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Mathemagic | 20 Nov, 2009
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You have a custom operation ^ and the following equation x ^ y = 2x + y,
Now what is the value of a in 2 ^ a = a ^ 3
BTW I also don't know the answer and is a question of some paper. | <urn:uuid:ba7cb036-ea03-46c6-aa0b-49b023a5932e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.go4expert.com/contests/mathemagic-20-nov-2009-post60500/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00078-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.918262 | 66 | 2.625 | 3 |
The animals came in two by two, hurrah!
A new study by fourth year students from the Department of Physics and Astronomy has shown that the animals that took up residence in pairs on Noah’s ark in the classical Biblical tale could have indeed done so – based on their weight and the buoyancy of the vessel.
The students examined the dimensions of the ark as measured in cubits in the Bible – settling on an average between the ancient Hebrew value (44.5cm) and the ancient Egyptian value (52.3cm), using 48.2cm for their calculations – and found that the ark would support the weight of 2.15 million sheep without sinking, which would likely be enough to support all of the species that were around at the time based on previous research suggesting that there were approximately 35,000 species of animals which would have needed to be saved by Noah.
While it is a separate matter whether all of the animals would physically fit inside an ark of these dimensions, the physics students concluded that, based on the buoyancy of the structure alone, the concept of ‘two of every animal’ boarding Noah’s ark is theoretically possible.
The students presented their findings in a paper for the Journal of Physics Special Topics, a peer-reviewed student journal run by the University’s Department of Physics and Astronomy. The student-run journal is designed to give students practical experience of writing, editing, publishing and reviewing scientific papers.
The full paper, ‘The animals float two by two, hurrah!’, can be found here.
Darren Aronofsky's upcoming epic film 'Noah', starring Russell Crowe, is in cinemas April 4.
Listen to a podcast of the fourth year master’s students explaining how they calculated that the dimensions of the ark could have supported two of every animal: | <urn:uuid:30c165cc-c678-471c-a6cc-f616c87148ff> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www2.le.ac.uk/news/blog/2014-archive-1/april/the-animals-came-in-two-by-two-hurrah | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968758 | 389 | 3.359375 | 3 |
1810 – Born on December 24th in Fayetteville, Tennessee. Indian trader, farmer, lawyer, and founder of Dallas.
1833 – He moved to Arkansas, where he became an Indian trader.
1839 – Bryan made his first trip to the future site of Dallas, Texas.
1842 – He persuaded several families who had settled at Bird’s Fort to join him.
1843 – Bryan married Margaret Beeman, a daughter of one of these families, on February 26th. The couple had five children.
1844 – He persuaded J. P. Dumas to survey and plat the site of Dallas and possibly helped him with the work.
1846-1850 – Bryan was instrumental in the organizing of Dallas County and in the choosing of Dallas as its county seat in August.
– He joined the California gold rush but returned to Dallas within a year.
1853 – He was a delegate to the state Democratic convention.
1855 – After shooting a man who had insulted his wife, Bryan fled to the Creek Nation. The man recovered, but although Bryan was surely informed of that fact within months of his flight, he did not return to his family in Dallas for about six years.
1860 – He traveled to Colorado and California, apparently looking for gold, and returned to Dallas.
1861-1862 – He joined Colonel Nicholas H. Darnell’s Eighteenth Texas Cavalry regiment and served with that unit until he was discharged because of his age and poor health.
1863 – He was a trustee for Dallas Male and Female Academy.
1866 – He was prominent in efforts to aid victims of the flood that occurred that year.
1871-1872 – He was one of the directors of the Dallas Bridge Company, the company that built the first iron bridge across the Trinity.
1874 – Bryan’s mind was clearly impaired.
1877 – He was admitted to the State Lunatic Asylum (later the Austin State Hospital) on February and died on September 8th in the Texas State Lunatic Asylum. | <urn:uuid:04b5036c-1fd4-4f45-98e4-b53c53c57282> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.s9.com/Biography/Bryan-John-Neely | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00090-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.988855 | 430 | 2.953125 | 3 |
A little ingenuity, duct tape and helium was all it took for Robert Harrison to journey into space … and garner a phone call from NASA. The British IT director’s inexpensive camera rig takes breathtaking, high-altitude photos for millions less than what the space agency spends to achieve similar results, according to the Times Online (UK).
For The Icarus Project, Harrison enclosed a basic digital camera in a flight box, equipped it with GPS, attached it to a helium weather balloon and let it fly to heights about 35,000 meters above sea level. The camera and GPS were wrapped in loft insulation to protect them from the extreme temperatures high in the Earth's atmosphere.
The camera is also connected to a microcomputer that programs it to take photos five minutes apart, and various sensors that measure temperature, barometric pressure and altitude. The GPS allows Harrison to not only track the camera’s movement, but retrieve it when the balloon pops and it glides back to the ground from a small parachute.
The images captured by the camera amazed Harrison the first time he saw them — but he wasn’t the only one who was impressed.
"A guy phoned up who worked for NASA who was interested in how we took the pictures,” Harrison told The Times (UK). “He wanted to know how the hell we did it. He thought we used a rocket. They said it would have cost them millions of dollars.” | <urn:uuid:bc843a25-c6c8-422e-9e78-f83e36670ad0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/space/stories/budget-balloon-takes-nasa-quality-space-photos | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956632 | 296 | 3.140625 | 3 |
History of Spain
The History of Spain covers the region from prehistory to the 1980s. For recent events see Spain
The Iberian Peninsula has been settled for millennium. In fact, some of Europe's most impressive Paleolithic cultural sites are located in Spain, including the famous caves at Altamira that contain spectacular paintings dating from about 5,000 to 6,000 years ago. The Basques, Europe's oldest surviving group, are also the first identifiable people of the peninsula.
Beginning in the ninth century BC, Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, and Celts entered the Iberian Peninsula. The Romans followed in the second century BC and laid the groundwork for Spain's present language, religion, and laws. Although the Visigoths arrived in the fifth century AD, the last Roman strongholds along the southern coast did not fall until the seventh century AD.
The building of a strong centralized power in the medieval period represented the victory of the crown over other power institutions, such as the nobility or self-governing towns.
Muslims and Crusaders: 711-1492
In 711, North African Moors sailed across the straits, swept into Andalusia, and within a few years, pushed the Visigoths up the peninsula to the Cantabrian Mountains. The Reconquista (wars to drive out the Moors) lasted until complete success was achieved in 1492. By 1512, the unification of present-day Spain was complete.
Muslims crossed from Africa into Spain early in the eighth century and in 711 at the battle of Río Barbate, they defeated the Visigoths and pressed forward to capture Toledo. By 718, the Moors (the name given North African Muslims by the Spaniards) had completed their conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, except for small Christian remnants in the Pyrenees. They remained on for the next 674 years until driven out by Spanish and Portuguese Christians.
The period of the Spanish Crusades began in the eleventh century when a religious revival was initiated by Cluniac monks in the small kingdoms in the north of Spain, which had recovered some of their lost territory. The revival expressed itself in a growing hatred for the infidel. Slowly yet steadily, at first sparked mainly by Burgundians and Normans from France, the Christians began to force the Moors out of northern and central Spain. Known as the Wars of the Reconquest, these centuries-long conflicts intensified the Catholic sentiments of the people, developing an intense, even fanatical unity of religion and patriotism which was long characteristic of the Spaniards.
By the middle of the 15th century, the last bastion of Moorish power on the peninsula was the kingdom of Granada in southwestern Spain. When the marriage of Isabella, Queen of Castile, to Ferdinand, Prince of Aragon, in 1469 united Spain, they vigorously began their last campaign against the Moors. In January 1492 the Spanish entered the city of Granada and Moorish power ended in Europe. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain may be considered the last of the many medieval crusades.
Myths and memory
he myth of Al-Andalus, the Arab-Islamic civilization of medieval Spain centered in Andalusia, was probably born among exiled Muslims in the 16th century. With the return of democracy in the 1970s, most Spaniards came to accept Al-Andalus proudly as part of their history, and it became a symbol of tolerance, even if the level of tolerance of Christians and Jews as second-class subjects in Al-Andalus would not be acceptable today. Nevertheless, Al-Andalus has been very useful to Spain as a platform for dialogue with Arab nations and the broader Muslim world.
During the 16th century, Spain became the most powerful nation in Europe, due to the immense wealth derived from its presence in the Americas. But a series of long, costly wars and revolts, capped by the defeat by the English of the "Invincible Armada" in 1588, began a steady decline of Spanish power in Europe. Controversy over succession to the throne consumed the country during the 18th century, leading to an occupation by France during the Napoleonic era in the early 1800s and a series of armed conflicts throughout much of the 19th century.
In the late 18th century Spain at last attempted to reform the administration of its colonies. Some progress was made, but the improvements also stimulated a demand for more autonomy and even independence on the part of the creoles (people of Spanish descent born in the colonies).
Spain had built a large empire, primarily in South America and Central America; most of the colonies revolted about 1820, and many of the remainder were lost in 1898. Historians explain the collapse on an anticolonial, national consciousness among Creoles; peninsular misrule and economic mismanagement; and the seismic effects of geopolitical upheaval, particularly the Napoleonic occupation of Spain.
Internally, Spain was in turmoil, with three wars over the succession issue; the Carlist Wars that pitted conservative against liberal and led to the brief ousting of the monarchy and establishment of the First Republic (1873-74); and, finally, the Spanish-American War of 1898, in which Spain lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the United States.
The loss of the War of 1898 reopened divisions between traditionalist conservatives and reformist liberals, causing deep cultural and political rifts that have still not completely healed.
A period of dictatorial rule (1923-31) ended with the establishment of the Second Republic. It was dominated by increasing political polarization, culminating in the leftist Popular Front electoral victory in 1936. Pressures from all sides, coupled with growing and unchecked violence, led to the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936.
Following the victory of his nationalist forces in 1939, General Francisco Franco ruled a nation exhausted politically and economically. Spain was officially neutral during World War II but followed a pro-Axis policy. Therefore, the victorious Allies isolated Spain at the beginning of the postwar period, and the country did not join the United Nations until 1955. In 1959, under an International Monetary Fund stabilization plan, the country began liberalizing trade and capital flows, particularly foreign direct investment.
Despite the success of economic liberalization, Spain remained the most closed economy in Western Europe--judged by the small measure of foreign trade to economic activity--and the pace of reform slackened during the 1960s as the state remained committed to "guiding" the economy. Nevertheless, in the 1960s and 1970s, Spain was transformed into a modern industrial economy with a thriving tourism sector. Its economic expansion led to improved income distribution and helped develop a large middle class. Social changes brought about by economic prosperity and the inflow of new ideas helped set the stage for Spain's transition to democracy during the latter half of the 1970s.
Upon the death of General Franco in November 1975, Franco's personally designated heir Prince Juan Carlos de Borbon y Borbon assumed the titles of king and chief of state. Dissatisfied with the slow pace of post-Franco liberalization, he replaced Franco's last Prime Minister with Adolfo Suarez in July 1976. Suarez entered office promising that elections would be held within one year, and his government moved to enact a series of laws to liberalize the new regime. Spain's first elections since 1936 to the Cortes (Parliament) were held on June 15, 1977. Prime Minister Suarez's Union of the Democratic Center (UCD), a moderate center-right coalition, won 34% of the vote and the largest bloc of seats in the Cortes.
Under Suarez, the new Cortes set about drafting a democratic constitution that was overwhelmingly approved by voters in a national referendum in December 1978.
In June 2014 King Juan Carlos stepped down. As a result of it his son Prince Felipe is the king of Spain.
- Barton, Simon, A History of Spain (Palgrave Essential Histories) (2009) excerpt and text search
- Carr, Raymond, ed. Spain: A History (2nd ed. 2001), excerpt and text search;
- Carr, Raymond. Spain 1808-1975 (2nd ed. 1997), 888pp; outstanding for political and social history online edition
- Junco, José Alvarez, and Adrian Shubert, eds. Spanish History since 1808 (2000), essays by scholars
- Kames, Henry. A Concise History of Spain (1973)online edition
- Lloyd, Alan. The Spanish Centuries: A Narrative History of Spain from Ferdinand and Isabella to Franco (2002), popular excerpt and text search
- O'Callaghan, Joseph Y. A History of Medieval Spain (1975) 728 pp online edition
- Pierson, Peter. The History of Spain (2008) excerpt and text search; online 1999 edition
- Rodgers, Eamonn, and Valerie Rodgers. Encyclopedia of Contemporary Spanish Culture (1999). 594 pgs. online edition
- Charles Julian Bishko, "The Spanish and Portuguese Reconquest, 1095-1492" in H. W. Hazard, ed. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (1975) pp 396-456
- Gabriel Paquette, "The Dissolution of the Spanish Atlantic Monarchy". Historical Journal 2009 52(1): 175-212 | <urn:uuid:cbff2759-d21f-4034-ab95-ab79734f936d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.conservapedia.com/History_of_Spain | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954608 | 1,929 | 3.65625 | 4 |
The recently released Pew Research Center’s Religion and Public Life Project study, “A Portrait of Jewish Americans,” has garnered tremendous attention. For most in the media and among many scholars and pundits concerned with the Jewish community, the headline was an increase in the portion of the population that describes itself as “atheist, agnostic, or having no particular religion.” Lost in the conversation was that the study found population growth among U.S. Jews, not the decline that many had claimed. Pew’s findings are consonant with research done at the Cohen Center/Steinhardt Institute that documents the increase in the U.S. Jewish population, both among those who identify Judaism as their religion and those who identify by other criteria.
Below Leonard Saxe, director of the Cohen Center for Modern Jewish Studies and the Steinhardt Social Research Institute, provides his ten takeaways of the Pew study.
- American Jews have not vanished. Pew’s estimate of 4.2M adult Jews by religion (JBR) is 25%/40% greater than the corresponding figures from NJPS 1990/2000-01. The Pew estimate of JBRs is not a methodological artifact – it’s almost precisely what one finds if you examine hundreds of surveys done with state of the art methodology that ask a standard question about religious identification (see American Jewish Population Estimates: 2012).
- The Pew estimate of a total population of 6.7M Jews is, as well, substantially larger than the corresponding estimates of NJPS 1990 and 2000-01. Notably, Pew’s criteria for who counts as a Jew are more conservative. Earlier surveys, in counting Jews of no religion (JNR), did not require self-identification as a Jew. NJPS 2000-01, in particular, included persons of Jewish background who were not considered Jewish by Pew.
- Pew estimates that 23% of the Jewish population is Jewish by criteria other than religion. That’s not very different than the results of other studies; in particular, the ARIS studies find higher rates (30%), while the Steinhardt Institute (based on studies using the Knowledge Network panel) uses a slightly lower rate (19%). What it means to be a JNR has, perhaps, changed and there are more such individuals because the overall population is larger.
- One explanation for the larger Jewish population estimate is the effect of intermarriage on Jewish identification. As Ted Sasson details in a recent article in Tablet Magazine, the children of intermarriage are identifying as Jewish at high rates. Although intermarriage rates remain high (above 2/3 for non-Orthodox Jews), most children of one Jewish parent (as defined by Pew) see themselves as Jewish.
- If one compares Pew’s JBRs with NJPS JBRs (1990 and 2000-01), on similar questions (e.g., fasted on Yom Kippur, importance of Judaism), the reported rates are almost identical. What’s different is that Pew estimates that there are many more individuals engaging in these behaviors than indicated by earlier studies. The numeric increase is not accounted for by those who are Orthodox (who comprise only 12% of the JBR population).
- Among Pew’s JNR adults (estimated at 1.1M), nearly half answered the religion question by indicating that they are atheist or agnostic (both categories were included as part of the prompts). Although some regard this as a negation of Jewish identity, a substantial majority of Pew’s respondents, including JBRs, regard Judaism “mainly” as “ancestry/culture.” Only a small minority regard Judaism mainly as a religion.
- Pew estimates that there are 1.3M Jewish children, but they restrict the child population to those being “raised” Jewish (900k raised exclusively as Jews, 300k partly Jewish, and 100k as Jews of no religion). Pew excludes 500k children who live in a household with a Jewish parent. Many, if not most, of these children would be considered Jewish by the community (e.g., eligible for youth/young adult programs). Note: Pew estimates that 20% of the total adult Jewish population is 18-29 (1.1M/91k/age cohort). If one assumes that current 0-18 age cohorts are the same size, there are then 1.6M children. This is not the “enlarged” Jewish population, but rather the core Jewish population.
- The Pew findings do not reflect changes in intermarriage being wrought by programs such as Taglit-Birthright Israel. Taglit has dramatic effects on intermarriage rates for participants in its ten-day Israel education programs (see http://www.brandeis.edu/cmjs/researchareas/taglit-publications.html), particularly so for those from intermarried households. Because highly educated American Jews delay marriage (until their 30s), the impact of Taglit did not have a marked effect on the rates reported by Pew.
- Regarding Israel, Pew’s findings show high levels of support and attachment to Israel. Overall, nearly 45% of all Jewish adults have visited Israel, including a similar proportion of young adults (again, influenced by Taglit). As well, almost 90% of all Jews say that caring about Israel is “essential” or “important” to their Jewishness.
- One puzzle regarding Pew’s findings is their estimate of 3.5M individuals of Jewish background (2.4M adults and 1.1M children). Considered by Pew non-Jewish (and, thus, not part of their 6.7M estimate of the Jewish population), Jewish background individuals have Jewish parents and/or were raised Jewish. The puzzle is that nearly 75% of these individuals consider themselves Jewish and many engage in Jewish practices (including regular synagogue attendance, fasting on Yom Kippur). They were excluded because they also indicated that they had another religion (in some cases, agnostic/atheist). Pew has, to date, not provided detailed information about these individuals.
In sum, rather than painting a bleak portrait of American Jewry, the Pew survey describes high levels of Jewish identification, albeit many of those who identify as Jewish are not highly engaged in Jewish life and with formal Jewish organizations. My key take-away is that the U.S. Jewish community has a challenge: How to sustain identification and engagement with Judaism, both as a religious movement and as a culture. Intermarriage and the encounter with a dominant non-Jewish culture has, no doubt, reduced the ranks of those who identify as Jewish (the Jewish population would be 10 million, not 7 million), but the loss in Jewish identification is far less than had been thought. Whether or not these trends will be sustained is impossible to predict, but the current levels of identification and engagement suggest a host of opportunities. | <urn:uuid:568f416e-c2bb-4bc9-a36e-7c4e5c584c22> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ejewishphilanthropy.com/ten-takeaways-from-pew/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00029-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952039 | 1,431 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Identifying Popular Soccer Formations
In soccer, formations are the way a team lines up its defense, midfield, and forward line at the beginning of the match. But soccer is a fluid sport, and during the game, a midfielder may become a forward for five or ten minutes and then return to his original position. Or, likewise, a forward may come back to defend.
When talking about formations, defenders are listed first, followed by midfielders and then forwards. For example, a 4-2-4 formation has four defenders, two midfielders, and four forwards. Goalkeepers aren’t counted because theirs is the one position that hasn’t changed over the years.
In reality, you could produce dozens of formations due to the mathematical possibilities. Here are two of the most popular formations.
The 4-2-4 formation is the most offensive-minded in modern times. To take advantage of this formation, talented and skillful midfielders and forwards must strike early and hold the ball for long periods of time because the pressure is on the midfield and defense big-time when the opposition possesses the ball.
Today’s game is won or lost in the midfield, which is why the 3-5-2 formation is popular. A team that doesn’t have its midfield operating at peak efficiency suffers in ball possession and scoring chances. So, many coaches like to use as many as five midfielders, although two outside midfielders may have more defensive responsibilities than their mates. | <urn:uuid:79f3e619-2a4b-4c6f-8ad8-ce335edf0ab5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/identifying-popular-soccer-formations.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972458 | 306 | 2.765625 | 3 |
HOUSTON, USA -- The Greater Houston Garifuna-American Partnership, a Harris County, Texas, grassroots community organization, has submitted a petition to members of the Texas Legislature to recognize March 14 as Chief Joseph Chatoyer Hero Day in Texas in honour of the Carib Paramount Chief Joseph Chatoyer who led a revolt against British troops in St Vincent during the Carib Wars.
Chatoyer is a national hero in St Vincent and the Grenadines and the highest cultural figure among the Garifuna community in the Central American Caribbean coast and Garifuna-American communities across the United States.
“As part of celebrating and preserving Garifuna heritage,” said Jerry Castro-Cyateano, “It’s important our children, friends and neighbours learn and become aware about the accomplishments of our ancestors and the role they played to secure justice while fighting colonization.”
Chatoyer, who died March 14, 1795, was a Garifuna (Carib) chief who led a revolt against the British colonial government of Saint Vincent in 1795. He is now considered a national hero of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, also Belize and other Carib countries he fought for during the war. Camillo Gonsalves, Permanent Representative of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines to the United Nations, described him in 2011 as his country's "sole national hero".
Descendants of the Black Caribs, Arawak Indians and free blacks from the island of St Vincent, the Garifuna were exiled by the British from the island, arriving in Roatan, Honduras, on April 12, 1797. Today, there are Garifuna communities along the Central American Caribbean coasts of Guatemala, Honduras, Belize and Nicaragua. In the United States, the Garifuna community celebrates November 12 to December 12 as National Garifuna Settlement, Education Awareness Month.
