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Every inertial body perceives itself to be at the center of the explosion of matter (see observable universe), and sees the local universe as homogeneous and isotropic in the sense of the cosmological principle. Unless the universe modeled has zero density, Milne's proposal does not follow the predictions of general relativity for the curvature of space caused by global matter distribution, as seen in, for example statistics associated with large-scale structure. Differences between Milne model and other models
In order to explain the existence of matter in the universe, Milne proposed a physical explosion of matter which would not affect the universe's geometry. This is in contrast to the metric expansion of space that is the hallmark feature of many of the more famous cosmological models including the Big Bang and Steady State models. Milne's universe shares a superficial similarity to Einstein's static universe in that the metric of space is not time-dependent. Unlike Einstein's initial cosmology, Milne's proposal directly contradicts the Einstein equations for cosmological scales. Special relativity becomes a global property of Milne's universe while general relativity is confined to a local property. The reverse is true for standard cosmological models, and most scientists and mathematicians agree that the latter is self-consistent while the former is mathematically impossible. Edward Arthur Milne predicted a kind of event horizon through the use of this model: "The particles near the boundary tend towards invisibility as seen by the central observer, and fade into a continuous background of finite intensity." | [
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The horizon arises naturally from length contraction seen in special relativity which is a consequence of the speed of light upper bound for physical objects. In Milne's universe, the velocities of objects approach this upper bound while the distance to these objects approaches the speed of light multiplied by the time since the event of the initial explosion of material. Beyond this distance, objects do not lie in the observable part of the Milne universe. At the time Milne proposed his model, observations of the universe did not appear to be in a homogeneous form. This, to Milne, was a deficiency inherent in the competing cosmological models which relied on the cosmological principle that demanded a homogeneous universe. “This conventional homogeneity is only definite when the motion of the particles is first prescribed.” With present observations of the homogeneity of the universe on the largest scales seen in the cosmic microwave background and in the so-called "End of Greatness", questions about the homogeneity of the universe have been settled in the minds of most observational cosmologists. Notes
References
Milne Cosmology: Why I Keep Talking About It - a detailed non-technical introduction to the Milne model
Wegener, Mogens True. Non-Standard Relativity: A Philosopher's Handbook of Heresies in Physics. BoD–Books on Demand, 2016. A thorough historical and theoretical study of the British Tradition in Cosmology, and one long celebration of Milne. Obsolete theories in physics
Exact solutions in general relativity
Minkowski spacetime
1935 in science | [
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In computer science, a grid file or bucket grid is a point access method which splits a space into a non-periodic grid where one or more cells of the grid refer to a small set of points. Grid files (a symmetric data structure) provide an efficient method of storing these indexes on disk to perform complex data lookups. It provides a grid of n-dimensions where n represents how many keys can be used to reference a single point. Grid files do not contain any data themselves but instead contain references to the correct bucket. Uses
A grid file is usually used in cases where a single value can be referenced by multiple keys. A grid file began being used because "traditional file structures that provide multikey access to records, for example, inverted files, are extensions of file structures originally designed for single-key access. They manifest various deficiencies in particular for multikey access to highly dynamic files." In a traditional single dimensional data structure (e.g. hash), a search on a single criterion is usually very simple but searching for a second criterion can be much more complex. Grid files represent a special kind of hashing, where the traditional hash is replaced by a grid directory. Examples
Census DatabaseElmasri & Navathe Fundamentals of Database Systems, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 2000. . Section 6.4.3: Grid Files, pp.185. Consider a database containing data from a census. A single record represents a single household, and all records are grouped into buckets. | [
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All records in a bucket can be indexed by either their city (which is the same for all records in the bucket), and the streets in that city whose names begin with the same letter. A grid file can be used to provide an efficient index for this structure, where records come in groupings of 26, each of them relating to street names in a city starting with one of the letters of the alphabet. This structure can be thought of as an array, table, or grid with two dimensions which we will call the x and y axes. One may consider the x-axis to be the city and the y-axis to be each of the letters in the alphabet, or alternatively, the first letter of each street. Each record in this structure is known as a cell. Each cell will contain a pointer to the appropriate bucket in the database where the actual data is stored. An extra cell, or record header, may be required to store the name of the city. Other cells grouped with it will only need to contain the pointer to their respective bucket, since the first cell corresponds to street names beginning with "A", the second to "B", and so on. The database can be further extended to contain a continent field to expand the census to other continents. This would cause records in the same bucket to correspond to households on a street beginning with the same letter, in the same city, in the same continent. | [
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The cells in the grid file would then consist of a city header, and six (one for each continent, not including Antarctica) groupings of 26 cells relating to the streets with the same starting letter, in the same city, on the same continent and could now be thought of as a three-dimensional array. Advantages
Since a single entry in the grid file contains pointers to all records indexed by the specified keys:
No special computations are required
Only the right records are retrieved
Can also be used for single search key queries
Easy to extend to queries on n search keys
Significant improvement in processing time for multiple-key queries
Has a two-disk-access upper bound for accessing data. Disadvantages
However, because of the nature of the grid file, which gives it its advantages, there are also some disadvantages:
Imposes space overhead
Performance overhead on insertion and deletion
Related Data Structures
multilayer grid file
twin grid files
BANG file
See also
Lattice graph
Grid (spatial index)
Index (database), Quadtree, Kd-tree, UB-tree, R-tree, range tree as alternatives. References
Computer files
Arrays | [
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SYN cookie is a technique used to resist SYN flood attacks. The technique's primary inventor Daniel J. Bernstein defines SYN cookies as "particular choices of initial TCP sequence numbers by TCP servers." In particular, the use of SYN cookies allows a server to avoid dropping connections when the SYN queue fills up. Instead of storing additional connections, a SYN queue entry is encoded into the sequence number sent in the SYN+ACK response. If the server then receives a subsequent ACK response from the client with the incremented sequence number, the server is able to reconstruct the SYN queue entry using information encoded in the TCP sequence number and proceed as usual with the connection. Implementation
In order to initiate a TCP connection, the client sends a TCP SYN packet to the server. In response, the server sends a TCP SYN+ACK packet back to the client. One of the values in this packet is a sequence number, which is used by the TCP to reassemble the data stream. According to the TCP specification, that first sequence number sent by an endpoint can be any value as decided by that endpoint. As the sequence number is chosen by the sender, returned by the recipient, and has no otherwise-defined internal structure, it can be overloaded to carry additional data. The following describes one possible implementation, however as there is no public standard to follow, the order, length, and semantics of the fields may differ between SYN cookie implementations. | [
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SYN cookies are initial sequence numbers that are carefully constructed according to the following rules:
let t be a slowly incrementing timestamp (typically logically right-shifted 6 positions, which gives a resolution of 64 seconds)
let m be the maximum segment size (MSS) value that the server would have stored in the SYN queue entry
let s be the result of a cryptographic hash function computed over the server IP address and port number, the client IP address and port number, and the value t. The returned value s must be a 24-bit value. The initial TCP sequence number, i.e. the SYN cookie, is computed as follows:
Top 5 bits: t mod 32
Middle 3 bits: an encoded value representing m
Bottom 24 bits: s
(Note: since m must be encoded using 3 bits, the server is restricted to sending up to 8 unique values for m when SYN cookies are in use.) When a client sends back a TCP ACK packet to the server in response to the server's SYN+ACK packet, the client must (according to the TCP spec) use n+1 in the packet's Acknowledgement number, where n is the initial sequence number sent by the server. The server then subtracts 1 from the acknowledgement number to reveal the SYN cookie sent to the client. The server then performs the following operations. Checks the value t against the current time to see if the connection has expired. Recomputes s to determine whether this is, indeed, a valid SYN cookie. | [
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Decodes the value m from the 3-bit encoding in the SYN cookie, which it then can use to reconstruct the SYN queue entry. From this point forward, the connection proceeds as normal. Drawbacks
The use of SYN cookies does not break any protocol specifications, and therefore should be compatible with all TCP implementations. There are, however, two caveats that take effect when SYN cookies are in use. Firstly, the server is limited to only 8 unique MSS values, as that is all that can be encoded in 3 bits. Secondly, early implementations rejected all TCP options (such as large windows or timestamps), because the server discarded the SYN queue entry where that information would otherwise be stored. ; however v2.6.26 of the Linux kernel added partial support of TCP options by encoding them into the timestamp option. Finally, SYN cookies place increased load on server resources. Encrypting responses is computationally expensive. The SYN cookie does not reduce traffic, which makes it ineffective against SYN flooding attacks that target bandwidth as the attack vector. While these restrictions necessarily lead to a sub-optimal experience, their effect is rarely noticed by clients because they are only applied when under attack. In such a situation, the loss of the TCP options in order to save the connection is usually considered to be a reasonable compromise. A problem arises when the connection-finalizing ACK packet sent by the client is lost, and the application layer protocol requires the server to speak first (SMTP and SSH are two examples). | [
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In this case, the client assumes that the connection was established successfully and waits for the server to send its protocol banner, or resend the SYN+ACK packet; however, the server is not aware of the session and will not resend the SYN+ACK because it discarded the backlog queue entry that would enable it to do so. Eventually, the client will abort the connection due to an application layer timeout, but this may take a relatively long time. TCP Cookie Transactions (TCPCT) standard was designed to overcome these shortcomings of SYN cookies and improve it on a couple of aspects. Unlike SYN cookies, TCPCT is a TCP extension and required support from both endpoints. It was moved to "Historic" status by RFC 7805 in 2016. Security considerations
Simple firewalls that are configured to allow all outgoing connections but to restrict which ports an incoming connection can reach (for example, allow incoming connections to a Web server on port 80 but restrict all other ports), work by blocking only incoming SYN requests to unwanted ports. If SYN cookies are in operation, care should be taken to ensure an attacker is not able to bypass such a firewall by forging ACKs instead, trying random sequence numbers until one is accepted. SYN cookies should be switched on and off on a per-port basis, so that SYN cookies being enabled on a public port does not cause them to be recognised on a non-public port. | [
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The original Linux kernel implementation misunderstood this part of Bernstein's description and used a single global variable to switch on SYN cookies for all ports; this was pointed out by a research student and subsequently fixed in . History
The technique was created by Daniel J. Bernstein and Eric Schenk in September 1996. The first implementation (for SunOS) was released by Jeff Weisberg a month later, and Eric Schenk released his Linux implementation in February 1997. FreeBSD implements syncookies since FreeBSD 4.5 (January 2002). See also
SYN flood
IP Spoofing
TCP Cookie Transactions
References
External links
D. J. Bernstein's own explanation of SYN cookies
Appendix A
Computer network security
Transmission Control Protocol | [
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A self-extracting archive (SFX or SEA) is a computer executable program which contains compressed data in an archive file combined with machine-executable program instructions to extract this information on a compatible operating system and without the necessity for a suitable extractor to be already installed on the target computer. The executable part of the file is known as a decompressor stub. Self-extracting files are used to share compressed files with a party that may not necessarily have the software to decompress the file. Users can also use self-extracting to distribute their own software. For example, the WinRAR installation program is made using the graphical GUI RAR self-extracting module Default.sfx. Overview
It incorporates an executable file module, a module used to run uncompressed files from compressed files. Such a compressed file does not require an external program to decompress the contents of the self-extracting file, and it can run the operation itself. However, file archivers like WinRAR can still treat self-extracting files as any other compressed files. Users who are unwilling to run the self-extracting file they received (for example, when it may contain a virus) can use the file archiver to view or decompress its content without running executable code. On executing a self-extracting archive under an operating system which supports it, the archive contents are extracted and stored as files on the disk. Often, the embedded self-extractor supports a number of command line arguments to control the behaviour, i.e. to specify the target location or select only specific files to be extracted. Non-self-extracting archives contain the archived files only and therefore need to be extracted with a compatible program. | [
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Self-extracting archives cannot self-extract under a different operating system but most often can still be opened with a suitable extractor as this tool will disregard the executable part of the file and instead extract only the archive resource. In some cases this requires the self-extracting executable to be renamed to hold a file extension associated with the corresponding packer. Self-extracting files usually have an .exe extension like other executable files. For example, an archive may be called somefiles.zip - it can be opened under any operating system by a suitable archive manager which supports both the file format and compression algorithm used. It could alternatively be converted into somefiles.exe which will self-extract on a machine running Microsoft Windows without the need for that suitable archive manager. It will not self-extract under Linux, but can be opened with a suitable Linux archive manager. There are several functionally equivalent but incompatible archive file formats, including ZIP, RAR, 7z and many others. Some programs can manage (create, extract, or modify) only one type of archive whilst many others can handle multiple formats. There is additionally a distinction between the file format and compression algorithm used. A single file format, such as 7z, can support multiple different compression algorithms including LZMA, LZMA2, PPMd and BZip2. For a decompression utility to correctly expand an archive of either the self-extracting or standard variety, it must be able to operate on both the file format and algorithm used. The exact executable code placed at the beginning of a self-extracting archive may therefore need to be varied depending on what options were used to create the archive. | [
