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In navigation, a rhumb line, rhumb (), or loxodrome is an arc crossing all meridians of longitude at the same angle, that is, a path with constant bearing as measured relative to true north. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhumb_lines |
In navigation, a state vector is a set of data describing exactly where an object is located in space, and how it is moving. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_vector_(navigation) |
In navigation, bearing or azimuth is the horizontal angle between the direction of an object and north or another object. The angle value can be specified in various angular units, such as degrees, mils, or grad. More specifically: Absolute bearing refers to the clockwise angle between the magnetic north (magnetic bearing) or true north (true bearing) and an object. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compass_bearing |
For example, an object to due east would have an absolute bearing of 90 degrees. Thus, it is the same as azimuth. Relative bearing refers to the angle between the craft's forward direction (heading) and the location of another object. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compass_bearing |
For example, an object relative bearing of 0 degrees would be immediately in front; an object relative bearing 180 degrees would be behind. Bearings can be measured in mils, points, or degrees. Thus, it is the same as an azimuth difference (modulo +/- 360 degrees).Alternatively, the US Army defines the bearing from point A to point B as the smallest angle between the ray AB and either north or south, whichever is closest. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compass_bearing |
The bearing is expressed in terms of 2 characters and 1 number: first, the character is either N or S; next is the angle numerical value; third, the character representing the perpendicular direction, either E or W. The bearing angle value will always be less than 90 degrees. For example, if Point B is located exactly southeast of Point A, the bearing from Point A to Point B is "S 45° E". For example, if the bearing between Point A and Point B is S 45° E, the azimuth between Point A and Point B is 135°. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compass_bearing |
In navigation, dead reckoning is the process of calculating the current position of a moving object by using a previously determined position, or fix, and incorporating estimates of speed, heading (or direction or course), and elapsed time. The corresponding term in biology, to describe the processes by which animals update their estimates of position or heading, is path integration. Dead reckoning is subject to cumulative errors. Advances in navigational aids that give accurate information on position, in particular satellite navigation using the Global Positioning System, have made simple dead reckoning by humans obsolete for most purposes. However, inertial navigation systems, which provide very accurate directional information, use dead reckoning and are very widely applied. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedestrian_dead_reckoning |
In navigation, odometry is the use of data from the movement of actuators to estimate change in position over time through devices such as rotary encoders to measure wheel rotations. While useful for many wheeled or tracked vehicles, traditional odometry techniques cannot be applied to mobile robots with non-standard locomotion methods, such as legged robots. In addition, odometry universally suffers from precision problems, since wheels tend to slip and slide on the floor creating a non-uniform distance traveled as compared to the wheel rotations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egomotion_estimation |
The error is compounded when the vehicle operates on non-smooth surfaces. Odometry readings become increasingly unreliable as these errors accumulate and compound over time. Visual odometry is the process of determining equivalent odometry information using sequential camera images to estimate the distance traveled. Visual odometry allows for enhanced navigational accuracy in robots or vehicles using any type of locomotion on any surface. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egomotion_estimation |
In navigation, the course of a watercraft or aircraft is the cardinal direction in which the craft is to be steered. The course is to be distinguished from the heading, which is the direction where the watercraft's bow or the aircraft's nose is pointed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crab_angle |
In navigation, the determination of a "fix" requires two measurements to be taken. Using classical methods, this was normally the measurement of two angles, or bearings, along the line-of-sight to prominent landmarks, like a lighthouse. After taking the two measurements, lines of position are drawn radiating from the landmarks along the reverse angle. The lines will cross at some point, and their intersection determines the location of the navigator. In practice, a third measurement is often used, resulting in three lines that do not perfectly intersect; the size of the resulting triangle intersection area gives a rough indication of the accuracy of the measurement as a whole. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonne_(navigation) |
In navigation, the determination of a "fix" requires two measurements to be taken. Using classical triangulation techniques, this was normally the measurement of two angles, or bearings, along the line-of-sight to prominent landmarks, like a lighthouse. After taking the two measurements, lines of position are drawn radiating from the landmark along the reverse angle. They will cross at some point, and their intersection determines the location of the navigator. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orfordness_Beacon |
In navigation, the heading of a vessel or aircraft is the compass direction in which the craft's bow or nose is pointed. Note that the heading may not necessarily be the direction that the vehicle actually travels, which is known as its course or track. Any difference between the heading and course is due to the motion of the underlying medium, the air or water, or other effects like skidding or slipping. The difference is known as the drift, and can be determined by the wind triangle. At least seven ways to measure the heading of a vehicle have been described. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_heading |
In navigation, the true azimuth of a heavenly body is the arc of the horizon between the point where a vertical plane containing the observer and the heavenly body intersects the horizon and the direction of true north. The magnetic azimuth is the arc between the point on the horizon below the heavenly body and the direction of magnetic north.When the latitude and date are known, the bearing of the sun at sunrise or sunset relative to true north can be readily determined. If the sun is observed at some time between sunrise and sunset, its altitude must also be recorded to calculate the true azimuth. The true azimuth may be compared to the magnetic azimuth to find the magnetic declination, the angle between the direction that the compass indicates as north and the true north direction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azimuth_compass |
