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In modern economic theory, the bargaining outcome between two parties is often modeled by the Nash Bargaining solution. An example is if party A and party B can collaborate in order to generate a surplus of 100 {\displaystyle 100} . If the parties fail to reach an agreement, party A gets a payoff X {\displaystyle X} and party B gets a payoff Y {\displaystyle Y} . If X + Y < 100 {\displaystyle X+Y<100} , reaching an agreement yields a larger total surplus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bargaining_power |
According to the generalized Nash bargaining solution, party A gets X + π ( 100 − X − Y ) {\displaystyle X+\pi (100-X-Y)} and party B gets Y + ( 1 − π ) ( 100 − X − Y ) {\displaystyle Y+(1-\pi )(100-X-Y)} , where 0 < π < 1 {\displaystyle 0<\pi <1} . There are different ways to derive π {\displaystyle \pi } . For example, Rubinstein (1982) has shown that in a bargaining game with alternating offers, π {\displaystyle \pi } is close to 1 {\displaystyle 1} when party A is much more patient than party B, while π {\displaystyle \pi } is equal to 1 2 {\textstyle {\frac {1}{2}}} if both parties are equally patient. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bargaining_power |
In this case, party A's payoff is increasing in π {\displaystyle \pi } as well as in X {\displaystyle X} , and so both parameters reflect different aspects of party A's power. To clearly distinguish between the two parameters, some authors such as Schmitz refer to π {\displaystyle \pi } as party A's bargaining power and to X {\displaystyle X} as party A's bargaining position. A prominent application is the property rights approach to the theory of the firm. In this application, π {\displaystyle \pi } is often exogenously fixed to 1 2 {\textstyle {\frac {1}{2}}} , while X {\displaystyle X} and Y {\displaystyle Y} are determined by investments of the two parties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bargaining_power |
In modern electronic theodolites, the readout of the horizontal and vertical circles is usually done with a rotary encoder. These produce signals indicating the altitude and azimuth of the telescope which are fed to a microprocessor. CCD sensors have been added to the focal plane of the telescope allowing both auto-targeting and the automated measurement of residual target offset. All this is implemented in embedded software of the processor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seconds_theodolite |
Many modern theodolites are equipped with integrated electro-optical distance measuring devices, generally infrared based, allowing the measurement in one step of complete three-dimensional vectors—albeit in instrument-defined polar coordinates, which can then be transformed to a preexisting coordinate system in the area by means of a sufficient number of control points. This technique is called a resection solution or free station position surveying and is widely used in mapping surveying. Such instruments are "intelligent" theodolites called self-registering tacheometers or colloquially "total stations", and perform all the necessary angular and distance calculations, and the results or raw data can be downloaded to external processors, such as ruggedized laptops, PDAs or programmable calculators | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seconds_theodolite |
In modern elementary particle physics, one can define a gauge covariant derivative which utilizes the extra RQM fields (internal particle spaces) now known to exist. The version known from classical EM (in natural units) is:: 39 The full covariant derivative for the fundamental interactions of the Standard Model that we are presently aware of (in natural units) is:: 35–53 or where the scalar product summations ( ⋅ {\displaystyle \cdot } ) here refer to the internal spaces, not the tensor indices: B μ {\displaystyle B^{\mu }} corresponds to U(1) invariance = (1) EM force gauge boson W i μ {\displaystyle W_{i}^{\mu }} corresponds to SU(2) invariance = (3) weak force gauge bosons (i = 1, …, 3) G a μ {\displaystyle G_{a}^{\mu }} corresponds to SU(3) invariance = (8) color force gauge bosons (a = 1, …, 8)The coupling constants ( g 1 , g 2 , g 3 ) {\displaystyle (g_{1},g_{2},g_{3})} are arbitrary numbers that must be discovered from experiment. It is worth emphasizing that for the non-abelian transformations once the g i {\displaystyle g_{i}} are fixed for one representation, they are known for all representations. These internal particle spaces have been discovered empirically. : 47 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-gradient |
In modern engines, valve spring failure at high RPM has been mostly remedied. The main benefit of the desmodromic system is the prevention of valve float at high rpm. In traditional spring-valve actuation, as engine speed increases, the inertia of the valve will eventually overcome the spring's ability to close it completely before the piston reaches top dead centre (TDC). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmodromic_valve |
This can lead to several problems. First,the valve does not completely return to its seat before combustion begins. This allows combustion gases to escape prematurely, leading to a reduction in cylinder pressure which causes a major decrease in engine performance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmodromic_valve |
This can also overheat the valve, possibly warping it and leading to catastrophic failure. Second, and most damaging, the piston collides with the valve and both are destroyed. In spring-valve engines the traditional remedy for valve float is to stiffen the springs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmodromic_valve |
This increases the seat pressure of the valve (the static pressure that holds the valve closed). This is beneficial at higher engine speeds because of a reduction in the aforementioned valve float. The drawback is that the engine has to work harder to open the valve at all engine speeds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmodromic_valve |
The higher spring pressure causes greater friction (hence temperature and wear) in the valvetrain. The desmodromic system avoids this problem, because it does not have to overcome the force of the spring. It must still overcome the inertia of the valve opening and closing, and that depends on the mass distribution of the moving parts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmodromic_valve |
The effective mass of a traditional valve with spring includes one-half of the valve spring mass for symmetric springs and all of the valve spring retainer mass. However, a desmodromic system must deal with the inertia of the two rocker arms per valve, so this advantage depends greatly on the skill of the designer. Another disadvantage is the contact point between the cams and rocker arms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmodromic_valve |
It is relatively easy to use roller tappets in conventional valvetrains, although it does add considerable moving mass. In a desmodromic system the roller would be needed at one end of the rocker arm, which would greatly increase its moment-of-inertia and negate its "effective mass" advantage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmodromic_valve |
Thus, desmo systems have generally needed to deal with sliding friction between the cam and rocker arm and therefore may have greater wear. The contact points on most Ducati rocker arms are hard-chromed to reduce this wear. Another possible disadvantage is that it would be very difficult to incorporate hydraulic valve lash adjusters in a desmodromic system, so the valves must be periodically adjusted, but this is true of typical performance oriented motorcycles as valve lash is typically set using a shim under a cam follower. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmodromic_valve |