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The decompression routines will be different for a LZMA 7z archive when compared with a LZMA2 7z archive, for example. Several programs can create self-extracting archives. For Windows there is WinZip, WinRAR, 7-Zip, WinUHA, KGB Archiver, Make SFX, the built-in IExpress wizard and many others, some experimental. For Macintosh there are StuffIt, The Unarchiver, and 7zX. There are also programs that create self-extracting archives on Unix as shell scripts which utilizes programs like tar and gzip (which must be present in destination system). Others (like 7-Zip or RAR) can create self-extracting archives as regular executables in ELF format. An early example of a self-extracting archive was the Unix shar archive in which one or more text files were combined into a shell script that when executed recreated the original files. Self-extracting archives can be used to archive any number of data as well as executable files. They must be distinguished from executable compression, where the executable file contains a single executable only and running the file does not result in the uncompressed file being stored on disk, but in its code being executed in memory after decompression. Advantages
Archiving files rather than sending them separately allows several related files to be combined into a single resource. It also has the benefit of reducing the size of files not already efficiently compressed (many compression algorithms cannot make already compressed data any smaller. Compression will therefore usually reduce the size of a plain text document but hardly affect a JPEG picture or a word processor document. | [
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This is because most modern Word Processor file formats now involve a certain level of compression already). Self-extracting archives also extend the advantages of compressed archives to users who do not have the necessary programs installed on their computer to otherwise extract their contents, but are running a compatible operating system. However, for users who do have archive managing software, a self-extracting archive may still be slightly more convenient. Self-extracting archives also allow for their contents to be encrypted for security, provided the chosen underlying compression algorithm and format allow for it. In many cases though the file and directory names are not part of the encryption and can be seen by anyone, even without the key or password. Additionally, some encryption algorithms rely on there being no known partial plaintexts available so if an attacker is able to guess part of the contents of the files from their names or context alone they may be able to break the encryption on the entire archive with only a reasonable amount of computing power and time. Care therefore needs to be taken or a more suitable encryption algorithm used. Disadvantages
A disadvantage of self-extracting archives is that running executables of unverified reliability, for example when sent as an email attachment or downloaded from the Internet, may be a security risk. An executable file described as a self-extracting archive may actually be a malicious program. | [
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One protection against this is to open it with an archive manager instead of executing it (losing the minor advantage of self-extraction); the archive manager will either report the file as not an archive or will show the underlying metadata of the executable file - a strong indication that the file is not actually a self-extracting archive. Additionally, some systems for distributing files do not accept executable files in order to prevent the transmission of malicious programs. These systems disallow self-extracting archive files unless they are cumbersomely renamed by the sender to, say, somefiles.exx, and later renamed back again by the recipient. This technique is gradually becoming less effective however as an increasing number of security suites and antivirus software packages instead scan file headers for the underlying format rather than relying on a correct file extension. These security systems will not be fooled by an incorrect file extension and are particularly prevalent in the analysis of email attachments. Self-extracting archives will only run under the operating system family and platform with which they are compatible, making it more difficult to extract their contents under other systems. Examples of self-extracting archives, which can be run on multiple targets (such as DOS and CP/M) rather than only an archive's contents to be usable under multiple systems, are very rare, because they require the embedded decompressor stub to be a fat binary. Also, since the self-extracting archives must include executable code to handle the extraction of the contained archive file, they are a little larger than the original archive. | [
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See also
Installer
Self-booting disk
Shar
Kolmogorov complexity, a theoretical lower bound on the size of a self-extracting archive
References
External links
http://www.winzip.com
http://www.7-zip.org
http://www.jackmccarthy.com/malware/WinRAR_Archive_Creation.htm (About SFX)
http://hem.bredband.net/magli143/exo/ for 6502/Z80/6809 executables
http://74.cz/make-sfx/
Data compression | [
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Davis Wolfgang Hawke (1978–2017) was a spammer who was sued by AOL in 2004 under the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003. Previously, in 1999 he started two neo-Nazi groups to make the "final solution a reality." He has been dubbed by the press as the "spam Nazi." Hawke was found shot to death as an unknown victim in Squamish in 2017 and identified in October of 2020. Biography
Hawke graduated from Westwood High School in 1996. Subsequently, he changed his name from Andrew Britt Greenbaum to Davis Wolfgang Hawke on 1997, after his 18th birthday. He went on to attend Wofford College in South Carolina, completing three years. Despite Hawke's father being Jewish, while attending school he was a speaker and leader for two Neo-Nazi groups he started. His success was very limited. Under the pseudonym of "Bo Decker," he began selling Nazi merchandise and offering membership to his internet neo-Nazi group "Knights of Freedom" and later the American Nationalist Party. Hawke dropped out of college and turned his computer skills into spamming following embarrassingly low turnouts and support for his neo-Nazi groups. Hawke went on to earn thousands of dollars each week spamming email and cell phone numbers. Hawke was known to be an aficionado of chess. In high school, he achieved a United States Chess Federation rating of nearly 2000. In the late 1990s, Hawke played in South Carolina and Tennessee under the pseudonym Walter Smith. He played throughout Colorado as David A. Wallace on and off, before disappearing in approximately summer of 2006. | [
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0.95849... |
Over the years, Hawke used numerous aliases, even among his closest friends and business associates. During his time as a neo-Nazi, he referred to himself as Bo Decker. As a spammer, he typically went by aliases including Walter Cross, Johnny Durango, and Dave Bridger. At a chess tournament in 2001, Hawke met Braden (Brad) Bournival, a New Hampshire high school student. Hawke tutored Bournival in the spam business, and, in 2003, they co-founded Amazing Internet Products. The company, which had offices in Manchester, New Hampshire, was responsible for millions of spams for an herbal (Yohimbe) "penis enhancement" product called Pinacle. By the summer of 2003, Amazing Internet Products was grossing around $500,000 per month. One of Hawke's spam affiliates was Robby Todino, the so-called Time Travel Spammer. In 2004 AOL won a $12.8-million judgment against Hawke in America Online, Inc. v. Davis Wolfgang Hawke, et al. AOL accused Hawke of violating anti-spam laws by sending unwanted emails to its subscribers and won its case in a default judgment against Hawke. On August 15, 2006 AOL announced their intention to search for buried precious metals on the property of Hawke's parents in Medfield, Massachusetts. Hawke had previously claimed to have converted assets into precious metals and buried them. In 2007 AOL decided against the dig to search for the gold Hawke bragged about when he earned an estimated $600,000 for spamming ads for penis enlargement pills. | [
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Hawke was found shot to death and burned in his vehicle in Squamish in 2017, where he had been living as a dirtbag climber under an assumed identity since 2006, but was not identified until October of 2020. Hawke's rise and fall as a spammer was chronicled in the 2004 book Spam Kings, in which he is the central case study. See also
Dan Burros - a Jewish American Ku Klux Klan leader
Frank Collin - a Jewish American neo-Nazi
Weev - a Jewish neo-Nazi that writes for The Daily Stormer
List of spammers
References
External links
Knights of Freedom -Hawke's former website from Archive.org
America Online, Inc. v. Davis Wolfgang Hawke, et al from Eastern District of Virginia
Email spammers
1978 births
2017 deaths
American neo-Nazis
People from Medfield, Massachusetts
Wofford College alumni
American people of Jewish descent
People from Rhode Island
Jewish fascists | [
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A tree sort is a sort algorithm that builds a binary search tree from the elements to be sorted, and then traverses the tree (in-order) so that the elements come out in sorted order. Its typical use is sorting elements online: after each insertion, the set of elements seen so far is available in sorted order. Tree sort can be used as a one-time sort, but it is equivalent to quicksort as both recursively partition the elements based on a pivot, and since quicksort is in-place and has lower overhead, it has few advantages over quicksort. It has better worst case complexity when a self-balancing tree is used, but even more overhead. Efficiency
Adding one item to a binary search tree is on average an process (in big O notation). Adding n items is an process, making tree sorting a 'fast sort' process. Adding an item to an unbalanced binary tree requires time in the worst-case: When the tree resembles a linked list (degenerate tree). This results in a worst case of time for this sorting algorithm. This worst case occurs when the algorithm operates on an already sorted set, or one that is nearly sorted, reversed or nearly reversed. Expected time can however be achieved by shuffling the array, but this does not help for equal items. The worst-case behaviour can be improved by using a self-balancing binary search tree. Using such a tree, the algorithm has an worst-case performance, thus being degree-optimal for a comparison sort. | [
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However, tree sort algorithms require separate memory to be allocated for the tree, as opposed to in-place algorithms such as quicksort or heapsort. On most common platforms, this means that heap memory has to be used, which is a significant performance hit when compared to quicksort and heapsort. When using a splay tree as the binary search tree, the resulting algorithm (called splaysort) has the additional property that it is an adaptive sort, meaning that its running time is faster than for inputs that are nearly sorted. Example
The following tree sort algorithm in pseudocode accepts a collection of comparable items and outputs the items in ascending order:
In a simple functional programming form, the algorithm (in Haskell) would look something like this:
data Tree a = Leaf | Node (Tree a) a (Tree a)
insert :: Ord a => a -> Tree a -> Tree a
insert x Leaf = Node Leaf x Leaf
insert x (Node t y s)
| x <= y = Node (insert x t) y s
| x > y = Node t y (insert x s)
flatten :: Tree a -> [a]
flatten Leaf = []
flatten (Node t x s) = flatten t ++ [x] ++ flatten s
treesort :: Ord a => [a] -> [a]
treesort = flatten . foldr insert Leaf
In the above implementation, both the insertion algorithm and the retrieval algorithm have worst-case scenarios. | [
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External links
Tree Sort of a Linked List
Tree Sort in C++
Sorting algorithms
Online sorts | [
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Michael Thoreau Lacey (born September 26, 1959) is an American mathematician. Lacey received his Ph.D. from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1987, under the direction of Walter Philipp. His thesis was in the area of probability in Banach spaces, and solved a problem related to the law of the iterated logarithm for empirical characteristic functions. In the intervening years, his work has touched on the areas of probability, ergodic theory, and harmonic analysis. His first postdoctoral positions were at the Louisiana State University, and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. While at UNC, Lacey and Walter Philipp gave their proof of the almost sure central limit theorem. He held a position at Indiana University from 1989 to 1996. While there, he received a National Science Foundation Postdoctoral Fellowship, and during the tenure of this fellowship he began a study of the bilinear Hilbert transform. This transform was at the time the subject of a conjecture by Alberto Calderón that Lacey and Christoph Thiele solved in 1996, for which they were awarded the Salem Prize. Since 1996, he has been a Professor of Mathematics at the Georgia Institute of Technology. In 2004, he received a Guggenheim Fellowship for joint work with Xiaochun Li. In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society. References
External links
List of mathematical publications on MathSciNet
Home page at Georgia Tech. 1959 births
Living people
20th-century American mathematicians
21st-century American mathematicians
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign alumni
Georgia Tech faculty
Fellows of the American Mathematical Society | [
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Cryptography is the practice and study of encrypting information, or in other words, securing information from unauthorized access. There are many different cryptography laws in different nations. Some countries prohibit export of cryptography software and/or encryption algorithms or cryptoanalysis methods. Some countries require decryption keys to be recoverable in case of a police investigation. Overview
Issues regarding cryptography law fall into four categories:
Export control, which is the restriction on export of cryptography methods within a country to other countries or commercial entities. There are international export control agreements, the main one being the Wassenaar Arrangement. The Wassenaar Arrangement was created after the dissolution of COCOM (Coordinating committee for Multilateral Export Controls), which in 1989 "decontrolled password and authentication-only cryptography." Import controls, which is the restriction on using certain types of cryptography within a country. Patent issues, which deal with the use of cryptography tools that are patented. Search and seizure issues, on whether and under what circumstances, a person can be compelled to decrypt data files or reveal an encryption key. Cryptography law in different countries
France
As of 2011 and since 2004, the law for trust in the digital economy (LCEN) mostly liberalized the use of cryptography. As long as cryptography is only used for authentication and integrity purposes, it can be freely used. The cryptographic key or the nationality of the entities involved in the transaction do not matter. Typical e-business websites fall under this liberalized regime. | [
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... |
Exportation and importation of cryptographic tools to or from foreign countries must be either declared (when the other country is a member of the European Union) or requires an explicit authorization (for countries outside the EU). United States
In the United States, the International Traffic in Arms Regulation restricts the export of cryptography. See also
Official Secrets Act - (United Kingdom, India, Ireland, Malaysia and formerly New Zealand)
Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (United Kingdom)
Restrictions on the Import of Cryptography
Export of cryptography
Key disclosure law
United States v. Boucher, on the right of a criminal defendant not to reveal a passphrase
FBI–Apple encryption dispute on whether cellphone manufacturers can be compelled to assist in their unlocking
