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Molecular modeling software often provides graphical images of electron density. For example, in aniline (see image at right). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_density |
Graphical models, including electron density are a commonly employed tool in chemistry education. Note in the left-most image of aniline, high electron densities are associated with the carbons and nitrogen, but the hydrogens with only one proton in their nuclei, are not visible. This is the reason that X-ray diffraction has a difficult time locating hydrogen positions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_density |
Most molecular modeling software packages allow the user to choose a value for the electron density, often called the isovalue. Some software also allows for specification of the electron density in terms of percentage of total electrons enclosed. Depending on the isovalue (typical units are electrons per cubic bohr), or the percentage of total electrons enclosed, the electron density surface can be used to locate atoms, emphasize electron densities associated with chemical bonds , or to indicate overall molecular size and shape.Graphically, the electron density surface also serves as a canvas upon which other electronic properties can be displayed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_density |
The electrostatic potential map (the property of electrostatic potential mapped upon the electron density) provides an indicator for charge distribution in a molecule. The local ionisation potential map (the property of local ionisation potential mapped upon the electron density) provides an indicator of electrophilicity. And the LUMO map (lowest unoccupied molecular orbital mapped upon the electron density) can provide an indicatory for nucleophilicity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_density |
In molecules, the nonadiabatic couplings between two adiabatic potentials build the avoided crossing (AC) region. The rovibronic resonances in the AC region of two-coupled potentials are very special, since they are not in the bound state region of the adiabatic potentials, and they usually do not play important roles on the scatterings and are less discussed. Yu Kun Yang et al studied this problem in the New J. Phys. 22 (2020). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feshbach_resonance |
Exemplified in particle scattering, resonances in the AC region are comprehensively investigated. The effects of resonances in the AC region on the scattering cross sections strongly depend on the nonadiabatic couplings of the system, it can be very significant as sharp peaks, or inconspicuous buried in the background. More importantly, it shows a simple quantity proposed by Zhu and Nakamura to classify the coupling strength of nonadiabatic interactions, can be well applied to quantitatively estimate the importance of resonances in the AC region. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feshbach_resonance |
In molecules, the situation becomes more complex, as each molecule has a different orbital structure. The molecular orbitals are labelled according to their symmetry, rather than the atomic orbital labels used for atoms and monatomic ions: hence, the electron configuration of the dioxygen molecule, O2, is written 1σg2 1σu2 2σg2 2σu2 3σg2 1πu4 1πg2, or equivalently 1σg2 1σu2 2σg2 2σu2 1πu4 3σg2 1πg2. The term 1πg2 represents the two electrons in the two degenerate π*-orbitals (antibonding). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_gas_configuration |
From Hund's rules, these electrons have parallel spins in the ground state, and so dioxygen has a net magnetic moment (it is paramagnetic). The explanation of the paramagnetism of dioxygen was a major success for molecular orbital theory. The electronic configuration of polyatomic molecules can change without absorption or emission of a photon through vibronic couplings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_gas_configuration |
In momentum transfer, the fluid is treated as a continuous distribution of matter. The study of momentum transfer, or fluid mechanics can be divided into two branches: fluid statics (fluids at rest), and fluid dynamics (fluids in motion). When a fluid is flowing in the x-direction parallel to a solid surface, the fluid has x-directed momentum, and its concentration is υxρ. By random diffusion of molecules there is an exchange of molecules in the z-direction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum_flux |
Hence the x-directed momentum has been transferred in the z-direction from the faster- to the slower-moving layer. The equation for momentum transfer is Newton's law of viscosity written as follows: τ z x = − ν ∂ ρ υ x ∂ z {\displaystyle \tau _{zx}=-\nu {\frac {\partial \rho \upsilon _{x}}{\partial z}}} where τzx is the flux of x-directed momentum in the z-direction, ν is μ/ρ, the momentum diffusivity, z is the distance of transport or diffusion, ρ is the density, and μ is the dynamic viscosity. Newton's law of viscosity is the simplest relationship between the flux of momentum and the velocity gradient. It may be useful to note that this is an unconventional use of the symbol τzx; the indices are reversed as compared with standard usage in solid mechanics, and the sign is reversed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum_flux |
In monarchies with either an uncodified or partly unwritten constitution (such as the United Kingdom or Canada) or a wholly written constitution that consists of a text augmented by additional conventions, traditions, letters patent, etc., the monarch generally possesses reserve powers. Typically these powers are: to grant pardon; to dismiss a prime minister; to refuse to dissolve parliament; and to refuse or delay royal assent to legislation (to withhold royal assent amounts to a veto of a bill, while to reserve royal assent, in effect, amounts to a decision to neither grant nor refuse assent, but to delay taking a decision for an undetermined period). There are usually strict constitutional conventions concerning when these powers may be used, and these conventions are enforced by public pressure. Using these powers in contravention of tradition would generally provoke a constitutional crisis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discretionary_power |
Most constitutional monarchies employ a system that includes the principle of responsible government. In such an order, the reserve powers are thought to be the means by which the monarch and his or her viceregal representatives can legitimately exist as "constitutional guardians" or "umpires", tasked with guaranteeing that Cabinet and parliament adhere to the fundamental constitutional principles of the rule of law and responsible government itself. Some constitutional scholars, such as George Winterton, have stated that reserve powers are a good thing in that they allow for a head of state to handle an unforeseen crisis and that the use of convention to limit the use of reserve powers allows for more gradual and subtle constitutional evolution than is possible through formal amendment of a written constitution. Others, such as Herbert Evatt, believe or believed that reserve powers are vestigial and potentially open to abuse. Evatt felt that the reserve powers could be codified and still serve their intended function in a responsible government system, as they do in Ireland, Japan, and Sweden. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discretionary_power |