In modern environments, purple sulfur bacteria thrive in meromictic (permanently stratified) lakes and silled fjords and are seen in few marine ecosystems. Hypersaline waters like the Black Sea are exceptions. However, billions of years ago, when the oceans were anoxic and sulfidic, phototrophic sulfur bacteria had more habitable space. Researchers at the Australian National University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology investigated 1.6-billion-year-old rocks to examine the chemical conditions of the Paleoproterozoic ocean. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okenane |
Many believe that this time had deeply penetrating oxic water columns because of the disappearance of banded iron formations roughly 1.8 billion years ago. Others, spearheaded by Donald Canfield's 1998 Nature paper, believe that waters were euxinic. Examining rocks from the time uncovered biomarkers of both purple and green sulfur bacteria, adding evidence to support the Canfield Ocean hypothesis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okenane |
The sedimentary outcrop analyzed was the Barney Creek Formation from the McArthur group in northern Australia. Sample analysis identified both the 2,3,6 trimethylarl isoprenoids (chlorobactane) of Chlorobiaceae and the 2,3,4 trimethylaryl isoprenoids (okenane) of Chromatiaceae. Both chlorobactane and okenane indicate a euxinic ocean, with sulfidic and anoxic surface conditions below 12-25m. The authors concluded that although oxygen was in the atmosphere, the Paleoproterozoic oceans were not completely oxygenated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okenane |
In modern everyday English in most of the world, "chile", "chili" and "chilli" all refer to the fruit of C. annuum; in Spanish, "chile" (chee-le), from Nahuatl chīlli, is used for the pepper. In New Mexican English, however, "chile" (chill-ee) refers to the fruit, while "chili" refers only to chili con carne. 'Green chile chili' is chili con carne made with green chile. The word "chile", as used in "green chile", "red chile", or by itself, is also used in layterms to refer specifically to the New Mexico variety, while other varieties are referred to as "peppers" (i.e. jalapeño pepper, ghost pepper).Many organizations, including farmers, breeders, consumers, and even the New Mexico Department of Tourism make efforts to educate the general public about the differences in spelling within the state, as using "chili" while referring to New Mexican chile may be taken as an insult to some locals.None of these spellings should be confused with the nation of Chile (pronounced: CHEE-lay), which has a separate, unrelated etymology. (See: Etymology of Chile) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaheim_peppers |
In modern everyday life there are many observations that can be successfully explained by application of Bernoulli's principle, even though no real fluid is entirely inviscid, and a small viscosity often has a large effect on the flow. Bernoulli's principle can be used to calculate the lift force on an airfoil, if the behaviour of the fluid flow in the vicinity of the foil is known. For example, if the air flowing past the top surface of an aircraft wing is moving faster than the air flowing past the bottom surface, then Bernoulli's principle implies that the pressure on the surfaces of the wing will be lower above than below. This pressure difference results in an upwards lifting force. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli's_equation |
Whenever the distribution of speed past the top and bottom surfaces of a wing is known, the lift forces can be calculated (to a good approximation) using Bernoulli's equations, which were established by Bernoulli over a century before the first man-made wings were used for the purpose of flight.The carburetor used in many reciprocating engines contains a venturi to create a region of low pressure to draw fuel into the carburetor and mix it thoroughly with the incoming air. The low pressure in the throat of a venturi can be explained by Bernoulli's principle; in the narrow throat, the air is moving at its fastest speed and therefore it is at its lowest pressure. An injector on a steam locomotive or a static boiler. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli's_equation |
The pitot tube and static port on an aircraft are used to determine the airspeed of the aircraft. These two devices are connected to the airspeed indicator, which determines the dynamic pressure of the airflow past the aircraft. Bernoulli's principle is used to calibrate the airspeed indicator so that it displays the indicated airspeed appropriate to the dynamic pressure. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli's_equation |
: § 3.8 A De Laval nozzle utilizes Bernoulli's principle to create a force by turning pressure energy generated by the combustion of propellants into velocity. This then generates thrust by way of Newton's third law of motion. The flow speed of a fluid can be measured using a device such as a Venturi meter or an orifice plate, which can be placed into a pipeline to reduce the diameter of the flow. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli's_equation |
For a horizontal device, the continuity equation shows that for an incompressible fluid, the reduction in diameter will cause an increase in the fluid flow speed. Subsequently, Bernoulli's principle then shows that there must be a decrease in the pressure in the reduced diameter region. This phenomenon is known as the Venturi effect. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli's_equation |
The maximum possible drain rate for a tank with a hole or tap at the base can be calculated directly from Bernoulli's equation and is found to be proportional to the square root of the height of the fluid in the tank. This is Torricelli's law, which is compatible with Bernoulli's principle. Increased viscosity lowers this drain rate; this is reflected in the discharge coefficient, which is a function of the Reynolds number and the shape of the orifice.The Bernoulli grip relies on this principle to create a non-contact adhesive force between a surface and the gripper. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli's_equation |
During a cricket match, bowlers continually polish one side of the ball. After some time, one side is quite rough and the other is still smooth. Hence, when the ball is bowled and passes through air, the speed on one side of the ball is faster than on the other, and this results in a pressure difference between the sides; this leads to the ball rotating ("swinging") while travelling through the air, giving advantage to the bowlers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli's_equation |
In modern evidence-based medicine, bloodletting is used in management of a few rare diseases, including hemochromatosis and polycythemia. However, bloodletting and leeching were common unvalidated interventions used until the 19th century, as many diseases were incorrectly thought to be due to an excess of blood, according to Hippocratic medicine. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_blood |
