterial domain. As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that members of Bacteria or Archaea with 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by DNA–DNA h... | Biological species |
c_afw3sndkrimi | One of the barcodes is a region of mitochondrial DNA within the gene for cytochrome c oxidase. A database, Barcode of Life Data System, contains DNA barcode sequences from over 190,000 species. However, scientists such as Rob DeSalle have expressed concern that classical taxonomy and DNA barcoding, which they consider ... | Biological species |
c_4vc3vm5d4jcg | In microbiology, genetics, cell biology, and molecular biology, competence is the ability of a cell to alter its genetics by taking up extracellular ("naked") DNA from its environment in the process called transformation. Competence may be differentiated between natural competence, a genetically specified ability of ba... | Competent cell |
c_ive23kodq6cz | In microbiology, hydrodynamic focusing is a technique used to provide more accurate results when using flow cytometers or Coulter counters for determining the size of bacteria or cells. | Hydrodynamic focusing |
c_uxljtnx3qtfs | In microbiology, in the context of a sterilization procedure, the D-value or decimal reduction time (or decimal reduction dose) is the time (or dose of an antimicrobial drug) required, at a given condition (e.g. temperature) or set of conditions, to achieve a log reduction, that is, to kill 90%(or 1 log) of relevant mi... | D-value (microbiology) |
c_ebjtqa8nt1n6 | In microbiology, in vivo is often used to refer to experimentation done in a whole organism, rather than in live isolated cells, for example, cultured cells derived from biopsies. In this situation, the more specific term is ex vivo. Once cells are disrupted and individual parts are tested or analyzed, this is known as... | In vivo |
c_zulbs3rd4cng | In microbiology, methyl red is used in the methyl red test (MR test), used to identify bacteria producing stable acids by mechanisms of mixed acid fermentation of glucose (cf. Voges–Proskauer test). The MR test, the "M" portion of the four IMViC tests, is used to identify enteric bacteria based on their pattern of gluc... | Methyl red |
c_d2ha2h2875mr | These bacteria are called methyl-red positive and include Escherichia coli and Proteus vulgaris. Other enterics subsequently use the butylene glycol pathway to metabolize pyruvic acid to neutral end products. These bacteria are called methyl-red-negative and include Serratia marcescens and Enterobacter aerogenes. | Methyl red |
c_angcjcwm16jg | In microbiology, pleomorphism (from Ancient Greek πλέω-, pléō, "more", and -μορφή, morphḗ, form), also pleiomorphism, is the ability of some microorganisms to alter their morphology, biological functions or reproductive modes in response to environmental conditions. Pleomorphism has been observed in some members of the... | Pleomorphism (microbiology) |
c_ve995qowwcg0 | In microbiology, serologic tests are used to determine if a person has antibodies against a specific pathogen, or to detect antigens associated with a pathogen in a person's sample. Serologic tests are especially useful for organisms that are difficult to culture by routine laboratory methods, like Treponema pallidum (... | Serology |
c_p5klj63ahshs | IgG is also produced on the first exposure, but not as quickly as IgM. On subsequent exposures, the antibodies produced are primarily IgG, and they remain in circulation for a prolonged period of time.This affects the interpretation of serology results: a positive result for IgM suggests that a person is currently or r... | Serology |
c_oorosikgqfw3 | In microbiology, sterility assurance level (SAL) is the probability that a single unit that has been subjected to sterilization nevertheless remains nonsterile. It is never possible to prove that all organisms have been destroyed, as the likelihood of survival of an individual microorganism is never zero. So SAL is use... | Sterility assurance level |
c_ovef9w3lrpxc | For example, medical device manufacturers design their sterilization processes for an extremely low SAL, such as 10−6, which is a 1 in 1,000,000 chance of a non-sterile unit. SAL also describes the killing efficacy of a sterilization process. A very effective sterilization process has a very low SAL. | Sterility assurance level |
c_1jtn7o0s1ez8 | In microbiology, streaking is a technique used to isolate a pure strain from a single species of microorganism, often bacteria. Samples can then be taken from the resulting colonies and a microbiological culture can be grown on a new plate so that the organism can be identified, studied, or tested. The modern streak pl... | Streaking (microbiology) |