In monastic houses, monks were expected to pray the Divine Office daily in Latin, the liturgical language of the Western Christian Church. Christian monastics, in addition to clergymen, "recited or chanted the 150 Psalms as a major source of hourly worship." To count these repetitions, they used beads strung upon a cord and this set of prayer beads became commonly known as a pater noster, which is the Latin for "Our Father." In some houses, lay brothers who did not understand Latin or who were illiterate were required to say the Lord's Prayer (also referred to the "Our Father") a certain number of times each day while meditating on the Mysteries of the Incarnation of Christ. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosary_based_prayers |
Lay people adopted this practice as a form of popular worship. In the eighth century the penitentials, or rule books pertaining to penitents, prescribed various penances of twenty, fifty, or more, paters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosary_based_prayers |
The strings of beads, with the aid of which such penances were accurately said, gradually came to be known as paternosters. The Paternoster could be of various lengths, but was often made up of 5 "decades" of 10 beads, which when performed three times made up 150 prayers. Today, some Anglican religious orders, such as the Solitaries of DeKoven, make and promulgate the Pater Noster Cord, in addition to other devotions such as the Anglican Rosary, as a part of Christian spiritual life. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosary_based_prayers |
In monetary economics, a money multiplier is one of various closely related ratios of commercial bank money to central bank money (also called the monetary base) under a fractional-reserve banking system. It relates to the maximum amount of commercial bank money that can be created, given a certain amount of central bank money. In a fractional-reserve banking system that has legal reserve requirements, the total amount of loans that commercial banks are allowed to extend (the commercial bank money that they can legally create) is equal to a multiple of the amount of reserves. This multiple is the reciprocal of the reserve ratio minus one, and it is an economic multiplier. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_multiplier |
The actual ratio of money to central bank money, also called the money multiplier, is lower because some funds are held by the non-bank public as currency. Also, banks may hold excess reserves, being reserves above the reserve requirement set by the central bank.Although the money multiplier concept is a traditional portrayal of fractional-reserve banking, it has been criticized as being misleading. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_multiplier |
The Federal Reserve, Bank of England, Deutsche Bundesbank, and the Standard & Poor's rating agency have issued criticisms of the concept's use. Several countries (such as Canada, the UK, Australia and Sweden) set no legal reserve requirements. The same is true for the United States since March 2020. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_multiplier |
Even in those countries that do, the reserve requirement is as a ratio to deposits held, not a ratio to loans that can be extended. Basel III does stipulate a liquidity requirement to cover 30 days net cash outflow expected under a modeled stressed scenario (note this is not a ratio to loans that can be extended); however, liquidity coverage does not need to be held as reserves but rather as any high-quality liquid assets.In equations, writing M for commercial bank money (loans), R for reserves (central bank money), and RR for the reserve ratio, the reserve ratio requirement is that R / ( R + M ) ≥ R R ; {\displaystyle R/(R+M)\geq RR;} the fraction of reserves must be at least the reserve ratio. Taking the reciprocal, ( R + M ) / R ≤ 1 / R R , {\displaystyle (R+M)/R\leq 1/RR,} which yields M ≤ R × ( ( 1 / R R ) − 1 ) , {\displaystyle M\leq R\times ((1/RR)-1),} meaning that commercial bank money is at most reserves times ( ( 1 / R R ) − 1 ) , {\displaystyle ((1/RR)-1),} the latter being the multiplier. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_multiplier |
(In March 2020, the minimum reserve requirement for all deposit institutions in the United States was abolished, setting RR=0. In practice, however, banks continue to be limited by their capital requirement.) If banks lend out close to the maximum allowed by their reserves, then the inequality becomes an approximate equality, and commercial bank money is central bank money times the multiplier. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_multiplier |
If banks instead lend less than the maximum, accumulating excess reserves, then commercial bank money will be less than central bank money times the theoretical multiplier. In the United States since 1959, banks lent out close to the maximum allowed for the 49-year period from 1959 until August 2008, maintaining a low level of excess reserves, then accumulated significant excess reserves over the period September 2008 through the present (November 2009). Thus, in the first period, commercial bank money was almost exactly central bank money times the multiplier, but this relationship ceased in September 2008. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_multiplier |
In monetary economics, fiat money is an intrinsically valueless object or record that is accepted widely as a means of payment. Accordingly, the value of fiat money is greater than the value of its metal or paper content. One justification for fiat money comes from a micro-founded model. In most economic models, agents are intrinsically happier when they have more money. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_currency |
In a model by Lagos and Wright, fiat money doesn't have an intrinsic worth but agents get more of the goods they want when they trade assuming fiat money is valuable. Fiat money's value is created internally by the community and, at equilibrium, makes otherwise infeasible trades possible.Another mathematical model that explains the value of fiat money comes from game theory. In a game where agents produce and trade objects, there can be multiple Nash equilibria where agents settle on stable behavior. In a model by Kiyotaki and Wright, an object with no intrinsic worth can have value during trade in one (or more) of the Nash Equilibria. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_currency |
In monetary economics, inside money is money issued by private intermediaries (i.e. commercial banks) in the form of debt (credit). This money is typically in the form of demand deposits or other deposits, and hence is part of the money supply. The money, which is an asset of the depositor but coincides with a liability of the bank, is inside money.Inside money is thus a liability (equivalently a negative asset) to the issuer, so the net amount of assets associated with inside money in an economy is zero. Most money circulating in a modern economy is inside money. In contrast, gold is regarded as outside money. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inside_money |
In monetary economics, redenomination is the process of changing the face value of banknotes and coins in circulation. It may be done because inflation has made the currency unit so small that only large denominations of the currency are in circulation. In such cases the name of the currency may change or the original name may be used with a temporary qualifier such as "new". Redenomination may be done for other reasons such as changing over to a new currency such as the Euro or during decimalisation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redenomination |
Redenomination itself is considered symbolic as it does not have any impact on a country's exchange rate in relation to other currencies. It may, however, have a psychological impact on the population by suggesting that a period of hyperinflation is over, and is not a reminder of how much inflation has impacted them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redenomination |