In modern evolutionary biology, the idea of developmental bias is embedded into a current of thought called Structuralism, which emphasizes the role of the organism as a causal force of evolutionary change. In the Structuralist view, phenotypic evolution is the result of the action of natural selection on previously ‘filtered’ variation during the course of ontogeny. It contrasts with the Functionalist (also “adaptationist”, “pan-selectionist” or “externalist”) view in which phenotypic evolution results only from the interaction between the deterministic action of natural selection and variation caused by mutation.The rationale behind the role of the organism, or more specifically the embryo, as a causal force in evolution and for the existence of bias is as follows: The traditional, neo-Darwinian, approach to explain the process behind evolutionary change is natural selection acting upon heritable variation caused by genetic mutations. However, natural selection acts on phenotypes and mutation does not in itself produce phenotypic variation, thus, there is a conceptual gap regarding the connection between a mutation and the potential change in phenotype. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_bias |
For a mutation to readily alter a phenotype, and hence be visible to natural selection, it has to modify the ontogenetic trajectory, a process referred to as developmental reprogramming. Some kinds of reprogramming are more likely to occur than others given the nature of the genotype–phenotype map, which determines the propensity of a system to vary in a particular direction, thus, creating a bias. In other words, the underlying architecture of the developmental systems influences the kinds of possible phenotypic outcomes. However, developmental bias can evolve through natural selection, and both processes simultaneously influence phenotypic evolution. For example, developmental bias can affect the rate or path to an adaptive peak (high-fitness phenotype), and conversely, strong directional selection can modify the developmental bias to increase the phenotypic variation in the direction of selection. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_bias |
In modern expansion joints, the metal bellows are often produced with a so-called multi-ply design. To increase both flexibility and stability, multiple thin plies of metal are layered to form the bellows walls. There are two basic design types: The multi-ply and the multi-walled bellows structure. The multi-ply structure consists of a pressure-tight, longitudinally welded outer and inner cylinder of stainless steel. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_expansion_joint |
In between these cylinders is an open, spiral cylinder which forms multiple plies depending on the design. The multi-walled structure consists of several concentric, longitudinally welded cylinders. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_expansion_joint |
Each cylinder forms a pressure-tight and closed "wall". The main advantages of multi-walled bellows: Resistance to high and very high pressures Large movement absorption Small dimensions Small adjusting force rates Optimal compensation in a very small space Early leak indication (in case of damage) via standard check hole Complete burst resistance Possibility of permanent leak monitoring in critical media Economical use of high-quality, corrosion-resistant materials such as Inconel, Incoloy, Hastelloy, titanium and Tantal Insulation against structure-borne noise up to 20 dBThis design has both technical and economic advantages. For example, the bellows can be constructed of different materials, such as high-alloy stainless steels for the pipes in contact with the medium (inside and/or outside), and low-alloy stainless steels for the intermediate plies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_expansion_joint |
In modern fiction, shaved heads are often associated with characters who display a stern and disciplined or hardcore attitude. Examples include characters played by Yul Brynner, Vin Diesel, Samuel L. Jackson, Telly Savalas, Sigourney Weaver, and Bruce Willis, as well as characters such as Agent 47 (whose physical appearance was based on his actor, the aforementioned David Bateson), Mr. Clean, Kratos, Saitama, and Walter White. Baldness is sometimes an important part of these characters' biographies; for example, Saitama wanted to be a superhero and lost all of his hair in exchange for receiving superpowers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_shaving |
Shaved heads are also often associated with villains in fiction, such as Ernst Stavro Blofeld, Colonel Kurtz, Lex Luthor, and Alex Macqueen's version of the Master. A notable exception is Daddy Warbucks. A goatee, usually of the Van Dyke variety, is often worn to complement the look or add sophistication; this look was widely popularized in the mid-to-late 1990s by professional wrestler "Stone Cold" Steve Austin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_shaving |
For the majority of the crime drama series Breaking Bad, often regarded as one of the greatest TV series of all time, the aforementioned Walter White (played by Bryan Cranston) wore a Van Dyke with a shaved head, contributing to the character's iconic status.In futuristic settings, shaved heads are often associated with bland uniformity, especially in sterile settings such as V for Vendetta and THX 1138. In the 1927 sci-fi film Metropolis, hundreds of extras had their heads shaved to represent the oppressed masses of a future dystopia. It is less common for female characters to have shaved heads, though some actresses have shaved their heads or used bald caps for roles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_shaving |
In modern fiction, the vampire tends to be depicted as a suave, charismatic villain. Vampire hunting societies still exist, but they are largely formed for social reasons. Allegations of vampire attacks swept through Malawi during late 2002 and early 2003, with mobs stoning one person to death and attacking at least four others, including Governor Eric Chiwaya, based on the belief that the government was colluding with vampires. Fears and violence recurred in late 2017, with 6 people accused of being vampires killed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire |
In early 1970, local press spread rumours that a vampire haunted Highgate Cemetery in London. Amateur vampire hunters flocked in large numbers to the cemetery. Several books have been written about the case, notably by Sean Manchester, a local man who was among the first to suggest the existence of the "Highgate Vampire" and who later claimed to have exorcised and destroyed a whole nest of vampires in the area. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire |
In January 2005, rumours circulated that an attacker had bitten a number of people in Birmingham, England, fuelling concerns about a vampire roaming the streets. Local police stated that no such crime had been reported and that the case appears to be an urban legend.The chupacabra ("goat-sucker") of Puerto Rico and Mexico is said to be a creature that feeds upon the flesh or drinks the blood of domesticated animals, leading some to consider it a kind of vampire. The "chupacabra hysteria" was frequently associated with deep economic and political crises, particularly during the mid-1990s.In Europe, where much of the vampire folklore originates, the vampire is usually considered a fictitious being; many communities may have embraced the revenant for economic purposes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire |
In some cases, especially in small localities, beliefs are still rampant and sightings or claims of vampire attacks occur frequently. In Romania during February 2004, several relatives of Toma Petre feared that he had become a vampire. They dug up his corpse, tore out his heart, burned it, and mixed the ashes with water in order to drink it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire |
In modern field of computational intelligence, the social learning theory is adopted to develop a new computer optimization algorithm, the social learning algorithm. Emulating the observational learning and reinforcement behaviors, a virtual society deployed in the algorithm seeks the strongest behavioral patterns with the best outcome. This corresponds to searching for the best solution in solving optimization problems. Compared with other bio-inspired global optimization algorithms that mimic natural evolution or animal behaviors, the social learning algorithm has its prominent advantages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory |
First, since the self-improvement through learning is more direct and rapid than the evolution process, the social learning algorithm can improve the efficiency of the algorithms mimicking natural evolution. Second, compared with the interaction and learning behaviors in animal groups, the social learning process of human beings exhibits a higher level of intelligence. By emulating human learning behaviors, it is possible to arrive at more effective optimizers than existing swarm intelligence algorithms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory |
Experimental results have demonstrated the effectiveness and efficiency of the social learning algorithm, which has in turn also verified through computer simulations the outcomes of the social learning behavior in human society.Another example is the social cognitive optimization, which is a population-based metaheuristic optimization algorithm. This algorithm is based on the social cognitive theory, simulating the process of individual learning of a set of agents with their own memory and their social learning with the knowledge in the social sharing library. It has been used for solving continuous optimization, integer programming, and combinatorial optimization problems. There also several mathematical models of social learning which try to model this phenomenon using probabilistic tools. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory |
In modern finance, a flash crash is a very rapid, deep, and volatile fall in security prices occurring within a very short time period followed by a quick recovery. Flash crashes are frequently blamed by media on trades executed by black-box trading, combined with high-frequency trading, whose speed and interconnectedness can result in the loss and recovery of billions of dollars in a matter of minutes and seconds, but in reality occur because almost all participants have pulled their liquidity and temporarily paused their trading in the face of a sudden increase in risk. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_crash |
In modern finance, a sinking fund is, generally, a method by which an organization sets aside money over time to retire its indebtedness. More specifically, it is a fund into which money can be deposited, so that over time preferred stock, debentures or stocks can be retired. See also "sinking fund provision" under Bond (finance)#Features. In some US states, Michigan for example, school districts may ask the voters to approve a taxation for the purpose of establishing a sinking fund. The State Treasury Department has strict guidelines for expenditure of fund dollars with the penalty for misuse being an eternal ban on ever seeking the tax levy again. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinking_fund |
In modern financial accounting usage, the term fixed assets can be ambiguous. Instead, the term non-current assets (used by the IFRS and U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) XBRL reporting taxonomies) is preferred when referring to assets that will not be liquidated in the current fiscal period. Specific non-current assets (Property, plant and equipment, Investment property, Goodwill, Intangible assets other than goodwill, etc.) should be referred to by name. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_asset |
A baking firm's current assets would be its inventory (flour, yeast, etc.), the value of sales owed to the firm from credit extended (i.e. debtors or accounts receivable), and cash held in the bank. Its non-current assets would be the oven used to bake bread, motor vehicles used to transport deliveries, and cash registers used to handle cash payments. While these non-current assets have value, they are not directly sold to consumers and cannot be easily converted to cash. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_asset |
Non-current (fixed) assets are items of value that the organization has bought and will use for an extended period of time, typically including land and buildings, motor vehicles, furniture, office equipment, computers, fixtures and fittings, and plant and machinery. These often receive a favorable tax treatment (in the form of a depreciation allowance) in contrast to short-term assets. Note that the cost of a fixed asset is its purchase price including import duties, after subtracting any deductible trade discounts and rebates. It also includes the cost of transporting and installing the asset on-site and an estimate of the cost of dismantling and removal once it is no longer needed due to obsolescence or irreparable breakdown. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_asset |
In modern football, the terms winger or wide player refer to a non-defender who plays on the left or right sides of the pitch. These terms can apply to left or right midfielders, left or right attacking midfielders, or left or right forwards. Left or right-sided defenders such as wing-backs or full-backs are generally not called wingers. In the 2−3−5 formation popular in the late 19th century wingers remained mostly near the touchlines of the pitch, and were expected to cross the ball for the team's inside and centre forwards. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_midfielder |
Traditionally, wingers were purely attacking players and were not expected to track back and defend. This began to change in the 1960s. In the 1966 World Cup, England manager Alf Ramsey did not select wingers from the quarter-final onwards. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_midfielder |
This team was known as the "Wingless Wonders" and led to the modern 4–4–2 formation.This has led to most modern wide players having a more demanding role in the sense that they are expected to provide defensive cover for their full-backs and track back to repossess the ball, as well as provide skillful crosses for centre forwards and strikers. Some forwards are able to operate as wingers behind a lone striker. In a three-man midfield, specialist wingers are sometimes deployed down the flanks alongside the central midfielder or playmaker. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_midfielder |
Even more demanding is the role of wing-back, where the wide player is expected to provide both defence and attack. As the role of winger can be classed as a forward or a midfielder, this role instead blurs the divide between defender and midfielder. Italian manager Antonio Conte has been known to use wide midfielders or wingers who act as wing-backs in his trademark 3–5–2 and 3–4–3 formations, for example; these players are expected both to push up and provide width in attack as well as track back and assist their team defensively.On occasion, the role of a winger can also be occupied by a different type of player. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_midfielder |