As a national hero of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, a monument to Chatoyer stands on Dorsetshire Hill, where he died. A play based on his life, The Drama of King Shotaway, was the first play written by fellow Vincentian merchant marine, William Henry Brown, who opened the first black theater, African Grove Theater in New York in the 1820s. Chatoyer’s role was played by leading African American actor (and immigrant from St Vincent), James Hewlett, one of the most popular black actors of his time in the 1820s. | <urn:uuid:da46b725-0fb5-4867-b401-15d0921ae0ea> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.caribbeannewsnow.com/headline-Garifunas-petition-for-Joseph-Chatoyer-Hero-Day-in-Texas-14497.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00135-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961326 | 502 | 2.71875 | 3 |
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Legal instruments to combat racism on the internet
2.3. The legal basis for investigations and seizures
2.4. Obstacles in press and media law to holding a person responsible for racist content
2.5. Obstacles posed by data protection law
2.6. Problems of international cooperation among police and law enforcement authorities
The Internet, being characterised by the volatility and ubiquity of its contents (refer to Part I above), constitutes an important challenge to law enforcement authorities. Although the Internet is not a legal vacuum and the responsibilities of its actors are defined or definable (refer to Part III, below), the traditional instruments used by law enforcement authorities to establish such responsibility, i.e. tracing the actors and producing evidence of criminal acts, are not necessarily adapted to the specific technical features of the Internet. In what follows, we will analyse the scope of competence of national law enforcement authorities, the procedures they must respect in pursuing investigations and the limits of their investigative powers deriving from basic rights of the individual (data protection) and other constitutional guarantees. Apart from problems existing at the internal level, the lack of international co-operation in the area and the fact that certain countries have turned into safe harbours for hate-oriented speech, due to far going protection of the freedom of expression, constitute serious obstacles to the work of law enforcement authorities.
The Internet constitutes a global means of communication that allows users to access information from all over the world. A question arises as to the extent to which individual national authorities are competent for contents originating from outside the national territory.
In criminal matters, most countries subscribe to the principle of territorial jurisdiction, according to which the competence of national law enforcement authorities is limited to crimes committed on national territory. The place at which a criminal offence was committed is, in most countries, defined in two ways: either the place where the illegal act was committed, or the place where the result of the illegal act was felt. Given the latter part of the definition, most countries are theoretically competent for any illegal content on the Internet, provided that is accessible from their territory1.
According to § 9 of the German Penal Code (Strafgesetzbuch, hereinafter StGB), the location of a criminal act is defined as the place where the criminal acted or where the result of his action materialised or was intended to materialise.
Under the Criminal Code, French law is applicable to offences committed on the territory of the Republic. An offence is deemed to have been committed on the territory when at least one of its constituent elements has taken place in the sea, land or air space of the French Republic (Art. 113-2).
Article 6 of the Criminal Code lays down the principle of the territorial application of criminal law: any person who has committed an offence on Italian territory is liable to be punished according to Italian law. Article 6 paragraph 2 states that an offence is to be regarded as having been committed in Italy where the act or omission took place there, in whole or in part, or where the event resulting from that act or omission was produced there (ubiquity).
These examples show that national provisions concerning territorial jurisdiction give States a very broad jurisdictional competence. The French Conseil d’Etat described the situation as follows:
“It follows from those provisions that French criminal law clearly applies in the case of an offending message available on the Internet network, no matter where in the world its source is situated ... Such a mechanism in reality has the effect of dissociating the place where the offence was actually committed from the place where it produces its effects, and gives the national courts a very broad jurisdiction.2”
This very broad competence is considered problematic in some states, because it forces anyone who publishes on the Internet to check all the legal orders of the world if he or she wants to be sure that his publication will not constitute a criminal offence. For this reason, and because such legal uncertainty may constitute obstacles to economic development in the area of Internet services, attempts have been made in some spheres to restrict the general rules on criminal jurisdiction when these are applied to Internet.
Legal commentators propose to limit criminal jurisdiction in respect of the Internet to those acts with which the author really intends to reach a German audience3. Only contents tailored to a German audience should fall within German jurisdiction.
The proposed Directive on electronic commerce4 effectively limits jurisdiction to the country of origin of the service provider (Art. 3 of the Directive). The service provider can only be held responsible according to the legal provisions in force at the place of his business5. However, by way of derogation, the Member States may take measures for the purpose of fighting incitement to hatred on grounds of race, sex, religion or nationality (Art. 22, para. 2 of the Directive).
Jurisdiction in civil matters concerning the Internet is much less clear than criminal jurisdiction. In the fight against racism on Internet, civil jurisdiction becomes relevant where the author of illegal content can be held responsible on the basis of tort law, which means that he is either liable in damages (for example in Italy; refer to Part III, below), or the addressee of a cease and desist order. Where the access or host provider cannot be held responsible under criminal law, a civil law cease and desist order aimed at cutting access to an Internet site with racist content can be an efficient alternative means of stopping the distribution of such racist content.
As in criminal cases, a question arises as to the extent of the competence of the national court when the author and/or Internet host of the racist content is located in a foreign country6.
In the only Italian decision7 to deal with the question of the international jurisdiction of an Italian court in respect of an unlawful act committed on the Internet, the President of the court granted an application for an injunction concerning defamatory information published on an “open” Internet site, although the server was in the United States. The respondent’s argument that the Italian court lacked jurisdiction was rejected on the ground that the court was competent to deal with a complex activity involving the dissemination of information which was harmful to others, since this information, by being placed on the website, was directly accessible in all countries linked to the Internet. Accordingly, the fact that the website concerned was opened abroad and the information loaded abroad could not preclude the jurisdiction of the Italian courts.
Once the competent court is determined, there arises a more complicated question as to which law a judge must apply when deciding about the legality of content on a server located abroad. The diversity of rules existing in this regard entails the risk that a domestic judgment will not necessarily be enforced in the foreign country where the illicit content is stored on a server. Harmonisation of rules would minimise this risk.
Although, in theory, states are competent for the prosecution of Internet crimes committed anywhere on the globe, they will not succeed in holding responsible the person who published illegal content if this material was posted to the net in a country where such content is protected by law. In respect of racist content, due to a very broad conception of the freedom of speech, the United States of America has become a safe data harbour in which prosecutions in respect of racist content or the enforcement of any foreign judicial decision will be extremely difficult. The fact that a majority of racist sites are located in the US makes it necessary to explain the US-American concept of freedom of speech in more detail.
Although the United States has actively pursued a policy agenda intended to combat behavior motivated by hatred8, the fight against hate motivated communications on the Internet faces some specific obstacles. These communications are classified as speech in the American legal system and, as such, the special protection accorded to freedom of speech by the First Amendment to the United States federal Constitution9 makes the regulation of their content extremely difficult. As a result, and despite numerous attempts, there is currently no comprehensive federal legislation prohibiting racism on the Internet.
The importance of free speech has historical roots. The founders of the United States came to America to avoid persecution - often at the hands of their own governments - for their political or religious ideas. Their goals in establishing a new system of governance were to guarantee individual freedom and to place strict controls on those in power. Censorship - particularly of ideas which might be unpopular – was anathema to a truly democratic process and was therefore to be eradicated at all costs.
Even now, freedom of speech is seen as the most fundamental of rights in the United States. The theory most frequently advanced is that only through open public debate will the truth become clear. Such debate is possible only if no ideas, no matter how unpleasant, are censored. This public debate - in particular the ability to be informed about and to criticize the government as well as majority-held opinions - is an essential prerequisite for all citizens to perform their self-governing function. The specter of legal sanctions imposed on a particular type of speech might have a "chilling effect" on legitimate speech: an individual might refrain from stating his opinions for fear of punishment, thereby depriving the public of this point of view.
In order to protect the individual's rights from governmental censure, the American legal system requires judges to verify the constitutionality of any law under which an accused may be prosecuted. In order for the government to be able to regulate an area, not only must adequate legislation be drafted and enacted, such legislation must pass the judicial test of constitutionality before it can be enforced.
In particular, a law which places any restriction on the freedom of speech is subject to the strict scrutiny of the courts. The restriction must be clearly defined, justified by a compelling interest of the government and limited to what is strictly necessary10 to achieve the specific goal. Restrictions based on the content or subject matter of speech might allow the Government to effectively silence certain ideas and are therefore presumptively unconstitutional.
Only in the area of obscenity have courts tended to find that government interests in regulation outweigh the primacy of free speech11. That fact, combined with strong political pressures concerning the protection of children from cyberporn, may explain why the only pieces of legislation attempting to regulate the content of Internet communications adopted on a federal level to date have targeted indecent rather than racist communications.
The first such attempt was the Communications Decency Act of 199612 (CDA) which provided for both civil and criminal penalties for the use of an interactive computer service to knowingly transmit, send or display certain material of a sexual or excretory nature to minors. The U.S. Supreme Court held significant provisions of the CDA to be unconstitutional13 as they related to "indecent" or "patently offensive" materials on the grounds that it was not the least restrictive means to achieve the government’s goals. Other provisions, in particular those providing certain defenses to liability for service providers and those prohibiting communication of obscene e-mails intended to harass or annoy its recipient14, remain in force.
Congress subsequently adopted the Child Online Protection Act (COPA) which targets commercial websites that disseminate information "harmful to minors" without restricting underage access to such materials15. COPA represents Congress’ attempt to remedy the constitutional defects in the CDA. COPA’s constitutionality has, however, been challenged as being vague and overbroad because it threatens speech that is protected as to adults. A federal district court has granted a preliminary injunction against enforcement of COPA on the ground that COPA is presumptively invalid as a content-based regulation of non-obscene sexual expression16.
State laws specifically prohibiting racist expression have not generally survived claims of unconstitutionality. For example, in R.A.V. v. St. Paul17, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down a city’s ordinance that made it illegal to exhibit a burning cross, a swastika, or other inflammatory symbol that might arouse "anger, alarm, or resentment in others on the basis of race, color, creed, religion or gender". All nine justices agreed that such acts were reprehensible, but that the ordinance was unconstitutional. There was, however, considerable disagreement concerning the rationale supporting the judgment, and the case generated four separate published opinions.
Other laws, particularly those concerning fair housing and employment, which do not specifically target racist speech have sometimes been used successfully to prosecute or prohibit racist speech. The California Supreme Court, for example, has held that racist comments directed at an employee by his superior may even, in some circumstances, be subject to a prior restraint. Where such comments "contribute to a hostile or abusive work environment" and therefore constitute employment discrimination, such speech may be enjoined at the workplace18.
Although few state laws specifically address communications over the Internet, courts are generally willing to apply existing doctrines, such as employment and housing discrimination, to electronic messages. Two lawsuits for employment discrimination have recently been filed based on the circulation at the workplace of racist e-mails19. Although neither suit has yet reached a trial on the merits, one has survived a motion to dismiss20. The Pennsylvania Attorney General sought an injunction against a white supremacist group and all persons and entities having control of that group’s website in connection with threatening material against an individual on that site21, and federal authorities subsequently filed charges for civil rights violations22. Defamation statutes have been used when a specific individual is targeted, or in states which have enacted group libel statutes.
Other legal theories that have been used include harassment, ethnic intimidation, and mental distress of a person to whom abusive language is address or hearing abusive language addressed to another. The issue in these cases "invariably turns on the issue of whether the language in question is so outrageous that society wishes to permit recovery, and this requires an examination of the nature of the language at issue in particular cases . . . Recovery has tended to be permitted in such cases where the plaintiff has been placed in reasonable fear of physical harm or of some other clearly intimidating experience such as arrest or imprisonment."23
First Amendment law is a highly controversial area of American law, particularly as it concerns expressions of racism, and it poses a classic case of the competing imperatives of liberty and equality. The raison d'être of the First Amendment guarantee of freedom of speech is the protection from persecution of those holding a minority view. Yet it's strict application creates serious obstacles to the protection of certain minorities from verbal abuse. The development of the Internet - in particular the ability to reach an increasingly large audience while remaining totally anonymous and therefore free from editorial or societal pressures - has added a new level of complexity and urgency to the fight against racism in the United States.
This problem of “safe havens” is not limited to racist contents, but also concerns revisionist sites whose existence has to do with the fact that there is no criminal legislation in that regard in certain European countries.
The criminal or civil responsibility of a particular author of illegal content can only be established on the basis of evidence. The volatility of electronic content confronts the investigative authorities with major difficulties (refer to point 2.2., above). They are expected to react fast, whereas the legal means of intervention do not effectively permit quick intervention or seizure of evidence in most countries. The prerequisites for obtaining a search warrant are very often ill adapted to the form which illegal content takes on the Internet. Moreover, the technical means for an efficient investigation, based on tracing data transfers back to the author, are very often in the hands of the access or host provider. This poses the question of whether access providers are obliged to help police in the process of obtaining or securing relevant data files. Another limitation on tracing back illegal content, especially in the field of e-mail, is the fact that surveillance of the private communication is only possible within the narrow scope of the laws on the interception of postal and telephonic communications.
To be able to search a building, police officers require - as in most countries – a judicial search warrant (139 ff StPO). Having gained access to a building, police may seize material which is relevant to the investigation, including data files and computers. The owner of any data base is obliged to co-operate for this purpose. Co-operation can consist of production of copies of data files, decryption of encrypted messages or processing data in such a way that it can be used by the law enforcement authorities. Moreover, according to § 89 of the Telecommunications Act, the operators of telecommunication services are obliged to provide to the police all the installations which are necessary for the surveillance of telecommunications. On the other hand, access providers, other than public institutions, who know of the existence of illegal content, are not obliged to bring it to the attention of the authorities (§§ 84 and 86 of the Criminal Procedure Act).
Art. 5 of the Telecommunications Data Protection Directive requires that interception or monitoring of communications, on both public and non-public networks, take place only when legally authorised.
As in other countries, police may seize materials which are linked to the commission of a criminal offence. However, they may not seize e-mails which are held in intermediate storage on the server of an access provider. The storing of e-mails is still part of the communication process, so that seizure would have to be qualified as an interception of telecommunications. Under a constitutional guarantee (Art. 10 Grundgesetz) such an interception of telecommunications can only be effected by the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz) or by the corresponding institutions of the Länder. In a case decided by the Regional Court of Hanau24, a public prosecutor was forbidden to seize incoming and outgoing e-mails which were still stored on the server of the access provider. The prosecutor had ordered their confiscation because he suspected orders for pornographic materials to be among them.
Concerning certain extremely serious criminal offences, Internet providers are obliged to inform the authorities of the planning or commission of such an offence (§ 138 StGB). The offence of incitement to racist hatred, however, does not rank among them.
The main legislation which permits British police to search for evidence of an offence committed by use of the Internet is the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (Chapter 60 of 1984). Under Part II of that Act, police are normally required to obtain a warrant from a Justice of the Peace if they wish to enter premises in order to search for and seize evidence of an offence having been previously committed. A first prerequisite is that there be "(…) reasonable grounds for believing" that a "(…) serious arrestable offence" had been committed (subpara. 8(1)(a)). To use words or display written material that is intended or likely to stir up racial hatred is an arrestable offence under subsec. 18(3) of the Public Order Act 1986. Whether the offence is "serious" must be evaluated by the judge on each application. Secondly, the police must show either that they would be unable to obtain access to the premises or the evidence without the warrant (subparas. 8(3)(a)-(c)), or that asking for access would probably result in the destruction or disappearance of the evidence (subpara. 8(3)(d)). One imagines that this will often be the case with respect to racist material, particularly if it is stored on computers for distribution over the Internet. Para. 5 of Schedule 1 to the Act provides that, in cases where the material sought is "contained in a computer", then the search warrant shall be interpreted as an order obliging the person in possession of the material to produce it in a visible and legible form in which it can be taken away by the police. Thirdly, the police must describe, as closely as is practicably possible, the individual articles which they believe exist and which they wish to seize (subpara. 15(2)(c)). The warrant permits entry to the specified premises on only one occasion (subsec. 15(5)). In the result, if the police are to obtain authorisation to seize evidence of propogation of racist material, they must first find out by other means that a relevant offence has been committed. Hence the importance of information provided by Internet users via hotlines or other means of information. Once a warrant has been obtained, the police can seize anything on the premises searched which amounts to evidence of any offence that has been committed. Subsec. 19(4) specifically authorises the police to "require any information which is contained in a computer and is accessible from the premises to be produced in a form in which it can be taken away and in which it is visible and legible". Nevertheless, the police find these statutory constraints frustrating in the context of racism on Internet, as they do not permit the police to maintain ongoing surveillance of what material is being propagated by known racists or racist groups from time to time25.
The Public Order Act 1986 makes additional provision for the police to be able to search for and seize material which is specifically in breach of sec. 23 of that Act, namely material that is likely to stir up racial hatred and is in the possession of the accused for the purpose of being distributed, shown or played. Under subsec. 24(1), such a search operation can only be conducted upon the authority of a warrant issued by a Justice of the Peace and it is up to the police to show reasonable grounds for suspecting that a person has a racist writing or recording in his possession. There is no guidance on the interpretation of this provision, but the wording gives reason to believe that it would also be treated as restricted to allowing a search for and seizure of a particular existing document.
Particularly useful for identifying the authors of racist and other illegal material on Internet is the possibility provided by sec. 2 of the Interception of Communications Act 1985 (Chapter 56 of 1985) to covertly survey messages passing over public telecommunications systems. This requires a warrant issued by the Home Secretary [= Minister of the Interior] inter alia "for the purpose of preventing or detecting serious crime" (subpara. 2(2)(b)). The Home Secretary has power to issue such a warrant whenever "he considers that the warrant is necessary" for that purpose, in the sense that the relevant information is necessary for that purpose and that it could not "reasonably be acquired by other means" (subsec. 2(3)). Unfortunately (from the point of view of law enforcement), the information obtained from such surveillance cannot be used to bring a prosecution against any offendor: the House of Lords held in R. v. Preston et al26, that the result of subsecs. 2(2)(b) and 6(3) combined is that information so obtained must be destroyed as soon as the process of detecting crimes has been completed and therefore cannot be used to prosecute crimes. This legislation is accordingly useful for identification of the authors of racist material on Internet, but in order to prosecute the authors, the police will need to proceed, on the basis of the information so obtained, to find independent evidence of the commission of a criminal offence (Refer also to point 2.5, on data protection, below).
In a leading decision,27 the Federal Court recently held that e-mails are covered by the secrecy of telecommunications. It thus upheld the appeal of a technical intermediary (Swiss Online), which refused to disclose the identity of the author of an e-mail.
Swiss Online had refused to comply with the request of a Zurich judge who had requested it to identify the author of an e-mail who sought to extort funds from a private undertaking. This judge, who was responsible for the investigation considered that he was not required to seek the approval of the judge specially designated to lift the secrecy of telecommunications.
The Federal Court took the view that any step in the judicial procedure which sought to identify retroactively the author of an e-mail must have a legal basis and that the approval of the judge specially designated by cantonal procedure to lift the secrecy of telecommunications was essential.
The Federal Court also emphasised the need for legislation in an area which was constantly changing.
In many countries, publications on Internet fall within the scope of application of the national press laws. This classification of Internet content as press or media has important consequences for the investigation of illegal content. On the one hand, the prescription period is very often shorter than that applicable to normal criminal proceedings. On the other hand, the applicability of press laws limits the scope of preventive measures that may be taken against the operators of websites which periodically host illegal contents.
The conditions under which Internet publications will be considered a product of the press are divergent:
According to a judgement of the Oberlandesgericht Wien of 26 November 1997, the Internet is to be counted among the forms of media in the sense of the Act on Media (Mediengesetz, the Austrian press law). This decision was subsequently criticised for generally qualifying Internet as a "medium" without examining further requirements such as periodicity of publication or the journalistic processing of content.
In general, Internet content can be considered as a product of the press if it functionally replaces the print media28. To obtain this qualification, particular content has to be processed in a journalistic and editorial manner. The administrative court of Düsseldorf29 held that a content provider who gathers information and provides a forum to third parties for their publications does not benefit from the privileges of press law, because the mere fact that the content provider structures and administers the information contained on his web-page is not sufficient to constitute journalistic processing of such content.
In a case concerning the distribution of nazi symbols, the Higher Regional Court of Frankfurt30 defined the meaning of "publishing" in the context of the Internet. According to the Court, only the first publication of a specific content on the Internet is protected by press laws. If the content (in the pertinent case, a video game wherein nazi symbols were used) is re-distributed by a third person (here, the owner of a mailbox), the this redistribution cannot be considered publication within the meaning of the press laws.
Courts have implicitly recognized that publications on the Internet, provided they appear periodically, can fall within the scope of press laws31. However, most legal commentators are opposed to an assimilation of the Internet to the press32.
In addition, the consequences of such classification as products of the press vary considerably between the countries examined:
The Cour d’appel de Paris found that the press laws and in particular the short prescription period of 3 months are applicable. However, the prescription period is not to be calculated in the traditional manner:
“The civil judgment delivered on 10 July 1997 following the proceedings commenced on 8 April 1997 by the UEJF (Union of Jewish Students of France), states that Jean-Louis Costes relied in his defence, inter alia, on the fact that the texts in question had been published on the Internet network on 14 September 1996 and that, consequently, if they did constitute an infringement of the 1881 Act, they could not give rise to criminal proceedings, since the prosecution was already time-barred.
The accused seeks to take advantage of that time-limit, the principle of which is laid down in Article 65 of the Law of 29 July 1881 on the press.
The application of Article 65, which lays down the principle of a three-month period from the first day of publication beyond which the prosecution is barred, has formed the subject-matter of a consistent line of decisions in relation to writing or images disseminated on paper (books, newspapers, posters etc.) or in an audiovisual form (radio, television, cinema etc.) where it is easy to determine the first day on which the writing or image was made available to the public, if only because it is apparent from the medium itself (newspapers, audiovisual message) or because the time when it was made available to the public corresponds to a specific act (mailing in the case of books).