The reduction in the number of zeros also improves the image of the country abroad. Inflation over time is the main cause for the purchasing power of the monetary unit decreasing; but there are a variety of political reasons for the government not reining in inflation or for not redenominating the currency when its value has depreciated significantly. There are some economic and social benefits of redenominating, including improved efficiency in processing routine transactions. Redenomination typically involves the substitution of new banknotes in place of the old ones, which usually cease being legal tender after the end of a short transition period. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redenomination |
In monetary economics, the demand for money is the desired holding of financial assets in the form of money: that is, cash or bank deposits rather than investments. It can refer to the demand for money narrowly defined as M1 (directly spendable holdings), or for money in the broader sense of M2 or M3. Money in the sense of M1 is dominated as a store of value (even a temporary one) by interest-bearing assets. However, M1 is necessary to carry out transactions; in other words, it provides liquidity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_for_money |
This creates a trade-off between the liquidity advantage of holding money for near-future expenditure and the interest advantage of temporarily holding other assets. The demand for M1 is a result of this trade-off regarding the form in which a person's funds to be spent should be held. In macroeconomics motivations for holding one's wealth in the form of M1 can roughly be divided into the transaction motive and the precautionary motive. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_for_money |
The demand for those parts of the broader money concept M2 that bear a non-trivial interest rate is based on the asset demand. These can be further subdivided into more microeconomically founded motivations for holding money. Generally, the nominal demand for money increases with the level of nominal output (price level times real output) and decreases with the nominal interest rate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_for_money |
The real demand for money is defined as the nominal amount of money demanded divided by the price level. For a given money supply the locus of income-interest rate pairs at which money demand equals money supply is known as the LM curve. The magnitude of the volatility of money demand has crucial implications for the optimal way in which a central bank should carry out monetary policy and its choice of a nominal anchor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_for_money |
Conditions under which the LM curve is flat, so that increases in the money supply have no stimulatory effect (a liquidity trap), play an important role in Keynesian theory. This situation occurs when the demand for money is infinitely elastic with respect to the interest rate. A typical money-demand function may be written as M d = P × L ( R , Y ) {\displaystyle M^{d}=P\times L(R,Y)\,} where M d {\displaystyle M^{d}} is the nominal amount of money demanded, P is the price level, R is the nominal interest rate, Y is real income, and L(.) is real money demand. An alternate name for L ( R , Y ) {\displaystyle L(R,Y)} is the liquidity preference function. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_for_money |
In monetary economics, the equation of exchange is the relation: M ⋅ V = P ⋅ Q {\displaystyle M\cdot V=P\cdot Q} where, for a given period, M {\displaystyle M\,} is the total money supply in circulation on average in an economy. V {\displaystyle V\,} is the velocity of money, that is the average frequency with which a unit of money is spent. P {\displaystyle P\,} is the price level. Q {\displaystyle Q\,} is an index of real expenditures (on newly produced goods and services).Thus PQ is the level of nominal expenditures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_of_exchange |
This equation is a rearrangement of the definition of velocity: V = PQ / M. As such, without the introduction of any assumptions, it is a tautology. The quantity theory of money adds assumptions about the money supply, the price level, and the effect of interest rates on velocity to create a theory about the causes of inflation and the effects of monetary policy. In earlier analysis before the wide availability of the national income and product accounts, the equation of exchange was more frequently expressed in transactions form: M ⋅ V T = P ⋅ T {\displaystyle M\cdot V_{T}=P\cdot T} where V T {\displaystyle V_{T}\,} is the transactions velocity of money, that is the average frequency across all transactions with which a unit of money is spent (including not just expenditures on newly produced goods and services, but also purchases of used goods, financial transactions involving money, etc.). T {\displaystyle T\,} is an index of the real value of aggregate transactions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_of_exchange |
In monetary economics, the quantity theory of money (often abbreviated QTM) is one of the directions of Western economic thought that emerged in the 16th-17th centuries. The QTM states that the general price level of goods and services is directly proportional to the amount of money in circulation, or money supply. For example, if the amount of money in an economy doubles, QTM predicts that price levels will also double. The theory was originally formulated by Renaissance mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus in 1517, and was influentially restated by philosophers John Locke, David Hume and Jean Bodin. The theory experienced a large surge in popularity with economists Anna Schwartz and Milton Friedman's book A Monetary History of the United States, published in 1963.The theory was challenged by Keynesian economists, but updated and reinvigorated by the monetarist school of economics, led by economist Milton Friedman. Critics of the theory argue that money velocity is not stable and, in the short-run, prices are sticky, so the direct relationship between money supply and price level does not hold.Alternative theories include the real bills doctrine and the more recent fiscal theory of the price level. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantity_Theory_of_Money |
In monitoring and security, an important contribution to alarm detection and alarm verification can be supplied, using sound recognition techniques. In particular, these methods could be helpful for intrusion detection in places like offices, stores, private homes or for the supervision of public premises exposed to person aggression. In all these cases, a recognition system can report about a danger or distress event. It could further identify sounds like glass break, doorbells, smoke detector alarms, red alerts, human screams, baby cries and others. Sometimes, the alarm is triggered by other detectors (e.g. temperature or video-based) and the sound recognizer would be associated with these other modalities, to verify the alarm, with the purpose of decreasing the global false alarm detection rate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_recognition |