For example, certain managers have been known to use a "wide target man" on the wing, namely a large and physical player who usually plays as a centre-forward, and who will attempt to win aerial challenges and hold up the ball on the flank, or drag full-backs out of position; Romelu Lukaku, for example, has been used in this role on occasion. Another example is Mario Mandžukić under manager Massimiliano Allegri at Juventus during the 2016–17 season; normally a striker, he was instead used on the left flank, and was required to win aerial duels, hold up the ball, and create space, as well as being tasked with pressing opposing players. Today, a winger is usually an attacking midfielder who is stationed in a wide position near the touchlines. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_midfielder |
Wingers such as Stanley Matthews or Jimmy Johnstone used to be classified as outside forwards in traditional W-shaped formations, and were formally known as "Outside Right" or "Outside Left", but as tactics evolved through the last 40 years, wingers have dropped to deeper field positions and are now usually classified as part of the midfield, usually in 4–4–2 or 4–5–1 formations (but while the team is on the attack, they tend to resemble 4–2–4/2–4–4 and 4–3–3 formations respectively). The responsibilities of the winger include: Providing a "wide presence" as a passing option on the flank. To beat the opposing full-back either with skill or with speed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_midfielder |
To read passes from the midfield that give them a clear crossing opportunity, when going wide, or that give them a clear scoring opportunity, when cutting inside towards the goal. To double up on the opposition winger, particularly when they are being "double-marked" by both the team's full back and winger.The prototypical winger is fast, tricky and enjoys 'hugging' the touchline, that is, running downfield close to the touchline and delivering crosses. However, players with different attributes can thrive on the wing as well. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_midfielder |
Some wingers prefer to cut infield (as opposed to staying wide) and pose a threat as playmakers by playing diagonal passes to forwards or taking a shot at goal. Even players who are not considered quick, have been successfully fielded as wingers at club and international level for their ability to create play from the flank. Occasionally wingers are given a free role to roam across the front line and are relieved of defensive responsibilities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_midfielder |
The typical abilities of wingers include: Technical skill to beat a full-back in a one-to-one situation. Pace, to beat the full-back one-on-one. Crossing ability when out wide. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_midfielder |
Good off-the-ball ability when judging a pass from the midfield or from fellow attackers. Good passing ability and composure, to retain possession while in opposition territory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_midfielder |
The modern winger should also be comfortable on either wing so as to adapt to quick tactical changes required by the coach.Although wingers are a familiar part of football, the use of wingers is by no means universal. There are many successful football teams who operate without wingers. A famous example is Carlo Ancelotti's late 2000s Milan, who typically plays in a narrow midfield diamond formation or in a Christmas tree formation (4–3–2–1), relying on full-backs to provide the necessary width down the wings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_midfielder |
In modern form, the Klopman-Salem equation is commonly given as Δ E = ( − ∑ a , b ( q a + q b ) β a b S a b ) + ( ∑ k < ℓ Q k Q ℓ ε R k ℓ ) + ( ∑ r o c c . ∑ s u n o c c . − ∑ s o c c . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klopman-Salem_equation |
∑ r u n o c c . 2 ( ∑ a , b c r a c s b β a b ) 2 E r − E s ) {\displaystyle \Delta E={\Big (}-\sum _{a,b}(q_{a}+q_{b})\beta _{ab}S_{ab}{\Big )}+{\Big (}\sum _{k<\ell }{\frac {Q_{k}Q_{\ell }}{\varepsilon R_{k\ell }}}{\Big )}+{\Big (}\sum _{r}^{\mathrm {occ.} }\sum _{s}^{\mathrm {unocc.} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klopman-Salem_equation |
}-\sum _{s}^{\mathrm {occ.} }\sum _{r}^{\mathrm {unocc.} }{\frac {2(\sum _{a,b}c_{ra}c_{sb}\beta _{ab})^{2}}{E_{r}-E_{s}}}{\Big )}} ,where q a {\displaystyle q_{a}} is the electron population in atomic orbital a, β a b {\displaystyle \beta _{ab}} , S a b {\displaystyle S_{ab}} are the resonance and overlap integrals for the interaction of atomic orbitals a and b, Q k {\displaystyle Q_{k}} is the total charge on atom k, ε {\displaystyle \varepsilon } is the local dielectric constant, R k ℓ {\displaystyle R_{k\ell }} is the distance between the nuclei of atoms k and l, c r a {\displaystyle c_{ra}} is the coefficient of atomic orbital a in molecular orbital r,and E r {\displaystyle E_{r}} is the energy of molecular orbital r.Broadly speaking, the first term describes the closed-shell repulsion of the occupied molecular orbitals of the reactants (four-electron filled-filled interactions, steric effects). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klopman-Salem_equation |
The second term describes the Coulombic attraction or repulsion between the atoms of the reactants (ionic contribution, electrostatic effects). Finally, the third term accounts for all possible interactions between the occupied and unoccupied molecular orbitals of the reactants (two-electron filled-unfilled interactions, stereoelectronic effects). Although conceptually useful, the Klopman-Salem equation seldom serves as the basis for energetic analysis in modern quantum chemical calculations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klopman-Salem_equation |
Because of the difference in MO energies appearing in the denominator of the third term, energetically close orbitals make the biggest contribution. Hence, approximately speaking, analysis can often be simplified by considering only the highest occupied and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals of the reactants (the HOMO-LUMO interaction in frontier molecular orbital theory). The relative contributions of the second (ionic) and third (covalent) terms play an important role in justifying hard soft acid base theory (HSAB), with hard-hard interactions governed by the ionic term and soft-soft interactions governed by the covalent term. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klopman-Salem_equation |
In modern gas turbines, the turbine entry temperature (~1750K) exceeds superalloy incipient melting temperature (~1600K), with the help of surface engineering. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superalloy |
In modern grammar, a particle is a function word that must be associated with another word or phrase to impart meaning, i.e., it does not have its own lexical definition. According to this definition, particles are a separate part of speech and are distinct from other classes of function words, such as articles, prepositions, conjunctions and adverbs. Languages vary widely in how much they use particles, some using them extensively and others more commonly using alternative devices such as prefixes/suffixes, inflection, auxiliary verbs and word order. Particles are typically words that encode grammatical categories (such as negation, mood, tense, or case), clitics, fillers or (oral) discourse markers such as well, um, etc. Particles are never inflected. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_(grammar) |