In order to apply Article 65, it is necessary to determine the date on which the item was first made available to the public, since the principle is thus laid down by the legislature that after three months, in derogation from the general criminal law, the prosecuting authorities and the parties seeking civil damages are no longer authorised to initiate a prosecution in respect of written works, since the disruption of public order deemed to result therefrom or the harm caused to third parties must be regarded as lapsed or made good.
In such a situation the publication results from the renewed intention of the person who places the message on a site and chooses to keep it there or to remove it when he deems it appropriate. The act of publication is therefore continuous. The fact that the offence continues to be committed throughout the relevant period is a concept of positive law in criminal matters and applies to the definition of a number of offences.
The Court therefore finds that by choosing to keep the texts in issue available on his site on the dates on which it has been established that they were there, and in this instance on 10 July 1997, Jean-Louis Costes published them again on that date and ran the risk that the three-month period would begin to run anew from that date”.33
In a recent decision of the First Instance Court of Brussels dated 2 March 200034, the Belgian judges followed the French approach in the Costes case. They rejected the argument of the defendant, against whom a preliminary injunction was being sought in connection with a defamation action, that claims arising out of the relevant publication were prescribed. The Court found that "un délit de presse sur Internet doit être considéré comme un délit continu, tant que le texte litigieux reste aisément accessible à toute personne naviguant sur le net à la recherche d’information sur un sujet donné".
The qualification of Internet content as a press publications would limit police intervention before the publication of an article. This rules is to avoid censorship. The police must wait until content is published before intervening. The seizure of products of the press can only be effected on the basis of a judicial warrant following publication (§§ 97 and 98 StPO). There is no possibility of intervening before publication.
In investigating and tracing racist content on the Internet, the law enforcement authorities depend on the access providers’ willingness to co-operate. However, their co-operation is very often limited by the laws on data protection. In most States, such laws are rooted in the fundamental right of freedom from interference with private life and therefore constitute a pivotal counter-weight to police investigational efforts.
Both, the Federal Act on Data Protection and Telecommunications Services (Teledienstedatenschutzgesetz35) and the Compact of the Länder on Media Services (Mediendienststaatsvertrag) contain strict provisions on data protection applicable to Internet which go beyond the general data protection rules and aim particularly at guaranteeing the right to anonymity.
According to these provisions, the use and the collection of fees must be effected anonymously or by using a pseudonym. The establishment of a user profile can only be linked to a pseudonym which makes it impossible to link the user profile to data that would allow the identification of a person. Moreover, the service provider has to guarantee that the client can use the services without being identified by third parties. This provision implements the constitutional guarantee of the inviolability of communications. Data concerning the manner in which clients use the services must be deleted immediately after use, unless longer storage is necessary for billing purposes. Data on the use of Internet services may only be stored, processed or used if this is necessary for modifications of the contractual relations between the service provider and the user, if they are necessary to allow the user to use the Internet, or for billing purposes. In general and subject to narrow exemptions, data obtained for the above mentioned purposes may not be forwarded to third parties unless the user agrees. The Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution is pressing for the enactment of a provision which would allow data to be passed to the competent law enforcement authorities36. However, this proposal has not yet been carried out.
The Federal Data-Protection Officer has no objection to an obligation to keep data on persons who are not suspected of any offence, as a precaution, but considers that keeping such data is a serious breach of personal rights which must be approved by Parliament, in other words it cannot merely be ordered by the Executive.37
Under both the Data Protection Act 1984 and the revised Data Protection Act 1998, ISPs are generally obliged to respect the confidentiality of "personal data" concerning their customers. That expression would include not only the contents of their e-mail and chat correspondence, but also details of the websites which they visited, the newsgroups to which they posted and so on. An ISP who amasses such information and discloses it to any third party without legal authority is liable to criminal prosecution. Of course, the Acts contain exemptions for the benefit of police operations. Subsec. 28(3) of the 1984 Act and subsec. 29(3) of the 1998 Act both exempt personal data from the normal non-disclosure requirements in so far as the disclosure is made for the purpose of prevention or detection of crime or apprehension or prosecution of offenders and non-disclosure "would be likely to prejudice any of [those] matters ..."
In the result, the Data Protection Acts authorise ISPs to disclose information about their customers to the police where there is a reasonable suspicion of criminal activity, but do not force them to do so. An agreement has been reached between ISPs and the Association of Chief Police Officers, according to which the police will prepare notices in a certain form and containing certain information whenever they wish to obtain personal data concerning the customers of ISPs, but have not obtained warrants authorising them to demand that information. However, ISPs generally respond positively to such notices only in so far as the personal data sought is felt to be of a "non-sensitive" nature38.
Sovereign acts of law enforcement authorities can only take place within the national territory. Hence, law enforcement authorities depend on the cooperation of foreign authorities when they want to investigate foreign authors. We know of no attempts by European law enforcement authorities to attack racist material hosted on servers located outside the national territory, other than by asking their own national providers to block access to these sites. International police investigations within Europe are often effected via Interpol or Europol. Although a highly functional forum for police cooperation, Europol is not vested with any particular mandate in respect of Internet crimes. No specific police cooperation modules have been set up exclusively for the Internet. The Council of Europe addressed this problem in its Recommendation No. R (95) 13 concerning problems of criminal procedural law connected with information technology of 11 September 1995:
"17. The power to extend a search to other computer systems should also be applicable when the system is located in a foreign jurisdiction, provided that immediate action is required. In order to avoid possible violations of state sovereignity or international law, an unambiguous legal basis for such extended search and seizure should be established. Therefore, there is an urgent need for negotiating international agreements as to how, when and to what extent such search and seizure should be permitted.
18. Expedited and adequate procedures as well as a system of liaison should be available according to which the investigating authorities may request the foreign authorities to promptly collect evidence. For that purpose the requested authorities should be authorised to search a computer system and seize data with a view to its subsequent transfer. The requested authorities should also be authorised to provide trafficking data related to a specific telecommunication, intercept a specific telecommunication or identify its source. For that purpose, the existing mutual legal assistance instruments need to be supplemented."
In a certain way, the European Union has responded to those needs in adopting its "Legislative resolution embodying Parliament’s opinion on the draft Council Resolution on the lawful interception of telecommunications in relation to new technologies39". In this resolution, the Council lists the "requirements" to be met in the Member States for the lawful interception of new telecommunications technologies, namely the Internet. The resolution aims at creating common standards for interception, thereby making cooperation between national police forces easier and less bureaucratic.
1. See also Report of the Council of Statet, “Internet et les réseaux numériques”, 1998, p. 167, http://www.internet.gouv.fr/francais/textesref/rapce98/accueil.htm
2. Report of the Council of State, cited in footnote 8 above, p. 167.
3. See Collardin, Straftaten im Internet, Computer und Recht 1995, p. 618 (621).
4. To be found on: http://www.ispo.cec.be/Ecommerce/legal/legal.html.
5. More details: Spindler, Multimedia und Recht 1999, 199, 206.
6. According to the Brussels Convention of 1968 and the Lugano Convention of 1988, of which most of the European States are members, the victim can choose between a court in the country of the defendant's domicile or a court in the country where the damage was caused or a court in the country where the damage arose. Of course the conventions only apply when the defendant is domiciled in one of the States Parties to the conventions.
7. Order of the President of the Teramo District Court of 11 December 1997 (civil matter, action for an injunction, case of defamation), in Diritto dell’informazione e dell’informatica 1998, p. 370.
8. Heather De Santis, Combatting Hate on the Internet: An International Comparative Review of Policy Approaches, Strategic Research and Analysis SRA-350, Department of Canadian Heritage, 1998, p.31.
9. “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances." (italics added) USCA Const. Amend. I.
10. Supreme court opinions have generally referred to this element as requiring that legislation be “narrowly tailored" (as opposed to being “overbroad") and that it represent the “least restrictive means" for achieving the government’s goal.
11. John F. McGuire, When Speech is Heard Around the World: Internet Content Regulation in the United States and Germany, 74 NYULR 750, 753 (1999).
12. Publ. L. N° 104-104, 110 Stat 133 (codified in scattered sections of 47 U.S.C.)
13. Reno v. ACLU, 117 S. Ct. 2329 (1997) (invalidating portions of the Communications Decency Act of 1996 as not representing the most restrictive means to achieve the government's goals).
14. ApolloMedia Corp. v. Reno, 1998 WL 853216 (U.S. (Cal.) 1999) amended by 119 S. Ct. 1459 (US 1999) as cited in Andrews Computer & Online Industry Litigation Reporter “High Court Upholds Law Banning ‘harassing’ or ‘annoying’ e-mail" May 18, 1999.
15. COPA provides for fines and/or imprisonment for whoever knowingly makes a communication for commercial purposes by means of the World Wide Web that is available to any minor that includes any material harmful to minors. Publ L. 105-277 112 Stat. 2681-736 codified as 47 U.S.C. §231.
16. ACLU v. Reno, 31 F.Supp2d 473 (E.D. Penna. 1999)
17. 505 U.S. 377 (1992).
18. Aguilar v. Avis Rent A Car System, Inc. 87 Ca. Rptr.2d 132 (Ca. S.Ct. 1999).
19. Owens v. Morgan Stanley & Co., 1997 WL 403454 ( S.D.N.Y. 1997); Curtis v. Citibank, 1998 WL 3354 (S.D.N.Y. 1998).
20. Owens v. Morgan Stanley & Co., 1997 WL 793004 (S.D.N.Y. 1997).
21. “AG’S Complaint Says Hate Group Published Terroristic Threats on the Internet", The Legal Intelligencer Vo.219, N° 79, October 21, 1998
22. “Feds Target Web Threats", The National Law Journal Vol 22, N° 23, January 31, 2000.
23. “Civil liability for Insulting or Abusive Language – Modern Status", American Law Reports ALR 4th, Vol. 20 (1983) Current through the September, 1999 Supplement.
24. LG Hanau, Beschluss vom 23.9.1999, NJW 1999, S. 3647.
25. Source: Detective Chief Superintendent Keith Akerman, Hampshire Constabulary, Chairman of the Computer Crime Working Group of the British Association of Chief Police Officers.
26. 2 Law Reports, Appeal Cases 130
27. Deliberations of 5 April 2000 in Case 1A.104/1999.
28. Vid. Martin Bulliger, Ordnung oder Freiheit der Multimediadienste, JZ 1996, p. 385, 387.
29. VG Düsseldorf, Beschluss vom 25.6.1998, NJW 1999, p. 1987.
30. OLG Frankfurt a.M., Urteil vom 18.3.1998, NSTZ 1999, p. 356.
31. Rome District Court, 6 November 1997.
32. V. Zeno-Zencovich, La pretesa estensione alla telematica del regime della stampa: note critiche, in: Diritto dell’informazione e dell’informatica 1998, p. 15 ss; P. Costanzo, Libertà di manifestazione del pensiero e "pubblicazione" in Internet, ibidem, p. 372 ss; M. Franzoni, La responsabilità del provider, in AIDA 1997, p. 150.
33. Paris Court of Appeal, judgment of 15 December 1999, published on http://www.legalis.net/jnet/
34. Brussels District court, No 2000/77/C on the list of urgent applications, summary and further links available on http://www.juriscom.net
35. Act of 22 July 1997, BGBl. I, S. 1872
36. Cf. Bericht des Bundesamts für Verfassungsschutz, http://verfassungsschutz.de/publikationen/gesamt/exint06.htm.
37. Report of the activities of the Federal Officer, 1998, p. 236.
38. Source: Detective Chief Superintendent Keith Akerman of the Hampshire Constabulary, Chairman of the Computer Crime Working Group of the British Association of Chief Police Officers.
39. Official Journal C 279 of 1 October 1999, p. 498. | <urn:uuid:2db36ece-22f2-40ad-a656-47885f12b26f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/Legal_Research/Combat_racism_on_Internet/Internet_Chapter2_en.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00019-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936625 | 8,956 | 2.59375 | 3 |
\[Editor's Note: This article is part 2 of a two-part series on implementing Domain Name System (DNS) under Windows NT. Part 1, "Configuring and Administering DNS," in the August issue explained the basic DNS components and settings under NT 4.0.\]
By adapting BackOffice services for use with the Internet, Microsoft is paving the way for new features and functionality in many products. One step in this direction is taking a valuable Unix feature--Domain Name System (DNS)--and expanding on it.
Part 1 of this series explained where DNS comes from, how it works, and what it consists of. This article shows how the new DNS feature in Windows NT 4.0 works with the Windows Internet Name Service (WINS) and how a new type of Resource Record (RR), the WINS lookup record, helps solve some problems associated with name resolution. This article also demonstrates how the new DNS Manager tool lets you configure and administer DNS. Once you understand how DNS and WINS interact and how to take advantage of the DNS Manager, you'll be able to tackle DNS on your own--under Windows--without the help of your Unix friends.
Integrating DNS with WINS
Part 1 of this series described the painful process of manually resolving remote names on a TCP/IP network before the advent of DNS and how DNS simplifies this process tremendously. DNS often runs on a Unix platform, and a DNS administrator has to continually update DNS configuration files to add new names.
Microsoft took the concept of DNS a step further by introducing a proprietary name resolution method called WINS. WINS is similar to DNS but has a database of names and corresponding addresses that WINS dynamically updates, and WINS works only on a Microsoft-based TCP/IP network.
For example, a multiplatform network can have a Unix-based server to handle DNS requests and an NT-based server to handle WINS requests. This network configuration means you spend a lot of time administrating two separate name resolution methods. NT 4.0 cuts this administrative overhead by integrating both name resolution methods.
WINS and DNS both participate in resolving computer (NetBIOS) names and host names in a typical Windows environment. (For a detailed description of resolving these types of names, see the sidebar, "Name Resolution," on page 126.) Critics like to point out that this arrangement can lead to problems involving static DNS name registration and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)-assigned IP addresses. Integrating WINS and DNS in NT 4.0 helps solve these problems.
The first problem involves clients trying to reach a server in a network where the DNS administrator is behind schedule on updating the DNS. Consider the network in Figure 1. Suppose Judy tries to ping a recently installed host (spots.sakellariadis.com) on the corporate network. Judy's computer (judy.sakellariadis.com) checks her lmhosts and hosts files for a spots.sakellariadis.com entry. If Judy has no entries in her lmhosts or hosts files and therefore doesn't know the host's IP address, she queries her DNS, samos.sakellariadis.com. Judy's request will ultimately reach patmos.sakellariadis.com, the authoritative Domain Name Server for the sakellariadis.com domain. If the DNS administrator hasn't yet manually updated the configuration files for sakellariadis.com, Judy's DNS request fails. If Judy is a Windows client, she has one other option--she can query her WINS server on wins1.sakellariadis.com. If this WINS server has a mapping (a correlation between the physical IP address and computer name) for \\spots, Judy can ping spots.sakellariadis.com.
Another problem involves networks that manage IP addresses with DHCP. If spots.sakellariadis.com has a static IP address of 18.104.22.168 and the DNS administrator manually creates an address (A) record in the configuration file to reflect that address, Judy can ping spots.sakellariadis.com. However, if \\spots uses DHCP, the IP address is dynamic and can change. So when you're using DHCP, don't use DNS, because DNS name registration hard-codes IP addresses and relies on manual intervention for updating.
The WINS Lookup Record
In addition to the basic RRs (A, PTR, NS, SOA, CNAME, MX, MB, MR, MG, HINFO, TXT, MINFO, RT, RP, X25, ISDN, WKS, AFSDB) that the DNS configuration files support, NT 4.0 DNS includes a WINS lookup record. It is specific to NT and solves the problems just described by letting DNS query WINS. Listing 1 shows a sample WINS lookup record.
|LISTING 1: Sample WINS Lookup Record|
sakellariadis.dom file @ IN WINS patmos.sakellariadis.com patmos.sakellariadis.com. IN A 22.214.171.124 samos.sakellariadis.com. IN A 126.96.36.199
|LISTING 2: Example SOA Record|
@ IN SOA patmos.sakellariadis.com. spyros.patmos.sakellariadis.com. ( 996050209 ; serial number 10800 ; refresh 3600 ; retry 691200 ; expire 86400 ) ; minimum TTL
As the place.dom sample file that Microsoft provides in the \system32\dns directory states, "the presence of a WINS record at the zone root instructs the name server to use WINS to look up any request for A records for names which are direct children of zone root, and which do not have A records in the zone file." This statement has major implications for what happens when you register static DNS names.
Imagine that Judy tries to reach felix.sakellariadis.com. If she doesn't find a listing for felix.sakellariadis.com in her lmhosts or hosts files, she queries her DNS, samos.sakellariadis.com, which queries patmos.sakellariadis.com. So far, she can reach only the DNS at patmos.sakellariadis.com looking for an A record for felix.sakellariadis.com. If that A record is not there, Judy's request fails.
If the DNS administrator of patmos.sakellariadis.com adds a WINS lookup record for wins2.sakellariadis.com to the configuration files, DNS can query the WINS database for felix.sakellariadis.com and respond to Judy's request. If felix.sakellariadis.com is registered in the corporate WINS database on wins2.sakellariadis.com, Judy can ping felix.sakellariadis.com successfully.
Notice the subtle difference between this WINS approach and the host name resolution example in the sidebar on page 126. With host name resolution, if DNS doesn't have an A record for felix.sakellariadis.com, Judy tries her WINS server, wins1.sakellariadis.com, which doesn't have a clue.
Now, if DNS on \\patmos doesn't have an A record for felix.sakellariadis.com, \\patmos tries its registered WINS server, wins2.sakellariadis.com. This redirection takes the burden off Judy's WINS server and puts the responsibility on the sakellariadis.com corporate network WINS server where it belongs.
This approach solves the first problem of the DNS administrator not updating the name registration. By removing most A records from the Domain Name Server and pointing the Domain Name Server to the local WINS server, we can make the Domain Name Server work as if it's being dynamically updated with host names.
This approach also solves the second problem associated with DHCP-assigned IP addresses. Because DHCP and WINS are tightly coupled, the WINS server updates the WINS database when the DHCP-enabled client's IP address changes and the system picks up this change when someone queries DNS for a name not in the DNS database.
Microsoft's sample files that install in the \system32\dns directory when you configure DNS contain several caveats about the complexities of setting up zone transfers to secondary Domain Name Servers running BIND on Unix. These files also contain warnings about querying subdomains and using secondary Domain Name Servers with different WINS servers. If you work in environments where these issues are vital, read the sample files carefully.
GUI DNS Administrator
NT 4.0's new GUI DNS administration tool, the Domain Name Service (or System--DNS) Manager, which you invoke from the Administrative Tools group, puts a graphical face on the cryptic DNS configuration files. The DNS Manager represents these obscure DNS configuration files in an easy-to-understand manner--intuitive enough to make any Unix zealot green with envy. The DNS Manager is a remote procedure call (RPC)-based tool that requires a trusted connection to work. With the DNS Manager, you can remotely administer DNS by viewing and editing the boot configuration of any Domain Name Server on your network.
Part 1 of this series showed how you manually configure the DNS boot file and the configuration files. This article looks at how the DNS Manager lets you maintain the boot file and the configuration files and examines some RRs discussed in Part 1.
The boot File
When you install DNS in NT 4.0, the installer puts an icon for the DNS Manager in the Administrative Tools group. When you bring up the DNS Manager for the first time, you need to register the IP address of any server that is running DNS and that you want to administer. This procedure is similar to how you register a server in the SQL Server 6.0 Enterprise Manager or the Exchange Server Administrator tool. Select New Server from the DNS menu, and enter the Domain Name Servers' IP addresses. Screen 1 shows the addresses for two Domain Name Servers, \\patmos and \\samos.
The left side of the DNS Manager represents the DNS boot file. Part 1 of this series showed the various entries you add to the boot file to tell the DNS service that it is primary or secondary for a domain, what the configuration files were, etc. In the DNS Manager, you enter this information in an intuitive dialog.
If you double-click on one Domain Name Server name in Screen 1, you see a list of the zones that server services. Screen 2 shows an expanded version of the \\patmos server. This server is the primary Domain Name Server for six zones: sakellariadis.com, paradigms.com, and four reverse-arpa domains. This server is also a secondary Domain Name Server for one zone, aegean.com, represented by the icon with an S superimposed on the globe.
Adding a new zone to the DNS used to involve adding a line to the boot file. Now you just select New Zone from the DNS menu. Screen 3 shows the Create new zone wizard.
To create a new primary or secondary zone, you simply type a new zone name in the Create new zone wizard. You can create a secondary zone by putting your mouse on the hand icon in the wizard dialog and dragging the icon onto a primary zone on the left side of the DNS Manager. At first, I had assumed that the hand icon in the box at the bottom of Screen 3 was an illustration, and I spent quite a while looking for a similar icon on my screen to drag to the target location, then I realized I just needed to click that icon.
If you select the Domain Name Server's IP address from the left side of the DNS Manager, you see WINS resolution and direct DNS queries on the right side that show how often the server has responded to requests. For example, Screen 4 shows only a few hits on the \\samos Domain Name Server from \\tadpole and \\samos. These statistics let you evaluate the load on the DNS server and debug problems with WINS or recursive queries. The current version of DNS doesn't export counters to the NT Perfmon.
Part 1 of this series discussed the laborious manual process of adding RRs to the domain configuration files. The DNS Manager makes maintaining these RRs easy.
If you select a zone from the left side of the DNS Manager, you can view its associated RRs on the right side, regardless of whether you highlight a primary or a secondary zone. (If you look at a secondary zone, the records are read-only--for example, you might want to view but not modify these secondary records to see whether the zone information has been updated.) A list box in the right side of the DNS Manager lets you view all the records or only a subset such as the A records. Screen 5 shows the A records in the sakellariadis.dom file for zone sakellariadis.com.