In monitoring, the region of deposition of this material onto the filter medium is continuously viewed by a radiation detector, concurrent with the collection. This is as opposed to a sampling system, in which the airborne material is collected by pumping air, usually at a much higher volumetric flowrate than a CPAM, through a collection medium for some period of time, but there is no continuous radiation detection; the filter medium is removed periodically from the sampler and taken to a separate radiation detection system for analysis. In general, sampling has better detection sensitivity for low levels of airborne radioactivity, due to the much larger total volume of air passing through the filter medium over the sampling interval (which may be on the order of hours), and also due to the more sophisticated forms of quantitative analysis available once the filter medium is removed from the sampler. On the other hand, monitoring with CPAMs provides nearly real-time airborne radioactivity level indication. It is common practice to refer to "sampled" air even when discussing a CPAM, i.e., as opposed to "monitored" air, which would, strictly, be more correct. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airborne_particulate_radioactivity_monitoring |
In monocot seeds, the embryo's radicle and cotyledon are covered by a coleorhiza and coleoptile, respectively. The coleorhiza is the first part to grow out of the seed, followed by the radicle. The coleoptile is then pushed up through the ground until it reaches the surface. There, it stops elongating and the first leaves emerge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germination_rate |
In monolithic kernels, a driver can write to any word of memory and thus accidentally corrupt user programs. In Minix 3, when a user expects data from, for example, the file system, it builds a descriptor telling who has access and at what addresses. It then passes an index to this descriptor to the file system, which may pass it to a driver. The file system or driver then asks the kernel to write via the descriptor, making it impossible for them to write to addresses outside the buffer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minix_3 |
In monolithic kernels, device drivers reside in the kernel. Thus, when a new peripheral is installed, unknown, untrusted code is inserted in the kernel. One bad line of code in a driver can bring down the system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minix_3 |
Instead, in Minix 3, each device driver is a separate user-mode process. Drivers cannot execute privileged instructions, change the page tables, perform arbitrary input/output (I/O), or write to absolute memory. They must make kernel calls for these services and the kernel checks each call for authority. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minix_3 |
In monometallic complexes, aldehydes and ketones can bind to metals in either of two modes, η1-O-bonded and η2-C,O-bonded. These bonding modes are sometimes referred to sigma- and pi-bonded. These forms may sometimes interconvert. The sigma bonding mode is more common for higher valence, Lewis-acidic metal centers (e.g., Zn2+). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_metal_complexes_of_aldehydes_and_ketones |
The pi-bonded mode is observed for low valence, electron-rich metal centers (e.g., Fe(0) and Os(0)).For the purpose of electron-counting, O-bonded ligands count as 2-electron "L ligands": they are Lewis bases. η2-C,O ligands are described as analogues of alkene ligands, i.e. the Dewar-Chatt-Duncanson model.η2-C,O ketones and aldehydes can function as bridging ligands, utilizing a lone pair of electrons on oxygen. One such complex is 3, which features a Zr3O3 ring. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_metal_complexes_of_aldehydes_and_ketones |
In monostatic sonar the receiver is listening to the echo which is reflected (scattered) right back from the target. Bistatic sonar can work in two ways: by utilizing either the target backscattering or forward scattering. Backscattering bistatic sonar is the sonar in which the bistatic angle φ is less than 90°. Forward scattering is the physical phenomena based on Babinet's principle. Forward scattering bistatic sonar is the sonar in which the bistatic angle φ is greater than 90°. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bistatic_sonar |
In monostatic sonar, the first thing the receiver can hear is the sound of the transmitted ping. This sound level is very high, and it is impossible to detect the echo during the ping duration τ. That means targets are undetectable within the circle of Cτ/2 radius, where C is sound speed in water. This area is usually referred to as “dead zone”. If the sonar is close to the surface, bottom or both, (which may happen in shallow water), the dead zone may be greater than Cτ/2 due to a high level of reverberation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bistatic_sonar |
In bistatic sonar, the travel distance from projector to target and from target to receiver is R = Rpt + Rtr . As the projector is separated from receiver by Rpr distance, first Rpr /C seconds after the ping starts, the receiver is just waiting. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bistatic_sonar |
After that time, it receives direct signal from the projector (often referred to as “direct blast”,) which lasts τ seconds. So the sonar cannot detect targets within the ellipse R = Rpr + Cτ, as shown at the picture. High level reverberation in the projector area does not affect the dead zone. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bistatic_sonar |
In monotheistic theology, the doctrine of Divine Simplicity says that God is simple (without parts). This is the idea that God does not exist in parts but is one unified entity, with no distinct attributes; that is, God’s existence is identical to God’s essence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_simplicity |
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. In polytheistic thought, a god is "a spirit or being believed to control some part of the universe or life and often worshipped for doing so, or something that represents this spirit or being". Belief in the existence of at least one god is called theism.Views regarding God vary considerably. Many notable theologians and philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheistic_God |
Atheism rejects the belief in any deity. Agnosticism is the belief that the existence of God is unknown or unknowable. Some theists view knowledge concerning God as derived from faith. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheistic_God |
God is often conceived as the greatest entity in existence. God is often believed to be the cause of all things and so is seen as the creator and sustainer and the ruler of the universe. God is often thought of as incorporeal and independent of the material creation while pantheism holds God is the universe itself. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheistic_God |
God is sometimes seen as the most benevolent, while deism holds that God is not involved in humanity apart from creation. Some traditions attach spiritual significance to the relationship with God and see God as the source of all moral obligation, with acts such as worship and prayer. God is sometimes described without reference to gender, while others use terminology that is gender-specific. God is referred to by different names depending on the language and cultural tradition with titles also used to refer to different attributes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheistic_God |
In monotone comparative statics, the single-crossing condition or single-crossing property refers to a condition where the relationship between two or more functions is such that they will only cross once. For example, a mean-preserving spread will result in an altered probability distribution whose cumulative distribution function will intersect with the original's only once. The single-crossing condition was posited in Samuel Karlin's 1968 monograph 'Total Positivity'. It was later used by Peter Diamond, Joseph Stiglitz, and Susan Athey, in studying the economics of uncertainty.The single-crossing condition is also used in applications where there are a few agents or types of agents that have preferences over an ordered set. Such situations appear often in information economics, contract theory, social choice and political economics, among other fields. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-crossing_condition |