In navigational instruments, a plotter is an instrument which marks the position of a vehicle on a map or chart. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotter_(instrument) |
In near field communications the NFC Forum Signature Record Type Definition (RTD) is a security protocol used to protect the integrity and authenticity of NDEF (NFC Data Exchange Format) Messages. The Signature RTD is an open interoperable specification modeled after Code signing where the trust of signed messages is tied to digital certificates.Signing NDEF records prevents malicious use of NFC tags (containing a protected NDEF record). For example, smartphone users tapping NFC tags containing URLs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signature_Record_Type_Definition |
Without some level of integrity protection an adversary could launch a phishing attack. Signing the NDEF record protects the integrity of the contents and allows the user to identify the signer if they wish. Signing certificates are obtained from third party Certificate Authorities and are governed by the NFC Forum Signature RTD Certificate Policy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signature_Record_Type_Definition |
In near future India will be the largest individual contributor to the global demographic transition. A 2011 International Monetary Fund Working Paper found that substantial portion of the growth experienced by India since the 1980s is attributable to the country's age structure and changing demographics. By 2026 India's average age would be 29 which is least among the global average. The U.S. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_gift |
Census Bureau predicts that India will surpass China as the world's largest country by 2025, with a large proportion of those in the working age category. Over the next two decades the continuing demographic dividend in India could add about two percentage points per annum to India's per capita GDP growth. Extreme actions are needed to take care of future basic minimum living standards including food, water and energy. As per Population Reference Bureau India's population in 2050 is predicted to be 1.692 billion people. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_gift |
In near-field acoustical holography, light refraction is measured in a two-dimensional area in the medium (this two-dimensional sound field is a cross section of the three-dimensional sound field) to produce a hologram. Then the wave number of the medium is estimated through analysis of the water temperature. Multiple two-dimensional sound fields are calculated, and the three-dimensional sound field can be reconstructed as well. This method is applicable primarily to ultrasound and to lower sound pressures, often in water and in medical imaging. The method works under the assumption that the wave number of the medium is constant. If the wave number is changing throughout the medium, this method cannot reconstruct the three-dimensional sound field as accurately. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_sound_reconstruction |
In near-field scanning optical microscopy the campanile probe is a tapered optical probe with a shape of a campanile (a square pyramid). It is made of an optically transparent dielectric, typically silica, and its two facets are coated with a metal, typically gold. At the probe tip, the metal-coated facets are separated by a gap of a few tens of nanometers, which determines the spatial resolution of the probe. Such a probe design allows collecting optical signals, usually photoluminescence (PL) or Raman scattering, with a subwavelength resolution, breaking the diffraction limit.The campanile probe is attached to an optical fiber, which both provides a laser excitation of the studied sample and collects the measured signal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campanile_probe |
The probe is rastered over the sample with a standard scanning probe microscopy scanner, keeping the distance to the sample surface at a few nanometers. Contrary to the traditional (circular) near-field probes, the campanile probe has no cut-off frequency and is insensitive to the spatial mode of the optical near field. Hence its application is not limited to thin-film samples. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campanile_probe |
Another advantage of the campanile probe is a high signal collection efficiency, which exceeds 90%.Campanile probes are typically fabricated as follows: a standard cylindrical single-mode optical fiber is etched with hydrofluoric acid to create a conical tip with a radius of ca. 100 nm. Then a square pyramid is carved on the tip using focused ion beam (FIB) milling, and its two facets are coated with a metal by shadow evaporation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campanile_probe |
A nanometer gap is then opened on the tip by FIB. Alternative fabrication method uses nanoimprint lithography to replicate campanile pyramid from a mold. This approach significantly increases fabrication speed. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campanile_probe |
In near-infrared diffuse optical tomography (DOT), transmitted diffuse photons are collected and a diffusion equation is used to reconstruct an image from them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_Tomography |
In nearby objects (within our Milky Way galaxy) observed redshifts are almost always related to the line-of-sight velocities associated with the objects being observed. Observations of such redshifts and blueshifts have enabled astronomers to measure velocities and parametrize the masses of the orbiting stars in spectroscopic binaries, a method first employed in 1868 by British astronomer William Huggins. Similarly, small redshifts and blueshifts detected in the spectroscopic measurements of individual stars are one way astronomers have been able to diagnose and measure the presence and characteristics of planetary systems around other stars and have even made very detailed differential measurements of redshifts during planetary transits to determine precise orbital parameters. Finely detailed measurements of redshifts are used in helioseismology to determine the precise movements of the photosphere of the Sun. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_redshifts |
Redshifts have also been used to make the first measurements of the rotation rates of planets, velocities of interstellar clouds, the rotation of galaxies, and the dynamics of accretion onto neutron stars and black holes which exhibit both Doppler and gravitational redshifts. Additionally, the temperatures of various emitting and absorbing objects can be obtained by measuring Doppler broadening—effectively redshifts and blueshifts over a single emission or absorption line. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_redshifts |
By measuring the broadening and shifts of the 21-centimeter hydrogen line in different directions, astronomers have been able to measure the recessional velocities of interstellar gas, which in turn reveals the rotation curve of our Milky Way. Similar measurements have been performed on other galaxies, such as Andromeda. As a diagnostic tool, redshift measurements are one of the most important spectroscopic measurements made in astronomy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_redshifts |