References
External links
Bert-Jaap Koops' Crypto Law Survey - existing and proposed laws and regulations on cryptography | [
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Curves International, also known as Curves for Women, Curves Fitness, or just Curves, is an international fitness franchise co-founded by Gary and Diane Heavin in 1992. As of May 31, 2019, Curves lists 367 franchise locations open in the United States on their Facebook page. In 2012, North Castle Partners, a private equity firm, purchased a controlling stake in the company. The company is privately held by its co-founders and North Castle, with its headquarters located in Waco, Texas and corporate offices located with sister North Castle company Jenny Craig in Carlsbad, California. Curves fitness and weight loss facilities are designed specifically for and focused on women, although in some states, men are allowed to join. The clubs compete with other women's-only chain health clubs, including Spa Lady and Lucille Roberts.However, Curves is still the largest women's-only health club chain in the US and worldwide. In 2018 with the sale of Curves International by North Castle Partners to Koshidaka Holdings, Curves North America and Oceania headquarters relocated back to Waco, TX. History
Curves was founded by Gary Heavin and his wife, Diane. They opened their first Curves in Harlingen, Texas, in 1992. This new concept of 30-minute fitness, strength training, weight-loss guidance, and an environment designed for women was immediately successful. They began to develop plans for franchising the concept, with the first opening in 1999. Curves once claimed to be the world's largest fitness franchise and was recognized as one of the 10 largest franchise companies in the world in 2005. | [
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According to Curves International Inc's fact sheet, Curves achieved 6,000 franchises in 7 years. Curves facilities are located in 39 countries, including the United States, Canada, Mexico, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan. Curves is known as FitCurves in Ukraine, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, and the Czech Republic. In October 2006, Curves was said to have had over 10,000 locations worldwide, with 7,848 of those locations in the United States. Curves fitness and weight loss facilities are designed specifically for and focused on women. The program is designed around circuit training, which utilizes hydraulic resistance equipment to achieve results. The strength training regimen is combined with cardiovascular training for a full body workout, with each class led by a ‘Curves Coach’. There are four speciality classes, each of which is designed for different fitness levels from low intensity to high intensity, with one of the high intensity classes utilizing traditional boxing moves. All speciality classes emphasize strength-based functional movements. Curves Leadership
In 2012, Gary Heavin stepped down as CEO and sold the business to North Castle Partners. In 2018, North Castle Partners sold Curves International to Koshidaka Holdings (Curves Japan) while retaining Curves North America and Oceania. Krishea Holloway, was appointed President of Curves on 22 November 2018. On 15 August 2019, in a deal between North Castle Partners, existing Shareholders and Holloway, Curves DF Holdings sold the business to Holloway. | [
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Response to COVID-19
Like many gym and health club chains, Curves was significantly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, with many clubs in the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand closing temporarily or permanently. To manage the crisis and enable members to continue working out, Curves was able to offer their 30-minute total body workouts online with ‘MyCurves On Demand’, a virtual workout platform which launched in January 2020. This program provides members with unlimited access to the Curves fitness program and has been made available in the US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Research at Baylor University
In 2002, the Exercise & Sports Nutrition Laboratory at Baylor University began researching the efficacy of the Curves fitness and weight loss program. Curves awarded the ESNL a $5 million, five-year grant to start the Curves Women's Health Initiative. In 2008 this grant funding moved with Dr. Richard Kreider to the Texas A&M University. Gary Heavin's charitable contributions
In 2004, Curves International and its franchisees received some mixed and unwanted publicity stemming from articles about the charitable contributions of founder Gary Heavin. In an interview with Christianity Today, Heavin was quoted as saying that he donates money to "pro-life pregnancy care centers." The San Francisco Chronicle printed an article by Ruth Rosen, accusing Heavin of supporting militant anti-abortion groups. However, in an open letter to the Chronicle, Heavin challenged Rosen's characterization of his contributions. The Chronicle later published a correction which included a breakdown of the contributions at question. | [
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The contributions were given to three groups, Family Practice Center of McLennan County ($3.75 million), McLennan County Collaborative Abstinence Project ($275,000) and Care Net ($1 million.) Numerous blogs picked up the Rosen's version of the story, and several other articles on the subject subsequently appeared in other mainstream media. The publicity affected business at some individual franchises, particularly in the U.S. West Coast region (specifically California) and a few in the Atlantic Northeast and Pacific Northwest, causing an uproar from franchisees of Curves International. Despite this attempted re-characterization of the donations, business was affected, with memberships down and some franchisees severing their ties with Curves. In 2020, Heavin donated $10,000 to the far-right organization Oath Keepers. Heavin was questioned about the contribution and stated it was to support constitutional rights and didn't know what the group did with it. Curves Charitable Contributions
Curves supports and has partnered with several major charitable organizations in North America and Australasia, including the American Cancer Society (ACS), the Canadian Cancer Society, Cancer Council Australia, WomenAgainstAlzheimer's, Jean Hailes for Women's Health and Look Good Feel Better New Zealand. Curves has been recognized for its charitable efforts, including awards from the American Cancer Society in 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012 and 2014. Buyout-related lawsuit
In 2005, six plaintiffs brought a suit against Curves, Gary Heavin, and Roger Schmidt (the company's attorney) for $20 million. | [
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The plaintiffs claimed that Heavin cheated them out of their share of profits by him and Roger Schmidt pressuring them to sign a buyout contract allotting them a fraction of what they might have earned. Most of the plaintiffs were hired as independent sales reps after Curves had already opened hundreds of locations. The lawsuit failed to mention that the sales reps were paid more than $26 million for their work. In popular culture
Curves has been parodied in The Simpsons in the episode "Husbands and Knives", in which Marge opens a successful franchise of a gym called Shapes, and in an episode of South Park entitled "D-Yikes!". In The New Adventures of Old Christine, Christine owns a gym extremely similar to Curves - a franchised 30-minute gym for women where a recorded voice tells them to "change stations" every 30 seconds. Curves has also been mentioned in TV shows such as Two Broke Girls, The Middle and Living with Yourself, along with popular game shows like Jeopardy and Cash Cabs. References
External links
Curves International
Franchises
American companies established in 1992
Health care companies established in 1992
1992 establishments in Texas
Companies based in Waco, Texas
Health clubs in the United States
Medical and health organizations based in Texas | [
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Paul Dourish (born 1966) is a computer scientist best known for his work and research at the intersection of computer science and social science. Born in Scotland, he holds the Steckler Endowed Chair of Information and Computer Science at the University of California, Irvine, where he joined the faculty in 2000,
and where he directs the Steckler Center for Responsible, Ethical, and
Accessible Technology. He is a Fellow of the AAAS,
the ACM, and
the British Computer Society, and is a two-time winner of the ACM
CSCW "Lasting Impact" award, in 2016 and 2021. Dourish has published three books and over 100 scientific articles, and holds 19 US patents. Life
Born and raised in Glasgow, Scotland, Dourish studied at St Aloysius' College. He then received a B.Sc. in Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science from the University of Edinburgh in 1989. He moved to work at Rank Xerox EuroPARC (later the Xerox Research Center Europe) in Cambridge, UK, during which time he completed a Ph.D. in Computer Science at University College London (UCL). After completing his Ph.D, he moved to California, working for Apple Computer in Cupertino, California. He worked in research laboratories at Apple Computer until they closed 10 months later and then at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center. In 2000, Dourish moved to Southern California, when he joined the faculty at the University of California, Irvine. Since then, he has remained a full professor of Informatics. | [
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He has held visiting positions at Intel, Microsoft, Stanford University, MIT, the IT University of Copenhagen, and the University of Melbourne. Work
His published work is primarily in the areas of Human-Computer Interaction, Computer supported cooperative work, and Ubiquitous computing. He is the author of over 100 scientific publications, and holds 19 US patents. He is amongst the most prolific and widely cited scholars in Human-Computer Interaction; Microsoft's academic search system lists him as the fourth most influential author in the area while Google Scholar calculates his h-index at over 50. His research tends to draw both on technical and social domains, and speak to the relationship between them. His research topics have included the role of informal awareness in supporting coordination in collaborative systems, the relationship between 'place' and 'space' in information systems, and
methodological questions about the use of ethnographic techniques in information systems design. At UC Irvine, he is a teaching professor of Informatics in the Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences department, where he is a member of the Laboratory for Ubiquitous Computing and Interaction (LUCI), and in the interdisciplinary graduate program in Arts Computation Engineering. In addition to his appointment in Informatics, he has courtesy appointments in Computer Science and Anthropology. From 2004–2006, he was Associate Director at the
California Institute for Telecommunications and Information Technology. He co-directs the Center for Social Computing, one of Intel Corporation's US science and technology centers. Based at UC Irvine, this center involves academic partners from NYU, Cornell, Georgia Tech, and Indiana University. | [
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At UC Irvine, Dourish is also a member of:
The divisional council of the California Institute for Telecommunications and Information Technology
The Center for Cyber-Security and Privacy
The Institute for Software Research
The Center for Organizational Research
The Center for Computer Games and Virtual Worlds
The Center for Unconventional Security Affairs
The Center for Biomedical Informatics
The advisory board of the Center for Ethnography and the Institute for Money, Technology, and Financial Inclusion
The executive board of the UC-wide Pacific Rim Research Program
Along with being a member of the aforementioned organizations, Dourish is a "co-conspirator" in the Laboratory for Ubiquitous Computing and Interaction, a faculty associate of the Center for Research on Information Technology and Organizations, and a co-coordinator of the People and Practices PAPR@UCI initiative. Awards
In 2008, he was elected to the CHI Academy in recognition of his contributions to Human-Computer Interaction. Dourish won the Diana Forsythe Prize in 2002, and the BM Faculty Award in 2006 under the American Medical Informatics Association. He was also awarded the National Science Foundation CAREER Award in 2002. Dourish recently received a $201,000 grant to conduct research on people's online participation in social movements. Dourish recently received a $400,000 grant to research how the creative design process works when a team is split up through different cultures. Dourish also recently received a $247,000 grant to research how social media ties into death in real life. In 2015 he was named a fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery "for contributions in social computing and human-computer interaction." Research
Dourish mainly performs research in three specific areas of human-computer interaction (HCI). | [
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This includes work under ubiquitous computing (ubicomp), computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW), and Social Studies of Science and Technology. Dourish combines this technical research with sociology, anthropology, and cultural studies in an effort that he calls "embodied interaction." One of Dourish's most recognized contributions has been bringing sociological and phenomenological understandings of human activity to the design of technological systems. For example, his work on spatiality in virtual worlds and computer mediated communication has emphasized how people—in interaction with systems and with one another—evolve new understandings of space, media, and relationships. He also drew on Schutzian phenomenology to argue that tangible computing and social computing share an underlying emphasis on people as embodied, social actors. Emphasizing people as social and embodied points to the importance of how individuals are constituted through their interactions and movements in space with other people. This model is counterposed to models of the person in Human-Computer Interaction that focus exclusively on people's cognitive capabilities. Previous projects that Dourish has worked on include studies of privacy and spatiality. In this first study, Dourish emphasized privacy as "something that people do rather than something that people have". He was interested in how people rate information and activities based on privacy and risk. Through the studies, he sought knowledge of private practice as a social phenomenon. His second study involved the impact on shaping spatiality by information technologies. His goal was to study spatiality as a social and cultural production. Dourish's recent work has dealt with information technology use in trans-national and trans-cultural contexts. | [
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For example, his work on postcolonial computing has tried to unpack how assumptions about technology and knowledge drawn from Western or industrialized nation experiences create shape (or misshape) technology design. In the process, he has worked with indigenous Australian people, Chinese gamers, mobility between Thailand and the US, and Indian people regarding IT design. Dourish and his team were drawn by these new settings to dismiss the presumption that "everyone is or wants to be just like us". The new experience also helped to challenge current technological practices by showing the assumptions made in familiar settings. Dourish is interested and intrigued by opportunities presented through design as potential means of ethnographic engagement. He combines social theory, empirical examination, and technology design with varying emphasis throughout his projects. Publications
Dourish has published three books. He published "Where the Action Is: The Foundations of Embodied Interaction" (MIT Press) in 2001. This book explores the relationship between phenomenological sociology
and interaction design, particularly with reference to physically embodied computation and ubiquitous computing. He proposes Tangible computing and Social computing as two different aspects of the same program of investigation, named embodiment. His second book, "Divining a Digital Future: Mess and Mythology in Ubiquitous Computing," written in collaboration with Genevieve Bell, is an exploration of the social and cultural aspects of ubiquitous computing, with a particular focus on the disciplinary and methodological issues that have shaped the ubiquitous computing research agenda. It was published by MIT Press in 2011. | [