In monotone drawing of graphs, in 2-visibility representation of graphs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_spanning_tree |
In moral and political philosophy, the social contract is a theory or model that originated during the Age of Enlightenment and usually, although not always, concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual.Social contract arguments typically are that individuals have consented, either explicitly or tacitly, to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to the authority (of the ruler, or to the decision of a majority) in exchange for protection of their remaining rights or maintenance of the social order. The relation between natural and legal rights is often a topic of social contract theory. The term takes its name from The Social Contract (French: Du contrat social ou Principes du droit politique), a 1762 book by Jean-Jacques Rousseau that discussed this concept. Although the antecedents of social contract theory are found in antiquity, in Greek and Stoic philosophy and Roman and Canon Law, the heyday of the social contract was the mid-17th to early 19th centuries, when it emerged as the leading doctrine of political legitimacy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract |
The starting point for most social contract theories is an examination of the human condition absent of any political order (termed the "state of nature" by Thomas Hobbes). In this condition, individuals' actions are bound only by their personal power and conscience. From this shared starting point, social contract theorists seek to demonstrate why rational individuals would voluntarily consent to give up their natural freedom to obtain the benefits of political order. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract |
Prominent 17th- and 18th-century theorists of the social contract and natural rights included Hugo de Groot (1625), Thomas Hobbes (1651), Samuel von Pufendorf (1673), John Locke (1689), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762) and Immanuel Kant (1797), each approaching the concept of political authority differently. Grotius posited that individual humans had natural rights. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract |
Thomas Hobbes famously said that in a "state of nature", human life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short". In the absence of political order and law, everyone would have unlimited natural freedoms, including the "right to all things" and thus the freedom to plunder, rape and murder; there would be an endless "war of all against all" (bellum omnium contra omnes). To avoid this, free men contract with each other to establish political community (civil society) through a social contract in which they all gain security in return for subjecting themselves to an absolute sovereign, one man or an assembly of men. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract |
Though the sovereign's edicts may well be arbitrary and tyrannical, Hobbes saw absolute government as the only alternative to the terrifying anarchy of a state of nature. Hobbes asserted that humans consent to abdicate their rights in favor of the absolute authority of government (whether monarchical or parliamentary). Alternatively, Locke and Rousseau argued that we gain civil rights in return for accepting the obligation to respect and defend the rights of others, giving up some freedoms to do so. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract |
The central assertion that social contract theory approaches is that law and political order are not natural, but human creations. The social contract and the political order it creates are simply the means towards an end—the benefit of the individuals involved—and legitimate only to the extent that they fulfill their part of the agreement. Hobbes argued that government is not a party to the original contract and citizens are not obligated to submit to the government when it is too weak to act effectively to suppress factionalism and civil unrest. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_contract |
In moral philosophy, deontological ethics or deontology (from Greek: δέον, 'obligation, duty' + λόγος, 'study') is the normative ethical theory that the morality of an action should be based on whether that action itself is right or wrong under a series of rules and principles, rather than based on the consequences of the action. It is sometimes described as duty-, obligation-, or rule-based ethics. Deontological ethics is commonly contrasted to consequentialism, utilitarianism, virtue ethics, and pragmatic ethics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deontological_ethics |
In this terminology, action is more important than the consequences. The term deontological was first used to describe the current, specialised definition by C. D. Broad in his 1930 book, Five Types of Ethical Theory. Older usage of the term goes back to Jeremy Bentham, who coined it prior to 1816 as a synonym of dicastic or censorial ethics (i.e., ethics based on judgement). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deontological_ethics |
The more general sense of the word is retained in French, especially in the term code de déontologie (ethical code), in the context of professional ethics. Depending on the system of deontological ethics under consideration, a moral obligation may arise from an external or internal source, such as a set of rules inherent to the universe (ethical naturalism), religious law, or a set of personal or cultural values (any of which may be in conflict with personal desires). Deontology is mainly used in governments which allow the people which live under the government to abide by a certain set of rules which are set for the population to abide to. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deontological_ethics |
In moral philosophy, instrumental and intrinsic value are the distinction between what is a means to an end and what is as an end in itself. Things are deemed to have instrumental value if they help one achieve a particular end; intrinsic values, by contrast, are understood to be desirable in and of themselves. A tool or appliance, such as a hammer or washing machine, has instrumental value because it helps you pound in a nail or clean your clothes. Happiness and pleasure are typically considered to have intrinsic value insofar as asking why someone would want them makes little sense: they are desirable for their own sake irrespective of their possible instrumental value. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_value |
The classic names instrumental and intrinsic were coined by sociologist Max Weber, who spent years studying good meanings people assigned to their actions and beliefs. The Oxford Handbook of Value Theory provides three modern definitions of intrinsic and instrumental value: They are "the distinction between what is good 'in itself' and what is good 'as a means'. ": 14 "The concept of intrinsic value has been glossed variously as what is valuable for its own sake, in itself, on its own, in its own right, as an end, or as such. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_value |
By contrast, extrinsic value has been characterized mainly as what is valuable as a means, or for something else's sake. ": 29 "Among nonfinal values, instrumental value—intuitively, the value attaching a means to what is finally valuable—stands out as a bona fide example of what is not valuable for its own sake. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_value |