In nearly all MMORPGs, the development of the player's character is the primary goal. Nearly all MMORPGs feature a character progression system, in which players earn experience points for their actions and use those points to reach character "levels", which makes them better at whatever they do. Traditionally, combat with monsters and completing quests for non-player characters, either alone or in groups, are the primary ways to earn experience points. The accumulation of wealth (including combat-useful items) is also a way to progress in many MMORPGs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_role-playing |
This is traditionally best accomplished via combat. The cycle produced by these conditions, combat leading to new items allowing for more combat with no change in gameplay, is sometimes pejoratively referred to as the level treadmill, or "grinding". The role-playing game Progress Quest was created as a parody of this trend. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_role-playing |
Eve Online, a space-based MMORPG, uses an alternative method of progression where users train skills in real-time rather than using experience points as a measure of progression. In some MMORPGs, there is no limit to a player's level, allowing the grinding experience to continue indefinitely. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_role-playing |
MMORPGs that use this model often glorify top ranked players by displaying their avatars on the game's website or posting their stats on a high score screen. Another common practice is to enforce a maximum reachable level for all players, often referred to as a level cap. Once reached, the definition of a player's progression changes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_role-playing |
Instead of being awarded primarily with experience for completing quests and dungeons, the player's motivation to continue playing will be replaced with collecting money and equipment. Often, the widened range of equipment available at the maximum level will have increased aesthetic value to distinguish high ranking players in game between lower ranked players. Colloquially known as endgame gear, this set of empowered weapons and armor adds a competitive edge to both scripted boss encounters as well as player vs player combat. Player motivation to outperform others is fueled by acquiring such items and is a significant determining factor in their success or failure in combat-related situations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_role-playing |
In nearly all aerobic beings, 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase is responsible for converting 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate into homogentisate. This conversion is one of many steps in breaking L-tyrosine into acetoacetate and fumarate. While the overall products of this cycle are used to create energy, plants and higher order eukaryotes utilize HPPD for a much more important reason. In eukaryotes, HPPD is used to regulate blood tyrosine levels, and plants utilize this enzyme to help produce the cofactors plastoquinone and tocopherol which are essential for the plant to survive. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate_dioxygenase |
In nearly all bird species, there is no urinary bladder per se. Although all birds have kidneys, the ureters open directly into a cloaca which serves as a reservoir for urine, fecal matter, and eggs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urinary_bladder |
In nearly all civilian jurisdictions, summary execution is illegal, as it violates the right of the accused to a fair trial. Almost all constitutions or legal systems based on common law have prohibited execution without the decision and sentence of a competent judge, and the UN's International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) has declared the same: Every human being has the inherent right to life. This right shall be protected by law. No man shall be deprived of his life arbitrarily. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summary_execution |
penalty can only be carried out pursuant to a final judgment rendered by a competent court. In practice, though, extrajudicial killings have been performed by police and domestic forces in various countries and times, sometimes under martial law. It is also performed by armed bands fighting against governments and common citizens. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summary_execution |
In nearly all human cultures, crying is associated with tears trickling down the cheeks and accompanied by characteristic sobbing sounds. Emotional triggers are most often sadness and grief, but crying can also be triggered by anger, happiness, fear, laughter or humor, frustration, remorse, or other strong, intense emotions. Crying is often associated with babies and children. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogorad's_syndrome |
Some cultures consider crying to be undignified and infantile, casting aspersions on those who cry publicly, except if it is due to the death of a close friend or relative. In most Western cultures, it is more socially acceptable for women and children to cry than men, reflecting masculine sex-role stereotypes. In some Latin regions, crying among men is more acceptable. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogorad's_syndrome |
There is evidence for an interpersonal function of crying as tears express a need for help and foster willingness to help in an observer.Some modern psychotherapy movements such as Re-evaluation Counseling encourage crying as beneficial to health and mental well-being. An insincere display of grief or dishonest remorse is sometimes called crocodile tears in reference to an Ancient Greek anecdote that crocodiles would pretend to weep while luring or devouring their prey. In addition, "crocodile tears syndrome" is a colloquialism for Bogorad's syndrome, an uncommon consequence of recovery from Bell's palsy in which faulty regeneration of the facial nerve causes people to shed tears while eating. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogorad's_syndrome |
In nearly all instances of social grooming, individuals use their own body parts, such as hands, teeth or tongue, to groom a group member or infant. It is very rare to observe instances of tool usage in social grooming in non-human animals; however, a few such instances have been observed in primates. In a 1981 observational study of Japanese macaques at Bucknell University, a mother macaque was seen to choose a stone after observing several stones on the ground and then use this stone to groom her infant. It was hypothesized that the stone was used as a distractor for the infant so that the mother could adequately clean her infant while his attention was occupied elsewhere. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_grooming |
This was supported by the fact that the infant picked up the stone once the mother dropped it and allowed her to groom him while he played with it. This action was seen in a few other members in the colony, but was not seen throughout the species at all. At another instance, a female chimpanzee at the Delta Regional Primate Research Center created a 'toothbrush' by stripping a twig of its leaves and used this toothbrush to groom her infant over several instances. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_grooming |