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His third book, "The Stuff of Bits: An Essay on the Materialities of Information," explores the "material arrangements” of various digital objects—that is, how information is represented and interpreted. Through a series of case studies, featuring digital artifacts and practices such as emulation, spreadsheets, databases, and computer networks, he connects the representation of information to broader issues of human experience, touching on “questions of power, policy, and polity in the realm of the digital." The book was published by MIT Press in 2017. In addition to the three books, he has published conference proceedings, journal papers, conference papers, book chapters, technical reports, essay & position papers, editorial activities, and patents. A full list of his publications can be found at Paul Dourish. Many of the patents that he holds involve document management. Teaching
Paul Dourish is a professor of informatics, computer science, and anthropology at UC Irvine. Some classes Dourish teaches are Ubiquitous Computing and Interaction, Social Analysis of Computerization, and Human-Computer Interaction. His Ubiquitous Computing and Interaction class focuses on how humans obtain information and interact using computers. Dourish's Socian Analysis of Computerization class focuses on how the internet, information, and technology affect our everyday lives. Finally, Dourish's Research in Computer-Human Interaction class examines the interactions between users and their devices and can be applied to either a person theoretically studying the field to write a dissertation or to a student wanting to apply these ideas to their own products. | [
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See also
Lucy Suchman
Terry Winograd
Mark Weiser
Bonnie Nardi
Genevieve Bell
Béatrice Galinon-Mélénec
Critical technical practice
Selected bibliography
Dourish, P. 2001. Where the Action Is: The Foundations of Embodied Interaction. Cambridge: MIT Press. Dourish, P. 2004. What We Talk About When We Talk About Context. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 8(1), 19–30. Dourish, P. and Anderson, K. 2006. Collective Information Practice: Exploring Privacy and Security as Social and Cultural Phenomena. Human-Computer Interaction, 21(3), 319–342. References
External links
Dourish's UC personal home page
LUCI The Laboratory for Ubiquitous Computing and Interaction
Dourish's personal website
Dourish's awards
Dourish's UC Irvine faculty information
1966 births
Living people
American computer scientists
Scottish computer scientists
British computer scientists
Human–computer interaction researchers
University of California, Irvine faculty
Ubiquitous computing researchers
People educated at St Aloysius' College, Glasgow
Scientists from Glasgow
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Scientists at PARC (company) | [
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Grupo Editorial Vid (also known as Vid or Mundo Vid) was a Mexican comic, manga and books publisher. It was funded in the early 1940s as Editorial Argumentos (EDAR). Many of their books are sold from around 30 pesos for comics up to 60 Pesos for manga (approximately US$5–6). Both comics and manga are released monthly. Comics
In the mid 1990s, Vid started publishing Marvel Comics, DC Comics, and Image Comics, among others, as well as some independent titles. In 2005, when Televisa acquired the rights to publish Marvel titles they stopped selling it. Published Marvel Titles:
The Amazing Spider-Man
Uncanny X-Men
Ultimate Spider-Man
Ultimate X-Men
Avengers
The Ultimates
Secret Wars
Infinity Gauntlet
Marvel Mangaverse
Marvels
DC Comics published and current titles:
Superman
Batman
Wonder Woman
Green Lantern
Flash
Crisis on Infinite Earths
Infinite Crisis
Justice
JLA
Superman/Batman
All-Star Superman
All-Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder
DC vs Marvel
JLA/Avengers
Watchmen
WildC.A.TS
52
Image/Top Cow:
Spawn
Hellspawn
Savage Dragon
Tomb Raider
Dark Horse Titles:
Hellboy
Frank Miller's 300
Star Wars
Bongo Comics:
Simpsons Comics
Bart Simpson's Treehouse of Horror
Mundo Vid Titles:
Memin Pinguin, the first comic published. El Pantera
Lágrimas y Risas franchise (firstly known as Lágrimas, risas y amor). Many of its stories has been adapted as soap operas (telenovelas) by Televisa TV network
Manga and Manhwa published by Vid
Future Manga and Manhwa releases
Keroro
FullMetal Alchemist
Hellsing
King of Hell
Unbalance x Unbalance
Chronicles of the Cursed Sword
External links
Mundo Vid
Comic book publishing companies of Mexico
Manga distributors
Manhwa distributors | [
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Jefferson Y. "Jeff" Han (born 1975) is a computer scientist who worked for New York University's (NYU) Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences until 2006. He is one of the main developers of "multi-touch sensing", which, unlike older touch-screen interfaces, is able to recognize multiple points of contact. Han also works on other projects in the fields of autonomous robot navigation, motion capture, real-time computer graphics, and human-computer interaction. Career
He presented his multi-touch sensing work in February 2006 at the TED (Technology Entertainment Design) Conference in Monterey, California. TED released the video online six months later and it spread quickly on YouTube. Han founded a company called Perceptive Pixel to develop his touch screen technology further, and he has already shipped touch screens to parts of the military. Han's technology has been featured most notably as the "Magic Wall" on CNN's Election Center coverage. Han's company was acquired by Microsoft in 2012, where he became Partner General Manager of Perceptive Pixel (later Surface Hub). Han left Microsoft in late 2015, shortly before Surface Hub's launch. Personal life
He is the son of middle-class Korean immigrants who emigrated to the United States in the 1970s. Education
Han graduated from The Dalton School in New York in 1993 and studied computer science and electrical engineering for three years at Cornell University before leaving to join a start-up company to commercialize the CU-SeeMe video-conferencing software that he helped develop while an undergraduate at Cornell. | [
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Honors
Han was named to Time magazine's 2008 listing of the "100 Most Influential People in The World". References
External links
Jeff Han's Multitouch Demo (II) (2007Mar21)
Jeff Han: A year later (Wired Magazine)
Jeff Han demonstrating multi-touch interface on big screen
Jeff Han's 10 min Talk at TED Conference (2006) Monterey, CA
Jeff Han homepage at NYU
Specific Multi-Touch Sensing work – includes video
Transcript of a presentation delivered at ETech on 7 March 2006
Presentation over YouTube
Perceptive Pixel
The Untold Story of Microsoft's Surface Hub
"The radical promise of the multi-touch interface" (TED2006)
American computer scientists
1975 births
Living people
Scientists from New York (state)
New York University staff
Cornell University College of Engineering alumni
Dalton School alumni | [
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Natural Computing is a scientific journal covering natural computing research. It has been published quarterly by Springer Verlag (Springer Netherlands) in print () and online () since 2002. "Natural Computing refers to computational processes observed in nature, and human-designed computing inspired by nature ... molecular computing and quantum computing ... use of algorithms to consider evolution as a computational process, and neural networks in light of computational trends in brain research." It includes 19 open access articles as of 19 June 2016 and has an impact factor of 1.310. References
Computer science journals
English-language journals
Springer Science+Business Media academic journals
Quarterly journals
Publications established in 2002 | [
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Groupement des cartes bancaires CB ("CB Bank card Group"), also known as simply CB, is France's national interbank network, with over 46,000 ATMs and over 1 million EFTPOS acceptance points. Carte Bleue VISA is a brand often associated with CB. In fact, all Carte Bleue cards are part of CB but not all CB cards are Carte Bleue (they could also be MasterCard). CB offers the ATM and EFTPOS networking infrastructure, while Carte Bleue is the debit card or mode of payment. CB GIE was created in 1984 by the six founding banks of Carte Bleue, plus Crédit agricole and Crédit Mutuel. Since 1992, all CB cards are smart cards; France was the first country to bring into the mainstream the use of smart cards with PIN verification in lieu of magnetic stripe cards and signature verification. In an example of a genericized trademark, it is commonplace in France to refer to any payment card as a carte bleue, whether or not this is in fact the case. See also
Carte Bleue
References
External links
Official site of CB
Smart cards
Interbank networks
Financial services companies of France | [
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CyberTracker is software from a South African non-profit company, CyberTracker Conservation, that develops handheld data capture solutions. The software was first developed as a way to allow illiterate animal trackers to communicate their environmental observations. A prototype was used in 2002 to record details of animals killed in an outbreak of ebola. It has since evolved to become a general purpose data capture and visualization system. However, it retains the ability to be used by illiterate and low-literate users. CyberTracker's primary user base is wildlife biologists, conservationists and disaster relief workers. References
External links
CyberTracker web site
Justin's CyberTracker Corner
Learning to Track Like a Bushman, Wired
Bazilchuk, Nancy. 2004. Backward compatible. Conservation in Practice 5(4):37-38. Software companies of South Africa
South African inventions | [
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AvantGo was a technology company focused on bringing a full W3C-compliant browser experience to intermittently-connected mobile devices such as the personal digital assistants (PDAs) and extremely early smartphones of that time period. Their browser could work with a live internet connection, but their core technology was the ability to sync web pages (including forms and Javascript) to the device, allow the user to interact with them even while off-line, and then forward any results (primarily HTTP POST messages) the next time the device synced. Despite this, the company is primarily remembered for their proof-of-technology demo service, which allowed users to set up a free account and subscribe to web pages and "content channels", which they could then view offline. While the free service was quite popular, it was not successful in marketing the technology to the intended customers. Eventually AvantGo was acquired by Sybase, Inc. in a white-knight transaction; the free public service was never monetized profitably and was eventually shut down. History
AvantGo was founded in 1997 and was based in San Mateo, California. It quickly grew to nearly 400 employees and went public on September 28, 2000. Its IPO price was $12/share and it closed the day up $8 at $20/share with a market cap of nearly $1 billion. On Dec 12, 2002, the company was sold to Sybase for $38 million, only a bit more than the cash it had on hand. | [
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Starting in June 2008, AvantGo displayed on their main page and on the device web browser that all synchronization and channel services would be shut down on June 30, 2009. In 2009, the AvantGo service was owned and operated by Sybase 365, a subsidiary of Sybase, Inc. It became a managed ad insertion platform focused on SMS ad campaigns. Sybase was acquired by SAP in 2010; SAP no longer uses the AvantGo or Sybase brand names
. References
External links
AvantGo
Personal digital assistant software | [
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META II is a domain-specific programming language for writing compilers. It was created in 1963–1964 by Dewey Val Schorre at UCLA. META II uses what Schorre called syntax equations. Its operation is simply explained as:
Each syntax equation is translated into a recursive subroutine which tests the input string for a particular phrase structure, and deletes it if found. Meta II programs are compiled into an interpreted byte code language. VALGOL and SMALGOL compilers illustrating its capabilities were written in the META II language, VALGOL is a simple algebraic language designed for the purpose of illustrating META II. SMALGOL was a fairly large subset of ALGOL 60. Notation
META II was first written in META I, a hand-compiled version of META II. The history is unclear as to whether META I was a full implementation of META II or a required subset of the META II language required to compile the full META II compiler. In its documentation, META II is described as resembling BNF, which today is explained as a production grammar. META II is an analytical grammar. In the TREE-META document these languages were described as reductive grammars. For example, in BNF, an arithmetic expression may be defined as:
<expr> := <term> | <expr> <addop> <term>
BNF rules are today production rules describing how constituent parts may be assembled to form only valid language constructs. A parser does the opposite taking language constructs apart. META II is a stack-based functional parser programming language that includes output directive. In META II, the order of testing is specified by the equation. | [
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META II like other programming languages would overflow its stack attempting left recursion. META II uses a $ (zero or more) sequence operator. The expr parsing equation written in META II is a conditional expression evaluated left to right:
expr = term
$( '+' term .OUT('ADD')
/ '-' term .OUT('SUB'));
Above the expr equation is defined by the expression to the right of the '='. Evaluating left to right from the '=', term is the first thing that must be tested. If term returns failure expr fails. If successful a term was recognized we then enter the indefinite $ zero or more loop were we first test for a '+' if that fails the alternative '-' is attempted and finally if a '-' were not recognized the loop terminates with expr returning success having recognized a single term. If a '+' or '-' were successful then term would be called. And if successful the loop would repeat. The expr equation can also be expressed using nested grouping as:
expr = term $(('+' / '-') term);
The code production elements were left out to simplify the example. Due to the limited character set of early computers the character / was used as the alternative, or, operator. | [
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The $, loop operator, is used to match zero or more of something:
expr = term $( '+' term .OUT('ADD')
/ '-' term .OUT('SUB')
);
The above can be expressed in English: An expr is a term followed by zero or more of (plus term or minus term). Schorre describes this as being an aid to efficiency, but unlike a naive recursive descent compiler it will also ensure that the associativity of arithmetic operations is correct:
expr = term $('+' term .OUT('ADD')
/ '-' term .OUT('SUB')
);
term = factor $( '*' factor .OUT('MPY')
/ '/' factor .OUT('DIV')
);
factor = ( .ID
/ .NUMBER
/ '(' expr ')')
( '^' factor .OUT('EXP')
/ .EMPTY);
With the ability to express a sequence with a loop or right ("tail") recursion, the order of evaluation can be controlled. Syntax rules appear declarative, but are actually made imperative by their semantic specifications. Operation
META II outputs assembly code for a stack machine. Evaluating this is like using an RPN calculator. | [
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expr = term
$('+' term .OUT('ADD')
/'-' term .OUT('SUB'));
term = factor
$('*' factor .OUT('MPY')
/ '/' factor .OUT('DIV'));
factor = (.ID .OUT('LD ' *)
/ .NUM .OUT('LDL ' *)
/ '(' expr ')')
( '^' factor .OUT('XPN'/.EMPTY);
In the above .ID and .NUM are built-in token recognizers. * in the .OUT code production references the last token recognized. On recognizing a number with .NUM .OUT('LDL' *) outputs the load literal instruction followed the number. An expression:
(3*a^2+5)/b
will generate:
LDL 3
LD a
LDL 2
XPN
MPY
LDL 5
ADD
LD b
DIV
META II is the first documented version of a metacompiler, as it compiles to machine code for one of the earliest instances of a virtual machine. The paper itself is a wonderful gem which includes a number of excellent examples, including the bootstrapping of Meta II in itself (all this was done on an 8K (six bit byte) 1401!). "—Alan Kay
The original paper is not freely available, but was reprinted in Doctor Dobb's Journal (April 1980). Transcribed source code has at various times been made available (possibly by the CP/M User Group). | [
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... |