": 34 When people judge efficient means and legitimate ends at the same time, both can be considered as good. However, when ends are judged separately from means, it may result in a conflict: what works may not be right; what is right may not work. Separating the criteria contaminates reasoning about the good. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_value |
Philosopher John Dewey argued that separating criteria for good ends from those for good means necessarily contaminates recognition of efficient and legitimate patterns of behavior. Economist J. Fagg Foster explained why only instrumental value is capable of correlating good ends with good means. Philosopher Jacques Ellul argued that instrumental value has become completely contaminated by inhuman technological consequences, and must be subordinated to intrinsic supernatural value. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_value |
Philosopher Anjan Chakravartty argued that instrumental value is only legitimate when it produces good scientific theories compatible with the intrinsic truth of mind-independent reality. The word value is ambiguous in that it is both a verb and a noun, as well as denoting both a criterion of judgment itself and the result of applying a criterion. : 37–44 To reduce ambiguity, throughout this article the noun value names a criterion of judgment, as opposed to valuation which is an object that is judged valuable. The plural values identifies collections of valuations, without identifying the criterion applied. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_value |
In more "free" forms, and in free verse in particular, conventions for the use of line become, arguably, more arbitrary and more visually determined such that they may only be properly apparent in typographical representation and/or page layout. One extreme deviation from a conventional rule for line can occur in concrete poetry where the primacy of the visual component may over-ride or subsume poetic line in the generally regarded sense, or sound poems in which the aural component stretches the concept of line beyond any purely semantic coherence. At another extreme, the prose poem simply eschews poetic line altogether. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_break_(poetry) |
In more advanced areas of mathematics, when viewing Euclidean space as a vector space, its distance is associated with a norm called the Euclidean norm, defined as the distance of each vector from the origin. One of the important properties of this norm, relative to other norms, is that it remains unchanged under arbitrary rotations of space around the origin. By Dvoretzky's theorem, every finite-dimensional normed vector space has a high-dimensional subspace on which the norm is approximately Euclidean; the Euclidean norm is the only norm with this property. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_distance |
It can be extended to infinite-dimensional vector spaces as the L2 norm or L2 distance. The Euclidean distance gives Euclidean space the structure of a topological space, the Euclidean topology, with the open balls (subsets of points at less than a given distance from a given point) as its neighborhoods.Other common distances on Euclidean spaces and low-dimensional vector spaces include: Chebyshev distance, which measures distance assuming only the most significant dimension is relevant. Manhattan distance, which measures distance following only axis-aligned directions. Minkowski distance, a generalization that unifies Euclidean distance, Manhattan distance, and Chebyshev distance.For points on surfaces in three dimensions, the Euclidean distance should be distinguished from the geodesic distance, the length of a shortest curve that belongs to the surface. In particular, for measuring great-circle distances on the earth or other spherical or near-spherical surfaces, distances that have been used include the haversine distance giving great-circle distances between two points on a sphere from their longitudes and latitudes, and Vincenty's formulae also known as "Vincent distance" for distance on a spheroid. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_distance |
In more advanced diving (particularly penetration diving) divers often use additional underwater communication methods, including signalling with lights, pulls along connecting lines, or tapping on tanks.Ultrasonic signalling devices that attract the buddy's attention by vibration have been marketed and may have some limited utility.Giving the lack of an auditory communication medium, it is surprising just how easily used and effective these types of underwater communication tools can be for the buddy team when they are fully utilized. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddy_line |
In more advanced mathematics, cancelling out can be used in the context of infinite series, whose terms can be cancelled out to get a finite sum or a convergent series. In this case, the term telescoping is often used. Considerable care and prevention of errors is often necessary to ensure the amended equation will be valid, or to establish the bounds within which it will be valid, because of the nature of such series. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancelling_out |
In more advanced systems, such as the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)-labeled 'Enhanced Flight Vision System', a real-world visual image can be overlaid onto the combiner. Typically an infrared camera (either single or multi-band) is installed in the nose of the aircraft to display a conformed image to the pilot. 'EVS Enhanced Vision System' is an industry accepted term which the FAA decided not to use because "the FAA believes could be confused with the system definition and operational concept found in 91.175(l) and (m)" In one EVS installation, the camera is actually installed at the top of the vertical stabilizer rather than "as close as practical to the pilots eye position". When used with a HUD however, the camera must be mounted as close as possible to the pilots eye point as the image is expected to "overlay" the real world as the pilot looks through the combiner. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_Up_Display |
"Registration," or the accurate overlay of the EVS image with the real world image, is one feature closely examined by authorities prior to approval of a HUD based EVS. This is because of the importance of the HUD matching the real world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_Up_Display |
While the EVS display can greatly help, the FAA has only relaxed operating regulations so an aircraft with EVS can perform a CATEGORY I approach to CATEGORY II minimums. In all other cases the flight crew must comply with all "unaided" visual restrictions. (For example, if the runway visibility is restricted because of fog, even though EVS may provide a clear visual image it is not appropriate (or legal) to maneuver the aircraft using only the EVS below 100 feet above ground level.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_Up_Display |
In more advanced treatments, one further distinguishes pseudovector fields and pseudoscalar fields, which are identical to vector fields and scalar fields, except that they change sign under an orientation-reversing map: for example, the curl of a vector field is a pseudovector field, and if one reflects a vector field, the curl points in the opposite direction. This distinction is clarified and elaborated in geometric algebra, as described below. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_Calculus |