However, both examples concern tool use in primates, which is already widely studied and scientifically backed. The wide working memory capacities and causal understanding capabilities of primates permit them to fashion and utilize tools far more extensively than other non-human animals. Apart from physical and mental constraints, perhaps a reason allogrooming animals do not use tools is because a major purpose of social grooming is social bonding and involves emotional exchanges, much of which is conveyed by touch. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_grooming |
In nearly all jurisdictions, dead people do not have the right to own property. When a person dies, their property needs to be distributed to others in a process called probate. People can specify their wishes before they die by preparing a will and testament. If there is no will, the laws of their country determine how the property is distributed. In most cases, it would go to next of kin, such as a spouse or adult child. If the person who died is wealthy, often a portion of their property will be collected by an estate tax. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_death |
In nearly all ray-finned fish, the sexes are separate, and in most species the females spawn eggs that are fertilized externally, typically with the male inseminating the eggs after they are laid. Development then proceeds with a free-swimming larval stage. However other patterns of ontogeny exist, with one of the commonest being sequential hermaphroditism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_finned_fish |
In most cases this involves protogyny, fish starting life as females and converting to males at some stage, triggered by some internal or external factor. Protandry, where a fish converts from male to female, is much less common than protogyny.Most families use external rather than internal fertilization. Of the oviparous teleosts, most (79%) do not provide parental care. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_finned_fish |
Viviparity, ovoviviparity, or some form of parental care for eggs, whether by the male, the female, or both parents is seen in a significant fraction (21%) of the 422 teleost families; no care is likely the ancestral condition. The oldest case of viviparity in ray-finned fish is found in Middle Triassic species of †Saurichthys. Viviparity is relatively rare and is found in about 6% of living teleost species; male care is far more common than female care. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_finned_fish |
Male territoriality "preadapts" a species for evolving male parental care.There are a few examples of fish that self-fertilise. The mangrove rivulus is an amphibious, simultaneous hermaphrodite, producing both eggs and spawn and having internal fertilisation. This mode of reproduction may be related to the fish's habit of spending long periods out of water in the mangrove forests it inhabits. Males are occasionally produced at temperatures below 19 °C (66 °F) and can fertilise eggs that are then spawned by the female. This maintains genetic variability in a species that is otherwise highly inbred. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_finned_fish |
In nearly all species of eukaryotic algae (Chloromonas being one notable exception), upon induction of the CCM, ~95% of RuBisCO is densely packed into a single subcellular compartment: the pyrenoid. Carbon dioxide is concentrated in this compartment using a combination of CO2 pumps, bicarbonate pumps, and carbonic anhydrases. The pyrenoid is not a membrane bound compartment, but is found within the chloroplast, often surrounded by a starch sheath (which is not thought to serve a function in the CCM). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C2_photosynthesis |
In nearly all species, there is an obvious disequilibrium between frequency and severity of aggression in males versus females. Males are almost always the more aggressive sex and there are genetic differences that back up this observation. A common explanation for this phenomenon is the higher testosterone levels in males. Testosterone levels have a direct effect on neurotransmitter functioning contributing to physical aggression. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior_mutation |
Mutations affecting neurotransmitters, as stated above, are the dominant cause of changes in aggressive behaviour. Another contributor to the unequal male-female aggression ratio are the sex-linked gene mutations that affect only male behaviour, such as MAO-A mentioned above. These mutations could be the reason why males are nearly always more aggressive than females, although, testosterone levels are a much more feasible explanation. Other evolutionary and genetic explanations of violent behaviour include: dopamine receptors mutations, DRD2 and DRD4, that, when mutate simultaneously, are hypothesized to cause personality disorders, low serotonin levels increasing irritability and gloom and the effects of testosterone on neurotransmitter functioning to explain the increased occurrence of aggression in males. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior_mutation |
In nearly every metropolitan area worldwide, operators and hobbyists deployed more and more unlicensed broadband point-to-multipoint systems. Providers that had rave reviews when they started faced the prospect of seeing their networks degrade in performance, as more and more devices were deployed using the license-free U-NII (5.3/5.4 GHz) and ISM (2.4 and 5.8 GHz) bands and competitors sprung up around them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_local_loop |
In nearly every state in the US, the International Building Code requires fire alarm and sprinkler systems to be monitored by an approved supervising station. A fire alarm system consists of a computer-based control connected to a central station. The majority of fire alarm systems installed in the US are monitored by a UL listed or FM Global approved supervising station. These systems will generally have a top level map of the entire site, with various building levels displayed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_alarm_panel |
The user (most likely a security guard) can progress through the different stages. From top level site → building plan → floor plan → zone plan, or however else the building's security system is organized. Many of these systems have touch screens, but most users tend to prefer a mouse (and a normal monitor), as it is quite easy for a touch screen to become misaligned and for mistakes to be made. With the advent of the optical mouse, this is now a very viable option. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_alarm_panel |
In nearly every translation process, we have to deal with the fact that the color gamut of different devices vary in range which makes an accurate reproduction impossible. They therefore need some rearrangement near the borders of the gamut. Some colors must be shifted to the inside of the gamut, as they otherwise cannot be represented on the output device and would simply be clipped. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendering_intent |