As Screen 6 shows, you can add a new A record by selecting New Host from the DNS menu. If you use the DNS Manager to add a new A record, it appears in the Zone Info on the right side. The DNS Manager will even add the record to the database file on the disk.
By selecting New Record, you can choose what type of RR to add to the configuration file. Screen 7 shows the New Resource Record dialog where you can add new RRs. The New Resource Record dialog shows the supported record types in the scroll box on the left.
When you select a record type from the left of the dialog, the appropriate fields appear on the right. A check box lets you automatically create the associated address-to-name record (the PTR record in the reverse-arpa configuration file). Veteran DNS administrators often have horror tales about forgetting the PTR records in the reverse-arpa files, so this feature is a nice addition.
As Part 1 explained, the Statement of Authority (SOA) RR can be confusing because of its cryptic structure. Listing 2 shows an example SOA record for the sakellariadis.com domain. The DNS Manager takes this cryptic structure and presents the SOA information in a dialog that's easy to understand. Screen 8 shows the DNS Manager entry for this SOA record.
Each feature in the DNS Manager is well laid out, but context-sensitive Help is noticeably absent. However, the Help file that comes with the DNS Manager is excellent and is the best of the three or four DNS tutorials I've seen.
Microsoft has added many other features to DNS in NT 4.0. These features range from solutions for problems you rarely encounter to features that are critical to every heterogeneous environment but beyond the scope of these articles. This series shows that Microsoft has become a significant player in the DNS environment. Whether Microsoft's DNS service can supplant Unix's remains to be seen. Given Microsoft's track record and its declared strategy of adapting BackOffice services for use with the Internet, I'm putting my money on this being a robust DNS implementation. | <urn:uuid:86f8706a-73d8-49ab-b307-92f004fa0128> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://windowsitpro.com/print/networking/integrating-and-administering-dns | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.86703 | 3,213 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Additional information about the RHLR Project
The objective of the project is to assist Holocaust education efforts in Romania and to provide hard evidence against Holocaust denial through communication means that appeal to new generations.
The page you are just visiting achieves this task through connecting RHLC to the already well known "Romanian Jewish Heritage" Web Page, as an independent section, while ensuring that links that are specific to the Romanian Jewish Heritage Trail (RJHT) are added to the respective pages, thus creating multiple gateways to the Holocaust-related information.
Given the fact that today, in Romania like elsewhere, most young people are looking for information via the Internet, and given the multitude of racist, hate, fascist and anti-Semitic sites, it is the aim of this project to provide an academic leadership in the area addressed, along with many other initiatives meant to counter balance misinforming.
This objective is achieved through accurate, academic, well-documented data on the Romanian Holocaust connected with other Holocaust-related online resources, worldwide.
During a time of increased national and international effort for the development of Holocaust education, it is of utmost importance that people (both educators and students) should have as many sources as possible. There are indeed a number of projects being carried out in Romania which envisage the publication of Holocaust related works to be used in schools or the training of teachers but these should be completed with the primary source used by the youth - the Internet. And this, from the perspective of an academic, recognized authority. RHLR will welcome many other contributions to its expansion and in fact aims at becoming an open forum for more research results and more educational efforts.
The RHLR consists of:
- An on-line searchable Dictionary containing general concepts and definitions of the Holocaust as well as elements that are specific to the Romanian Holocaust (The "Dictionary" Tab);
- A bi-lingual web-based e-book, in fact an authorized abbreviation of Radu Ioanid's book "The Holocaust in Romania: The Destruction of Jews and Gypsies Under the Antonescu Regime, 1940-1944" (The "In Romania" Tab);
- Relevant testimonies from survivors (The "Testimonials" Tab);
- Images from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Collection, from the collection of the History Museum of Romanian Jews, images from the Jewish Cemetery in Iasi (location of mass graves)and from other photo archives (some organized in "Albums") (The "Images" Tab);
- Maps, under the form of web-based sensitive maps, containing elements that are relevant to the Holocaust in Romania (The "Maps" Tab);
- A Contact page;
- A "Newsletter" page dedicated to both archiving Holocaust-related newsletters and to facilitating automatic subscriptions for researchers, educators, students and the public;
- An "Other Resources" section where those interested will are able to find a collection of the best links for the study of the Holocaust as well as other articles and resources. Also here, the project team envisions to offer a downloadable version of the web page that could be burned on a CD-ROM, basically replicating the content of the web-based information, organized in an interactive setting to be used without an Internet connection and a downloadable section, that could be burned on a DVD, containing images, speeches and proceedings (the latter in PDF format) from periodic Holocaust Study related events (like the annual training session for the history teachers (also open to the public) on the matter of teaching the Holocaust (2004, 2005 - Bucharest))
All of the above will be available via the Internet.
The Romanian Holocaust Academic Learning Resource's Project goals are to be achieved between September 15, 2005 and March 15, 2006.
This project takes into account the reccomendations, and makes indirect use of the works and conclusions of the Wiesel Commission.
The results of the project will be made public in a press conference. | <urn:uuid:e27e7471-1cc3-4213-a59e-503eaa3a6d39> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.romanianjewish.org/en/Project_Info.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00201-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926811 | 815 | 2.671875 | 3 |
This blog originally appeared on Carbon Brief.
The Canadian Rockies, which sit as a backdrop to many a stunning vista, could be almost entirely devoid of glaciers by the end of the century, a new study suggests.
Researchers modelled the impact of rising temperatures on glaciers across western Canada.
The results show widespread ice loss by 2050, and ice all but vanishing a few decades later.
Around 27,000 square kilometers of Western Canada is covered by glaciers, an area similar in size to the amount of ice in the Himalayas or the whole of South America. | <urn:uuid:032cdb72-9b55-4954-87a5-768dd23b715a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.desmogblog.com/directory/vocabulary/1371 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00118-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945732 | 116 | 3.546875 | 4 |
Death is often considered taboo. Death is inevitable, but we tend to live as though we and those we love are never going to die. When we are met by the death of others, or by our own impending death, we are shocked and distraught. Despite this, death is the one thing we can truly be certain about in life—and coming to terms with it is an integral part of being human.
Mourning the Death of a Loved One
1Give yourself time to grieve. The finality of the death may take a while to sink in, even if you were expecting the person to die. There is no "normal" timetable for grief; it is a personal journey. Let the emotions flow through you, and don't hold them in.
- Many people feel that they shouldn't cry, get angry, or show any sort of emotion when someone dies. However, grieving is a natural and healthy part of dealing with death. If you must keep your emotions private, make time and space for yourself to be alone.
- When you are alone, do whatever you need to do to release your emotions and stress. Yell, cry, write, ruminate; scream into the void from the top of a mountain; beat a punching bag with your fists until you can't feel anything else. Some people find it helpful to write their feelings down in a journal or a diary. This can be a great tool if you don't feel like sharing your feelings with someone else.
2Consider taking time off. You may need time to grieve and process the situation without dealing with the complications of everyday life. If you need to take a couple of days off from work, speak with your boss and explain your situation. Tell your boss that you need a couple of days to recover from the loss, and most of the time he or she will understand.
- If you are unable to take off work, make the most of your time after work. If you have kids, consider arranging for a babysitter to watch them. If your kids need to grieve, this will ensure that they are supervised, and if you need to grieve, this will give you time to be alone.
- Taking some time off from work is healthy and perfectly normal in the wake of a death. It is not healthy, however, to quit your job, draw the blinds, and withdraw within yourself. You don't need to forget about the person who has died, but you cannot dwell on the death forever.
3Remember. The person you lost may be gone, but you still have your memories. Think of a happy or humorous memory that the two of you shared. Think about what you loved most about them, and why you loved that quality about them so much.
- You can make a photo album about them and look at it whenever you miss them. It can bring up some unpleasant feelings but it can also help you remember those wonderful memories.
- If this person was very special to you, consider telling your relatives, children, or friends about how this person positively impacted your life. You may even inspire someone else to be as kind, considerate, or passionate as the person you lost.
4Find a good listener. You may feel better if you talk about it. Find someone who will listen to you without passing judgment. This person can be a family member, a close friend that you trust, or a licensed therapist. It can help to talk to someone who is not involved in the situation.
- When you feel pain, it may help to get those feelings off your chest. Sometimes you just need an ear to listen to what you are saying. The listener doesn't need to do a lot of talking.
- The person that you talk to must be someone you can trust that won't tell others what you said. It must be someone who will keep what you say in confidence. You have been through a traumatic experience, and you deserve your privacy. If you feel that there is no one in your life you can trust, go to a licensed therapist, counselor, or pastor.
Moving On with Your Life
1Begin to move forward. Live your life in the present, not the past. It is important to give yourself time to grieve after the loss of someone close to you. However, it's also important not to put your life on permanent pause. Continue to pursue your dreams and focus on what you want to achieve in life. If there's one thing you can learn from death, it's that you should never take your life for granted. Live passionately, joyfully, purposefully, as if each day could be your last.
2Try to let go of lingering regrets. You'll feel much more at peace with yourself if you can appreciate the good times without fixating on what could have been. Try to embrace the mistakes that you've made. After all, we are all human, and it's only natural to make errors. If you are genuinely sorry about something, sometimes that's the most that you can do.
- Try to think rationally: is it honestly my fault, or was there something preventing me from doing that? Is there anything that I can do about it now, or is it water under the bridge?
- If you still feel as though the blame falls to you, try talking to someone who was also close to the individual; they'll most likely comfort you and reassure you it wasn't your fault.
3Be there for others. If you are upset, there's a good chance that other people are, too. Be there for each other. Talk about the person who has died, keep his or her memory alive, and support each other through the difficult days that lie ahead. Try not to shut people out of your life, even if you feel the need to be alone. You will need your emotional support system more than ever in the wake of this disaster.
4Consider cleaning house. Throw away or store everything that belonged to that person or pet: pictures, cards, papers, notes, letters, mattress, bedsheets, clothes, shoes, and accessories. Consider renovating or repainting the room that he or she slept in. If you are not surrounded by constant reminders of the past, you may find it easier to move on.
- You can store things in an attic, basement, garage, or self-storage unit. The important thing is that you remove everything that reminds you of the person/pet out of your life as soon as you can.
- Consider keeping a few items as sentimental reminders. Keeping a deceased loved one's jewelry, mug, or favorite book will help you remember; leaving all of his or her clothes in the closet may only serve to root you in the past.
5Consider seeking professional help. If you feel depressed, stuck, or overwhelmed by your emotions, it may be helpful to talk with a mental health professional. Find a well-reviewed therapist or counselor in your area, and pay him or her a visit. It's important that you find someone to talk to, and friends aren't always enough. A licensed professional may be able to help you cope with your feelings and find ways to get back on track.
- You may feel an aversion to visiting a "shrink". There is no shame in reaching out for advice when you feel at a loss for how to proceed. You don't need to tell anyone about your therapist if you're uncomfortable with the idea.
- Read reviews of mental health professionals before you make your visit. Browse for profiles of therapists in your area. You should be able to read through each therapist's specialties, her credentials, and her price range.
The Five Stages of Grief
1Consider the five stages of grief. In 1969, Swiss psychiatrist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross published a book called "Death and Dying" about her work with terminally ill patients. She developed a model for what she called the five stages of grief: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. Everyone grieves differently, and these stages do not necessarily unfold in a set order—but the model may give you perspective on your own process.
2Identify the denial phase. The first reaction to learning of the death of a loved one is to deny the reality of the situation. It is a normal reaction to rationalize overwhelming emotions; indeed, denial is a defense mechanism that dulls the immediate shock. This carries you through the first wave of pain and bewilderment.
3Recognize the anger phase. As the masking effects of denial begin to wear down, you may be flooded by the painful reality of the situation. If you aren't ready for this pain, you may subconsciously deflect it toward others: friends, family, strangers, or inanimate objects. Try to maintain perspective and recognize this deflection. You can't help what you feel, but you choose whether or not to let these feelings control you.
4Be aware of the bargaining phase. Many people react to feelings of helplessness and vulnerability by attempting to regain control. In terminal patients, this often takes the form of desperate measures to cling to life. In mourning, this often manifests as rumination: If only I had been there for her... If only we had gotten to the hospital sooner... If only, if only, if only.
5Ride out the depression phase. When the desperate bargaining subsides, you may be unable to avoid the reality of the situation. You may worry about the cost of the burial or feel an acute sense of regret. You may feel empty, sad, alone; you may despair at ever moving on with your life. This is part of the healing process. Take your time.
6Accept the situation. The final stage of grief unfolds as you begin to move on. This stage is characterized by withdrawal and calm. Accept that your loved one has moved on, and acknowledge that you, too, must move on. Embrace the present as the new reality, and come to terms with the permanence of what has happened.
- Acceptance does not happen overnight. It does not necessarily mean that you are happy—only that you have moved beyond the denial, the anger, the bargaining, and the depression. Just like a forest that has burned slowly heals, sprouts, and blooms again, your life will bloom again with new hope. Give it time.
Is it possible to give up on life because all of my family died?wikiHow ContributorAnything is possible with choice. Make the choice to live on as the only living reminder of your family so that you can pass on your genes and make your family proud of you by existing and continuing to strive onward. Think what they would do in your position -- they'd keep the family memory going as best as possible. Get plenty of help and support from friends and distant family.
- No matter if you are prepared for the death or not it will not make it easier for you. Never think that it was your fault and play the blame game because you feel bad. Crying and letting out emotion is great for your mental health, it will be sad and tough to get over. Every day take little steps and try to distract yourself.
Categories: Coping with Loss
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Thanks to all authors for creating a page that has been read 45,192 times. | <urn:uuid:62e39234-939b-432c-9713-f20dd2f3c357> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wikihow.com/Deal-With-Death | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965507 | 2,329 | 2.65625 | 3 |
RSC honours photochemistry pioneer Lord Porter
A decade after his death, the Royal Society of Chemistry will honour the man who revolutionised the study of high-speed, light-driven chemical reactions with the presentation of an RSC Chemical Landmark at Imperial College London today.
George Porter's work under the supervision of Professor Ronald Norrish at Cambridge University has enormously enhanced scientific knowledge over the last 50 years, enabling scientists to provide pictures of molecular change in chemical reactions lasting only a few millionths of a second, or even less.
Lord Porter was captivated by chemistry at an early age, being given his first chemistry set and an old bus in which to experiment by his father when he was just 9 years old.
This passion carried him through school and university at Leeds straight into the top secret Hankey Scheme (a project providing the UK war effort with radio physicists), which saw him keeping vital radar equipment on naval destroyers operational during World War II.
Discovering, aboard the destroyers, that the black and yellow resistors known as "tigers" could be repaired with boot polish was impressive enough, but by devising in just half an hour a new method for observing short-lived free radicals, George Porter changed the landscape of British chemistry forever.
After visiting a Siemens lamp factory in Preston on an errand for his supervisor, Porter came up with the idea, which would become known as "flash photolysis" and earn him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1967, of using a flash bulb to initiate a chemical reaction.
Porter's method enabled researchers to study light-induced processes in organic molecules, polymers, nanoparticles, semiconductors, photosynthesis in plants, signalling and light-induced conformational changes in biological systems.
South Kensington became the new home for Lord Porter's laboratory in 1987 when he relocated to Imperial College London. He took up the position of Professor of Photochemistry and was the inaugural Chairman of the Centre for Photomolecular Sciences. He remained a Visiting Professor from 1990 until 2001, the year before his death.
As well as his contributions to chemistry and his championing of the importance of communicating science to the young and to the public, Porter campaigned tirelessly for improvements in British education and the vital place held by fundamental science in the nation's future prosperity.
He spoke passionately in his 1988 Dimbleby lectures of the dangers of failing to fund 'curiosity-driven' research generously and support young scientists in their early careers, an issue that is still under debate today.
Contact and Further Information
Dr Izzie Radford
Media and Communications Project Officer
The Royal Society of Chemistry Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge CB4 0WF, UK Burlington House, Piccadilly, London W1J 0BA, UK
Tel: +44 (0) 1223 432350 | <urn:uuid:e484c7f2-5982-44c4-86ba-d60a8e3efaa7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rsc.org/AboutUs/News/PressReleases/2012/RSC-chemical-landmark-Lord-Porter.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954104 | 586 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Keeping girls in school has become a priority for those fighting poverty around the globe, and for good reasons. Research shows that the longer a girl stays in school, the more likely she is to delay marriage and avoid early pregnancy. This means lower maternal and child mortality rates, fewer abortions, and improved child health. In addition, a 2011 World Bank study shows that investing in girls’ continued education can boost labor force participation, lifetime earnings, and GDP. However, even though it is clear that investing in girls’ education spurs economic growth and lessens poverty and social instability, millions of girls around the world still face cultural and economic barriers that keep them out of school.
One way to counter this phenomenon is to offer poor households conditional cash transfers. CCTs give money to poor people in return for fulfilling specific conditions, such as accessing basic health services, vaccinating children, or sending daughters to school. These programs offer a two-fold approach that breaks the poverty cycle by both providing the poor with additional income and also strengthening human capital with healthcare and education services.
The success of one education-specific CCT program, the Female Secondary School Assistance Program (FFSAP), illustrates that providing girls with a small stipend to stay in school has far-reaching benefits. FFSAP, a joint program founded by the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, and Government of Bangladesh, provided female students in grades six through ten with a monthly stipend on three conditions: that the girls maintained a 75 percent attendance rate, scored at least 45 percent on their exams, and remained unmarried. According to a study assessing the FFSAP, CCT money enabled girls to extend their education up to two years, which in turn had significant economic and social impacts. Continued education for girls in Bangladesh led to a 3.6 to 10.6 percent increase in women’s labor force participation. Girls enrolled in the program also delayed marriage by 1.4 to 2.3 years, which is particularly meaningful given that Bangladesh has one of the highest child marriage rates in the world; 66 percent of Bangladeshi girls are married before the age of eighteen. Some data even suggests that the age of marriage for men also went up in part thanks to the program.
The initiative in Bangladesh is just one of many impactful CCT programs that have been implemented around the world. International development leaders should consider expanding the types of programs; it is clear that giving every girl the opportunity to complete her education benefits not only women, but entire communities and economies. | <urn:uuid:c160f5ff-f659-4a2d-a048-adbe72cd1380> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.cfr.org/development-channel/2013/10/24/conditional-cash-keeps-girls-in-school/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00097-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967507 | 512 | 3.5 | 4 |
Biodiversity loss is probably a challenge that is often ignored as climate change looms. Currently the world is losing species at a rate that is 100 to 1000 times faster than the natural extinction rate, further, it is currently seeing the sixth mass extinction.
The previous mass extinction occured 65 million years ago, and was caused by ecosystem changes, changes in atmospheric chemistry, impacts of asteroids and volcanoes. For the first time in history, the current extinction is called by the competition for resources between a single species Homo sapiens and all others.
A recent conference arranged by the Danish Ministry of Environment in the University of Copenhagen, provided an opportunity to influence the process of organizing a UN Biodiversity Panel. More than 100 scientists and decision makers from the EU countries gathered and came to the conclusion that drastic measures should be taken to decelerate current loss of biodiversity.
Arresting biodiversity loss is the one of the most important sustainability measures that can be taken. Professor Carsten Rahbek, Director for the Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate at the University of Copenhagen has said that the establishment of the UN Intergovernmental Panel for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) is very urgent. This not only will give biodiversity loss, the same status as climate change but will also provide the platform for collaborative action by scientists, politicians and government authorities.
Professor Rahbek stated that: “There is a need to produce future scenarios that are easily understood and at the same time bring together the best scientists in this field. It is technically possible to develop such scenarios, if they are requested by decision-makers and politicians involved in the IPBES process. The myth that university scientists cannot or will not contribute to concrete solutions of large-scale society problems in close collaboration with practitioners, decision makers and politicians has been shown to be untrue through our close engagement in the organisation and participation in these workshops.”
With the establishment of this panel, there is the hope that there will be increased awareness and policy changes around the world. Last year was the Year of Biodiversity and the decision to start a special panel to oversee biodiversity loss might just be the first step towards global conservation efforts. There are many things that companies can do to arrest biodiversity loss – paying attention to their supply chain is one of them. Others include active participation in conservation programs to ensure that business operations do not affect ecosystems.
Image Credit: Akhila Vijayaraghavan © | <urn:uuid:3fceb7a4-cc02-4b78-a5e0-763c9b95ff33> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.triplepundit.com/2012/01/biodiversity-loss-deserves-attention-climate-change/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947126 | 499 | 3.703125 | 4 |
rank Hutchinson's renderings of the coastal bridges employed considerable use of topographical features and foreground detail. A comparison of the Yaquina Bay Bridge drawing with a photograph from a similar perspective displays the accuracy of his work.
His drawings heralded the 1936 completion of the toll-free bridges that opened up 400 miles of unbroken highway along the Oregon coast. The new, more accessible coast road boosted tourism and commerce and took its place as one of the most beautiful drives in the world. Ferries, which regularly crossed the rivers or estuaries before the completion of the bridges, were soon a fading memory.
Yaquina Bay Bridge at Newport (close-up of north end of bridge)
Yaquina Bay Bridge at Newport (close-up of south end of bridge) | <urn:uuid:38c415b0-2f65-475e-a90a-6034ebe78e54> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sos.state.or.us/archives/pages/exhibits/50th/hutchinson/hutchinsonbridge.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954963 | 159 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Peeling skin — Overview covers definition and possible causes of peeling skin.