In more ancient times, some marriages between distinctly different tribes and nations were due to royalty trying to form alliances with or to influence other kingdoms or to dissuade marauders or slave traders. Two examples, Hermodike I c.800BC and Hermodike II c.600BC were Greek princesses from the house of Agamemnon who married kings from what is now Central Turkey. These unions resulted in the transfer of ground-breaking technological skills into Ancient Greece, respectively, the phonetic written script and the use of coinage (to use a token currency, where the value is guaranteed by the state). Both inventions were rapidly adopted by surrounding nations through trade and cooperation and have been of fundamental benefit to the progress of civilization. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melting_pot |
In more common usage, an oxidizing agent transfers oxygen atoms to a substrate. In this context, the oxidizing agent can be called an oxygenation reagent or oxygen-atom transfer (OAT) agent. Examples include MnO−4 (permanganate), CrO2−4 (chromate), OsO4 (osmium tetroxide), and especially ClO−4 (perchlorate). Notice that these species are all oxides. In some cases, these oxides can also serve as electron acceptors, as illustrated by the conversion of MnO−4 to MnO2−4,ie permanganate to manganate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_acceptors |
In more complex cases, some fields in a copy should have shared values with the original object (as in a shallow copy), corresponding to an "association" relationship; and some fields should have copies (as in a deep copy), corresponding to an "aggregation" relationship. In these cases a custom implementation of copying is generally required; this issue and solution dates to Smalltalk-80. Alternatively, fields can be marked as requiring a shallow copy or deep copy, and copy operations automatically generated (likewise for comparison operations). This is not implemented in most object-oriented languages, however, though there is partial support in Eiffel. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shallow_copy |
In more complicated cases, it is impossible to construct exact pivots. However, having approximate pivots improves convergence to asymptotic normality. Suppose a sample of size n {\displaystyle n} of vectors ( X i , Y i ) ′ {\displaystyle (X_{i},Y_{i})'} is taken from a bivariate normal distribution with unknown correlation ρ {\displaystyle \rho } . An estimator of ρ {\displaystyle \rho } is the sample (Pearson, moment) correlation r = 1 n − 1 ∑ i = 1 n ( X i − X ¯ ) ( Y i − Y ¯ ) s X s Y {\displaystyle r={\frac {{\frac {1}{n-1}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}(X_{i}-{\overline {X}})(Y_{i}-{\overline {Y}})}{s_{X}s_{Y}}}} where s X 2 , s Y 2 {\displaystyle s_{X}^{2},s_{Y}^{2}} are sample variances of X {\displaystyle X} and Y {\displaystyle Y} . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pivotal_quantity |
The sample statistic r {\displaystyle r} has an asymptotically normal distribution: n r − ρ 1 − ρ 2 ⇒ N ( 0 , 1 ) {\displaystyle {\sqrt {n}}{\frac {r-\rho }{1-\rho ^{2}}}\Rightarrow N(0,1)} .However, a variance-stabilizing transformation z = t a n h − 1 r = 1 2 ln 1 + r 1 − r {\displaystyle z={\rm {{tanh}^{-1}r={\frac {1}{2}}\ln {\frac {1+r}{1-r}}}}} known as Fisher's z transformation of the correlation coefficient allows creating the distribution of z {\displaystyle z} asymptotically independent of unknown parameters: n ( z − ζ ) ⇒ N ( 0 , 1 ) {\displaystyle {\sqrt {n}}(z-\zeta )\Rightarrow N(0,1)} where ζ = t a n h − 1 ρ {\displaystyle \zeta ={\rm {tanh}}^{-1}\rho } is the corresponding distribution parameter. For finite samples sizes n {\displaystyle n} , the random variable z {\displaystyle z} will have distribution closer to normal than that of r {\displaystyle r} . An even closer approximation to the standard normal distribution is obtained by using a better approximation for the exact variance: the usual form is Var ( z ) ≈ 1 n − 3 . {\displaystyle \operatorname {Var} (z)\approx {\frac {1}{n-3}}.} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pivotal_quantity |
In more complicated usage, O(·) can appear in different places in an equation, even several times on each side. For example, the following are true for n → ∞ {\displaystyle n\to \infty }: The meaning of such statements is as follows: for any functions which satisfy each O(·) on the left side, there are some functions satisfying each O(·) on the right side, such that substituting all these functions into the equation makes the two sides equal. For example, the third equation above means: "For any function f(n) = O(1), there is some function g(n) = O(en) such that nf(n) = g(n)." In terms of the "set notation" above, the meaning is that the class of functions represented by the left side is a subset of the class of functions represented by the right side. In this use the "=" is a formal symbol that unlike the usual use of "=" is not a symmetric relation. Thus for example nO(1) = O(en) does not imply the false statement O(en) = nO(1). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_symbol |
In more concrete terms, the uniform word problem can be expressed as a rewriting question, for literal strings. For a presentation P of a group G, P will specify a certain number of generators x, y, z, ...for G. We need to introduce one letter for x and another (for convenience) for the group element represented by x−1. Call these letters (twice as many as the generators) the alphabet Σ {\displaystyle \Sigma } for our problem. Then each element in G is represented in some way by a product abc ... pqrof symbols from Σ {\displaystyle \Sigma } , of some length, multiplied in G. The string of length 0 (null string) stands for the identity element e of G. The crux of the whole problem is to be able to recognise all the ways e can be represented, given some relations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_problem_for_groups |
The effect of the relations in G is to make various such strings represent the same element of G. In fact the relations provide a list of strings that can be either introduced where we want, or cancelled out whenever we see them, without changing the 'value', i.e. the group element that is the result of the multiplication. For a simple example, take the presentation {a | a3}. Writing A for the inverse of a, we have possible strings combining any number of the symbols a and A. Whenever we see aaa, or aA or Aa we may strike these out. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_problem_for_groups |
We should also remember to strike out AAA; this says that since the cube of a is the identity element of G, so is the cube of the inverse of a. Under these conditions the word problem becomes easy. First reduce strings to the empty string, a, aa, A or AA. Then note that we may also multiply by aaa, so we can convert A to aa and convert AA to a. The result is that the word problem, here for the cyclic group of order three, is solvable. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_problem_for_groups |
This is not, however, the typical case. For the example, we have a canonical form available that reduces any string to one of length at most three, by decreasing the length monotonically. In general, it is not true that one can get a canonical form for the elements, by stepwise cancellation. One may have to use relations to expand a string many-fold, in order eventually to find a cancellation that brings the length right down. The upshot is, in the worst case, that the relation between strings that says they are equal in G is an Undecidable problem. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_problem_for_groups |