This so-called gamut mismatch occurs for example, when we translate from the RGB color space with a wider gamut into the CMYK color space with a narrower gamut range. In this example, the dark highly saturated purplish-blue color of a typical computer monitor's "blue" primary is impossible to print on paper with a typical CMYK printer. The nearest approximation within the printer's gamut will be much less saturated. Conversely, an inkjet printer's "cyan" primary, a saturated mid-brightness blue, is outside the gamut of a typical computer monitor. The color management system can utilize various methods to achieve desired results and give experienced users control of the gamut mapping behavior. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendering_intent |
In negative frequency-dependent selection, rare and uncommon variants will have a selective advantage over variants that are very common in an environment. For B. burgdorferi, low-frequency variants will be advantageous because potential hosts will be less likely to mount an immunological response to the variant-specific OspC outer protein. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borrelia_burgdorferi |
In negative-ion mode, the potential of the exit grid electrode can be set to negative potentials. Penning electrons undergo electron capture with atmospheric oxygen to produce O2−. The O2− will produce radical anions. Several reactions are possible, depending on the analyte. O 2 + e − ⟶ O 2 − ∙ {\displaystyle {\ce {{O2}+{e}^{-}->{O2}^{-\bullet }}}} O 2 − ∙ + S ⟶ S − ∙ + O 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {{O2}^{-\bullet }+{S}->{S}^{-\bullet }+O2}}} S + e − ⟶ S − ∙ {\displaystyle {\ce {{S}+{e}^{-}->{S}^{-\bullet }}}} SX + e − ⟶ S − + X ∙ {\displaystyle {\ce {{SX}+{e}^{-}->{S}^{-}+{X}^{\bullet }}}} SH ⟶ − + H + {\displaystyle {\ce {{SH}-> {}^{-}+ {H}^{+}}}} The negative ion sensitivity of DART gases varies with the efficiency in forming electrons by Penning ionization, which means that the negative ion sensitivity increases with the internal energy of the metastable species, for example nitrogenᐸneonᐸhelium. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DART_ion_source |
In negative-sense MVM genomes, the left-end hairpin is 121 nucleotides in length and exists in a single flip sequence orientation. This telomere is Y-shaped and contains small internal palindromes that fold into the "ears" of the Y, a duplex stem region 43 nucleotides in length that is interrupted by an asymmetric thymidine residue, and a mismatched "bubble" sequence in which the 5′-GAA-3′ sequence on the inboard arm is opposite of 5′-GA-3′ in the outboard strand. Sequences in this hairpin are involved in both replication and regulation of transcription. The elements involved in these two functions separate the two arms of the hairpin.The left-end telomere of MVM, and likely of all heterotelomeric parvoviruses, cannot function as a replication origin in its hairpin configuration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hairpin_transfer |
Instead, a single origin on the lower strand is created when the hairpin is unfolded, extended, and copied to form a duplex basepaired sequence that spans adjacent genomes in the dimer RF. Within this structure, the sequence from the outboard arm that surrounds a GA/TC dinucleotide serves as an origin, OriLTC. The equivalent GAA/TTC sequence on the inboard arm that contains the bubble trinucleotide, called OriLGAA, does not serve as an origin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hairpin_transfer |
The inboard arm and hairpin configuration of the terminus instead appear to function as upstream control elements for the viral transcriptional promoter P4. Additionally, the ability to segregate one arm from nicking appears essential for replication.The minimal linear left-end origin is about 50 basepairs long and extends from two 5′-ACGT-3′ motifs, spaced five nucleotides apart at one end, to a position seven basepairs beyond the nick site. The bubble's GA sequence itself is relatively unimportant, but the space that it occupies is necessary for the origin to function. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hairpin_transfer |
Within the origin, there are three recognition sequences: an NS1-binding site that orients the NS1 complex over the nick site 5′-CTWWTCA-3′, which is located 17 nucleotides downstream (toward the 3′-end), and the two ACGT motifs. These motifs bind a heterodimeric cellular factor called either parvovirus initiation factor (PIF) or glucocorticoid modulating element-binding protein (GMEB).PIF is a site-specific DNA-binding heterodimeric complex that contains two subunits, p96 and p79, and functions as a transcription modulator in the host cell. It binds DNA via a KDWK fold and recognizes two ACGT half-sites. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hairpin_transfer |
The spacing between these sites can vary significantly for PIF, from one to nine nucleotides, with an optimal spacing of six. PIF stabilizes the binding of NS1 on the active form of the left-end origin, OriLTC, but not on the inactive form, OriLGAA, because the two complexes are able to establish contact over the bubble binucleotide. The left-end hairpin of all other species in the Protoparvovirus genus, of which MVM belongs, have bubble asymmetries and PIF-binding sites, though with slight variation in spacing. This suggests that they all share a similar origin segregation mechanism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hairpin_transfer |
In negotiating a connection, an RTMP client sends and receives a data stream containing multiple elements, as a single command line. An on-demand stream typically includes the following elements: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RTMPDump |
In negotiation, participation is voluntary and there is no third party who facilitates the resolution process or imposes a resolution. (NB – a third party like a chaplain or organizational ombudsperson or social worker or a skilled friend may be coaching one or both of the parties behind the scene, a process called "Helping People Help Themselves" – see Helping People Help Themselves, in Negotiation Journal July 1990, pp. 239–248, which includes a section on helping someone draft a letter to someone who is perceived to have wronged them.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_dispute_resolution |
In negotiations with record labels for the new service, Apple allegedly attempted to encourage record labels to pull their content from the free, ad-supported tiers of competing services such as Spotify and Amazon Music in order to drive adoption of Apple Music and offered an incentive to Universal Music Group to pull its content from YouTube. The United States Department of Justice and Federal Trade Commission launched an investigation into this alleged cartel in May 2015. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Music |