Treatment of all forms of hand and foot dermatitis should be directed at the cause
when possible. Topical corticosteroids or antifungals may be tried empirically.
List of 5 disease causes of Peeling skin on hands and feet, patient stories,
diagnostic guides. Diagnostic checklist, medical tests, doctor questions, and
My hands and feet are peeling, and I am at a loss for what to try, and my ... but
vitA toxicity can cause peeling skin starting at the extremities.
Mar 16, 2015 ... Learn about the diseases and conditions that may cause peeling skin, ... is
excessive sweating of the underarms, palms, or soles of the feet.
Jan 13, 2015 ... Causes include psoriasis and allergic eczema. ... also be called: desquamation
dropping of scales flaking skin peeling skin. ... Athlete's Foot.
Aug 16, 2013 ... Peeling on your hands can be attributed to a variety of conditions depending on
your ... Other conditions are caused by irritants that can dry your skin, causing
them to feel itchy then peel. ... How to Treat Peeling Skin on Feet.
Apr 25, 2016 ... It may be more common in those with with sweaty palms, i.e. lcoalised
hyperhidrosis. The first ... The cause of exfoliative keratolysis is unknown.
4 days ago ... The term "acral" refers to the fact that the skin peeling in this condition is most
apparent on the hands and feet. Occasionally, peeling also ...
My Hands Are Peeling: Causes & Home Remedies ... Fungal infections, such as
jock itch, ringworm and athlete's foot, can cause the skin to peel due to irritation. | <urn:uuid:38e743aa-5309-42fe-99c0-6ffdb77e2d18> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ask.com/web?q=Causes+Peeling+Hands+and+Feet&o=2603&l=dir&qsrc=3139&gc=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.821241 | 396 | 2.625 | 3 |
Drowsy driving causes more than
100,000 crashes a year, resulting in 40,000 injuries and
1,550 deaths. As tragic as these numbers are, they only
tell a portion of the story. It is widely recognized that
drowsy driving is underreported as a cause of crashes. And
this doesn't include incidents caused by driver inattention.
Combating drowsy driving crashes
among shift workers.
1996, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
(NHTSA) embarked on an effort to reduce the effects that
fatigue and driver inattention have on highway safety. While
everyone is susceptible to drowsy-driving crashes, shift
workers run a particularly high risk. Their natural sleep
patterns are disrupted by working nights or long and irregular
In collaboration with National Center
on Sleep Disorders Research (NCSDR), NHTSA developed an
education program to increase shift workers' awareness of
the dangers of drowsy driving, help them to improve the
quality of their sleep and reduce sleepiness, and ultimately,
reduce the incidence of drowsy driving.
A workplace education program
that really works.
This comprehensive program is specifically
designed for businesses and organizations like yours that
employ workers beyond the typical "9 to 5" workday.
Program materials include a Better Sleep Video, Workplace
Posters, Shift Worker Brochure, Tip Card, Employer Administrator's
Guide with PowerPoint Training Sessions, and a Brochure
for Shift Work Families. The program will not only help
you reduce on-the-job risks, but improve the productivity
and quality of life of your employees as well. Descriptions
of the program materials follow. Take a look and decide
which materials will work best for your organization.
To view program materials,
click on sidebar titles or the images below. | <urn:uuid:c48147ca-ee48-4643-a4dc-9814f412b37d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nhtsa.gov/people/injury/drowsy_driving1/human/drows_driving/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00071-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916061 | 390 | 2.75 | 3 |
Capitalism and Slavery
From Columbus to Castro
A Brief History of the Caribbean
The Black Jacobins
Historical Dictionary of Trinidad and Tobago
The story of the Caribs and Arawaks
Initially, it used to be a village affair that did not interrupt trade. Indeed, as late as the 1870s the tribal hostilities were still very much alive and Edward Im Thurn could observe that, "(members of) each tribe constantly visit the other tribes, often hostile, for the purpose of exchanging the products of their own labour for such as are produced only by the other tribes." ---------(15) The most important item of exchange were, however, women. In an account as early as the famous letter by Dr. Chanca (1493), the court physician who travelled with Columbus on his second voyage, it was observed that they "take as many women as they can (and) keep them as concubines." --------(16) There was nothing more valuable to be bought, bartered or stolen.
In a sense, women were, actually and symbolically, the first commodities. Thus, the earliest precious items of exchange, almost functioning, centuries before Columbus, as a money for the diverse tribes reaching from the Amazon to the Greater Antilles, were described by Pierre Barre in 1743 as follows: "This stone is of olive color, of a slightly paler green... The most common shape one gives to this stone is cylindrical, length of 2, 3, up to 4 inches, by six or seven lines in diameter, and drilled their whole length. I have seen some of them that were squaraed, oval, to which one had given the shape of a crescent and imprinted upon it the figure of a toad, or some other animals." -----(17)
Such a stones, the price of a slave, were believed to be the products of a
mythic tribe of women who later came to be called the Amazons. They were made of a maleable rock from a special lake - only when taken into the sunlight did the 'piedras hijadas' became hard. Frogs, water, greenness, softness, the longditudinal bore, these were the universal Indian symbols of the female.
This prehistoric attitude might have logic foreign to our overcrowded
world but, within limits, the prosperity of the neolithic clan was directly in proportion to its size. The wealth and power of a man were judged by the extent of his family. High mortality rates placed a premium on fecundity. Consequently, women were valued for their reproductive capacity. Here lies the true reason for their exclusion from the dangerous business of warfare and hunting even, or rather especially, when it was a matter of survival or extinction. It has nothing to do with women being a weaker sex. And here lies too the true origin of sexual, and all subsequent forms, of inequality.
"The men only hunt, fish, and cut down trees when a new clearing has to be made, which does not happen often, and do other small jobs," observed Pere Labat, "The women have to do everything else. When the men return from hunting they just throw their game down in the doorway of the carbet, and the women pick it up and cook it, or if they come back from their fishing, they leave the fish in the canoe and not even mention it. The women have to run to the canoe to get the fish and cook it at once, for they are expected to know that the fishermen are hungry. In a word, the women are born servants and remain servants all their lives."------ (18)
This changed, lost its primitive character, with the appearance of the
Europeans. The attrition which the tribes suffered made raiding more vital to augment their declining numbers. At one time the Kalina of Dominica held over 70 captives - Spaniards and negroes, men and women - some of whom had been captured from the 'Arawaks' of Trinidad.
Lokono | Aruacas | Caribs | Women | Wars and Slavery | <urn:uuid:3e828789-7199-4768-9e46-77eaeed1e7c0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.raceandhistory.com/Taino/Women.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00061-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97998 | 840 | 3.5625 | 4 |
(A) Supervision of children is the function of actively observing and guiding a child or group of children. This includes awareness of and responsibility for the activity of each child and being near enough to intervene if needed. Supervision means child care staff members have knowledge of children's needs, accountability for their care, and knowledge of which children they are responsible for at all times. Child care staff members of the type A home shall always be within sight or hearing of all children.
(1) Children shall be out of sight of the child care staff member only when all the following conditions are met:
(a) The children are engaged in activities which pose no risk to their safety.
(b) The children are within hearing of the child care staff member.
(c) The child care staff member checks on the children at least every five minutes.
(2) If the type A home uses a monitor, the child care staff member shall be within a distance to hear the children without the aid of the monitor.
(3) When children are outside, child care staff members shall be outside with the children, be within sight and hearing at all times and maintain the required staff/child ratios.
(B) No administrator or employee shall be under the influence of any substance that impairs the person's ability to supervise children and/or perform the employee's duties.
(C) The type A home shall employ sufficient staff so that the following staff/child ratios are maintained:
(1) When only one child care staff member is present at the home, that child care staff member may care for children according to the following age combinations:
|Number of infants present||Is an infant younger than 12 months present?||Then you may have this number of toddlers, preschool and/or school age children present with the infant(s)*|
|* No more than 3 of the total number of children you are caring for may be infants (younger than 18 months of age.)|
(2) When two child care staff members are present each staff member may care for children according to the following age combinations:
|Number of infants present*||Then each staff person may have this number of toddlers, preschool and/or school age children present with the infant(s).*|
|* No more than 3 of the total number of children cared for by each staff person may be infants (18 months of age or younger).|
(D) The following factors shall be used when calculating the staff/child ratios:
(1) Child care staff members shall not be counted in the staff/child ratio if they are engaged in duties that interfere with their supervision of children.
(2) Child care staff members shall not be counted in the staff/child ratio if they are engaged in telephone conversations or conversations with parents, which prevent the child care staff member from adequately supervising the children.
(3) Children under six years of age, and related to the type A home administrator or any employee shall be included in the total number of children in care. "Related to" means any of the following persons: grandchildren, daughters, sons, step-daughters, step-sons, sisters, brothers, step-sisters, step-brothers, nieces, nephews, half-brothers, half-sisters or first cousins who are related by blood, marriage or adoption. Children receiving foster care from the type A home are not considered to be related to the provider.
(4) Children six years of age through fourteen years of age who are related to the administrator shall not be included in the total number of children in care.
(5) Children under fifteen years of age and not related to the type A home administrator shall be included in the total number of children in care.
(E) To show compliance with staff/child ratios, a current JFS 01306 "Employee Record Chart" (rev. 9/2011) shall be completed and maintained by the type A home and shall be available for review by the Ohio department of job and family services (ODJFS). The JFS 01306 shall include:
(1) The name of each employee.
(2) Position of employee.
(3) Date of employment.
(4) Days and hours the employee is assigned to work.
(F) The type A home shall implement a written policy for all of the following:
(1) Arrival and departure of children to assure that a child care staff member is aware of each child's presence at the home.
(2) Release of a child to persons other than the parent or guardian. A child shall only be released to persons sixteen years of age or older, except when parent or guardian permission is on file. This written permission shall be signed and dated by the parent or guardian and administrator.
(3) Determining the whereabouts of a child when the child is absent, but is scheduled to be at the type A home. The procedure shall only be for children who do not arrive at the type A home with their parent or guardian.
(G) School children may leave the type A home for specific activities, including walking to and from the home or school, walking to their own home or to another destination. Written permission shall be obtained from the parent or guardian and kept on file at the type A home. The written permission shall specify all of the following:
(1) The child's name.
(2) The child's destination.
(3) Arrangements for transportation to and from the activities.
(4) Time of arrival and departure.
(5) Time period for which permission is given.
(6) Parent or guardian's signature and date.
(H) If a regularly employed child care staff member is unable, for any reason, to fulfill the responsibilities for the care of children, the staff member shall be replaced immediately by another child care staff member. A list of substitutes and verification of their qualifications shall be kept on file for review by ODJFS.
(I) A record of daily attendance shall be kept for each child enrolled, beginning on the child's first day.
(1) The child care staff member responsible for each group of children shall keep a record of daily attendance. These attendance records shall remain with the group at all times throughout the day including during outdoor play and emergency evacuations. This record shall specify all of the following:
(a) The names and birth dates of children.
(b) The names of the child care staff members responsible for the group.
(c) For type A homes caring for children on both a part time and a full time basis, the attendance records shall include the days and hours of enrollment for each child.
(2) The child care staff member responsible for the child shall record attendance upon the child's arrival and when the child departs.
(3) A child attending the type A home on a drop in basis shall be listed on an attendance sheet.
(4) The written records of attendance shall be kept for a period of one year. A copy of attendance records shall remain at the type A home at all times, and shall be available for review by ODJFS.
R.C. 119.032 review dates: 07/14/2011 and 09/01/2016
Promulgated Under: 119.03
Statutory Authority: 5104.011
Rule Amplifies: 5104.011
Prior Effective Dates: 9/5/86, 7/1/03, 9/1/05, 1/1/07, 8/14/08 | <urn:uuid:8086dad7-c540-4d22-974c-de8e7f2544f3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://codes.ohio.gov/oac/5101:2-13-20 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935079 | 1,572 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Himmelman follows up his salute to noisy bugs with a look at frogs—how and why they sing and what their songs sound like.
Patterned similarly to his Noisy Bug Sing-Along (2013), each double-page spread focuses on a single sound—which reaches across the pages in a huge font—made by a frog or toad, some identified, some not. “A Peeper peeps in the cold spring rain. Peep-peep-peep.” To help readers imagine their tunes, many of the sounds are compared to other things—a plucked banjo, an angry sheep—while others use onomatopoeia—cuk, meep, ribbit—and still others are described as verbs—cry, trill, growl. Still, readers would do well to consult the sound files on the publisher’s website (not heard) or hope that a companion app will be along shortly. Inexplicably, a salamander is featured in the middle of the book, silent without a throat pouch to sing. While Himmelman’s frogs are realistic (and up-close and huge in the seemingly digital illustrations), his backgrounds are less so, sometimes reflecting actual habitats, other times simply a (bright) color wash. Backmatter includes a page of activities that will allow readers to further explore frogs and a paragraph about each of the featured fauna. It’s just too bad this wasn’t folded into the text.
Without benefit of recordings, onomatopoeia alone can’t convey what the book hopes to. (Informational picture book. 3-8) | <urn:uuid:820560f5-f17a-4a3a-b2bd-8b35e70bd111> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/john-himmelman/noisy-frog-sing-along/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00170-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937752 | 344 | 3.0625 | 3 |
Can Distributed Energy Help Keep the Lights on after 2015?
Britain is facing the rising risk of an energy shortfall within three years, Ofgem has warned, as electrical generation will plunge to 4% spare capacity from its present level of 14%. Some 12GW of coal fired plants, equivalent to a sixth of the total generation capacity, can now only operate for a limited number of hours before they are closed in order to comply with the European Union air pollution regulations. Shortfalls could see the National Grid cutting energy to businesses by 2015, to “avoid families being left in the dark.” If no action is taken, there is a 42% likelihood that consumers will be cut off at some point in 2015 /16.
This is grim news, for even assuming that gas fired central fired plants and nuclear are ordered today, it would take five years for the former to come on stream. The utilities are in no hurry to invest in new gas plants until they know what subsidies will be available under electric market reforms that are over a year from completion. Ofgem said that little had changed since its last report in 2009 when it warned that the financial crisis, tough environmental targets and the closure of old power stations threatened security of supply.
Nothing is mentioned about the part renewables will play in averting this crisis, so we assume that it has already been factored into the equation. Are we left just accepting it as a fait accompli, or ignore the pollution regulations and pay a heavy price?
Distributed power can make a serious contribution to both delivering power at current market prices and reducing CO2 emissions, but it requires the utilities to buy into this new model and at the present time they are reluctant to accept or pursue this possibility. They want to continue the central model of large scale production and distribution, a one-way flow of electricity from them to the consumer. They are embracing smart meters as the first plank in their smart grid strategy; this gives them information on domestic consumption, demand patterns and the possibility to smooth demand by variable pricing. More importantly to them, it gives them automatic billing which provides a direct return on their investment.
Making the distributed network smart and investing in communication networks which would provide value add services that would ultimately deliver revenues greater than supplying electricity are of significant interest to them; but they only want this within their time frame and control. Provided they continue to deliver electricity to both domestic and industrial users, they can be assured that they keep control of setting the policy and timetable for the smart grid. But this grim news from Ofgem now shows that there is a serious doubt that we can leave them to just get on with the job.
Distributed power has sufficient scale to make a serious contribution to our electricity generation. Industry has been concerned about the rising cost of power and large companies have been investigating a return to producing their own power whilst those that operate combined heat and power units are installing new more efficient systems and selling electricity into the grid. This all makes the proposition even more attractive. I would image the Ofgem announcement has now got them concerned not just about cost but reliability of supply.
Distributed power does not stop with industry. There are now hundreds of smart buildings that deliver energy efficient relatively clean power and through their automatic controls and interfacing software with the grid they can become virtual power units. Whilst we are not suggesting that our present dilemma can be solved through distributed power, it could certainly help.
Distributed power should be a part of the new model of electrical generation and distribution, enhanced by virtual power plants, delivered through industry, public and smart buildings interfacing with smart grid. Government cannot sit back and let the utilities decide whether distributed energy can join the party.
Allan McHale, director of Memoori, has a career that spans 40 years in the Energy and Building Controls Industry. In 1980 McHale formed Proplan to provide consultancy services in marketing and business development of products for security, safety and environmental control in buildings. In 1998 Proplan was merged into a new start company, i&i limited in order to provide more comprehensive solutions to both the demand and supply side of intelligent and sustainable buildings. In 2008 the assets of i&i Proplan were acquired by BSRIA Ltd.
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- 2016 Energy and Sustainability Predictions - Findings from Leading Professionals
- The Missing Puzzle Piece: Automated Utility Data Aggregation | <urn:uuid:1df27897-5c52-44ae-a3e6-e56bc32c0825> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.energymanagertoday.com/can-distributed-energy-help-keep-the-lights-on-after-2015-086853/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00195-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958497 | 994 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Definition of Treacher Collins syndrome
Treacher Collins syndrome: a genetic condition that results in a disorder of development of the bones and muscles of the face. The condition affects 1 out of about every 50,000 people and is due to a mutation in a gene known as TCOF1. It is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner, meaning that a person who has one copy of the defective gene will have the condition. However, about 60% of cases occur in people without a family history as a result of new mutations in the gene.
Symptoms of Treacher Collins syndrome range from mild and hardly noticeable to severe and disfiguring. Symptoms can include small and abnormally formed ears, underdeveloped facial bones, a very small jaw and chin (micrognathia), cleft palate, eyes that slant downward, sparse eyelashes, a notch in the lower eyelids called a coloboma, and hearing loss due to middle ear defectsSource: MedTerms™ Medical Dictionary
Last Editorial Review: 4/2/2012 6:57:34 PM
Find out what women really need. | <urn:uuid:5542aa83-8152-4963-a474-729a0bc63eba> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rxlist.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=156685 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939569 | 225 | 3.34375 | 3 |
One fish, two fish, red fish, glofish?
“We just got in a shipment of glofish. It’s a fish that's been genetically altered with a fluorescent gene,” said Taylor Beech, store manager.
The normally black and silver zebra fish have inserted genes from sea anemones or jellyfish to turn them red or green, but FSU biology professor Jim Fadool says glofish aren't so new.
In fact, he says scientists have been making transgenic fish for more than 15 years. He says transferring fluorescent genes into another species helps identify disease, but the researcher says he understands why people may get hooked on the glofish.
“To see red fish, green fish and even blue fish. It is different for us and it was just a matter of time before it hit the market,” said FSU Biologist Jim Fadool.
Along with disease research, fluorescent fish were also specially bred to help detect environmental pollutants. | <urn:uuid:500d074b-81b9-4821-94ba-0d4f18832820> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wctv.tv/news/headlines/527102.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967885 | 210 | 3.359375 | 3 |
Today we’re going to take a look at cask ale, a traditional British style of beer which dates back pretty much to the origin of beer itself. When Shakespeare went to his local pub for a beer, this is how they served it to him. A few weeks ago we explained what bottle-conditioned beer is, which is a helpful starting point as cask ale can be thought of in a lot of ways as bottle-conditioned beer in a cask, which is why it’s sometimes referred to as ‘cask-conditioned.’
The process starts after the beer has been brewed, but remains uncarbonated and unbottled. The beer is loaded into a steel barrel, or cask, similar in appearance to a keg. Additional sugar or wort is added to the cask to restart the fermentation process by the active yeast still in the beer. The yeast goes to work, eating the sugar and expelling CO2 and alcohol. The pressure builds in the cask and the CO2 dissolves into the beer, naturally carbonating it. This natural carbonation also continues to condition the beer’s flavor, smoothing out flavors and mellowing out the hops. Once he receives it from the brewery a pub owner will tap a porous peg in the cask’s hole, known as a ‘bung.’ Excess gas and foam rushes out the bunghole and fining agents are added to settle the yeast to the bottom of the cask. A few days later the bunghole is resealed and the cask-conditioned ale is ready to be served.
Cask Ale Hand Pumps
Now the most traditional manner of tapping and serving the cask would simply to have it placed on it’s side, tapped with a spigot and poured into your glass through the wonder of gravity. Due to space, sanitation or various other factors an alternate method was developed long ago. Casks of beer are stored in a pub’s cellar, where it can be kept at the proper temperature (54°F for cask ale) and tap lines are connected leading up to the bar. Because the beer is only naturally carbonated it’s not going to have the pressure to make it up to the bar on its own, unlike modern forced carbonated beer, or soda. To solve this problem a hand pump, akin to the water pump on your grandfather’s farm is used to siphon the beer into a glass. These beer engines, or gravity pumps as they are sometimes known, allow the beer to be poured while preserving the natural carbonation and flavor.
The advantage of cask ale over modern beer is similar to the benefits of bottle-conditioned beer. Because the beer is naturally carbonated by active yeast, it continues to age and condition, becoming more complex and smoother over time. Unlike bottle-conditioned beer though cask ale cannot be aged over a long period of time due to it being exposed to open air. Indeed, cask really should be consumed within a few days of being tapped.
Because of the short shelf life it has and attention that must be paid to it, cask ale began to go out of style in the 1960’s as the bigger brewers began to mimic American style lagers, which are much simpler and economical to store and serve than cask ales. Fortunately British beer drinkers didn’t tolerate this loss of their beer and tradition and the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) was founded in 1971 to preserve this style of beer and the history associated with it. They define ‘real ale’ as “beer brewed from traditional ingredients, matured by secondary fermentation in the container from which it is dispensed, and served without the use of extraneous carbon dioxide,” which basically means cask ale. Although cask ale still struggles in some parts of the UK, thanks to the efforts of CAMRA real ale has come back from the brink of extinction to availability throughout much of the United Kingdom.