In modern heraldry, a royal cypher is a monogram or monogram-like device of a country's reigning sovereign, typically consisting of the initials of the monarch's name and title, sometimes interwoven and often surmounted by a crown. Such a cypher as used by an emperor or empress is called an imperial cypher. In the system used by various Commonwealth realms, the title is abbreviated as 'R' for 'rex' or 'regina' (Latin for "king" and "queen"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Cypher |
Previously, 'I' stood for 'imperator' or 'imperatrix' (Latin for "emperor" and "empress") of the Indian Empire.Royal cyphers appear on some government buildings, impressed upon royal and state documents, and are used by governmental departments. They may also appear on other governmental structures built under a particular ruler. For example, the insignia of "N III" for Napoleon III is seen on some Paris bridges, such as the Pont au Change. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Cypher |
In modern high-rise building, the exterior walls are often suspended from the concrete floor slabs. Examples include curtain walls and precast concrete walls. The façade can at times be required to have a fire-resistance rating, for instance, if two buildings are very close together, to lower the likelihood of fire spreading from one building to another. In general, the façade systems that are suspended or attached to the precast concrete slabs will be made from aluminium (powder coated or anodized) or stainless steel. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Façade |
In recent years more lavish materials such as titanium have sometimes been used, but due to their cost and susceptibility to panel edge staining these have not been popular. Whether rated or not, fire protection is always a design consideration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Façade |
The melting point of aluminium, 660 °C (1,220 °F), is typically reached within minutes of the start of a fire. Fire stops for such building joints can be qualified, too. Putting fire sprinkler systems on each floor has a profoundly positive effect on the fire safety of buildings with curtain walls. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Façade |
The extended use of new materials, like polymers, resulted in an increase of high-rise building façade fires over the past few years, since they are more flammable than traditional materials. Some building codes also limit the percentage of window area in exterior walls. When the exterior wall is not rated, the perimeter slab edge becomes a junction where rated slabs are abutting an unrated wall. For rated walls, one may also choose rated windows and fire doors, to maintain that wall's rating. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Façade |
In modern history, Peru underwent a period of hyperinflation in the 1980s to the early 1990s starting with President Fernando Belaúnde's second administration, heightened during Alan García's first administration, to the beginning of Alberto Fujimori's term. 1 US dollar was worth over S/3,210,000,000. Garcia's term introduced the inti, which worsened inflation into hyperinflation. Peru's currency and economy were stabilized under Fujimori's Nuevo Sol program, which has remained Peru's currency since 1991. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflationary_spiral |
In modern human populations, life expectancy has increased greatly due to advances in medicine lowering death in childbirth and preventing fatal childhood infections. This has led to a shift in the distribution of death from younger to older people, and was accompanied by a transition from extrinsic factors in death to a mixture of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Because extrinsic mortality factors have become relatively unimportant in the cause of death in most developed countries, an increasing proportion of the population of these countries is composed of older people beyond the period of reproduction and grand-parenting. Therefore, the reduction of extrinsic mortality factors in developed human populations has contributed to the ability of people to live longer than they can reproduce. However, it is important to note that the ability of people to live longer than they can reproduce is potentially attributed to the grandmother hypothesis, which states that menopause allows older women to provide alloparental care for grandchildren in order to increase their fitness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrinsic_mortality |
In modern humans, the appendix is sometimes believed to be a vestige of a redundant organ that in ancestral species had digestive functions, much as it still does in extant species in which intestinal flora hydrolyze cellulose and similar indigestible plant materials. This view has changed over the past decades, with research suggesting that the appendix may serve an important purpose. In particular, it may serve as a reservoir for beneficial gut bacteria. Some herbivorous animals, such as rabbits, have a terminal vermiform appendix and cecum that apparently bear patches of tissue with immune functions and may also be important in maintaining the composition of intestinal flora. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_vestigiality |
It does not however seem to have much digestive function, if any, and is not present in all herbivores, even those with large caeca. As shown in the accompanying pictures however, the human appendix typically is about comparable to that of the rabbit's in size, though the caecum is reduced to a single bulge where the ileum empties into the colon. Some carnivorous animals may have appendices too, but seldom have more than vestigial caeca. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_vestigiality |
In line with the possibility of vestigial organs developing new functions, some research suggests that the appendix may guard against the loss of symbiotic bacteria that aid in digestion, though that is unlikely to be a novel function, given the presence of vermiform appendices in many herbivores. Intestinal bacterial populations entrenched in the appendix may support quick re-establishment of the flora of the large intestine after an illness, poisoning, or after an antibiotic treatment depletes or otherwise causes harmful changes to the bacterial population of the colon.A 2013 study, however, refutes the idea of an inverse relationship between cecum size and appendix size and presence. It is widely present in euarchontoglires (a superorder of mammals that includes rodents, lagomorphs and primates) and has also evolved independently in the diprotodont marsupials, monotremes, and is highly diverse in size and shape which could suggest it is not vestigial. Researchers deduce that the appendix has the ability to protect good bacteria in the gut. That way, when the gut is affected by a bout of diarrhea or other illness that cleans out the intestines, the good bacteria in the appendix can repopulate the digestive system and keep the person healthy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_vestigiality |
In modern installations in Italy (and in other countries where Type L plugs are used) it is usual to find sockets that can accept more than one standard. The simplest type, designated CEI 23-50 P 17/11, has a central round hole flanked by two figure-8 shaped holes, allowing the insertion of CEI 23-50 S 10 (Italian 10 A plug unearthed), CEI 23-50 S 11 (Italian 10 A plug earthed), CEI 23-50 S 16 (Italian 16 A plug unearthed), CEI 23-50 S 17 (Italian 16 A plug earthed) and CEE 7/16 (Europlug). The advantage of this socket style is its small, compact face; its drawback is that it accepts neither CEE 7/7 nor CEE 7/17, very commonly found in new appliances sold in Italy. Vimar brand claims to have patented this socket first in 1975 with their Bpresa model; however soon other brands started selling similar products, mostly naming them with the generic term presa bipasso (twin-gauge socket) that is now of common use. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_AC_power_plugs_and_sockets |