In neighboring Pennsylvania, the Commonwealth System of Higher Education recognizes a "state-related" status, in which an institution is provided with state funds in exchange for offering tuition discounts to students who are residents of Pennsylvania. The state allocations account for less than 10 percent of the budgets of the four institutions so designated, Lincoln University, Pennsylvania State University, Temple University, and the University of Pittsburgh, which remain academically and administratively independent of the state. In addition, the University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine receives support from the state and offers in-state tuition to students who are residents of Pennsylvania.Similarly, the private Baylor College of Medicine (BCM) charges residents of Texas a lower tuition rate than that charged to non-Texans for its Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) program, thanks to grants from the state of Texas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statutory_college |
This arrangement, intended to increase the number of physicians in Texas, was put in place in 1969, at which time the medical school became an autonomous entity in order to avoid legal conflicts arising from Baylor's affiliation with the Baptist General Convention of Texas. State support only allays the cost of tuition for in-state students, and the state does not assist BCM with significant ongoing funding for research or outreach/extension purposes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statutory_college |
The University of Miami's Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine is located in Miami, Florida. Starting in 2004, the Miller School began offering instruction on the campus of Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida. MD candidates are admitted to either the Miami or Boca Raton programs and spend all four years studying on the selected campus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statutory_college |
There is no on-campus housing for students of the Miller School of Medicine in Miami or Boca Raton. The Miami and Boca Raton campuses charge identical tuition, with a lower tuition for in-state students.The University of Delaware is chartered as a "privately governed, state-assisted" university, as is Delaware State University. The university receives about 10 percent of its operating budget from the state, but is not a state agency, and the extent to which it is subject to laws requiring disclosure of spending of public funds is a matter of dispute. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statutory_college |
In nematodes, spicules, also known as copulatory spicules, are needle-like mating structures found only in males.Male nematodes may have one or two spicules which serve to open the vulva of females and facilitate the transmission of sperm, although sperm is not transferred directly by or through the spicules. The gubernaculum is another organ of the nematode male copulatory system which guides the spicules during copulation. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spicule_(nematode) |
In neo-Calvinism, sphere sovereignty (Dutch: soevereiniteit in eigen kring), also known as differentiated responsibility, is the concept that each sphere (or sector) of life has its own distinct responsibilities and authority or competence, and stands equal to other spheres of life. Sphere sovereignty involves the idea of an all encompassing created order, designed and governed by God. This created order includes societal communities (such as those for purposes of education, worship, civil justice, agriculture, economy and labor, marriage and family, artistic expression, etc.), their historical development, and their abiding norms. The principle of sphere sovereignty seeks to affirm and respect creational boundaries, and historical differentiation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere_sovereignty |
Sphere sovereignty implies that no one area of life or societal community is sovereign over another. Each sphere has its own created integrity. Neo-Calvinists hold that since God created everything "after its own kind," diversity must be acknowledged and appreciated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere_sovereignty |
For instance, the different God-given norms for family life and economic life should be recognized, such that a family does not properly function like a business. Similarly, neither faith-institutions (e.g. churches) nor an institution of civil justice (i.e. the state) should seek totalitarian control, or any regulation of human activity outside their limited competence, respectively. The concept of sphere sovereignty became a general principle in European countries governed by Christian democratic political parties, who held it as an integral part of their ideology. The promotion of sphere sovereignty by Christian democrats led to the creation of corporatist welfare states throughout the world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere_sovereignty |
In neo-Freudian psychoanalysis, the Electra complex, as proposed by Carl Jung in his Theory of Psychoanalysis, is a girl's psychosexual competition with her mother for possession of her father. In the course of her psychosexual development, the complex is the girl's phallic stage; a boy's analogous experience is the Oedipus complex. The Electra complex occurs in the third—phallic stage (ages 3–6)—of five psychosexual development stages: the oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent, and the genital—in which the source of libido pleasure is in a different erogenous zone of the infant's body.In classical psychoanalytic theory, the child's identification with the mother is the successful resolution of the Electra complex and of the Oedipus complex; his and her key psychological experience to developing a mature sexual role and identity. Sigmund Freud instead proposed that girls and boys resolved their complexes differently—she via penis envy, he via castration anxiety; and that unsuccessful resolutions might lead to neurosis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electra_complex |
Hence, women and men who are fixated in the Electra and Oedipal stages of their psychosexual development might be considered "father-fixated" and "mother-fixated". The idea of the Electra complex is not widely used by mental health professionals today. There is little empirical evidence for it, as the theory's predictions do not match scientific observations of child development. It is not listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electra_complex |
In neo-Marxist thought, Paul A. Baran for example substitutes the concept of "economic surplus" for Marx's surplus value. In a joint work, Paul Baran and Paul Sweezy define the economic surplus as "the difference between what a society produces and the costs of producing it" (Monopoly Capitalism, New York 1966, p. 9). Much depends here on how the costs are valued, and which costs are taken into account. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surplus_value |
Piero Sraffa also refers to a "physical surplus" with a similar meaning, calculated according to the relationship between prices of physical inputs and outputs. In these theories, surplus product and surplus value are equated, while value and price are identical, but the distribution of the surplus tends to be separated theoretically from its production; whereas Marx insists that the distribution of wealth is governed by the social conditions in which it is produced, especially by property relations giving entitlement to products, incomes and assets (see also relations of production). In Kapital Vol. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surplus_value |