The paper included a listing of the description of Meta II, this could in principle be processed manually to yield an interpretable program in virtual machine opcodes; if this ran and produced identical output then the implementation was correct. META II was basically a proof of concept. A base from which to work. META II is not presented as a standard language, but as a point of departure from which a user may develop his own META "language". Many META "languages" followed. Schorre went to work for System Development Corporation where he was a member of the Compiler for Writing and Implementing Compilers (CWIC) project. CWIC's SYNTAX language built on META II adding a backtrack alternative operator positive and negative look ahead operators and programmed token equations. The .OUT and .LABEL operations removed and stack transforming operations :<node> and !<number> added. The GENERATOR language based on LISP 2 processed the trees produced by the SYNTAX parsing language. To generate code a call to a generator function was placed in a SYNTAX equation. These languages were developed by members of the L.A. ACM SIGPLAN sub-group on Syntax Directed Compilers. It is notable how Schorre thought of the META II language:
The term META "language" with META in capital letters is used to denote any compiler-writing language so developed. Schorre explains META II as a base from which other META "languages" may be developed. See also
OMeta
TREE-META
Notes
References
External links
ACM - Paper on META II
Tutorial: Metacompilers Part 1
Meta II Meta Compiler
1960s software
Computer languages
Parser generators | [
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The Clié PEG-TH55 is a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) which was manufactured by Sony. The PEG-TH55 ran Palm OS (version 5) and featured a built-in camera, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth on non-US versions and an MP3/Atrac Player. Specifications
Palm OS: 5.2.1
CPU: 123 MHz Sony Handheld Engine
Memory: 32MB
Display: 320 x 480, 16bit Colour, hardware assisted rotation and scaling
Sound: Internal audio amplifier and speaker, hardware assisted MP3 decoding
External Connectors: Sony T-series connector, headphone jack
Expansion: Memory Stick Pro
Wireless: Infrared, 802.11b, Bluetooth (on non-US versions)
Camera: 640x480 CMOS with shutter
Infrared: IRDA-compatible
Battery: Rechargeable Li-Ion
Size & Weight: 6.5 oz
Colour: Gray, Black
External links
TH55 | [
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Stephen H. Schanuel (14 July 1933 – 21 July 2014) was an American mathematician working in the fields of abstract algebra and category theory, number theory, and measure theory. Life
While he was a graduate student at University of Chicago, he discovered Schanuel's lemma, an essential lemma in homological algebra. Schanuel received his Ph.D. in mathematics from Columbia University in 1963, under the supervision of Serge Lang. Work
Shortly thereafter he stated a conjecture in the field of transcendental number theory, which remains an important open problem to this day. Schanuel was a professor emeritus of mathematics at University at Buffalo. References
External links
1933 births
2014 deaths
20th-century American mathematicians
21st-century American mathematicians
Columbia University alumni
University at Buffalo faculty
People from St. Louis
Mathematicians from Missouri
Algebraists | [
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The Reel Top 40 Radio Repository, sometimes called REELRADIO, is a virtual museum of radio broadcasts, primarily airchecks from the "Top 40" era of radio in North America. The archives are available by streaming. Established in 1996 as the first online airchecks archive, it was transferred to a dedicated not-for-profit organization, REELRADIO, Inc., in 2000. The site was organized as a series of "collections"; most collections represent the archives of a single contributor. As of April 2018, the repository featured more than 3,568 exhibits. Two collections are tribute sites to famed Los Angeles disc jockeys Robert W. Morgan and The Real Don Steele, and the organization also hosts other sites about the Top 40 eras at WPGC in Washington and WIXY 1260 in Cleveland. , the board of directors includes founder Richard "Uncle Ricky" Irwin, news reporter Michael Burgess (known as Mike Scott) of KGPE (TV), and Bob Shannon (former vice president of TM Century). History
The repository site was started as Uncle Ricky's Reel Top 40 Radio Repository on by Richard "Uncle Ricky" Irwin, who had been in the radio business for 30 years before becoming a webmaster for Sacramento Network Access. The repository was started using SNA's servers, including a RealAudio streaming media server. Articles about the site were published in Radio World magazine on March 20, 1996 and Radio & Records on September 13, 1996. | [
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Uncle Ricky's Reel Top 40 Radio Repository was one of five Radio category nominees for the 1998 Webby Awards, and an article titled "Radio Patter From The Past: Vintage D.J's Rock On" was published on The New York Times on May 9, 2002. After SNA was sold to PSINet, the not-for-profit corporation REELRADIO, Inc. was formed on March 23, 2000, with assistance from the Media Preservation Foundation, to collect donations for funding the site; once under the new organization, the site was moved to new hosting facilities in July. For the first 10 years, the site was supported by voluntary donations. Despite the website having only a few dozen financial supporters, analysis of user behavior revealed thousands of listeners. The organization's board of directors voted for a minimum contribution of $12/year (later $20/year) for access to most of the site's archives. In its latter years, Reelradio.com also began including "unscoped" entries in the archives, including full versions of the music played on the air checks. With increased enforcement of royalty fees for streaming music, this also increased costs for the web site, and was a factor in requiring an annual membership fee. Each week, the web site would list the "Reelradio Fab 40", a list of the top exhibits that were played by listeners to the web site for the prior week. | [
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Like the surveys printed by top 40 radio stations in their heyday, the Reelradio Fab 40 list showed an entry's current position on the list, what its position was for each of the previous three weeks, and how many weeks it had been in the Fab 40 list. By 2016, the web site stated that the membership fee would cover just six months at a time, but by 2017 this requirement was not being enforced. On September 24, 2017, new registrations to the website were closed, and donations were no longer being requested. A statement on the front page of the web site indicated that the Reelradio board of directors had voted to end the site, but would keep it operating while there was still money in its fund to pay licensing fees. Reelradio, Inc. planned to archive and preserve the site until such time that a qualified operator could be found. The site operators said that the reason for the change was that exhibits were found on other web site, which violated the terms of membership that prohibited copying exhibits. Furthermore, it was stated that Uncle Ricky was in failing health. On May 1, 2018 a statement on the front page of the web site was added: "Our board of directors voted to end this site. Our last day streaming media will be May 1. We will pay all licensing fees for this year. If funding is available REELRADIO, INC. will archive and preserve the site until a qualified operator can be found, if ever." | [
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This site was offline for almost 3 months until the site returned to normal operations in August 2018. However, there will be no new exhibits for the foreseeable future according to the site's front page. Uncle Ricky
Richard Warren "Uncle Ricky" Irwin (January 8, 1951 – June 7, 2018) grew up in Concord, North Carolina and worked at radio stations from age 14. By the time he started the Reelradio Repository, he had worked for about 10 radio stations and written Commodore 128 software to schedule music for radio stations. After his work at SNA, Irwin remained a web designer, then became a software engineer. Irwin died on June 7, 2018. See also
Media Preservation Foundation — another similar-minded organization associated with the Repository
References
External links
Official site
History of radio
Works about radio
Media museums in California
Non-profit organizations based in California
Museums established in 1996
Virtual museums
Webcasters
Radio websites
Internet properties established in 1996
Radio organizations in the United States | [
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The Komar mass (named after Arthur Komar) of a system is one of several formal concepts of mass that are used in general relativity. The Komar mass can be defined in any stationary spacetime, which is a spacetime in which all the metric components can be written so that they are independent of time. Alternatively, a stationary spacetime can be defined as a spacetime which possesses a timelike Killing vector field. The following discussion is an expanded and simplified version of the motivational treatment in (Wald, 1984, pg 288). Motivation
Consider the Schwarzschild metric. Using the Schwarzschild basis, a frame field for the Schwarzschild metric, one can find that the radial acceleration required to hold a test mass stationary at a Schwarzschild coordinate of r is:
Because the metric is static, there is a well-defined meaning to "holding a particle stationary". Interpreting this acceleration as being due to a "gravitational force", we can then compute the integral of normal acceleration multiplied by area to get a "Gauss law" integral of:
While this approaches a constant as r approaches infinity, it is not a constant independent of r. We are therefore motivated to introduce a correction factor to make the above integral independent of the radius r of the enclosing shell. | [
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For the Schwarzschild metric, this correction factor is just , the "red-shift" or "time dilation" factor at distance r. One may also view this factor as "correcting" the local force to the "force at infinity", the force that an observer at infinity would need to apply through a string to hold the particle stationary. (Wald, 1984). To proceed further, we will write down a line element for a static metric. where gtt and the quadratic form are functions only of the spatial coordinates x, y, z and are not functions of time. In spite of our choices of variable names, it should not be assumed that our coordinate system is Cartesian. The fact that none of the metric coefficients are functions of time makes the metric stationary: the additional fact that there are no "cross terms" involving both time and space components (such as dx dt) make it static. Because of the simplifying assumption that some of the metric coefficients are zero, some of our results in this motivational treatment will not be as general as they could be. In flat space-time, the proper acceleration required to hold station is , where u is the 4-velocity of our hovering particle and tau is the proper time. In curved space-time, we must take the covariant derivative. Thus we compute the acceleration vector as:
where ub is a unit time-like vector such that ub ub = -1. The component of the acceleration vector normal to the surface is
where Nb is a unit vector normal to the surface. | [
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In a Schwarzschild coordinate system, for example, we find that
as expected - we have simply re-derived the previous results presented in a frame-field in a coordinate basis. We define
so that in our Schwarzschild example:
We can, if we desire, derive the accelerations ab and the adjusted "acceleration at infinity" a infb from a scalar potential Z, though there is not necessarily any particular advantage in doing so. (Wald 1984, pg 158, problem 4)
We will demonstrate that integrating the normal component of the "acceleration at infinity" a inf over a bounding surface will give us a quantity that does not depend on the shape of the enclosing sphere, so that we can calculate the mass enclosed by a sphere by the integral
To make this demonstration, we need to express this surface integral as a volume integral. In flat space-time, we would use Stokes theorem and integrate over the volume. In curved space-time, this approach needs to be modified slightly. Using the formulas for electromagnetism in curved space-time as a guide, we write instead. where F plays a role similar to the "Faraday tensor", in that We can then find the value of "gravitational charge", i.e. mass, by evaluating and integrating it over the volume of our sphere. An alternate approach would be to use differential forms, but the approach above is computationally more convenient as well as not requiring the reader to understand differential forms. | [
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A lengthy, but straightforward (with computer algebra) calculation from our assumed line element shows us that
Thus we can write
In any vacuum region of space-time, all components of the Ricci tensor must be zero. This demonstrates that enclosing any amount of vacuum will not change our volume integral. It also means that our volume integral will be constant for any enclosing surface, as long as we enclose all of the gravitating mass inside our surface. Because Stokes theorem guarantees that our surface integral is equal to the above volume integral, our surface integral will also be independent of the enclosing surface as long as the surface encloses all of the gravitating mass. By using Einstein's Field Equations
letting u=v and summing, we can show that R = -8πT. This allows us to rewrite our mass formula as a volume integral of the stress–energy tensor. where
V is the volume being integrated over;
Tab is the Stress–energy tensor;
ua is a unit time-like vector such that ua ua = -1. Komar mass as volume integral - general stationary metric
To make the formula for Komar mass work for a general stationary metric, regardless of the choice of coordinates, it must be modified slightly. We will present the applicable result from (Wald, 1984 eq 11.2.10) without a formal proof. where
V is the volume being integrated over
Tab is the Stress–energy tensor;
ua is a unit time-like vector such that ua ua = -1;
is a Killing vector, which expresses the time-translation symmetry of any stationary metric. | [
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The Killing vector is normalized so that it has a unit length at infinity, i.e. so that at infinity. Note that replaces in our motivational result. If none of the metric coefficients are functions of time,
While it is not necessary to choose coordinates for a stationary space-time such that the metric coefficients are independent of time, it is often convenient. When we chose such coordinates, the time-like Killing vector for our system becomes a scalar multiple of a unit coordinate-time vector i.e. When this is the case, we can rewrite our formula as
Because is by definition a unit vector, K is just the length of , i.e. K = . Evaluating the "red-shift" factor K based on our knowledge of the components of , we can see that K = . If we chose our spatial coordinates so that we have a locally Minkowskian metric we know that
With these coordinate choices, we can write our Komar integral as
While we can't choose a coordinate system to make a curved space-time globally Minkowskian, the above formula provides some insight into the meaning of the Komar mass formula. Essentially, both energy and pressure contribute to the Komar mass. Furthermore, the contribution of local energy and mass to the system mass is multiplied by the local "red shift" factor
Komar mass as surface integral - general stationary metric
We also wish to give the general result for expressing the Komar mass as a surface integral. | [
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The formula for the Komar mass in terms of the metric and its Killing vector is (Wald, 1984, pg 289, formula 11.2.9)
where are the Levi-civita symbols and is the Killing vector of our stationary metric, normalized so that at infinity. The surface integral above is interpreted as the "natural" integral of a two form over a manifold. As mentioned previously, if none of the metric coefficients are functions of time,
See also
Komar superpotential
Mass in general relativity
Notes
References
General relativity
Mass | [
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The concept of mass in general relativity (GR) is more complex than the concept of mass in special relativity. In fact, general relativity does not offer a single definition of the term mass, but offers several different definitions that are applicable under different circumstances. Under some circumstances, the mass of a system in general relativity may not even be defined. Review of mass in special relativity
In special relativity, the invariant mass or rest mass (hereafter simply "mass") of an isolated system can be defined in terms of the energy and momentum of the system by the relativistic energy–momentum equation:
where E is the total energy of the system, p is the total momentum of the system and c is the speed of light. Concisely, in fundamental units where , the mass of a system in special relativity is the norm of its energy–momentum four-vector. Defining mass in general relativity: concepts and obstacles