Now days you can even find some cask ale at better beer bars and restaurants in America. Next time you see it available do yourself a favor and enjoy a pint of some traditional beer the same way Shakespeare would have. When you do be sure to let us know what you think about it by tweeting your beer and adding the ‘#mybeer’ hashtag. | <urn:uuid:0a1504d7-0867-4593-9739-180dd4344491> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.beeriety.com/tag/bb/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968362 | 908 | 2.78125 | 3 |
A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America
Even as major discoveries were made throughout the year, important sites worldwide were threatened with imminent destruction. Our list is just a sampling of those that will be lost without intervention on an international scale.
Rock art at the Sudanese site of Sabu features
New Kingdom-period boats. (Courtesy Bruce Williams)
Near the village of Sabu, in the northern Sudanese Nile Valley, hundreds of rock-art panels dating as far back as the Neolithic period will be inundated by the Kajbar Dam, now being built downstream. No archaeologists have made a systematic study of Sabu, meaning its depictions of giraffes, New Kingdom ships, and Christian churches will be lost forever.
Like its neighbors, Bulgaria is rich in archaeological remains—ancient Greek, Thracian, Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman. But rather than draw millions of visitors each year to its ancient sites, this poor Balkan country mainly exports its cultural heritage. The transition from Communism to a free market economy has left Bulgaria exposed to the swirling forces of the global illicit antiquities trade. Desperate poverty means huge numbers of Bulgarians—up to 4 percent of the entire population—are involved in the trade.
Nine Mile Canyon
More than 10,000 prehistoric images of hunting scenes, bighorn sheep, and abstract designs adorn the cliffs of Utah's Nine Mile Canyon. Created by the Fremont people, who lived in the region from A.D. 300 to 1300, the images have been under threat since natural gas deposits were discovered nearby in 2004. Thick clouds of dust raised by energy-related trucking in the canyon adheres to the images, obscuring them and causing long-term damage.
A mud-brick wall in the lower town of the Indus center Mohenjo-daro shows signs of severe salt damage. (Courtesy Gregory L. Possehl)
Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan was one of the largest cities of the Indus Valley civilization, which thrived between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Today, the square-mile mud-brick city is threatened by high groundwater and salt deposits that are destroying the site's ancient bricks.
Since the invasion of Iraq in 2003, looting has resulted in the industrial-scale destruction of some of the world's first cities. One of the most important is Isin, the capital of southern Mesopotamia beginning in 1953 B.C. For roughly 100 years Isin ruled important cites such as Ur, Uruk, and Nippur. About 25 percent of the site has been looted.
Guatemala's north-central Petén region contains the largest concentration of Preclassic Maya cities in Mesoamerica and features the grandest architecture in the Maya world. But the sites are threatened by massive deforestation, looting, and destruction caused by equipment used in logging road construction, which itself facilitates intrusive settlements. | <urn:uuid:47ffbf77-de68-47dc-b1cc-5a07a41a720d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://archive.archaeology.org/0901/topten/threatenedsites.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942213 | 599 | 3.515625 | 4 |
The Falkland Islands are a British territory about 300 miles East of Argentina. The islands were the subject of the 1982 war between Argentina and Great Britain. The British military still maintain a presence at a large base near the airport. Large swaths of the territory were strewn with land mines and are still fenced off today.
Revenue from commercial fishing licenses are the main source of income, followed by sheep farming and tourism. About 40 cruise ships make port calls at Port Stanley with the accessible penguin colonies being the major draw.
The Falkland Islands have a population of less than 2,500 people inhabiting a land area about the size of Connecticut.
There are about 1,000 Gentoo penguins in this rookery. About 300,000 Gentoos inhabit the Falklands.
Here's some video I took at the rookery. The crackle you hear on the soundtrack is the 40-50 mph wind that was whipping off the nearby bay.
The Gentoos are the most common penguin found in the Falklands. Adults are 30 inches tall and weigh about 12 lbs.
There were several pairs of King penguins mixed in with the Gentoos. King Penguins have orange and yellow marking on the heads and necks and are taller and stouter than the Gentoos. Adult King penguins are about 3 feet tall and weigh 30 lbs.
Pictures from Buenos Aires, Argentina - click here.
Copyright © 2000-2009 John P. Greaney, All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:f651aaee-ec30-4be9-a10a-2cd07989cc80> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.retireearlyhomepage.com/antarctic/falklands.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00121-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942799 | 303 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Now that web advertising has matured to a certain extent, is it time to revisit what is meant by “internet literacy”? Traditionally, internet literacy covered such issues as:
- searching well, ie using advanced search techniques that didn’t result in millions of websites in response;
- understanding the domain name’s suffix: COM, or .CO.UK, for instance, may indicate a commercial interest, although I have to say that I think that is not a reliable indicator;
- what sites and blogs are linked to from the website? That should tell you a lot about the website, based on the “birds of a feather” principle;
- what sites link to the website in question? That should tell you even more. (Use the link command in Google, eg link:www.ictineducation.org).
But advertising adds two new dimensions which we need to consider (and which are, in fact, linked):
- Overt vs covert advertising.
- The relationship between advertising and editorial.
Advertising is overt when it has been made clear that something is an advertisement. For example, it may have the word “Advertisement” above it, or “This article is sponsored by…”. Covert advertising is when the advertisement is not obvious.
This is an important distinction, and one which is not easy to draw. This became very apparent during a Westminster Forum conference I attended recently on the subject of Digital Marketing. Just to give you a quick heads-up on this, in the UK the digital remit of the Advertising Standards Authority will be extended to advertising on a company’s own website. Astonishingly, until this amendment was introduced, my understanding is that it would be perfectly within the letter (though not the spirit) of the ASA’s code to have misleading advertising on a company’s own website as long as that wasn’t the case when the company advertised on a third party’s website. This anomaly will be ended in March 2011.
So far, so straightforward, right? Wrong! For a start, the extended remit will cover only advertising, not editorial, by and large. However, where is the line between the two? If an article contains a link to a product, has that link been paid for? If so, then it’s an advertisement, but in the guise of editorial.
What about user-generated content? If a company moderates users’ blog comments or forum discussions, does that make it liable should someone sing the praises of a product which turns out to be a dead duck? The answer seems to lie in the nature of the moderation and the degree to which it is applied. We’re told that common sense will reign. I do not doubt the ASA’s good intentions, and I for one wholeheartedly support this development, but I don’t think the situation is as clear-cut as the consumer would like.
A couple of times members of one of the conference panels expressed the view that “I know an advertisement when I see it”, to which my response is, “Do you? Are you sure?”.
It seems to me that because of the many guises in which advertising can appear, evaluating the trustworthiness of a website is much more complex than is suggested by the list with which this post began”. You also need to consider the questions below. I have included some additional questions in brown which I suggest you discuss with your students, or use to help guide your discussion with students. You may also wish to check out Check – the Children’s Ethical Communications Kit. This website contains information on all the regulations governing communicating with children in a whole range of ways and contexts including, for example, online chat, video games and social networks. The information mainly relates to the UK, but some relates to the USA too. You should also download A tangled web – Marketing to children, which highlights the shortfalls in this area, such as the lack of sufficient regulation governing marketing campaigns aimed at children.
- If ads are included, do they conform to the ASA’s code, or your country’s equivalent? What is the ASA or your country’s equivalent? Is the code voluntary or legally binding? If the former, what sanctions can be imposed, ie does the code have any “teeth”? (One of the changes being brought in is that there will be an area on the ASA’s website that will be used for naming and shaming companies that fall foul of the code.)
- Are the advertisements labelled as such, with such terms as “Advertisement”, “Sponsored Article”, Advertorial” and so on? If the article or feature has been sponsored, has the sponsor influenced the actual content, or simply funded it in order to have its name mentioned? For example, Asus is sponsoring the Guardian’s Eavesdropper site, but has not had any input into what is actually posted there.
- Whether advertisements are (overtly) included or not, is some of the editorial really advertising in disguise? How might you be able to tell?
- Are contributors’ articles genuine, ie written specifically for that website or taken from a bona fide source? How could you tell?
- Are the comments genuine, ie do they add value to the article or the discussion, or are they merely a vehicle for some form of advertising? How could you determine the answer to this?
I don’t think there are definitive answers to these questions. But they do need to be asked, and discussed in class. For the most part, those awful, jarring pop-up ads are gone, because companies realised they were just annoying people -- and good riddance. But internet literacy is now a lot harder as a result. | <urn:uuid:f5b5aaf5-acf8-45b4-abaf-873ef80308be> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ictineducation.org/home-page/2010/10/18/advertising-and-internet-literacy.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00099-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962459 | 1,217 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Taking antibiotics when you or your child has a virus may do more harm than good. In fact, in children, antibiotics are the most common cause of emergency department visits for adverse drug events. Rest, fluids, and over-the-counter products may be your or your child’s best treatment option.
Get smart about when antibiotics are appropriate — to fight bacterial infections. Taking them for viral infections, such as a cold, most sore throats, acute bronchitis and many sinus or ear infections:
• Will not cure the infection
• Will not keep other people from getting sick
• Will not help you or your child feel better
• May cause unnecessary and harmful side effects
What not to do
• Do not demand antibiotics when a doctor says they are not needed.
• Do not take an antibiotic for a viral infection like a cold or most sore throats.
• Do not take antibiotics prescribed for someone else. The antibiotic may not be right for your or your child’s illness. Taking the wrong medicine may delay correct treatment and allow bacteria to increase.
If your doctor prescribes an antibiotic for bacterial infection:
•Do not skip doses.
•Do not save any of the antibiotics for the next time you or your child gets sick.
Remember, there are potential risks when taking any prescription drug. Antibiotics should only be used when a doctor determines they are needed. Learn more about these risks.
What to do
Just because your doctor doesn’t give you an antibiotic doesn’t mean you aren’t sick. Talk with your doctor about the best treatment for your or your child’s illness. To feel better when you or your child has an upper respiratory infection:
• Ask your doctor or pharmacist about over-the-counter treatment options that may help reduce symptoms
• Increase fluid intake
• Get plenty of rest
• Use a cool-mist vaporizer or saline nasal spray to relieve congestion
• Soothe a throat with ice chips, sore throat spray, or lozenges (do not give lozenges to young children.) | <urn:uuid:851aa3c2-fc62-4ac1-a419-2b1aac7d9ad6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://health.heraldtribune.com/2013/01/08/cdc-use-antibiotics-with-caution/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.874078 | 432 | 3.453125 | 3 |
James Brown's music has influenced HIP HOP overall, from his dancing, call and response, his musical feel, his influence on BREAK BEATS or FUNK DRUMMING. James Brown hired so many influential drummers and musicians in his band that he pretty much single handedly shaped the world of BREAK BEAT MUSIC.
THE BREAK BEATS. From EARL PALMER to CLAYTON FILLYAU to CLYDE STUBBLEFIELD. these FUNK DRUMMERS created the beats that made HIP HOP music what it is today.
JAMES BROWN GOOD FOOT
From what the TWINS say. James Browns movements inspired young BBOYS dance styles.
AFRICAN DANCE / CAPOEIRA (Angola)
The roots to HIP HOP culture is in it's bloodlines. And in CAPOEIRA you can see the movements and it's similarities to BBOYING.
HOOFIN/ TAP / FLASH STYLE
(SAMMY DAVIS JR. NICHOLAS BROTHERS)
If you look at certain footwork patterns and steps where SAMMY DAVIS kicked his feet out, and certain ground moves done by groups like the NICHOLAS BROTHERS. you can definitely see the influence on BREAKING>
SALSA/ BOMBI PLENA
In the Latino communities throughout NYC, allot of style and they way the did there moves had that feel of a SALSERO. So the flava and moves like the RUMBA, and many other played a major roll in the shape and style of LATINO BBOYS. Especially when dealing with the UPROCKERS and TOP ROCKERS.
NATIVE AMERICAN DANCE / FANCY DANCE
The same as in Salsa, NATIVE dance especially the FANCY DANCE influenced TOP ROCKING and UPROCKING. Especially in the footwork and the head movements.
KUNG FU MOVIES
MARTIAL ARTS movies was so popular among young African Americans and Latinos. That we would go to 42nd street back in the late 70's and early 80's where you can watch like 5 Kung Fu movies for $3-$5. And young BBOYS would borrow moves and styles and mix it with there dance. Like KEN SWIFT'S PYTHON TOPROCK.
BBOYS like TRACK 2 would combine movements from there gymnastics background into there breaking. Like Track's hand stand pirouette which help lead to CRAZY LEG'S one hand spin which became known as the 1990. Also young new comers like BBOY GERMAN who incorporated the THOMAS FLARE into his dance routine, and was one of the early pioneers in mixing gymnastics with power moves.
AN EARLY PERSPECTIVE OF THE BRONX BEFORE AND DURING THE CREATION OF HIP HOP
in the late 60's early 70's there was a revolution goin on in the streets of NYC. we had some of the sickest gangs rumbling in the parks at midnight, and running the ghetto hoods block by block. Back then being in a gangs like being in a family. and your family was also your entire neighborhood. Some gangs stretched out throughout the entire NYC area, and had chapters in every borough.
THE SEVEN CROWNS
Being raised in the Bronx myself, i grew up on east Treomont in Grand Concourse near Echo park (an area known for gangs and original hip hop jams). where i lived we were surrounded by Javelins and Black Spades. I was constantly learning my street knowledge by hangin out with baby javelins in Echo park when i was only around 6-7 years old. i drank my first liquor in echo park with SHORT STOP from the javelins, i smoked my first cigarette picking up buts off the streets while playing hookie at age 7, i started my first fire by echo park during school hours and watched the smoke rise till pedestrians yelled at me and i ran, i also learned my first tag and was givin the name "lil KOOL KAT" by my older sister. i was hung out my apartment window 4 flights by members of a gang called the IMPERIAL SPADES that my older sister CINDY hung out with. Every time my sis left the room they would grab me and hang me out the window. lol. i was always finding 007 knives, stilettos, and broken clackers (a toy that had two heavy balls attached to a string and made a click clack noise when you swung it. It was used as a gang weapon and became banned due to violence). during these times the music was based on allot of heavy rock (Jimi Hendrix), and heavy revolutionary soul (James Brown). i learned tons of ghetto rhymes growing up in the streets from the older cats.
Growing up amongst, gang violence, drugs, poverty, police harassment, broken down abandon buildings, and bad schools added to this rebellious attitude that the youth had towards society. it was like living in a war zone at times. hearing gun shots in the allies at night and seeing the blood stained streets the next morning on your way to school. that was mine and every other young kids life in the south Bronx during these times. back the rumbles could start over any thing from stepping on some ones shoes, messing with the wrong girls, or being in the wrong turf and not removing your colors (gang jacket). The south Bronx gangs emulated the biker gangs except most Bronx gangs couldn't afford bikes. So war seemed like the only vehicle that these gangs rode. and there was allot of wars. weapons of choice were zip guns (home made weapon), bats (sometimes with nails in them), Molotov cocktails, sawed off shot guns, hand grenades, chains, 007's, stilettos, clackers, nun chucks, pipes, ect. And to become a member of one of these gangs you would have to go through some sort of test. One such test was called the APACHE LINE, where a new recruit would have to walk in between two line of gang members and get beat down from one side to the other. Another test was RUSSIAN ROULETTE, and as brotha LUCKY STRIKES put it in the book YES YES YALL. Allot of potential gang members were left dead in abandon building, with the police thinking it was suicide and not a gang recruiting ceremony.
GANG INFLUENCE ON HIP HOP
In every aspect of HIP HOP culture there is a connection of some sort of gang influence. in many cases HIP HOP heads were gang members them selves. lets take the DJ for example. while KOOL HERC gained respect from gangs by doin his thing, he was also shoutin them out on the mic, and keepin the peace in his jams. he developed a respect from these gang members by giving them respect during his jams. Gangs were also used as protection for DJ's and guarding equipment, and collecting money at the doors of jams. Then of course we have one the South BRONX's biggest gang leaders who turned his gang into the biggest hip hop movement in the streets of new york and eventually the world. I am talkin about AFRIKA BAMBAATAA and the mighty ZULU NATION. BAM gained his street movement with the BLACK SPADES, and soon turned the SPADES into the ORGANIZATION, and eventually the ZULU NATION. they were the the biggest and most feared as well. Aside from BAM there was DJ DICE from CHUCK CHUCK CITY CREW, DJ FLASH and the CASANOVA CREW, and many other DJ affiliations. gangs would show up to jams often to gain there respects, and if that didn't happen, to break sh%t up. but one of the most famous chants to come off during a ZULU jam was when a gang called THE GESTAPO would show up. and back the the ZULU mc's would get the crowd to chant ZULU!, but the Gestapo crew would respond GESTAPO!, in the end the mc would chant ZULU! and the whole crowd would chant back GESTAPO! and it became a popular chant during ZULU jams.
GANG INFLUENCE IN DANCE/UPROCKING (not to be confused with BBOYING)
now in dance, there is a significant amount of information that points to the fact that gangs had a major influence in a dance called UPROCKIN. one such fact is that all the gangs in NYC had a certain dance that they did before going to war. it was sort of like a gang member imitating what he will do to his enemy when they rumble. the dance involved strikes and movements of violence between two dancers. imitating (miming) weapons such as zip guns, knives, bats, and fists. This dance would later be emulated by a brother in BROOKLYN named "RUBBER BAND" (also a brother named "APACHE") who was eventually murdered over a dance battle gone bad. It is said that he was one of the greatest dancers on the streets. RUBBER BAND was also said to have laid the foundation of the dance with JERKS and BURNS and was responsible for takin the gang style dance to the clubs and made it popular with the DISCO CROWD and it eventually became a dance done all over the city by gangsters and non gangsters alike. But it was common knowledge that BROOKLYN mastered this dance with such crews as DYNASTY ROCKERS. (for more info on uprockin "UNITEDUPROCKERS").
GANG INFLUENCE IN WRITING/GRAFFITI
This is probably the easiest connection to make in reference to gangs inspiring elements in HIP HOP. the truth is evident in other cities where gangs marked there turf with there tags and signs and claimed there hoods with graffiti. allot of writers came from gangs, and while writing can be argued as being an element of HIP HOP, there were tons of writers that had nothing to do with HIP HOP and weren't even black or Latino. One of the first writers on record to hit up in NYC was a writer with GREEK origin named "TAKI", but also what needs to be noted is that the earliest writers that started the movement in NYC were in Philly, a writer named CORNBREAD wanted to please a girl he was after, so by taggin her name on her bus route he figured he can get her attention, and before you know it , writing flourished it's way to NYC. but aside from this history, writing was a one of the best ways to let any outside gangsters know what hood they were in so they can watch there step, and remove there colors (jacket with there names on it) before they would enter any other rivals area. This would be the same in almost every ghetto in America, from cholo gangs in LA , to the gangs in Chicago, as well as NYC. Well known WRITING CREWS from the early 70's included THE EBONY DUKNE , EX VANDALS.
THE DJ (KOOL HERC)
in 1955 in KINGSTON JAMAICA, a child was born who would eventually end up in one of the darkest ghettos in America, and father a culture that would soon change the sound of music .
the child's name: Clive Campbell (aka KOOL HERC)
the place: The BRONX
the culture: HIP HOP
Clive Campbell migrated to New York's west BRONX when he was only 12 years old. When the young Clive Campbell was attending Alfred E. Smith high school, he was constantly lifting weights in the school weight room. And when you add his huge body with his tallness that him as well as his brother KENNETH had. You would understand why the other kids nick named him HERCULES.
Initially HERC was down with a writing crew (graffiti group) young Herc was always inspired by the sounds and culture of his JAMAICAN roots, toasting, and the dubbing (mc'in and dj'in) that the DJ's had in his original birth place was instilled in his soul. He eventually got a system of his own and began dj'in locally to help make money to buy his lil sis some school clothes. His first DJ gig was a party in 1520 Sedgwick. in a small recreation center that his sister rented for about $25, and they would charge about 25 cents for girls and 50 cents for guys at that time. He began to throw many parties there before a predominantly African American crowd (at this time the Latinos were more heavily into LATIN DANCE and DISCO). that's where herc would also fine tune his personal love for the break sections of all of his records. Although herc could still get the crowd jumping by playing "Listen To Me" by Baby Huey full out. Through his knowledge that every Jamaican record had a dub side to it, he focused on the break downs of instrumentals, and drum solos. He new that by extending the break he could lock the crowd into a state of frenzy. You see herc studied the crowd response when ever the drum solo would kick in, and he figured that by extending that drum solo, he could keep the whole atmosphere in that one state. So he began buying two copies of each record, (which he would soak the labels off so that other DJ's couldn't find out what records he was playing) and began to manipulate the turntables when the break ended on one turntable he would start it all over again on the next turn table, and would do this over and over until he saw it fit to throw on the next crazy beat. he called this the merry go round. Not only was he known for having the funkiest breaks but hercs biggest claim to fame was his sound system. It was said that herc named his crew the herculoids, but he son clarified that the name herculoids was a name he gave to his sound system. It was so loud that no other DJ could compete with him in a park jam battle which a young up and coming DJ by the name of Africa Bambaataa found out when he was blown away by herc's system in a battle. Herc owned what was known as a macintosh amp, which at the time was the most respected power amp, and also had sure speaker columns, he dubbed his system the "HERCULORDS" and his distinct sound was based on his heavy bass. he was also quoted saying that the only person that was close to him ion his time was a kid named "SMOKEY". herc began playing in clubs like twilight zone, and eventually the hevalo club. as his fame grew other DJ's began to make there contributions to hercs sound. Herc was also known for toastin on the mic and shouting people out from the crowd to get more crowd response. this came from things he remembered from his native Jamaica. and he also had what was known as the first mc to rock a hip hop party. "COKE LA ROCK" and HERC also had an MC named "TIMMY TIM".