3, Marx insists strongly that "the specific economic form, in which unpaid surplus labour is pumped out of direct producers, determines the relationship of rulers and ruled, as it grows directly out of production itself and, in turn, reacts upon it as a determining element. Upon this, however, is founded the entire formation of the economic community which grows up out of the production relations themselves, thereby simultaneously its specific political form. It is always the direct relationship of the owners of the conditions of production to the direct producers – a relation always naturally corresponding to a definite stage of the methods of labour and thereby its social productivity – which reveals the innermost secret, the hidden basis of the entire social structure, and with it the political form of the relation of sovereignty and dependence, in short, the corresponding specific form of the state. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surplus_value |
This does not prevent the same economic basis – the same from the standpoint of its main conditions – due to innumerable different, empirical circumstances, natural environment, racial relations, external historical influence, etc. from showing infinite variations and gradations in appearance, which can be ascertained only by analysis of the empirically given circumstances." This is a substantive – if abstract – thesis about the basic social relations involved in giving and getting, taking and receiving in human society, and their consequences for the way work and wealth is shared out. It suggests a starting point for an inquiry into the problem of social order and social change. But obviously it is only a starting point, not the whole story, which would include all the "variations and gradations". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surplus_value |
In neo-Theosophy, the etheric body, ether-body, or æther body is the subtle body propounded in esoteric philosophies as the first or lowest layer in the human energy field or aura. The etheric body is said to be in immediate contact with the physical body and to sustain it and connect it with "higher" bodies. It is also said to consist of a finer substance, more pure and composed of smaller particles, than the ordinary matter of the physical plane. (See the book Occult Chemistry by C.W. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etheric_body |
Leadbeater) The English term "etheric" in this context seems to derive from the Theosophical writings of Madame Blavatsky, but its use was formalised by C.W. Leadbeater and Annie Besant due to the elimination of Hindu terminology from the system of seven planes and bodies. (Adyar School of Theosophy). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etheric_body |
The term gained some general popularity after the 1914-1918 war, Walter John Kilner having adopted it for a layer of the "human atmosphere" which, as he claimed in a popular book, could be rendered visible to the naked eye by means of certain exercises.The classical element Aether of Platonic and Aristotlean physics continued in Victorian scientific proposals of a Luminiferous ether as well as the cognate chemical substance ether. According to Theosophists and Alice Bailey the etheric body inhabits an etheric plane which corresponds to the four higher subplanes of the physical plane. The intended reference is therefore to some extremely rarefied matter, analogous in usage to the word "spirit" (originally "breath"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etheric_body |
In selecting it as the term for a clearly defined concept in an Indian-derived metaphysical system, the Theosophists aligned it with ideas such as the prana-maya-kosha (sheath made of prana, subtle breath or life-force) of Vedantic thought. In popular use it is often confounded with the related concept of the astral body as for example in the term astral projection - the early Theosophists had called it the "astral double". Others prefer to speak of the "lower and higher astral". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etheric_body |
In neo-Trotskyist theory, however, such an alliance was rejected as being based either on a false strategy of popular fronts, or on political opportunism, said to be incompatible either with a permanent revolution or with the principle of independent working class political action. The state in Soviet-type societies was redefined by the neo-Trotskyists as being also state-monopoly capitalist. There was no difference, in their view, between the West and the East in this regard. Consequently, some kind of anti-bureaucratic revolution was said to be required, but different Trotskyist groups quarreled about what form such a revolution would need to take, or could take. Some Trotskyists believed the anti-bureaucratic revolution would happen spontaneously, inevitably and naturally, others believed it needed to be organised - the aim being to establish a society owned and operated by the working class. According to the neo-Trotskyists, the Communist Party could not play its leading role, because it did not represent the interests of the working class. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_monopoly_capitalism |
In neo-Trotskyist theory, such an alliance was rejected as being based either on a false strategy of popular fronts, or on political opportunism, said to be incompatible either with a permanent revolution or with the principle of independent working class political action. The state in Soviet-type societies was redefined by the neo-Trotskyists as being also state-monopoly capitalist. There was no difference between the West and the East in this regard. Consequently, some kind of anti-bureaucratic revolution was said to be required, but different Trotskyist groups quarreled about what form such a revolution would need to take, or could take. Some Trotskyists believed the anti-bureaucratic revolution would happen spontaneously, inevitably and naturally, others believed it needed to be organised—the aim being to establish a society owned and operated by the working class. According to the neo-Trotskyists, the communist party could not play its leading role because it did not represent the interests of the working class. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_capitalist |
In neo-classical growth models, the long-run rate of growth is exogenously determined by either the savings rate (the Harrod–Domar model) or the rate of technical progress (Solow model). However, the savings rate and rate of technological progress remain unexplained. Endogenous growth theory tries to overcome this shortcoming by building macroeconomic models out of microeconomic foundations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_growth_theory |
Households are assumed to maximize utility subject to budget constraints while firms maximize profits. Crucial importance is usually given to the production of new technologies and human capital. The engine for growth can be as simple as a constant return to scale production function (the AK model) or more complicated set ups with spillover effects (spillovers are positive externalities, benefits that are attributed to costs from other firms), increasing numbers of goods, increasing qualities, etc. Often endogenous growth theory assumes constant marginal product of capital at the aggregate level, or at least that the limit of the marginal product of capital does not tend towards zero. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_growth_theory |