c_oinw2psh9760 | In microbiology, the cultures are incubated and assessed by eye, bypassing tedious colony counting or expensive and tedious microscopic counts. Presumptive, confirmative and completed tests are a part of MPN.In molecular biology, a common application involves DNA templates diluted into polymerase chain reactions (PCR).... | Most probable number |
c_7wvq7xs9hvry | In microbiology, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is the lowest concentration of a chemical, usually a drug, which prevents visible in vitro growth of bacteria or fungi. MIC testing is performed in both diagnostic and drug discovery laboratories.The MIC is determined by preparing a dilution series of the chem... | Minimum inhibitory concentration |
c_wo1rwehxwe4p | In diagnostic labs, MIC test results are used to grade microbes as "S" (susceptible or responding to a standard dosing regimen), "I" (intermediate or requiring increased exposure) or "R" (resistant). These grades are assigned based on agreed upon values called breakpoints. Breakpoints are published by standards develop... | Minimum inhibitory concentration |
c_zmpwwsnxd8e3 | Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI), the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (BSAC) and the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST). The purpose of measuring MICs and grading microbes is to enable physicians to prescribe the most appropriate antimicrobial treatment.... | Minimum inhibitory concentration |
c_jjwawhglhwfm | MIC values provide a quantitative measure of an extract or compound’s antimicrobial potency. The lower the MIC, the more potent the antimicrobial. When in vitro toxicity data is available, MICs can also be used to calculate selectivity index values, a measure of off-target to target toxicity. | Minimum inhibitory concentration |
c_ohi3ry52jm1v | In microbiology, the multiplicity of infection or MOI is the ratio of agents (e.g. phage or more generally virus, bacteria) to infection targets (e.g. cell). For example, when referring to a group of cells inoculated with virus particles, the MOI is the ratio of the number of virus particles to the number of target cel... | Multiplicity of Infection |
c_i5aydvsuqt1g | In microbiology, the oxidase test is used as a phenotypic characteristic for the identification of bacterial strains; it determines whether a given bacterium produces cytochrome oxidases (and therefore utilizes oxygen with an electron transfer chain). The test is used to determine whether a bacterium is an aerobe or an... | Oxidase |
c_q04dkz5qzy3w | In microbiology, the phenotypic testing of mycobacteria uses a number of methods. The most-commonly used phenotypic tests to identify and distinguish Mycobacterium strains and species from each other are described below. | Phenotypic testing of Mycobacteria |
c_nb59cmyf1po6 | In microbiology, the phyllosphere is the total above-ground surface of a plant when viewed as a habitat for microorganisms. The phyllosphere can be further subdivided into the caulosphere (stems), phylloplane (leaves), anthosphere (flowers), and carposphere (fruits). The below-ground microbial habitats (i.e. the thin-v... | Phyllosphere |
c_zdcrk2pdq7ri | In microbiology, the term isolation refers to the separation of a strain from a natural, mixed population of living microbes, as present in the environment, for example in water or soil, or from living beings with skin flora, oral flora or gut flora, in order to identify the microbe(s) of interest. Historically, the la... | Isolation (microbiology) |
c_s9a318ozxeg6 | In microeconomic theory, cost-minimization by consumers and by firms implies the existence of supply and demand correspondences for which market clearing equilibrium prices exist, if there are large numbers of consumers and producers. Under convexity assumptions or under some marginal-cost pricing rules, each equilibri... | Heterodox economics |
c_w0bpev1zh2t0 | Heterodox economists assert that micro-economic models rarely capture reality. Mainstream microeconomics may be defined in terms of optimization and equilibrium, following the approaches of Paul Samuelson and Hal Varian. On the other hand, heterodox economics may be labeled as falling into the nexus of institutions, hi... | Heterodox economics |
c_sdzv1s0mlicn | In microeconomic theory, productive efficiency (or production efficiency) is a situation in which the economy or an economic system (e.g., bank, hospital, industry, country) operating within the constraints of current industrial technology cannot increase production of one good without sacrificing production of another... | Productive efficiency |
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