FAMOUS DJ'S THAT CAME AFTER HERC
AFRIKA BAMBAATAA: known as the man with a thousand records. BAM'S collection was no doubt the largest, and the most versatile. Bam was also the leader of the largest ghetto organization in NYC. The ZULU NATION. And eventually landed a major deal on TOMMY BOY RECORDS along with mc's POW WOW, GLOBE, and MR. BIG'S. they went on to record one of the most famous hip hop songs of all time. "PLANET ROCK".
GRAND MASTER FLASH: Known as the creator of the quick mix (speed) , cutting, and also makes claim along with DJ THEODORE for inventing the scratch., FLASH was also the DJ for one of the most influential hip hop groups "GRAND MASTER FLASH AND THE FURIOUS FIVE"
Mc's: COWBOY, MELLE MEL, KID CREOLE, MR. NES (SCORPIO)), RAHIEM.
they went on to record many hit records including one of the first rap records ever:
UNDER THE TITLE "THE YOUNGER GENERATION" SONG TITLE "WE ROCK SO MELLOW"
(this was actually the 2nd rap record release after king Tim the third).
GRAND WIZARD THEODORE: The inventor of the needle drop, and also the scratch. He was the younger brother of a well known DJ "MEAN GENE" and part of a crew called "THE L BROTHERS" and he eventually became part one the most famous crews "FANTASTIC 5" along with RUBY D, PRINCE WHIPPER WHIP, DATA ROCK, KEVIE KEV,. FANTASTIC 5 were well known for all there accomplishments. But they are best remembered for there battle against THE COLD CRUSH 4.
LOVE BUG STARSKI: Starski was probably the best party rocker of his time, he was one of the first DJ MC'S, and was also known for coining the mc rhyme phrase "HIP HOP SHOOWOP DA BOP. Starski is rarely given props for his accomplishments in HIP HOP. But his crowd rocking style gave way to many DJ's and mc's.
OTHER DJ's WHO PAVED THE WAY WERE:
CHARLIE CHASE: DJ for the cold crush four, and also known for bridging the gap between African American and Latino youth.
AFRICA ISLAM: Known as the son of BAMBAATAA, he was a bboy/ DJ, and had the perfect feel for playing breaks for the hardcore bboys. he had a crew called the MAY BERRY CREW with mc's DONALD D and KID VICIOUS.
GRAND MIXER DST: Besides being a dope BBOY / DJ / PRODUCER. DST had incredible DJ skills, and recorded some great under ground records with his crew "THE INFINITY RAPPERS" (MC'S SHAHIEM, and ), But DST will always be remembered by his work with HERBIE HANCOCK on the hit record "ROCKIT" back in the mid 80's.
WHIZ KID: This man was at one time know as the simply the best. All you ever heard in the streets was that nobody can mess with WHIZ KID. He showcases his versatility on the hit record "PLAY THAT BEAT" along with MC GLOBE of the soul sonic force. In this song WHIZ KID DEMONSTRATED different scratch for every name that GLOBE CALLED out. He is no longer with us and will be missed by all OG HIP HOPERS.
OTHER INFLUENTIAL DJ's
there were many DJ's that were around during the creation of HIP HOP culture, but most were known as main stream, and disco DJ's. it is the opinion of many that herc was known as the DJ of the ghettos, and for focusing his sound on break beats rather than disco. These are some of the big DJ's of that time who still had a major influence on hip hop culture.
KOOL DJ DEE
DISCO KING MARIO
JOHNNY THUNDER BIRD
GRAND MASTER FLOWERS
DJ PETE DJ JONES
THE BREAK BEAT
(the percussive part of many SOUL, FUNK, and R&B records)
To get to the origin of HIP HOP, we need to examine one of it's main components. "THE BREAK BEAT "what this word signifies is a style of drumming that influenced BBOYS/ BGIRLS, to "GO OFF". All HIP HOP rhythms have it's origin in AFRICAN MUSIC. But to be specific we have to go back to the most influential DRUMMERS, of the time period when FUNK music with break beats were being recorded.
JAMES "DIAMOND" WILLIAMS
AL JACKSON, JR.
JOHN "JABO" STARKS
And many more drummers contributed to the sound that molded what HIP HOP is today. This particular drum sound was said to have been created in NEW ORLEANS. According to the book "GIVE THE DRUMMER SOME" (I highly recommend this book). Drummers like EARL PALMER (who is said to be the earliest funk style drummer ever) would imitate all the sounds coming from hundreds of marching band drummers who fused Latin percussion influences from the AFRICANS in NEW ORLEANS native land BRAZIL. Add the sounds of new Orleans jazz to this gumbo and you have a unique sound that jazz drummers would imitate but only on one drum kit (as opposed to hundreds of drummers) this added a whole new syncopation to the drum patterns of that day which was like a revolution in music. You see according to CLAYTON FILLYAU, when he started playing for JAMES BROWN, he refused to have the band lean on him as just a live click track, he pretty much made it clear that he was doing his thing and other musicians better keep up. When CLAYTON played on live at the APOLLO. That became a major break through for funk drumming. And before you knew it, every band had a drummer with a similar sound. BREAK BEATS eventually became the heart and soul of what we call hip hop today. BREAK BEATS is what AFRIKA BAMMBATTA used to describe to the young ROCK STEADY bboys as "THE CALL OF THE DRUM". Once the drums start playing, people that fell the spirit of these drums will gather. And this is what was referred to as a "JAM" no matter how far you were, once a DJ started playing these beats. People would gather from all parts of the Bronx to one spot. Some people will here about a jam from word of mouth. But allot of people will actually hear the music from afar and rush over to the jam. The BREAK BEAT was so powerful that it attracted people from all communities (mostly AFRICAN AMERICAN, PUERTO RICANS, ). And these people would gather in the jams to hear there favorite beats, chill with some ladies, show off there latest gears (clothes), and also to BATTLE. These beats that were manually looped to extend them (thanks to the innovation by KOOL HERC), created an atmosphere that was some what a blood line connection to the tribal pasts of these young African American, and Puerto Rican teenagers. A DJ would tease the crowd with the opening of a funk song with the vocals singing over the beat, guitars, and horns. But once that break would kick in, the crowd would get down harder and the DJ would then manually extend the break with two turntables and back spinning the records in such a way as to get the crowd in a frenzy. By show casing the DJ's speed, and precise on time cuts. The crowd would respond by getting down harder with there latest moves and dance. But to get the crowd into the grooves even harder the DJ's started introducing vocalists that would chant, and crowd please and keep the people partying. These vocalists were called "MC'S".
DIGGIN FOR BEATS/ DIGGIN IN THE CRATES/ FINDING BREAK BEATS
One of the most forgotten arts of HIP HOP is undoubtedly the art of finding break beats. it seems that most of today's DJs are more focused in showcasing there skills than finding funky new ill breaks from obsolete rare records and impressing the crowds with a new beat. this art form was probably the main element that actually kept people comin back to jams. just to hear what new beats there favorite DJ would surprise the crowds with. Besides keepin the party rockin and making the people move. DJs were also known for certain break beats that they introduced to the HIP HOP ears. KOOL HERC was known for washing off record lables and replacing them with different ones so that other rival DJs would not know what record he was playing. they would sneak a peak at his records and go to the record shops only to find out that they were tricked into buying the wrong albums. places where HERC and many other DJs would buy there breaks at were places like "the RHYTHM DEN", or "DOWNSTAIRS RECORDS". back in the early 70's it was all about the rare breaks. scratchin, and cuttin was a the criteria of the future, but in 73 it was all about your sound system, and who had what record that nobody else had. that was the marks of respect. Also look at the article BEAT QUEST.
In the early days of HIP HOP an Mc sounded more like a smooth radio disc jockey. BAMBAATAA will always refer to original concepts of what an MC is and where is came from like SHIRLEY ELLI'S "The Name Game" and "the Clapping Song". And people like PIGMEAT MARKHAM's "Here Comes The Judge". Also credited were groups like THE BLACK POETS, and THE WATTS PROPHETS. Street snappin (mama joke) called THE DOZENS.
They were the masters of ceremonies, the mic controllers, the party pleasers, teasers, with the. By saying rhymes on the mic, and doing crowd call and responses, MC'S became the main focus of a jam, at times the most vital attractions as well. They were the stars of the show mainly because they were the most heard and most exposed out of all of the other elements of a jam. While the DJ was spinning the phattest break beats that made other DJ's wanna find out what that record was, the mc was manipulating the crowd with there clever word play. This eventually lead too mc's forming a crew with the DJ and throwing bigger jams that would include battles to see who had the tightest crew. The first mc on record to rhyme over break beats was a mc by the name of "COKE LA ROCK". KOOL HERC featured "COKE LA ROCK" in his earlier jams to fill in and crowd please while Herc was spinning records. The next mc (on record) to grab the mic in a Hip Hop jam was mc "COWBOY" known as an eventual member of the famed "FURIOUS 5 MC'S". At this point there were many mc's to grab the mic. Some of the most notable ones and there contributions were:
BUZY B: Known as the king of crowd pleasers, he was one of the most popular party rockers of his era.
MELLE MEL: Mel was known for his incredible lyrical skills. Before there was a RAKIEM, BIGGY SMALLS, AND BIG DADDY KANE, MEL WAS HOLDING IT DOWN.
GRAND MASTER CAZ: CAZ was also known for his lyrical skills in the same vein as MELLE MEL. CAZ precise delivery and ill metaphors, and was a key member in the COLD CRUSH 4 MC'S.
KOOL MOE DEE: MOE DEE was one of the best. He combined intricate lyrics with a fast rhyme style and along with his crew mates THE TREACHEROUS 3 (LA SUNSHINE, SPECIAL K) they had consecutive ghetto hit records that put them on the map. And one of the most unforgettable and famous battle of all times. KOOL MOE DEE-VS-BUZY B.
OTHER NOTABLE MC'S WERE
WHIPPER WHIP: He had the smoothest voice and precision delivery.
DATA ROCK: Also a great mc
COWBOY: a true legend, and smooth rhyme sayer
(TOP ROCK, FOOTWORK, FREEZES, POWER)
Little was known of the Bronx Rock Dance culture that existed since the late 60's. Now with the research from Mr Wiggles Trac 2 and Fabel, we have uncovered what might be the true missing link to the Rocking culture and Hip Hop. We start with Rubberband. The legendary Rocker that traveled all city from Bronx to Queens to Brooklyn, battling, rocking clubs and leaving with the ladies. He also taught dancers from all over NYC and left the biggest impact with his trademark flexibility style and his spins from top to bottom on the edge of his Heel Shoes. It wasn't till the death of this incredible dancer that his Legend surpassed every major street style dancer, and his name echoed on till today as a Creator, and pioneer of many styles in Rocking and Breakin. More will be told about this amazing dancer. But Bronx defiantly had a huge Rocking culture that left a mark on the NYC dance floors.
Names of some of the Bronx Greats:
SALSA (That same BBOY Salsa)
more too come soon.
So many Bronx and Manhattan Rockers that were once forgotten, and now found, as we discover they all did a move called THE BREAK! And this move imitates the hand grabbing something and breaking it with the HIP or the STEP OUT we do in Top Rock.
More to come on this new found information.
(TOP ROCK, FOOTWORK, FREEZES, POWER)
This is a topic that must be broken down into three separate generations in order to fully understand the history of this dance. In researching bboy history, i found that there were many names being tossed around as the fathers of this dance, but the names that i would here the most were "THE NIGGA TWINS". but when referring to actual moves that has become the foundation of this dance, the names that would constantly come up were groups like "CRAZY COMMANDERS", and "SAL SOUL". I found myself just like every other bboy seeking history very confused. but only up until a an event that took place in Ohio on Sept. 10-11 1999. in this panel discussion we were finally abel to bring THE NIGGA TWINS as well as BBOYS TRAC 2, and JOJO. two sets of bboys representing two different generations. and i must say that fireworks were bursting in the room that day. but in the end when the smoke cleared i was able to scrape up this breakdown, which is still based on my thoughts of what took place between these two generations of bboying. So i will attempted to do this by dissecting BBOY history into the "EARLY 70'S". "MID 70'S", and the "80's".
THE EARLY 70'S
"THE CREATION AND THE BLUE PRINTS"
Now before i get into this section, there is an important issue that needs to be cleared up. during the early 70's the original bboys were mostly if all African American. in the Bronx we had a mixture of both black and Latinos living in the same hood, but there were two subcultures going on at the same time. while the young African American kids were more into the James Brown sound, most Latinos were into salsa and a dance called ROCKING. So i will break down both dance styles. (these two styles and there histories are still being researched, and i am still looking for more information)
When i finally got to meet the NIGGA TWINS (Keith and Kevin), the first thing that i asked them was who was the first bboy ever? and the first name they mentioned was "JAMES BROWN". they felt that James set the pace in the dance that they did, and in examining what they did during there era, there is some truth to that. you see the original BBOYS from the early 70's didn't break the same way we were breaking in the mid 70's. and if you ask them what they think of the bboys from the mid 70's ear they will straight up say "it's dope but it ain't bboyin". what bboys like the twins consider bboyin is a totally different style and foundation than the "TOP ROCK , FOOTWORK, AND FREEZE" foundation that we teach today. there are many truths to unveil about early bboys. so lets start with the name. the name "BBOY" was actually not the name of every kid that breaks, but an actual phrase coined by the father of HIP HOP "DJ KOOL HERC". the word BBOY was a short term for "BREAK BOY"< or "BEAT BOY",and even "BRONX BOY". a dancer who dances to BREAK BEATS. HERC gave this name to a group of elite dancers of that era that were getting down in his jams. dancers like
THE AMAZING BOBO
THE NIGGA TWINS
EL DORADO MIKE
these dancers were among the most respected bboys in the bronx in the early 70's, and they were called the bboys. to them the word BBOY was like the name of there specific crew. how did the this word become an actual title for the dance? my guess would be that the legend of these dancers would eventually carry the word BBOY to represent the name of the dance to all the young up and coming dancers who followed there footsteps. in my experience as a young HIP HOP dancer in 1976. the word BBOY was any body who was BREAKIN at the time. but in any event, we excepted this name and till this day it is still the best descriptive term for the dance. although there were many expressions during the 70's that people used to describe the actions of breaking. terms like "GO OFF" were popular was that we would tell someone to dance. but it is clear that such phrases were just an expression no different than phrases like "GET DOWN" or "CUT UP". those were terms used by the crowd to get dancers to do there thing. but not actual names of a dance.
now lets get down to the moves. back in the twins times. they never did moves like the "HEAD SPIN", BACK SPIN", or the " CHAIR FREEZE". these moves came from the next generation. moves that the original BBOYS were more like "THE SLING SHOT", "THE FRANKENSTEIN", and "THE DRACULA" lots of stand up dancing that involved allot of shuffling, and was very funky, and there was also sweeps and ground moves similar to what SAMMY DAVIS, or the NICHOLAS BROTHERS would do. And in examining there top rock style (vertical dance), it was totally different than bboys of today. they seemed to have a whole different style and foundation to there dance. but the most important asset to a bboy was how they ,manipulated the music, and how they would catch phrases in a record. MELLE MEL (from the Furious 5 mc's) told me and CRAZY LEGS a story about probably the best bboy back then named "SAUSAU". when this brotha would dance he would improvise off of anything. the music, the crowd, and even objects around him. and one time he started gettin down on the ground in an out door jam and somehow ended up on a tree still gettin down. although this generation of bboys did not do the basic foundation that we know of today, the "6 step", "baby freezes" and so forth. they created the original form the would eventually evolve into today's BREAKIN, and they laid the blueprints for the next generation of BBOYS to come.
THE MID TO LATE 70'S
"THE NEXT LEVEL"
Now before i get into this section, there is an important issue that needs to be cleared up. during the early 70's the original bboys were mostly if all African American. in the Bronx we had a mixture of both black and Latinos living in the same hood, but there were two subcultures going on at the same time. while the young African American kids were more into the James Brown sound, most Latinos were into salsa and hustle, and of course a tsyle of dance known as UPROCKIN, which was made popular in rooklyn new York. Latinos were also in allot of park jams that were going on during the early 7o's mainly because we shared the same hood as our cousins in the African American comunity. But during the mid 70's the young Latino youth started picking up on the culture more. Dj CHARLIE CHASE was becoming a well known Puerto Rican DJ within the HIP HOP scene. and his eventual forming of the MC crew (rap group) THE COLD CRUSH 4, made him a house hold name in the NYC ghettos. And along with him pickin up on the culture were young Latin BBOYs. And with that came a new breed in BBOYS in the mid 70's there crews of either all african americans, and all Latinos, And there were also crews that were mixed with both. Soon this next generation of BBOYS started to take over. BBOYS like:
and a young CRAZY LEGS
and many more.
and the there were crews like:
SAL SOUL CREW
TBB (The Bronx Boys)
These crews were also mixed with both Latino and African American youth. And with these young Latinos came a new flava in the BBOY world. A more SALSA type of feel which was added on the already established BBOY style. Also More of the UPROCKING style was mixed with the BBOY style TOP ROCKING and while both styles of vertical dance have there own history and flava, there are similar steps used by BBOYS during this time period. And with both cousins comunities battling each other as well as dancing along side each other, some of the most inovated moves started to apear.
THE BABY FREEZE
THE CHAIR FREEZE
ONE SHOT HEAD SPINS/DRILLS
CC LONG FOOTWORK / THE 6 STEP
THE 4 STEP
THE NECK MOVE and the BUT SPIN (which eventually led to the back spin)
see who imvented these moves
HIP HOP/FUNK STYLES DANCE
BBOY MOVES HISTORY
The dance thrived during the mid 70's but as the 70's started to come to an end, so did BBOYING withing the African American youth. More African american kids were picking up microphones and MCing, and buying DJ equiptment to do parties and start crews.
BBOYS who turned to other elements of HIP HOP include:
DJ KLARK KENT/SUPERMAN (Herculoids)
GRAND MIXER DST (Zulu Nation/ Infinity Rappers)
PHASE 2 (legendary Writer/ graffiti)
DJ AFRIKA ISLAM (Zulu Nation/ Mayberry Crew)
MC MELLE MEL (Grand Master fFash and the Furious Five MC's
ALMIGHTY KG (Cold Crush 4 MC's)
POW WOW (Zulu Nation/Soul Sonic Force MC'S)
and many others.
By 1979 the dance was concidered played out by most people in the BRONX.
"THE POWER MOVE ERA"
During the early 80's BREAKING was still concidered old, But there was still signs of it throughout NYC in other boroughs. A young BBOY named CRAZY LEGS from the Bronx moved closer to Manhattan and started taking trips there more often till he eventually met up with a BBOY named FROSTY FREEZE. FROSTY FREEZE introduced LEGS to allot of young BBOYS in the area of 98th street in Amsterdam in Manhattan. Legs immidiattly started to battle and dance with these young cats and eventaully recieved the blessings from the one of the leaders of ROCK STEADY CREW in the Bronx to start a chapter in Manhattan. So CRAZY LEGS began recruiting members from both Bronx and Manhattan like:
LIL CRAZY LEGS
BUCK 4 (R.I.P.)
KIPPY DEE /RASHAWN (R.I.P.)
and boogie boys (New York's incorrect term for poppers)
ELECTRIC COMANY CREW (from the bronx)
Rock steady crew began traveling and battling crews all over the 5 Boroughs. Other young BBOY crews emerged and started competeing. Crews like:
DYNAMIC ROCKERS (Queens)
INCREDIBLE BREAKERS (lower east side Manhattan)
and many others
RcokSteady crew went on to battle Dynamic Rockers at Lincoln Center in the early 80's which was filmed and made part of the famous HIP HOP documentary STYLE WARS.
In tne 80's old moves were taken to new levels and made more complicated and added to the dance.:
one shot drill HEAD SPINS became CONTINOUS TAP HEAD SPINS by KID FREEZE
the BACK SPINS became CONTINOUS (windmills) by CRAZY LEGS
TRAC 2's HAND STAND PIROETTE became 1990's by CRAZY LEGS
SWIPES became NINJA FREEZE or AIR SWIPE by ICEY ICE
The next generation of BBOYS took from different influences and started creating new styles.
ROCK STEADY CREW, DYNAMIC ROCKERS, NEW YORK CITY BREAKERS, MAGNIFICENT FORCE, INCREDIBLE BREAKERS, were all on top of the game. some crews were featured in major movies and tours that helped proppel the dance all over the world
WILD STYLE: featured ROCK STEADY
FLASHDANCE: featured ROCK STEADY CREW
BEAT STREET: featured ROCK STEADY CREW, NYC BREAKERS and MAGNIFICENT FORCE
DELIVERY BOYS: featured INCREDIBLE BREAKERS, AND DYNAMIC ROCKERS
Newcomers started comin up and bringing amazing moves to the table. Moves like
AIR TRACKS, HEAD GLIDES, 2000's, FLARES,
KNOWLEDGE ENDS HERE, HEHE, RAN OUT OF TIME.
BE RIGHT BACK WITH MORE INFO SOON.
BBOY SPY HISTORY
B-boy Spy, from the Crazy Commandos Crew, dominated in the art breaking in
the mid to late 1970’s. His understanding of the foundation allowed him to
evolve and take moves from other b-boys and redesigned them to make them his
own. At the same time was creating moves that would later be taken by others.