Generalizing this definition to general relativity, however, is problematic; in fact, it turns out to be impossible to find a general definition for a system's total mass (or energy). The main reason for this is that "gravitational field energy" is not a part of the energy–momentum tensor; instead, what might be identified as the contribution of the gravitational field to a total energy is part of the Einstein tensor on the other side of Einstein's equation (and, as such, a consequence of these equations' non-linearity). | [
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While in certain situations it is possible to rewrite the equations so that part of the "gravitational energy" now stands alongside the other source terms in the form of the stress–energy–momentum pseudotensor, this separation is not true for all observers, and there is no general definition for obtaining it. How, then, does one define a concept as a system's total mass which is easily defined in classical mechanics? As it turns out, at least for spacetimes which are asymptotically flat (roughly speaking, which represent some isolated gravitating system in otherwise empty and gravity-free infinite space), the ADM 3+1 split leads to a solution: as in the usual Hamiltonian formalism, the time direction used in that split has an associated energy, which can be integrated up to yield a global quantity known as the ADM mass (or, equivalently, ADM energy). Alternatively, there is a possibility to define mass for a spacetime that is stationary, in other words, one that has a time-like Killing vector field (which, as a generating field for time, is canonically conjugate to energy); the result is the so-called Komar mass Although defined in a totally different way, it can be shown to be equivalent to the ADM mass for stationary spacetimes. The Komar integral definition can also be generalized to non-stationary fields for which there is at least an asymptotic time translation symmetry; imposing a certain gauge condition, one can define the Bondi energy at null infinity. | [
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In a way, the ADM energy measures all of the energy contained in spacetime, while the Bondi energy excludes those parts carried off by gravitational waves to infinity. Great effort has been expended on proving positivity theorems for the masses just defined, not least because positivity, or at least the existence of a lower limit, has a bearing on the more fundamental question of boundedness from below: if there were no lower limit to the energy, then no isolated system would be absolutely stable; there would always be the possibility of a decay to a state of even lower total energy. Several kinds of proofs that both the ADM mass and the Bondi mass are indeed positive exist; in particular, this means that Minkowski space (for which both are zero) is indeed stable. While the focus here has been on energy, analogue definitions for global momentum exist; given a field of angular Killing vectors and following the Komar technique, one can also define global angular momentum. The disadvantage of all the definitions mentioned so far is that they are defined only at (null or spatial) infinity; since the 1970s, physicists and mathematicians have worked on the more ambitious endeavor of defining suitable quasi-local quantities, such as the mass of an isolated system defined using only quantities defined within a finite region of space containing that system. However, while there is a variety of proposed definitions such as the Hawking energy, the Geroch energy or Penrose's quasi-local energy–momentum based on twistor methods, the field is still in flux. | [
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Eventually, the hope is to use a suitable defined quasi-local mass to give a more precise formulation of the hoop conjecture, prove the so-called Penrose inequality for black holes (relating the black hole's mass to the horizon area) and find a quasi-local version of the laws of black hole mechanics. Types of mass in general relativity
Komar mass in stationary spacetimes
A non-technical definition of a stationary spacetime is a spacetime where none of the metric coefficients are functions of time. The Schwarzschild metric of a black hole and the Kerr metric of a rotating black hole are common examples of stationary spacetimes. By definition, a stationary spacetime exhibits time translation symmetry. This is technically called a time-like Killing vector. Because the system has a time translation symmetry, Noether's theorem guarantees that it has a conserved energy. Because a stationary system also has a well defined rest frame in which its momentum can be considered to be zero, defining the energy of the system also defines its mass. In general relativity, this mass is called the Komar mass of the system. Komar mass can only be defined for stationary systems. Komar mass can also be defined by a flux integral. This is similar to the way that Gauss's law defines the charge enclosed by a surface as the normal electric force multiplied by the area. The flux integral used to define Komar mass is slightly different from that used to define the electric field, however the normal force is not the actual force, but the "force at infinity". See the main article for more detail. | [
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Of the two definitions, the description of Komar mass in terms of a time translation symmetry provides the deepest insight. ADM and Bondi masses in asymptotically flat space-times
If a system containing gravitational sources is surrounded by an infinite vacuum region, the geometry of the space-time will tend to approach the flat Minkowski geometry of special relativity at infinity. Such space-times are known as "asymptotically flat" space-times. For systems in which space-time is asymptotically flat, the ADM and Bondi energy, momentum, and mass can be defined. In terms of Noether's theorem, the ADM energy, momentum, and mass are defined by the asymptotic symmetries at spatial infinity, and the Bondi energy, momentum, and mass are defined by the asymptotic symmetries at null infinity. Note that mass is computed as the length of the energy–momentum four-vector, which can be thought of as the energy and momentum of the system "at infinity". The Newtonian limit for nearly flat space-times
In the Newtonian limit, for quasi-static systems in nearly flat space-times, one can approximate the total energy of the system by adding together the non-gravitational components of the energy of the system and then subtracting the Newtonian gravitational binding energy. Translating the above statement into the language of general relativity, we say that a system in nearly flat space-time has a total non-gravitational energy E and momentum P given by:
When the components of the momentum vector of the system are zero, i.e. Pi = 0, the approximate mass of the system is just (E+Ebinding)/c2, Ebinding being a negative number representing the Newtonian gravitational self-binding energy. | [
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Hence when one assumes that the system is quasi-static, one assumes that there is no significant energy present in the form of "gravitational waves". When one assumes that the system is in "nearly-flat" space-time, one assumes that the metric coefficients are essentially Minkowskian within acceptable experimental error. History
In 1918, David Hilbert wrote about the difficulty in assigning an energy to a "field" and "the failure of the energy theorem" in a correspondence with Klein. In this letter, Hilbert conjectured that this failure is a characteristic feature of the general theory, and that instead of "proper energy theorems" one had 'improper energy theorems'. This conjecture was soon proved to be correct by one of Hilbert's close associates, Emmy Noether. Noether's theorem applies to any system which can be described by an action principle. Noether's theorem associates conserved energies with time-translation symmetries. When the time-translation symmetry is a finite parameter continuous group, such as the Poincaré group, Noether's theorem defines a scalar conserved energy for the system in question. However, when the symmetry is an infinite parameter continuous group, the existence of a conserved energy is not guaranteed. In a similar manner, Noether's theorem associates conserved momenta with space-translations, when the symmetry group of the translations is finite-dimensional. Because General Relativity is a diffeomorphism invariant theory, it has an infinite continuous group of symmetries rather than a finite-parameter group of symmetries, and hence has the wrong group structure to guarantee a conserved energy. | [
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Noether's theorem has been extremely influential in inspiring and unifying various ideas of mass, system energy, and system momentum in General Relativity. As an example of the application of Noether's theorem is the example of stationary space-times and their associated Komar mass. (Komar 1959). While general space-times lack a finite-parameter time-translation symmetry, stationary space-times have such a symmetry, known as a Killing vector. Noether's theorem proves that such stationary space-times must have an associated conserved energy. This conserved energy defines a conserved mass, the Komar mass. ADM mass was introduced (Arnowitt et al., 1960) from an initial-value formulation of general relativity. It was later reformulated in terms of the group of asymptotic symmetries at spatial infinity, the SPI group, by various authors. (Held, 1980). This reformulation did much to clarify the theory, including explaining why ADM momentum and ADM energy transforms as a 4-vector (Held, 1980). Note that the SPI group is actually infinite-dimensional. The existence of conserved quantities is because the SPI group of "super-translations" has a preferred 4-parameter subgroup of "pure" translations, which, by Noether's theorem, generates a conserved 4-parameter energy–momentum. The norm of this 4-parameter energy–momentum is the ADM mass. The Bondi mass was introduced (Bondi, 1962) in a paper that studied the loss of mass of physical systems via gravitational radiation. The Bondi mass is also associated with a group of asymptotic symmetries, the BMS group at null infinity. | [
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Like the SPI group at spatial infinity, the BMS group at null infinity is infinite-dimensional, and it also has a preferred 4-parameter subgroup of "pure" translations. Another approach to the problem of energy in General Relativity is the use of pseudotensors such as the Landau–Lifshitz pseudotensor. (Landau and Lifshitz, 1962). Pseudotensors are not gauge invariant because of this, they only give consistent gauge-independent answers for the total energy when additional constraints (such as asymptotic flatness) are met. The gauge dependence of pseudotensors also prevents any gauge-independent definition of the local energy density, as every different gauge choice results in a different local energy density. See also
Mass in special relativity
General relativity
Conservation of energy
Komar mass
Hawking energy
ADM mass
Positive mass theorem
Notes
References
Arnowitt, Richard; Stanley Deser & Charles W. Misner (1962), "The dynamics of general relativity", in Witten, L., Gravitation: An Introduction to Current Research, Wiley, pp. 227–265
Townsend, P. K. (1997), Black Holes (Lecture notes), arXiv: gr-qc/9707012
Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
"If you go too fast, do you become a black hole?" Updated by Don Koks 2008. Original by Philip Gibbs 1996. The Original Usenet Physics FAQ
External links
"Is energy conserved in General Relativity? General relativity
Mass
Unsolved problems in physics
Unsolved problems in astronomy | [
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Golden Entertainment is an American gaming company based in Enterprise, Nevada that operates casinos, taverns and slot routes. It was formed in 2015 by the merger of Golden Gaming (founded in 2001 by Blake Sartini) and Lakes Entertainment. It is the largest tavern operator and largest slot route operator in Nevada. In October 2017, the company completed an $850 million acquisition of American Casino & Entertainment Properties. The company now has 10 casino resorts, nine in Southern Nevada and one in Maryland. History
Golden Gaming was formed in October 2001 as a result of Blake L. Sartini's acquisition of Southwest Gaming Services, a company he founded before selling to Station Casinos. In 2002, the Golden Tavern Group subsidiary was formed, and it acquired the PT's chain of taverns. In 2004, the company acquired three casinos in Black Hawk, Colorado: the Golden Gates, Golden Gulch, and Golden Mardi Gras. In 2006, Golden Gaming acquired the Pahrump Nugget Hotel & Gambling Hall from Generation 2000. In February 2007, Golden began a two-year deal to operate the casino at the Hard Rock Hotel while its new owner, Morgans Hotel Group, applied for a gaming license. Golden paid $20.7 million a year to lease the casino, and received a $3.3 million monthly management fee, plus a portion of revenue. Golden pulled out of the deal early when Morgans received its gaming license in January 2008, citing a desire to focus on its other operations. | [
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Golden Gaming agreed in November 2007 to buy the Saddle West casino in Pahrump from Anthony Marnell III and Sher Gaming, but canceled the deal the following June, deciding instead to focus on the Pahrump Nugget, where it began an $11 million expansion and remodeling. In 2010, Golden Gaming agreed to take over operation of four small casinos owned by The Siegel Group, previously operated by United Coin: the Gold Spike, Siegel Slots and Suites, the Resort on Mount Charleston, and Rumor. In March 2012, Golden bought from Affinity Gaming the Terrible's Town Casino and Terrible's Lakeside Casino & RV Park in Pahrump and Affinity's slot route operation (except for Terrible Herbst locations). The deal made Golden the largest employer and largest gaming operator in Nye County, and the largest slot route operator in Nevada, with about 8,500 machines in 650 locations, making up 45% of the market. Affinity in turn bought Golden's three casinos in Black Hawk, which were valued at a total of $76–92 million. Golden Gaming agreed in January 2015 to merge with Lakes Entertainment. Sartini would own 35% of the company and serve as its chief executive officer. The merger was completed on August 3, 2015, establishing Golden Entertainment. The company expanded into Montana in 2016, purchasing slot routes with 2,800 machines for a total of $45 million. In June 2017, Golden Entertainment was granted a license for slot route operations in Illinois. This marked the fourth state Golden is licensed. | [
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In October 2017, Golden Entertainment acquired American Casino & Entertainment Properties for $850 million, which expanded the company's casino portfolio by four: the Stratosphere, Arizona Charlie's Boulder, Arizona Charlie's Decatur and the Aquarius Casino Resort. The following year, the company announced a $140 million renovation of the Stratosphere. In January 2019, the company bought the Colorado Belle and Edgewater casinos in Laughlin, Nevada from Marnell Gaming (owner and operator of Nugget Casino Resort in Sparks) for $190 million. The acquisition of the Colorado Belle and Edgewater gives the company dominance in the market with three of 11 Laughlin properties, including the Aquarius. | [
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Divisions
Golden Casino Group
Aquarius Casino Resort — Laughlin, Nevada
Arizona Charlie's Boulder — Las Vegas, Nevada
Arizona Charlie's Decatur — Las Vegas, Nevada
Edgewater Hotel and Casino — Laughlin, Nevada
Gold Town Casino — Pahrump, Nevada
Lakeside Hotel & Casino — Pahrump, Nevada
Pahrump Nugget Hotel & Gambling Hall — Pahrump, Nevada
Rocky Gap Resort Casino — Flintstone, Maryland
The Strat Hotel, Casino and Skypod — Las Vegas, Nevada
Golden Route Operations
Slot route operator with over 9000 machines in Nevada and more than 2,800 games in Montana
PT's Entertainment Group
PT's Gold
Henderson (3 locations)
Las Vegas (15 locations)
PT's Ranch
Las Vegas (2 locations)
PT's Pub
Henderson (5 locations)
Las Vegas (17 locations)
PT's Brewing Co
Las Vegas
Sean Patrick's
Las Vegas (3 locations)
North Las Vegas (1 location)
Sierra Gold
Henderson (1 location)
Las Vegas (3 locations)
North Las Vegas (1 location)
Reno (1 location)
SG Bar
Las Vegas
Former
Colorado Belle — Laughlin, Nevada
Golden Gates Casino — Black Hawk, Colorado
Golden Gulch Casino — Black Hawk, Colorado
Golden Mardi Gras Casino — Black Hawk, Colorado
References
External links
2015 establishments in Nevada
American companies established in 2015
Companies based in Enterprise, Nevada
Companies listed on the Nasdaq
Entertainment companies established in 2015
Gambling companies of the United States
Hospitality companies established in 2015 | [