This does not imply that larger firms will be more productive than small ones, because at the firm level the marginal product of capital is still diminishing. Therefore, it is possible to construct endogenous growth models with perfect competition. However, in many endogenous growth models the assumption of perfect competition is relaxed, and some degree of monopoly power is thought to exist. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_growth_theory |
Generally monopoly power in these models comes from the holding of patents. These are models with two sectors, producers of final output and an R&D sector: the R&D sector develops ideas which grant them monopoly power. R&D firms are assumed to be able to make monopoly profits selling ideas to production firms, but the free entry condition means that these profits are dissipated on R&D spending. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_growth_theory |
In neoclassical economic theory, the desirability of state ownership has been studied using contract theory. According to the property rights approach based on incomplete contracting (developed by Oliver Hart and his co-authors), ownership matters because it determines what happens in contingencies that were not considered in prevailing contracts.The work by Hart, Shleifer and Vishny (1997) is the leading application of the property rights approach to the question whether state ownership or private ownership is desirable. In their model, the government and a private firm can invest to improve the quality of a public good and to reduce its production costs. It turns out that private ownership results in strong incentives to reduce costs, but it may also lead to poor quality. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_ownership |
Hence, depending on the available investment technologies, there are situations in which state ownership is better. The Hart-Shleifer-Vishny theory has been extended in many directions. For instance, some authors have also considered mixed forms of private ownership and state ownership. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_ownership |
In the Hart-Shleifer-Vishny model it is assumed that all parties have the same information, while Schmitz (2023) has studied an extension of their analysis allowing for asymmetric information. Moreover, the Hart-Shleifer-Vishny model assumes that the private party derives no utility from provision of the public good. Besley and Ghatak (2001) have shown that if the private party (a non-governmental organization) cares about the public good, then the party with the larger valuation of the public good should always be the owner, regardless of the parties' investment technologies.More recently, some authors have shown that the investment technology also matters in the Besley-Ghatak framework if an investing party is indispensable or if there are bargaining frictions between the government and the private party. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_ownership |
In neoclassical economics profit is total investment performance and includes economic rent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_returns |
In neoclassical economics theory, labor market discrimination is defined as the different treatment of two equally qualified individuals on account of their gender, race, disability, religion, etc. Discrimination is harmful since it affects the economic outcomes of equally productive workers directly and indirectly through feedback effects. Darity and Mason summarise that the standard approach used in identifying employment discrimination is to isolate group productivity differences (education, work experience). Differences in outcomes (such as earnings, job placement) that cannot be attributed to worker qualifications are attributed to discriminatory treatment.In the non-neoclassical view, discrimination is the main source of inequality in the labor market and is seen in the persistent gender and racial earnings disparity in the U.S. Non-neoclassical economists define discrimination more broadly than neoclassical economists. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_discrimination |
For example, the feminist economist Deborah Figart defines labor market discrimination as "a multi-dimensional interaction of economic, social, political, and cultural forces in both the workplace and the family, resulting in different outcomes involving pay, employment, and status". That is, discrimination is not only about measurable outcomes but also about unquantifiable consequences. It is important to note that the process is as important as the outcomes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_discrimination |
Furthermore, gender norms are embedded in labor markets and shape employer preferences as well worker preferences; therefore, it is not easy to separate discrimination from productivity-related inequality.Although labor market inequalities have declined after the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964, the movement towards equality has slowed down after the mid-1970s, especially more in gender terms than racial terms. The key issue in the debate on employment discrimination is the persistence of discrimination, namely, why discrimination persists in a capitalist economy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_discrimination |
In neoclassical economics, a market distortion is any event in which a market reaches a market clearing price for an item that is substantially different from the price that a market would achieve while operating under conditions of perfect competition and state enforcement of legal contracts and the ownership of private property. A distortion is "any departure from the ideal of perfect competition that therefore interferes with economic agents maximizing social welfare when they maximize their own". A proportional wage-income tax, for instance, is distortionary, whereas a lump-sum tax is not. In a competitive equilibrium, a proportional wage income tax discourages work.In perfect competition with no externalities, there is zero distortion at market equilibrium of supply and demand where price equals marginal cost for each firm and product. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_distortion |
More generally, a measure of distortion is the deviation between the market price of a good and its marginal social cost, that is, the difference between the marginal rate of substitution in consumption and the marginal rate of transformation in production. Such a deviation may result from government regulation, monopoly tariffs and import quotas, which in theory may give rise to rent seeking. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_distortion |
Other sources of distortions are uncorrected externalities, different tax rates on goods or income, inflation, and incomplete information. Each of these may lead to a net loss in social surplus. Market distortions are events, decisions, or interventions taken by governments, companies, or other agents, often in order to influence the market. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_distortion |
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