A second, quite common type is called CEI 23-50 P 30 and looks like a Schuko socket, but adds a central earthing hole (optional according to CEI 23-50, but virtually always present). This design can accept CEE 7/4 (German), CEE 7/7 (German/French), CEE 7/16, CEE 7/17 (Konturenstecker, German/French unearthed), CEI 23-50 S 10 and CEI 23-50 S 11 plugs. Its drawback is that it is twice as large as a normal Italian socket, it does not accept 16 A Italian plugs and the price is higher; for those reasons Schuko sockets have been rarely installed in Italy until recent times.Other types may push compatibility even further. The CEI 23-50 P 40 socket, which is quickly becoming the standard in Italy along with CEI 23-50 P 17/11, accepts CEE 7/4, CEE 7/7, CEE 7/16, CEE 7/17, CEI 23-50 S 10, CEI 23-50 S 11, CEI 23-50 S 16 and CEI 23-50 S 17 plugs; its drawback is that it does not accept SPA 11, SPB 11, SPA 17 and SPB 17 side-entry plugs; however almost no appliance is sold with these types, which are mainly used to replace existing plugs. The Vimar-brand universale (all purpose) socket accepts CEE 7/4, CEE 7/7, CEE 7/16, CEE 7/17, CEI 23-50 S 10, CEI 23-50 S 11, CEI 23-50 S 16, CEI 23-50 S 17 and also NEMA 1-15 (US/Japan) plugs (older versions also had extra holes to accept UK shaver plugs). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_AC_power_plugs_and_sockets |
In modern landscape design olive trees are frequently used as ornamental features for their distinctively gnarled trunks and "evergreen" silvery gray foliage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive |
In modern language, a "torpedo" is an underwater self-propelled explosive, but historically, the term also applied to primitive naval mines and spar torpedoes. These were used on an ad hoc basis during the early modern period up to the late 19th century. In the early 17th century, torpedoes were created by the Dutchman Cornelius Drebbel in the employ of King James I of England; he attached explosives to the end of a beam affixed to one of his submarines, now known as spar torpedoes, and they were used (to little effect) during the English expeditions to La Rochelle in 1626. An early submarine, Turtle, attempted to lay a bomb with a timed fuse on the hull of HMS Eagle during the American Revolutionary War, but failed in the attempt. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homing_torpedo |
In the early 1800s, the American inventor Robert Fulton, while in France, "conceived the idea of destroying ships by introducing floating mines under their bottoms in submarine boats". He coined the term "torpedo" about the explosive charges with which he outfitted his submarine Nautilus. However, both the French and the Dutch governments were uninterested in the submarine. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homing_torpedo |
Fulton then concentrated on developing the torpedo-like weapon independent of a submarine deployment, and in 1804 succeeded in convincing the British government to employ his 'catamaran' against the French. An April 1804 torpedo attack on French ships anchored at Boulogne, and a follow-up attack in October, produced several explosions but no significant damage and the weapon was abandoned. Fulton carried out a demonstration for the US government on 20 July 1807, destroying a vessel in New York's harbor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homing_torpedo |
Further development languished as Fulton focused on his "steam-boat matters". After the War of 1812 broke out, the Royal Navy established a blockade of the East Coast of the United States. During the war, American forces unsuccessfully attempted to destroy the British ship of the line HMS Ramillies while it was lying at anchor in New London, Connecticut's harbor with torpedoes launched from small boats. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homing_torpedo |
This prompted the captain of Ramillies, Sir Thomas Hardy, 1st Baronet, to warn the Americans to cease using this "cruel and unheard-of warfare" or he would "order every house near the shore to be destroyed". The fact that Hardy had been previously so lenient and considerate to the Americans led them to abandon such attempts with immediate effect.Torpedoes were used by the Russian Empire during the Crimean War in 1855 against British warships in the Gulf of Finland. They used an early form of chemical detonator. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homing_torpedo |
During the American Civil War, the term torpedo was used for what is today called a contact mine, floating on or below the water surface using an air-filled demijohn or similar flotation device. These devices were very primitive and apt to prematurely explode. They would be detonated on contact with the ship or after a set time, although electrical detonators were also occasionally used. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homing_torpedo |
USS Cairo was the first warship to be sunk in 1862 by an electrically-detonated mine. Spar torpedoes were also used; an explosive device was mounted at the end of a spar up to 30 feet (9.1 m) long projecting forward underwater from the bow of the attacking vessel, which would then ram the opponent with the explosives. These were used by the Confederate submarine H. L. Hunley to sink USS Housatonic although the weapon was apt to cause as much harm to its user as to its target. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homing_torpedo |
Rear Admiral David Farragut's famous/apocryphal command during the Battle of Mobile Bay in 1864, "Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead!" refers to a minefield laid at Mobile, Alabama. On 26 May 1877, during the Romanian War of Independence, the Romanian spar torpedo boat Rândunica attacked and sank the Ottoman river monitor Seyfi. This was the first instance in history when a torpedo boat sank its targets without also sinking. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homing_torpedo |
In modern language, the law states the following: Assuming SI units, F is measured in newtons (N), m1 and m2 in kilograms (kg), r in meters (m), and the constant G is 6.67430(15)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2. The value of the constant G was first accurately determined from the results of the Cavendish experiment conducted by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798, although Cavendish did not himself calculate a numerical value for G. This experiment was also the first test of Newton's theory of gravitation between masses in the laboratory. It took place 111 years after the publication of Newton's Principia and 71 years after Newton's death, so none of Newton's calculations could use the value of G; instead he could only calculate a force relative to another force. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtonian_gravitational_theory |