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lonelygirl15 was a web series that was released on YouTube from June 16, 2006 to August 1, 2008. Initially presented as an authentic video diary, it gained wide media attention in September 2006 when the show was revealed to be fictional. The plot began with the mundane life of a teenage girl; the narrative became increasingly bizarre, portraying her dealings with secret occult practices within her family, including the mysterious disappearance of her parents, and a "secret" ceremony prescribed by leaders of the cult. The series was created by Mesh Flinders, a screenwriter and filmmaker from Marin County, California; Miles Beckett, a surgical residency dropout turned filmmaker; and Greg Goodfried, a former attorney with Mitchell, Silberberg and Knupp, LLP. Overview
Launched just 16 months after the YouTube video platform went online, lonelygirl15 focuses on the life of a teenage girl named Bree – played by 19-year-old New Zealand actress Jessica Rose – whose YouTube username is the eponymous "lonelygirl15". After the fictional status of the show was revealed in September 2006, it gradually evolved into a multi-character series including both character videoblogs and action sequences, with a complex story universe involving "trait positive girls" who are sought by an evil organization called "The Order". The three creators of lonelygirl15 were Mesh Flinders, a screenwriter and filmmaker from Marin County, California, Miles Beckett, a surgical residency dropout turned filmmaker, and Greg Goodfried, a former attorney with Mitchell, Silberberg and Knupp, LLP. The series was developed under the working title The Children of Anchor Cove. | [
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New videos appeared, eventually at the rate of four to five clips a week, first on YouTube and lg15.com, and later on MySpace. As of July 2008, the series had more than 110 million combined views. As of March 2021, the series had more than 304 million views. lonelygirl15 has generated a number of spin-off shows. Its first, the British-based KateModern, ran from July 2007 through June 2008 on Bebo, and took place in the same fictional universe. Along with Amanda Goodfried, an attorney who worked with Creative Arts Agency (CAA), the creators of lonelygirl15 created LG15 Studios to produce original interactive content online. LG15 Studios became EQAL in April 2008, with receipt of $5 million in venture capital to expand their offerings. The lonelygirl15 finale took place on August 1, 2008, and included a teaser for EQAL's next spinoff, LG15: The Resistance, which ran through December 2008. Since 2009, EQAL has aired two more spinoff series which are produced by contest winners, including LG15: The Last, which started airing in January 2009, and LG15: Outbreak, which began in January 2010. On June 16, 2016, the tenth anniversary of the first video on the account, a new video on the account with Jessica Lee Rose returning as Bree Avery was uploaded, with a message that the series was restarting. This revival appears to have been aborted, as no further videos (which were posted on Danielbeast's channel) have appeared since late 2016. Cast and characters
Jessica Lee Rose as Bree Avery (a.k.a. | [
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lonelygirl15), a bubbly teenage girl whose trait positive blood makes her the target of a dangerous cult called the Order. She gained a large following on YouTube due to her quirky video blogs. Yousef Abu-Taleb as Daniel Barlow (a.k.a. Danielbeast), Bree's best friend, who only wishes to protect her, but is often distracted by romantic engagements. He can often jump to conclusions, and battles with an alcohol addiction along with his parents. Jackson Davis as Jonas Wharton (a.k.a. jonastko), a boy who meets Bree online and discovers that his family has more ties to the Order than he realizes. He can be too willing to trust others, which often leads the TAAG (Teen Angst Adventure Group) into unfortunate situations. Alexandra Dreyfus as Sarah Genatiempo (a.k.a. theskyisempty99), a misunderstood 19-year-old who develops a crush on Daniel and travels with TAAG. While she struggles to figure out what to do with her life, she harbors a dark and dangerous secret. Becki Kregoski as Taylor Genatiempo (a.k.a. soccerstar4ever), Sarah's younger sister who has impressive computer hacking skills. A passionate soccer player, she has more social skills than the rest of her family and is often upset by their actions. Maxwell Glick as Spencer Gilman (a.k.a. LAlabrat), an employee at Neutrogena with connections to the Order's science division. Chosen as a good role model for Bree, he sets out to help engineer a Trait Negative Serum. Katherine Pawlak as Emma Wharton, Jonas's trait positive younger sister. | [
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She grows up significantly during her battle for her life against the Order, and goes out of her way to try to protect her friends. Melanie Merkosky as Jennie, a former Lullaby Project employee who becomes friends with Sarah. She begins a romantic affair with Jonas and gives the TAAG an insight on how the Order's structure works. Crystal Young as Gina Hart, Bree's trait positive older sister who was taken from her at birth and used as a lab rat most of her life. She is quiet and reserved, and feels more comfortable with art supplies than with other people. Raegan Payne as Sonja, A member of the Hymn of One who tried to recruit Bree and eventually left the Hymn after she was badly beaten. One of the last videos in the Lonelygirl15 series suggested that Sonja had returned to the Hymn of One. History
Before the vlog was revealed as fake, the title character dealt with mundane teenage problems such as being grounded; lonelygirl15 posted video replies to, and dropped the names of popular YouTubers. To further the initial illusion that Bree was a real girl, a MySpace page was set up for her and she seemingly began corresponding with many of her fans. Later, the show moved to a bizarre narrative that portrayed her dealings with secret occult practices within her family, and included the mysterious disappearance of her parents after she refused to attend a "secret" ceremony prescribed by the leaders of the family's cult. Hoax accusations
At first discussion regarding why they thought lonelygirl15 might be a fake went on in her video comments. | [
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In early August 2006, a fan began a discussion at the previously stagnant www.lonelygirl15.com message boards and raised an investigation into who or what was behind lonelygirl15. Soon the message board became full of discussion about even the tiniest details in each of her videos, everything from the quality of the lighting to the flora seen in her outdoor videos. Fans used the forum to collect, organize and share their findings, and pointed to small inconsistencies within the videos as evidence that the story might not be genuine, wondering if Bree's posts were part of a teaser campaign for a television show or an upcoming movie (similar to the viral marketing used to promote The Blair Witch Project). Others thought that the blog might be part of an alternate reality game. Los Angeles Times reporter Richard Rushfield was the first to provide proof of a hoax, when he wrote of Shaina Wedmedyk, Chris Patterson, and an anonymous blogger law student, who set up a sting on MySpace to reveal that the Creative Artists Agency was behind the videos. Eventually it was revealed that 16-year-old "Bree" was played by 19-year-old actress Jessica Rose. Media sources seized upon the story, covering both the search process and the eventual "outing" as a fictional series. New York Times reporter Virginia Heffernan expanded on the series of revelations on September 12 by publishing an article which confirmed Jessica Rose's identity, and revealed the identities of her "co-conspirators", Ramesh Flinders, a screenwriter and filmmaker from Marin County, California, and Miles Beckett, a doctor-turned-filmmaker. | [
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Software engineer Grant Steinfeld was also involved in this project, as a photographer. Amanda Solomon Goodfried assisted in their efforts to hide their identities as well as posed as "Bree"'s online alter-ego. Goodfried's father-in-law, Kenneth Goodfried, handled various legal matters. The personnel involved worked under a non-disclosure agreement, according to Grant Steinfeld. Steinfeld has verified most of this information to the Times, and provided photographs he took of Rose on set as proof. Also, on September 12, the three main creators gave an interview to the Los Angeles Times revealing the third major partner as Greg Goodfried. After the fictional nature of lonelygirl15 was revealed, the storyline continued to develop via new videos posted to both YouTube and Revver. However, after YouTube partnered with MySpace, videos stopped being posted on lonelygirl15's Revver account, and only became viewable via YouTube and MySpaceTV. After the discovery of the hoax
Jessica Rose participated in a United Nations campaign in 2006, to fight poverty through an online anti-poverty video. Rose portrayed the lonelygirl15 character as she sat by herself in her bedroom talking to the camera. The subject matter in the video focused on poverty relief, which broke from the regular subject matter of the show. The video was posted on an alternate account, separate from the main channel. On November 20, 2006, lonelygirl15.com announced that the spin-off OpAphid was the official alternate reality game of lonelygirl15. | [
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OpAphid began in late September with what many speculated was a well-produced fan effort, and this announcement merged its characters OpAphid, Tachyon, and 10033/Brother, into the series storyline and continuity. In early February 2007, it was revealed that Glenn Rubenstein was the original puppetmaster behind the OpAphid alternate reality game and also the creator of its characters, OpAphid, Tachyon, and Brother. Due to internal issues between the Creators and Glenn, OpAphid was no longer the official ARG. A 2006 episode of Law & Order: Criminal Intent was based on the lonelygirl15 phenomenon. The episode "Weeping Willow" featured a blogger named weepingwillow17, played by Michelle Trachtenberg. Willow and her boyfriend were kidnapped by Men in Black who demanded her fans donate money to a website to save their lives. The investigators did not know if Willow was real or fake. Various other video bloggers were also seen decrying weepingwillow as a fake, just like many did on YouTube. The site on the episode was named YouLenz. Awards and recognition
The lonelygirl15 blog won Biggest Web Hit Award on VH1's Big in '06 Awards. In the "Best Series" category of the inaugural YouTube Video awards in March 2007, the lonelygirl15 series finished fourth. The New York Times attributed Lonelygirl's finish to the YouTube community's ill will towards the series. | [
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On August 3, 2007, Season One of lonelygirl15 celebrated its finale with an exclusive on MySpaceTV known as "12 in 12" where 12 videos were uploaded over the course of 12 hours from 8 am PST to 7 pm PST, culminating in the highest one-day viewership ever for the series. A "summary" video from the first season was offered as a part of the event, and it logged in over a million views on its own. In the last episode of the Season One finale, Bree's character is killed off by the order during the ceremony in the season finale and her trait positive blood was transfused into one of the order's elders. The reason for her character's death was attributed to Rose not renewing her contract for Season Two. Marketing
lonelygirl15 was the first Internet series to introduce product integration when the episode "Truckstop Reunion" featured the characters eating and displaying Hershey's Icebreaker's Sours Gum. In another example of a product integration first, lonelygirl15 landed on the front page of Variety for the integration of a character from Neutrogena in the storyline over the period of more than two months. Dr. Spencer Gilman became such a popular character that Neutrogena made him "Employee of the Month" and gave him his own e-mail account on the company's corporate website. | [
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See also
Mumblecore
Marble Hornets
Footnotes
References
External links
2006 web series debuts
2008 web series endings
Internet hoaxes
Internet memes
American drama web series
Nonexistent people used in hoaxes
YouTube original programming
Vlogs-related YouTube channels
Viral videos
American teen drama television series
2006 hoaxes
YouTube channels launched in 2006
American teen comedy-drama web series
Number-one YouTube channels in subscribers | [
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-0.884765625,
0.1416015625,
0.3886... |
Stephen Paul Morse (born May 1940) is the architect of the Intel 8086 chip and is the originator of the "One Step" search page tools used by genealogists. Early life
Morse was born at Brooklyn, New York. He has degrees in electrical engineering from the City College of New York, the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn and New York University. Career
Intel 8086
Morse worked for Bell Laboratories, IBM's Watson Research Center, Intel, and General Electric Corporate Research and Development. He was a principal architect of Intel 8086 microprocessor chip, designed by Intel between early 1976 and June 8, 1978. He is quoted as saying:"While I'd like to think that the PC wouldn't exist today if I hadn't designed the 8086, the reality is that it would be based on some other processor family. The instruction set would be radically different, but there would still be a PC. I was just fortunate enough to be at the right place at the right time." Genealogy
In recent years, he has applied his technology expertise to web-based genealogy search tools. His "One Step" search pages are widely used by genealogists all over the world. He is also a co-author, with linguist Alexander Beider, of the Beider–Morse phonetic name matching algorithm. Notes
External links
Living people
American electrical engineers
Scientists at Bell Labs
1940 births
Polytechnic Institute of New York University alumni | [
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Java Embedding Plugin (JEP) enables Java on Mac OS X with non-Safari browsers. This plugin is shipped with Firefox 1.5 on, and all recent versions of SeaMonkey and Camino. The latest released version, 0.9.7.5, requires Mac OS X 10.4.11 or higher. History
Originally for the PowerPC based Macs, a port to Intel x86 was needed. Version 0.9.6.1 had a security vulnerability that allowed remote attackers to crash the browser. See also
Flash plugin
References
External links
javaplugin.sourceforge.net homepage
sourceforge.net project site
Free web browsers
MacOS web browsers
Firefox
Java platform | [
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In computing, a DBM is a library and file format providing fast, single-keyed access to data. A key-value database from the original Unix, dbm is an early example of a NoSQL system. History
The original dbm library and file format was a simple database engine, originally written by Ken Thompson and released by AT&T in 1979. The name is a three letter acronym for DataBase Manager, and can also refer to the family of database engines with APIs and features derived from the original dbm. The dbm library stores arbitrary data by use of a single key (a primary key) in fixed-size buckets and uses hashing techniques to enable fast retrieval of the data by key. The hashing scheme used is a form of extendible hashing, so that the hashing scheme expands as new buckets are added to the database, meaning that, when nearly empty, the database starts with one bucket, which is then split when it becomes full. The two resulting child buckets will themselves split when they become full, so the database grows as keys are added. The dbm library and its derivatives are pre-relational databases they manage associative arrays, implemented as on-disk hash tables. In practice, they can offer a more practical solution for high-speed storage accessed by key, as they do not require the overhead of connecting and preparing queries. This is balanced by the fact that they can generally only be opened for writing by a single process at a time. An agent daemon can handle requests from multiple processes, but introduces IPC overhead. | [
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Implementations
The original AT&T dbm library has been replaced by its many successor implementations. Notable examples include:
ndbm ("new dbm"), based on the original dbm with some new features. GDBM ("GNU dbm"), GNU rewrite of the library implementing ndbm features and its own interface. Also provides new features like crash tolerance for guaranteeing data consistency. sdbm ("small dbm"), a public domain rewrite of dbm. It is a part of the standard distributions for Perl and Ruby. qdbm ("Quick Database Manager"), a higher-performance dbm employing many of the same techniques as Tokyo/Kyoto Cabinet. Written by the same author before they moved on to the cabinets. tdb ("Trivial Database"), a simple database used by Samba that supports multiple writers. Has a gdbm-based API. Berkeley DB, 1991 replacement of ndbm by Sleepycat Software (now Oracle) created to get around the AT&T Unix copyright on BSD. It features many extensions like parallelism, transactional control, hashing, and B tree storage. LMDB: copy-on-write memory-mapped B+ tree implementation in C with a Berkeley-style API. The following databases are dbm-inspired, but they do not directly provide a dbm interface, even though it would be trivial to wrap one:
cdb ("constant database"), database by Daniel J. Bernstein, database files can only be created and read, but never be modified
Tkrzw, an Apache 2.0 licensed successor to Kyoto Cabinet and Tokyo Cabinet
WiredTiger: database with traditional row-oriented and column-oriented storage. | [
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Availability
As of 2001, the ndbm implementation of DBM was standard on Solaris and IRIX, whereas gdbm is ubiquitous on Linux. The Berkeley DB implementations were standard on some free operating systems. After a change of licensing of the Berkeley DB to GNU AGPL in 2013, projects like Debian have moved to LMDB. Reliability
A 2018 AFL fuzzing test against many DBM-family databases exposed many problems in implementations when it comes to corrupt or invalid database files. Only freecdb by Daniel J. Bernstein showed no crashes. The authors of gdbm, tdb, and lmdb were prompt to respond. Berkeley DB fell behind due to the sheer amount of other issues; the fixes would be irrelevant to open-source software users due to the licensing change locking them back on an old version. See also
Embedded database
Flat file database
ISAM
Key-value database
Mobile database
NoSQL
Semaphore (programming)
References
Bibliography
SDBM library @Apache
Database engines
Free database management systems
Structured storage
Embedded databases | [
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Southern Quechua (, ), or simply Quechua (Qichwa or Qhichwa), is the most widely spoken of the major regional groupings of mutually intelligible dialects within the Quechua language family, with about 6.9 million speakers. It is also the most widely spoken indigenous language in the Americas. The term Southern Quechua refers to the Quechuan varieties spoken in regions of the Andes south of a line roughly east–west between the cities of Huancayo and Huancavelica in central Peru. It includes the Quechua varieties spoken in the regions of Ayacucho, Cusco and Puno in Peru, in much of Bolivia and parts of north-west Argentina. The most widely spoken varieties are Cusco, Ayacucho, Puno (Collao), and South Bolivian. In the traditional classification of the Quechua language family by Alfredo Torero, Southern Quechua is equivalent to Torero's 'Quechua c' (or just 'Qc'). It thus stands in contrast to its many sister varieties within the wider Quechuan family that are spoken in areas north of the Huancayo–Huancavelica line: Central Quechua (Torero's Q) spoken from Huancayo northwards to the Ancash Region; North Peruvian Quechua around Cajamarca and Incahuasi (Torero's a); and Kichwa (part of Torero's Quechua b). Dialects
Dialects are Ayacucho Quechua, Cusco Quechua, Puno Quechua (Collao Quechua), North Bolivian Quechua (Apolo Quechua), and South Bolivian Quechua. Santiagueño Quechua in Argentina is divergent, and appears to derive from a mix of dialects, including South Bolivian. The Argentinian dialects of Catamarca and La Rioja are extinct. | [
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The most salient distinction between Ayacucho Quechua and the others is that it lacks the aspirated (tʃʰ, pʰ, tʰ, kʰ, qʰ) and ejective (tʃʼ, pʼ, tʼ, kʼ, qʼ) series of stop consonants. The other varieties of Bolivia and Southern Peru taken together have been called Cusco–Collao Quechua (or "Qusqu–Qullaw"); however, they are not monolithic. For instance, Bolivian Quechua is morphologically distinct from Cusco and Ayacucho Quechua, while North Bolivian is phonologically quite conservative compared to both South Bolivian and Cusco so there is no bifurcation between Ayacucho and Cusco–Collao. Santiagueño also lacks the aspirated and ejective series, but it was a distinct development in Argentina. It also maintains remnants of the Quechua s–š distinction, which has otherwise been lost from Southern Quechua, which suggests other varieties of Quechua in its background. Standard Quechua
The Peruvian linguist Rodolfo Cerrón Palomino has devised a standard orthography intended to be viable for all the different regional forms of Quechua that fall under the umbrella term Southern Quechua. It is a compromise of conservative features in the pronunciations of the various regions that speak forms of Southern Quechua. It has been accepted by many institutions in Peru and Bolivia and is also used on Wikipedia Quechua pages, and by Microsoft in its translations of software into Quechua. Here are some examples of regional spellings different from the standard orthography:
In Bolivia, the same standard is used except for "j", which is used instead of "h" for the sound [h] (like in Spanish). | [
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The following letters are used for the inherited Quechua vocabulary and for loanwords from Aymara:
a, ch, chh, ch', h, i, k, kh, k', l, ll, m, n, ñ, p, ph, p', q, qh, q', r, s, t, th, t', u, w, y. Instead of "sh" (appearing in the northern and central Quechua varieties), "s" is used. Instead of "ĉ" (appearing in the Quechua varieties of Junín, Cajamarca, and Lambayeque), "ch" is used. The following letters are used in loanwords from Spanish and other languages (not from Aymara):
b, d, e, f, g, o. The letters e and o are not used for native Quechua words because the corresponding sounds are simply allophones of i and u that appear predictably next to q, qh, and q'. This rule applies to the official Quechua orthography for all varieties. Thus, the spellings and are pronounced [qo] and [qe]. The letters appear, however, in proper names or words adopted directly from Spanish:
c, v, x, z; j (in Peru; in Bolivia, it is used instead of h). Grammar
Morphological type
Quechua is an agglutinating language, meaning that words are built up from basic roots followed by several suffixes, each of which carry one meaning. | [
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Their large number of suffixes changes both the overall meaning of words and their subtle shades of meaning. All varieties of Quechua are very regular agglutinative languages, as opposed to isolating or fusional ones [Thompson]. Their normal sentence order is SOV (subject–object–verb). Notable grammatical features include bipersonal conjugation (verbs agree with both subject and object), evidentiality (indication of the source and veracity of knowledge), a set of topic particles, and suffixes indicating who benefits from an action and the speaker's attitude toward it, but some varieties may lack some of the characteristics. Pronouns
In Quechua, there are seven pronouns. First-person plural pronouns (equivalent to "we") may be inclusive or exclusive; which mean, respectively, that the addressee ("you") is and is not part of the "we". Quechua also adds the suffix -kuna to the second and third person singular pronouns qam and pay to create the plural forms, qam-kuna and pay-kuna. Adjectives
Adjectives in Quechua are always placed before nouns. They lack gender and number and are not declined to agree with substantives. Numbers
Cardinal numbers. | [
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ch'usaq (0), huk (1), iskay (2), kimsa (3), tawa (4), pichqa (5), suqta (6), qanchis (7), pusaq (8), isqun (9), chunka (10), chunka hukniyuq (11), chunka iskayniyuq (12), iskay chunka (20), pachak (100), waranqa (1,000), hunu (1,000,000), lluna (1,000,000,000,000). Ordinal numbers. To form ordinal numbers, the word ñiqin is put after the appropriate cardinal number (iskay ñiqin = "second"). The only exception is that, in addition to huk ñiqin ("first"), the phrase ñawpaq is also used in the somewhat more restricted sense of "the initial, primordial, the oldest". Nouns
Noun roots accept suffixes that indicate person (defining of possession, not identity), number, and case. In general, the personal suffix precedes that of number. In the Santiago del Estero variety, however, the order is reversed. From variety to variety, suffixes may change. {| style="margin:auto;" class="wikitable"
|+ Examples using the word wasi (house)! colspan=2 | Function
! Suffix
! Example
! | [
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(translation)
|-
| suffix indicating number
| plural
| -kuna
| wasikuna
| houses
|-
| rowspan=7 | possessive suffix
| 1.person singular
| -y, -:
| wasiy, wasii
| my house
|-
| 2.person singular| -yki
| wasiyki
| your house
|-
| 3.person singular| -n
| wasin
| his/her/its house
|-
| 1.person plural (incl)| -nchik
| wasinchik
| our house (incl.) |-
| 1.person plural (excl)| -y-ku
| wasiyku
| our house (excl.) |-
| 2.person plural| -yki-chik
| wasiykichik
| your (pl.) house
|-
| 3.person plural| -n-ku
| wasinku
| their house
|-
| rowspan=19 | suffixes indicating case
| nominative
| –
| wasi
| the house (subj.) |-
| accusative
| -(k)ta
| wasita
| the house (obj.) | [
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|-
| instrumental
| -wan
| wasiwan
| with the house, and the house
|-
| abessive
| -naq
| wasinaq
| without the house
|-
| dative
| -paq
| wasipaq
| to the house
|-
| genitive
| -p(a)
| wasip(a)
| of the house
|-
| causative
| -rayku
| wasirayku
| because of the house
|-
| benefactive
| -paq
| wasipaq
| for the house
|-
| locative
| -pi
| wasipi
| at the house
|-
| directional
| -man
| wasiman
| towards the house
|-
| inclusive
| -piwan, puwan
| wasipiwan, wasipuwan
| including the house
|-
| terminative
| -kama, -yaq
| wasikama, wasiyaq
| up to the house
|-
| transitive
| -(rin)ta
| wasinta
| through the house
|-
| ablative
| -manta, -piqta
| wasimanta, wasipiqta
| off/from the house
|-
| comitative
| -(ni)ntin
| wasintin
| along with the house
|-
| immediate
| -raq
| wasiraq
| first the house
|-
| intrative
| -pura
| wasipura
| among the houses
|-
| exclusive
| -lla(m)
| wasilla(m)
| only the house
|-
| comparative
| -naw, -hina
| wasinaw, wasihina
| than the house
|}
Adverbs
Adverbs can be formed by adding -ta or, in some cases, -lla to an adjective: allin – allinta ("good – well"), utqay – utqaylla ("quick – quickly"). | [
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They are also formed by adding suffixes to demonstratives: chay ("that") – chaypi ("there"), kay ("this") – kayman ("hither"). There are several original adverbs. For Europeans, it is striking that the adverb qhipa means both "behind" and "future" and ñawpa means "ahead, in front" and "past". Local and temporal concepts of adverbs in Quechua (as well as in Aymara) are associated to each other reversely, compared to European languages. For the speakers of Quechua, we are moving backwards into the future (we cannot see it: it is unknown), facing the past (we can see it: it is remembered). Verbs
The infinitive forms have the suffix -y (e.g., much'a 'kiss'; much'a-y 'to kiss'). These are the endings for the indicative:
The suffixes shown in the table above usually indicate the subject; the person of the object is also indicated by a suffix (-a- for first person and -su- for second person), which precedes the suffixes in the table. In such cases, the plural suffixes from the table (-chik and -ku) can be used to express the number of the object rather than the subject. Various suffixes are added to the stem to change the meaning. | [
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For example, -chi is a causative suffix and -ku is a reflexive suffix (example: wañuy 'to die'; wañuchiy 'to kill'; wañuchikuy 'to commit suicide'); -naku is used for mutual action (example: marq'ay 'to hug'; marq'anakuy 'to hug each other'), and -chka is a progressive, used for an ongoing action (e.g., mikhuy 'to eat'; mikhuchkay 'to be eating'). Grammatical particles
Particles are indeclinable: they do not accept suffixes. They are relatively rare, but the most common are arí 'yes' and mana 'no', although mana can take some suffixes, such as -n/-m (manan/manam), -raq (manaraq 'not yet') and -chu (manachu? 'or not? '), to intensify the meaning. Other particles are yaw 'hey, hi', and certain loan words from Spanish, such as piru (from Spanish pero 'but') and sinuqa (from sino'' 'rather'). Evidentiality
The Quechuan languages have three different morphemes that mark evidentiality. Evidentiality refers to a morpheme whose primary purpose is to indicate the source of information. In Quechuan languages, evidentiality is a three-term system: there are three evidential morphemes that mark varying levels of source information. The markers can apply to first, second, and third persons. The chart below depicts an example of these morphemes from Wanka Quechua:
The parentheses around the vowels indicate that the vowel can be dropped in when following an open vowel. For the sake of cohesiveness, the above forms are used to discuss the evidential morphemes. | [
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There are dialectal variations to the forms. The variations will be presented in the following descriptions. See also
Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift
Bibliography
Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino (1994). Quechua sureño, diccionario unificado quechua–castellano, castellano–quechua [Southern Quechua, Quechua–Spanish, Spanish–Quechua Unified Dictionary]. Lima, Biblioteca Nacional del Perú. Óscar Chávez Gonzales (2017). Urin Qichwa. Siminchik allin qillqanapaq: chankakunapaq qullawkunapaqwan. Lima, Editorial Textos. 72 pp.,
César Itier (2017). Diccionario Quechua Sureño - Castellano. Lima, Editorial Commentarios. 303 pp., 3900 entries,
References
External links
Qayna Kunan Paqarin: Una introducción al quechua chanca. 2011 (Archive) Electronic book of the complete course of the grammar of quechua, R. Zariquiey, G. Córdova. Vocabulario de la lengva general de todo el Perv llamada lengva Qquichua o del Inca The Quechua language spoken by the Inca nobility in Cusco, 1608 Diego González Holguín
Iskay Simipi yuyayk'ancha Standardized Southern Quechua of Bolivia, 2007. The only difference in orthography is that Bolivians use a J instead of a H.
Official Quechua Alphabet for Cusco
Quechua Orthography
Quechua Spelling and Pronunciation Explanation of some of the key issues in unified Southern Quechua spelling
Southern Quechua
Indigenous languages of the Andes
Languages of Argentina
Languages of Chile
Languages of Bolivia
Languages of Peru | [
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Cuzco Quechua () is a dialect of Southern Quechua spoken in Cuzco and the Cuzco Region of Peru. It is the Quechua variety used by the Academia Mayor de la Lengua Quechua in Cuzco, which also prefers the Spanish-based five-vowel alphabet. On the other hand, the official alphabet used by the ministry of education has only three vowels. Phonology
There is debate about whether Cuzco Quechua has five /a, e, i, o, u/ or three vowels: /a, i, u/. Grammar
Pronouns
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
See also
Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift
References
External links
Simi Taqe Qheswa - Español - Qheswa (Qheswa simi hamut'ana kuraq suntur), Qosqo, Peru, 2006 (pdf 3,8 MB). Dictionary of the AMLQ: Cusco-Quechua - Spanish, Spanish - Cusco-Quechua. Collections in the Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America
Languages of Peru
Southern Quechua | [
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A fiducial marker or fiducial is an object placed in the field of view of an imaging system that appears in the image produced, for use as a point of reference or a measure. It may be either something placed into or on the imaging subject, or a mark or set of marks in the reticle of an optical instrument. Applications
Microscopy
In high-resolution optical microscopy, fiducials can be used to actively stabilize the field of view. Stabilization to better than 0.1 nm is achievable. Physics
In physics, 3D computer graphics, and photography, fiducials are reference points: fixed points or lines within a scene to which other objects can be related or against which objects can be measured. Cameras outfitted with Réseau plates produce these reference marks (also called Réseau crosses) and are commonly used by NASA. Such marks are closely related to the timing marks used in optical mark recognition. Geographical survey
Airborne geophysical surveys also use the term "fiducial" as a sequential reference number in the measurement of various geophysical instruments during a survey flight. This application of the term evolved from air photo frame numbers that were originally used to locate geophysical survey lines in the early days of airborne geophysical surveying. This method of positioning has since been replaced by GPS, but the term "fiducial" continues to be used as the time reference for data measured during flights. Augmented reality
In applications of augmented reality, fiducials help resolve several problems of integration between the real world view and the synthetic images that augment it. | [
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