In more contemporary times, thunderstorms have taken on the role of a scientific curiosity. Every spring, storm chasers head to the Great Plains of the United States and the Canadian Prairies to explore the scientific aspects of storms and tornadoes through use of videotaping. Radio pulses produced by cosmic rays are being used to study how electric charges develop within thunderstorms. More organized meteorological projects such as VORTEX2 use an array of sensors, such as the Doppler on Wheels, vehicles with mounted automated weather stations, weather balloons, and unmanned aircraft to investigate thunderstorms expected to produce severe weather. Lightning is detected remotely using sensors that detect cloud-to-ground lightning strokes with 95 percent accuracy in detection and within 250 metres (820 ft) of their point of origin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning_storm |
In more current research, Schultz (1999) found that households that received more normative messages describing the frequency and amount of weekly recycling began to have a direct impact on both the households' frequency and amount of their curbside recycling. The sudden change was due to the fact that "the other neighbors'" recycling habits had a direct normative effect on the household to change their recycling behaviors. Similar results were apparent in another study in which researchers were able to increase household energy conservation through the use of normative messages. Participants in this conservation study did not believe that such normative messages could influence their behavior; they attributed their conservation efforts to environmental concerns or social responsibility needs. Thus, normative social influence can be a very powerful, yet unconscious, motivator of behavior. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative_social_influence |
In more detail, an arithmetic surface S {\displaystyle S} (over the Dedekind domain R {\displaystyle R} ) is a scheme with a morphism p: S → S p e c ( R ) {\displaystyle p:S\rightarrow \mathrm {Spec} (R)} with the following properties: S {\displaystyle S} is integral, normal, excellent, flat and of finite type over R {\displaystyle R} and the generic fiber is a non-singular, connected projective curve over F r a c ( R ) {\displaystyle \mathrm {Frac} (R)} and for other t {\displaystyle t} in S p e c ( R ) {\displaystyle \mathrm {Spec} (R)} , S × S p e c ( R ) S p e c ( k t ) {\displaystyle S{\underset {\mathrm {Spec} (R)}{\times }}\mathrm {Spec} (k_{t})} is a union of curves over R / t {\displaystyle R/t} . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_surface |
In more detail, let X and Y be topological spaces. Given a continuous mapping f: X → Y {\displaystyle f\colon X\to Y} and a point x in X, consider for any n ≥ 1 the induced homomorphism f ∗: π n ( X , x ) → π n ( Y , f ( x ) ) , {\displaystyle f_{*}\colon \pi _{n}(X,x)\to \pi _{n}(Y,f(x)),} where πn(X,x) denotes the n-th homotopy group of X with base point x. (For n = 0, π0(X) just means the set of path components of X.) A map f is a weak homotopy equivalence if the function f ∗: π 0 ( X ) → π 0 ( Y ) {\displaystyle f_{*}\colon \pi _{0}(X)\to \pi _{0}(Y)} is bijective, and the homomorphisms f* are bijective for all x in X and all n ≥ 1. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitehead_theorem |
(For X and Y path-connected, the first condition is automatic, and it suffices to state the second condition for a single point x in X.) The Whitehead theorem states that a weak homotopy equivalence from one CW complex to another is a homotopy equivalence. (That is, the map f: X → Y has a homotopy inverse g: Y → X, which is not at all clear from the assumptions.) This implies the same conclusion for spaces X and Y that are homotopy equivalent to CW complexes. Combining this with the Hurewicz theorem yields a useful corollary: a continuous map f: X → Y {\displaystyle f\colon X\to Y} between simply connected CW complexes that induces an isomorphism on all integral homology groups is a homotopy equivalence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitehead_theorem |
In more detail, the star unfolding is obtained from a polyhedron P {\displaystyle P} by choosing a starting point p {\displaystyle p} on the surface of P {\displaystyle P} , in general position, meaning that there is a unique shortest geodesic from p {\displaystyle p} to each vertex of P {\displaystyle P} . The star polygon is obtained by cutting the surface of P {\displaystyle P} along these geodesics, and unfolding the resulting cut surface onto a plane. The resulting shape forms a simple polygon in the plane.The star unfolding may be used as the basis for polynomial time algorithms for various other problems involving geodesics on convex polyhedra. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_unfolding |
In more detail, when the radio-labelled molecule is attached or is in proximity to bead, light emission is stimulated. However, if the bead does not become bound to the radio-labelled molecule, the bead will not be stimulated to emit light. This is because the beta particles (high-velocity electrons) released from the unbound molecule are lost to collisions with water molecules if they are too far from the scintillant-containing beads, and so the SPA bead which is not then stimulated to produce a signal. The decay of radioactive atoms releases subatomic particles and/or gamma rays. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillation_proximity_assay |
Tritium releases electrons as one of the subatomic particles. The energy of these particles influences the distance traveled by the particles itself through a medium such as water, because there is an inverse correlation between particle kinetic energy and strength of interaction with matter. The SPA method depends on the short pathlength of tritium-released beta particles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillation_proximity_assay |
For instance, the decay of a Tritium atom releases a beta particle, which is well-suited to SPA due to a very short (1.5 µm) path length through water. So, when the β-particle is within 1.5 µm of the scintillant bead, there is sufficient energy to stimulate the bead to emit light. If the distance between them is greater than 1.5 µm, then the β-particle has insufficient energy to reach and stimulate the bead. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillation_proximity_assay |
The beads in SPA are formed from the incorporation of scintillant into small beads known as fluomicrospheres. These are specially designed to bind with specific molecules. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillation_proximity_assay |
When the bead is in close proximity to the radioactive molecule, light is stimulated. The photonmultiplier tube (PMT) can be used to detect the emitted photons. This device converts the emitted photon energy into electrical energy by a photocathode via a series of other electrodes. Another device is known as CCD Imager, which is composed of a set of cooled digital cameras with sensitive charge coupled device detectors and with some refined telecentric lenses to convert the captured photon energy into high quality images. There is also an assortment of bead coatings available that allows this method to be applied to a broad range of applications, such as enzyme assays and radio-immuno assays. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillation_proximity_assay |
In more extreme cases, plasmapheresis can be considered. This technique is used to remove the blood plasma or fluid in the red blood cells and then return the cells to the body. It "removes a circulating factor from the blood that may be involved in causing the urticaria," but is still being tested and is not always effective. When the treatment is a success, the patient's photosensitivity is decreased to the degree that they can undergo PUVA which can result in the relief of the urticarial outbreaks for an extended period of time. The major setback to this treatment is that the side effects can be severe and may include anaphylactoid reactions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_urticaria |
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