In modern languages, macro expansion in a preprocessor is a key example of de facto dynamic scope. The macro language itself only transforms the source code, without resolving names, but since the expansion is done in place, when the names in the expanded text are then resolved (notably free variables), they are resolved based on where they are expanded (loosely "called"), as if dynamic scope were occurring. The C preprocessor, used for macro expansion, has de facto dynamic scope, as it does not do name resolution by itself and it is independent of where the macro is defined. For example, the macro: will expand to add a to the passed variable, with this name only later resolved by the compiler based on where the macro ADD_A is "called" (properly, expanded). Properly, the C preprocessor only does lexical analysis, expanding the macro during the tokenization stage, but not parsing into a syntax tree or doing name resolution. For example, in the following code, the name a in the macro is resolved (after expansion) to the local variable at the expansion site: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_scoping |
In modern linguistic theory, tense is understood as a category that expresses (grammaticalizes) time reference; namely one which, using grammatical means, places a state or action in time. Nonetheless, in many descriptions of languages, particularly in traditional European grammar, the term "tense" is applied to verb forms or constructions that express not merely position in time, but also additional properties of the state or action – particularly aspectual or modal properties. The category of aspect expresses how a state or action relates to time – whether it is seen as a complete event, an ongoing or repeated situation, etc. Many languages make a distinction between perfective aspect (denoting complete events) and imperfective aspect (denoting ongoing or repeated situations); some also have other aspects, such as a perfect aspect, denoting a state following a prior event. Some of the traditional "tenses" express time reference together with aspectual information. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense |
In Latin and French, for example, the imperfect denotes past time in combination with imperfective aspect, while other verb forms (the Latin perfect, and the French passé composé or passé simple) are used for past time reference with perfective aspect. The category of mood is used to express modality, which includes such properties as uncertainty, evidentiality, and obligation. Commonly encountered moods include the indicative, subjunctive, and conditional. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense |
Mood can be bound up with tense, aspect, or both, in particular verb forms. Hence, certain languages are sometimes analysed as having a single tense–aspect–mood (TAM) system, without separate manifestation of the three categories. The term tense, then, particularly in less formal contexts, is sometimes used to denote any combination of tense proper, aspect, and mood. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense |
As regards English, there are many verb forms and constructions which combine time reference with continuous and/or perfect aspect, and with indicative, subjunctive or conditional mood. Particularly in some English language teaching materials, some or all of these forms can be referred to simply as tenses (see below). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense |
Particular tense forms need not always carry their basic time-referential meaning in every case. For instance, the historical present is a use of the present tense to refer to past events. The phenomenon of fake tense is common crosslinguistically as a means of marking counterfactuality in conditionals and wishes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense |
In modern linguistics, the wave model has contributed greatly to improve, but not supersede, the tree model approach of the comparative method. Some scholars have even proposed that the wave model does not complement the tree model but should replace it for the representation of language genealogy. The recent works have also focused on the notion of a linkage, a family of languages descended from a former dialect continuum: Linkages cannot be represented by trees and must be analysed by the wave model. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_theory |
In modern linguistics, there are many theories as to how humans are able to develop language ability. According to Stephen Krashen's acquisition-learning hypothesis, there are two independent ways in which we develop our linguistic skills: acquisition and learning. This theory is at the core of modern language acquisition theory, and is perhaps the most fundamental of Krashen's theories. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input_hypothesis |
Acquisition of language is a natural, intuitive, and subconscious process of which individuals need not be aware. One is unaware of the process as it is happening and, when the new knowledge is acquired, the acquirer generally does not realize that they possess any new knowledge. According to Krashen, both adults and children can subconsciously acquire language, and either written or oral language can be acquired. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input_hypothesis |
This process is similar to the process that children undergo when learning their native language. Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language, during which the acquirer is focused on meaning rather than form.Learning a language, on the other hand, is a conscious process, much like what one experiences in school. New knowledge or language forms are represented consciously in the learner's mind, frequently in the form of language "rules" and "grammar", and the process often involves error correction. Language learning involves formal instruction and, according to Krashen, is less effective than acquisition. Learning in this sense is conception or conceptualisation: instead of learning a language itself, students learn an abstract, conceptual model of a language, a "theory" about a language (a grammar). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input_hypothesis |
In modern literature, Cockney rhyming slang is used frequently in the novels and short stories of Kim Newman, for instance in the short story collections "The Man from the Diogenes Club" (2006) and "Secret Files of the Diogenes Club" (2007), where it is explained at the end of each book.It is also parodied in Going Postal by Terry Pratchett, which features a geriatric Junior Postman by the name of Tolliver Groat, a speaker of 'Dimwell Arrhythmic Rhyming Slang', the only rhyming slang on the Disc which does not actually rhyme. Thus, a wig is a 'prunes', from 'syrup of prunes', an obvious parody of the Cockney syrup from syrup of figs – wig. There are numerous other parodies, though it has been pointed out that the result is even more impenetrable than a conventional rhyming slang and so may not be quite so illogical as it seems, given the assumed purpose of rhyming slang as a means of communicating in a manner unintelligible to all but the initiated. In the book Goodbye to All That by Robert Graves, a beer is a "broken square" as Welch Fusiliers officers walk into a pub and order broken squares when they see men from the Black Watch. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockney_rhyming_slang |
The Black Watch had a minor blemish on its record of otherwise unbroken squares. Fistfights ensued. In Dashiell Hammett's The Dain Curse, the protagonist exhibits familiarity with Cockney rhyming slang. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockney_rhyming_slang |
referring to gambling at dice with the phrase "rats and mice." Cockney rhyming slang is one of the main influences for the dialect spoken in A Clockwork Orange (1962). The author of the novel, Anthony Burgess, also believed the phrase "as queer as a clockwork orange" was Cockney slang having heard it in a London pub in 1945, and subsequently named it in the title of his book. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockney_rhyming_slang |
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