But, many could never do it like Spy. Spy recognized as the creator of moves
that serve as major components to what is the foundation of breaking, such as
the Six-Step Footwork, the CC Rock, Swipes, the Baby Freeze, and his Latino
flavor of top rocking. His arsenal of moves made it easy for his peers to
refer to him as “The Man With A Thousand Moves”. According to Spy’s personal
friend and peer, Trac 2 from Star Child La Rock. “Spy was a master
illusionist”. With that being said, it is no wonder how Spy could do just
about any move in both directions and make it seem as if each time he did
them, they appeared to be different moves.
Spy’s partnership with the music showed that in order to rock the floor, you
first had to let the music rock your soul. He was the absolute epitome of
what a b-boy should be. His influence is such that it served as the blue
print for what has become what a b-boy or b-girl must learn in order to become
one. Spy’s influence was the very reason why b-boys such Crazy Legs and many
others wanted to strive and become the best b-boy that they could be. Spy was
an idol and a super hero to many b-boys and b-girls in this Hip Hop game
before it ever became commercial. He was the first larger than life b-boy and
is a true legend among his peers.
THIS IS STILL A WORK IN PROGRESS
PLEASE FEEL FREE TO GIVE INPUT OR INFORMATION ON HIP HOP HISTORY | <urn:uuid:67dec7f6-8bd2-4f23-b69b-2f94ecd74dcd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mrwiggles.biz/hip_hop_influences.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977321 | 9,433 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Article By: MC1 Grant P. Ammon
Researchers from governments, militaries, weather agencies and universities around the world are participating in an Office of Naval Research (ONR) and Taiwan National Science Council sponsored research project focused on learning more about the Pacific Ocean’s response to typhoons.
The Impact of Typhoons on the Ocean in the Pacific, or ITOP study, is a collaborative, international effort headquartered at the Monterey Operations Center (MOC) on the Naval Postgraduate School campus, where researchers have been continuously tracking storms over the past several weeks.
It’s fast-paced work … in order to get the most comprehensive data possible, researchers track developing storms daily for both intensity and path. When a storm reaches typhoon strength, the team acts quickly, descending upon the weather system by sea and air to drop sensitive equipment and sensors on the ocean surface and below. At that point, they hope the typhoon continues on the path they’ve predicted, passing through the drop zone so the instrumentation can collect detailed data on both the weather system and the water below it.
To date, two major storms have been captured in detail as part of ITOP – one was Typhoon Fenapi, which was successfully tracked through the Pacific Ocean before impacting Taiwan in mid September.
“During Typhoon Fenapi we were able to take numerous oceanographic and atmospheric readings,” said Eric D’Asar, ITOP’s lead scientist and a professor of oceanography and applied physics at the University of Washington. “We were also able to forecast the storm’s track within 10 nautical miles, 48 hours in advance.”
The study is examining the ocean’s response to typhoons, in particular, meaning the accurate prediction of the storm’s path is critical to success.
“We needed to collect data from inside the water,” said D’Asaro. “The challenge is to get collection instruments in the path of an active typhoon. Good forecasting is crucial for us to advise and direct the deployments of our various collection agents.”
Scientists at NPS and in the field are using a variety of methods along with technologically-advanced equipment to collect data directly from the typhoons. Moored array buoys are placed in areas that traditionally have a strong likeliness of being in the path of a storm while other data collection technology is deployed after the storm is spotted.
NPS Meteorology Prof. Russell Elsberry (center) confers with his team of investigators including Eric D’Asaro, University of Washington (left), Dr. Sue Chen of the Navy Research Lab, Monterey (right seated) and Oceanographer Rosalinda Fortier, University of Washington graduate student (standing). The team meets daily, conferencing in METOC experts from across the Pacific to accurately predict the path and intensity of storms as they develop along the Pacific Ocean. (U.S. Navy photo by Javier Chagoya/Released.)
Other methods of collection included the launching of gliders and deploying various floats and drifters from Air Force C-130’s assigned to the 53rd Air Force Reserve Hurricane Hunter Squadron. These techniques coupled with accurate forecasting allowed researchers to collect data on the formation and strengthening of typhoons and to gather information on the properties of cold water troughs that follow in the wake of a storm.
“We’re taking a look at how long the water stays cool after a typhoon,” said D’Asaro. “Temperature in the water following a typhoon cools dramatically. This cooling has a tremendous effect on the acoustic properties. Studying this cooling will allow us to make better acoustic propagation predictions.”
Australian Meteorologist Gary Foley looks on at a live picture of Typhoon Fenapi as it develops momentum towards Taiwan, Sept. 17. Foley is part of the international team of scientists at NPS, gathering live data, sharing resources and models, and predicting typhoons in support of the ITOP study. (U.S. Navy photo by Javier Chagoya/Released.)
“This partnership between us and ONR is strong and allows us to provide data to various Navy meteorological units. This data is for the fleet to use, and we are also looking at how well their models work,” said D’Asaro. “We would also like to see if we can improve on existing models.”
Studies conducted during ITOP also have a more direct impact on plans and relevancy to the Fleet.
“These storms dramatically alter the makeup of the ocean,” said Patrick Harr, an NPS professor of meteorology and scientist with the ITOP project. “This affects everything from acoustic propagation and tidal properties currents and eddy fields.”
As with most research efforts at NPS, student education is a critical part of process. ITOP is serving as a solid platform to further graduate level studies while collecting valuable information at the same time. “NPS has sent one Ph.D. student and two master’s degree students, and other members of the staff, to the Pacific region to aid in observation and collection of information,” said Harr. “It’s really nice for the students to be involved in this research.”
Harr also spoke of the importance of NPS’ communication infrastructure as a key component to the project.
“More than a dozen national, international agencies and universities are taking part in this project and NPS was selected to act as the virtual operations center,” said Harr. “We are able to act as the control hub and research center because of the software package that NPS maintains.”
Researchers and forecasters working out of Monterey are directly affecting collection efforts in the Pacific through daily conferences and electronic briefings with team members around the globe.
“Because of the outstanding communication capabilities at NPS, our team is able to be directly involved in key decision making without having to deploy around the globe. We wouldn’t be able to do this without the tremendous support of NPS’ IT department. It’s because of this support that we can do virtually everything from Monterey, but actually getting into the plane and flying to a storm.”
ITOP research will continue through mid-October and so far has raised interesting research questions.
“We have already seen things in the data that we didn’t expect,” said Harr. “The thing about research is the opening of one door can lead to many more questions.”
Posted October 1, 2010 | <urn:uuid:b60280a8-92ae-4bdf-ba98-14ad9496241f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nps.edu/About/News/International-Team-Studies-the-Impact-of-Pacific-Typhoons.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94827 | 1,382 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Alice In Wonderland Summary and Analysis
FreeBookNotes found 4 sites with book summaries or analysis of Alice In Wonderland. If there is a Alice In Wonderland SparkNotes, Shmoop guide, or Cliff Notes, you can find a link to each study guide below.
Among the summaries and analysis available for Alice In Wonderland, there are 3 Full Study Guides and 1 Short Summary.
Depending on the study guide provider (SparkNotes, Shmoop, etc.), the resources below will generally offer Alice In Wonderland chapter summaries, quotes, and analysis of themes, characters, and symbols. | <urn:uuid:dd42cc3d-c7f3-4277-973d-4314c0e3b5b9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.freebooknotes.com/summaries-analysis/alice-in-wonderland/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00012-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.786931 | 121 | 2.84375 | 3 |
As we begin the new year, topics driving the geosciences are literally "ripped from the headlines" of the daily news. Following from last months Highlights of 2005, here are 10 earth science issues that will likely continue to be relevant to current events in the coming year and that emphasize the importance of knowing something about science, to better understand modern life.
1. Projections of petroleum supplies
In 1969, geologist M.K. Hubbert estimated that world oil production would peak in 2000. Ken Deffeyes of Princeton University recalculated "World Oil Peak Day" for last Thanksgiving. More optimistic estimates extend the peak to 2036, but in general, estimates vary widely. I dont know any geologists who believe the supply is infinite, but I recently heard a vice president of Exxon-Mobil announce that the supply of petroleum is virtually unlimited because engineers can develop new technologies to extract petroleum faster than the resources can be depleted. Its a simple and cheering concept, especially when gas prices are soaring. The public wants to believe this. Beam me up, Scotty.
2. Alternate fuel sources
Approximately 80 percent of the worlds energy supply comes from fossil fuels, and the percentage is even higher in the United States 87 percent of U.S. energy comes from "dinosaur juice," according to the same ExxonMobil vice president. Alternative fuels are a small piece of the energy picture, but they are certain to become more important as energy prices stay high.
3. The distribution of energy resources
Significant energy resources exist in parts of the world with unstable political and economic situations, including the Middle East. Disruptions of supplies will continue to impact countries around the globe. Indeed, nearly every economic forecast for 2006 started with "Assuming peace in the Middle East ." The small taste of oil shortages caused by minor supply disruptions attributed to Hurricane Katrina was sufficient to panic those ignorant of the broader issues. The real oil famine that would result from widespread political disruption in the Middle East would fundamentally alter Americas economic and social future.
4. Environment vs. lifestyle
As the worlds population grows, so do the pressures on resources, including habitable space. A continuing challenge will be finding a balance between preserving open space, parks and wilderness areas on the one hand, and having homes, schools, jobs and critical services on the other. The U.S. Census Bureau reports that the world population is currently 6.5 billion and is expected to reach 9 billion in the next 40 years. The quality of life for those 9 billion people is being determined by decisions being made today.
5. Climate change
Media coverage of the scientific debate about climate change issues has given the general public enough justification to dismiss it as a problem; many people believe climate change is nothing more than a way to make a joke about the weather on a hot day. Earth scientists have a key role to play both in studying the subject and in helping the public understand the issues and their significance.
6. Acceptable risk
Getting out of bed in the morning is inherently risky: Its a dangerous world out there, full of physics (crashes), chemistry (poisons) and biology (germs and viruses). But staying in bed is problematic as well, as anyone who has been bedridden, even briefly, will tell you. People are more likely to accept risks that they can control than ones they cant. The juxtaposition of geologic hazards with interesting scenery (coastlines, mountains, rivers, volcanoes) presented challenges before 2005, a year in which the hurricane season seemed to last forever and "tsunami" became a household word.
7. Forecasting and prediction
The ability to forecast and predict natural events seismic, meteorological and climatic brings an expectation that warnings will be sufficiently accurate and timely to give people a chance to protect themselves and their property. Dependence on such warnings is outpacing scientists ability to provide them, resulting in a number of problems ranging from over-reliance on forecasts to a resulting distrust of science in general.
8. Science and math education
The best predictor of whether someone will pursue a career in mathematics, science or engineering is (drumroll, please) what math classes they take in 8th grade. Students make decisions in secondary school that determine their future and their future ability to contribute to an increasingly technological society. The U.S. education system is producing a disproportionate number of teachers who are math- and science-phobic, and high schools arent graduating enough students who are prepared for higher education in science and engineering. These trends are on a collision course for disaster.
9. Creationism and "intelligent design"
News from the battlefront between science and religion is coming in near-daily dispatches. The debate about evolution versus nonscientific stories about life is a lightening rod for concepts, such as religion and politics, that have nothing to do with science, and which confuse the public about the nature of science in general.
10. Funding for science
In the national consciousness, healthcare, homeland security, national defense, social services and even education are higher priorities for funding than basic research. Government funding sources have not kept pace with the need for this support. The increasingly constrained funding for scientific research could have multiple effects, ranging from reduction in the number and scope of "big science" projects to a shift toward corporate (and potentially special-interest) funding sources. Keeping science objective is a critical concern.
Other issues confront us today, but these are some key ones to watch in 2006. Stay tuned. | <urn:uuid:37606a87-aa6e-40c4-afc3-90da29e707d3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.geotimes.org/jan06/column.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00017-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948681 | 1,127 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Samuel Slater (June 9, 1768 – April 21, 1835) was an early American industrialist popularly known as the "Founder of the American Industrial Revolution." More specifically, he founded the American cotton-textile industry. After completing his apprenticeship in his native Derbyshire under a former colleague of Richard Arkwight, inventor of the water-powered cotton mill, he migrated to the U.S. in 1789, despite the fact that Britain had banned its cotton engineers from emigrating. However, once in the United States he was quickly hired by Moses Brown, was soon Brown's partner, then split from him to establish his own mill (known as the White Mill). With the help of his brother, John, who joined him on Rhode Island, he was responsible for constructing the first successful cotton mill on Rhode Island, which opened December 20, 1790. He also built several other Mills in New England on the model of Arkwright's spinning and carding machine and founded the town of Slatersville, R.I. His original mill still stands and is a Museum dedicated to keeping his memory and legacy alive. At a earlier date, Slater might have been accused of stealing industrial secrets and profiting from Arkwright's invention. However, by the time Slater put his knowledge to use in New England, the patent on the invention had expired and was actually in the public domain, so he did not actually steal anything. Slater was an opportunist in that he saw a fruitful field for his expertise and seized it. Some consider him a traitor to British manufacturing, others regard him as a hero of the Industrial Revolution in North America. Many would argue that technology that improves the lives of workers and also benefits humanity as a whole is knowledge that ought to be shared, which is what Slater did. He may have migrated with the express intention of helping the new society there develop its own industry, and become economically strong because he favored the settlers commitment to freedom.
The son of Bill Slater, a wealthy yeoman, Samuel Slater was born near Belper, Derbyshire, Britain. In 1782, Slater was apprenticed to a local factory master, Jedediah Strutt, who had been doing business with Samuel's father. As a partner of Richard Arkwright, Strutt was a pioneer in the use of the new British textile technology, and he passed along the trade secrets to Slater over the course of the seven year apprenticeship.
After the apprenticeship neared its end (around the time when Slater was 22), he began to recognize that the English textile industry was overextended, but that a fortune was to be had in the newly created United States. Bounties offered by American manufacturers for information may have influenced him. These had been offered because all attempts to obtain English models, by purchase or smuggling, had been futile. In November 1789, carrying his technical knowledge with him in his memory and despite the fact that England outlawed the emigration of engineers in an effort to keep trade secrets inside the nation, Slater left England for New York disguised as a dirty farmer.
Around about the time that Slater migrated to America, his mentor, Strutt, changed from membership of the Presbyterian Church to the Unitarian Church. At the time, many English Unitarians were disenchanted with their own government and encouraged settlement in the Americas. The eminent English Unitarian, Jospeh Priestley, had encouraged the settlers in their bid for independence. Perhaps Strutt actually advised his young protege to "go west," to the new land of freedom and opportunity. If so, then Slater may have had a personal mission to strengthen the economy and viability of the new, freedom-affirming society.
1789, a Quaker merchant by the name of Moses Brown had decided to start his own textile factory in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, and hired his son-in-law, William Almy, and nephew, Smith Brown, to operate the mill. Housed in a former fulling mill, Almy & Brown, as the company was to be called, set about to make and sell cloth spun on spinning wheels, jennies, and frames. Operational challenges with the frames led Brown to seek out someone with experience with textile mills and the ability to reproduce Arkwright's machine. Slater offered his services and helped to build the mill based on the Arkwright designs in his memory. The result would be the first successful water-powered textile mill in America. Samuel's wife, Hannah Slater, also invented a type of thread made of cotton.
In 1793, now partners with Almy and Brown, Slater constructed a new mill for the sole purpose of textile manufacture under the name Almy, Brown & Slater. This mill, known today as Slater Mill, still stands, and operates as a museum dedicated to preserving the history of Samuel Slater and his contribution to American industry.
In 1798, Samuel Slater split from Almy and Brown to build his own larger mill in partnership with his brother, John, which he called the White Mill. Slater estimated his wealth at close to one million dollars, and, when he died on April 21, 1835, he owned all or part of thirteen textile mills.
He is buried in Mount Zion Cemetery in Webster. However, in Derbyshire, he became known as "Slater the Traitor" because he had betrayed the secrets of the cotton machines and there was fear among the workers that they might lose business and, possibly, jobs.
Slater brought the knowledge of English textile machinery to America, where he attempted to perfect it. He opened up the first true factories inside the United States. His factories employed a division of labor into tasks based on skill and age to ensure smooth operation and ensure an efficient utilization of the available labor force. Child laborers were employed in Slater's mills, but the employment of children was common during this epoch. Also, Slater is said to have treated children more humanely and fairly than his English counterparts. The towns of Pawtucket and Belper are now twinned.
All links retrieved August 17, 2015.
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|Antarctica: The Frozen Continent
Location & Geography |
Geologic History |
Weather | Links | Quiz
Geologic History: Antarctica was not always the frozen, dry continent it is now. Two hundred million years ago, it was the center of a “supercontinent” called Gondwana that included parts of South America, Africa, India, and Australia.
The breakup of Gondwana about 180 million years ago started the episode of continental drift that separated Africa from South America, and formed the South Atlantic Ocean.
At the same time, the Indian subcontinent started moving north, heading for Asia and the eventual uplift of the Himalayas, while Antarctica moved southward. The similarity in the types of rocks and fossils found in these southern continents helps prove the theory of continental drift.
Rocks and fossils also confirm that Antarctica was once connected to these regions, and that it was much warmer and wetter in the distant past.
The plate reconstructions shown above were derived from data made available on the ODSN-Geomar Web site. | <urn:uuid:e1a7047b-4c76-413b-a445-37276cd874f5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu/antarctica/history.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00107-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941512 | 225 | 4.1875 | 4 |
Space dust collected by NASA’s Stardust mission, returned to Earth in 2006, may be interstellar in origin. We can hope that it is, because the Solar System we live in ultimately derives from a cloud of interstellar gas and dust, so finding particles from outside our system takes us back to our origins. It’s also a first measure — as I don’t have to tell this audience — of the kind of particles a true interstellar probe will encounter after it has left our system’s heliosphere, the ‘bubble’ in deep space blown out by the effects of the Sun’s solar wind.
Image: Artist’s rendering of the Stardust spacecraft. The spacecraft was launched on February 7, 1999, from Cape Canaveral Air Station, Florida, aboard a Delta II rocket. It collected cometary dust and suspected interstellar dust and sent the samples back to Earth in 2006. Credit: NASA JPL.
The cometary material has been widely studied in the years since its return, but how to handle the seven potentially interstellar grains thus far found, and verify their origin? It’s not an easy task. Stardust exposed its collector on the way to comet Wild 2 between 2000 and 2002. Aboard the spacecraft, sample collection trays made up of aerogel and separated by aluminum foil trapped three of the potentially interstellar particles, which are only a tenth as large as Wild 2’s comet dust, within the aerogel, while four other particles of interest left pits and rim residue in the aluminum foil. At Berkeley, synchrotron radiation from the lab’s Advanced Light Source, along with scanning transmission x-ray and Fourier transform infrared microscopes, have ruled out many interstellar candidate dust particles because they are contaminated with aluminum.
The latter may have been knocked off the spacecraft to become embedded in the aerogel, but we’ll learn more as the work continues. The grains are more than a thousand times smaller than a grain of sand. To confirm their interstellar nature it will be necessary to measure the relative abundance of three stable isotopes of oxygen, says Andrew Westphal (UC-Berkeley), lead author of a paper published last week in Science. In this news release from Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Westphal says that while the analysis would confirm the dust’s origin, the process would destroy the samples, which is why the team is hunting for more particles in the Stardust collectors even as it practices isotope analysis on artificial dust particles.
Image: The bulbous impact from the vaporized dust particle called Sorok can barely be seen as the thin black line in this section of aerogel in the upper right corner. Credit: Westphal et al. 2014, Science/AAAS.
So far the analysis has been entirely non-destructive and the results have been in some ways surprising. Twelve papers being published in Meteoritics & Planetary Science are outlining the methods now being deployed. Finding the grains has meant probing the aerogel panels by studying tiny photographic ‘slices’ at different visual depths, producing a sequence of millions of images that was turned into a video. A citizen science project called Stardust@home was a player in the analysis, using distributed computing and the eyes of volunteers to study the video to look for tracks caused by the dust. So far, more than 100 tracks have been found but not all have been analyzed, and only 77 of the 132 aerogel panels have been scanned.
So we have the potential for further finds. What we’re learning is that if this dust is indeed interstellar, it’s surprisingly diverse. Says Westphal:
“Almost everything we’ve known about interstellar dust has previously come from astronomical observations—either ground-based or space-based telescopes. The analysis of these particles captured by Stardust is our first glimpse into the complexity of interstellar dust, and the surprise is that each of the particles are quite different from each other.”
Image: The dust speck called Orion contained crystalline minerals olivine and spinel as well an an amorphous material containing magnesium, and iron. Credit: Westphal et al. 2014, Science/AAAS.
Two of the larger particles have a fluffy composition that Westphal compares to a snowflake, a structure not anticipated from earlier models of interstellar dust. Interestingly, they contain olivine, a mineral composed of magnesium, iron and silicon, which implicates disk material or outflows from other stars modified by its time in the interstellar deep. The fact that three of the particles found in the aluminum foil between tiles on the collector tray also contained sulfur compounds is striking, as its presence was not expected in interstellar particles. The ongoing analysis of the remaining 95 percent of the foils in the collector may help clarify the situation.
The paper is Westphal et al., “Evidence for Interstellar Origin of Seven Dust Particles Collected by the Stardust Spacecraft,” Science Vol. 345, No. 6198 (2014), pp. 786-791 (abstract). | <urn:uuid:421d7903-7ba4-48c2-871a-14e46b39ac0c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.centauri-dreams.org/?p=31348 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00060-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935024 | 1,049 | 4 | 4 |
Air France flight 447 left Rio de Janeiro at 7.03pm local time on 31 May 2009, heading for Paris. Three hours later, over the mid-Atlantic and beyond radar range, it entered a series of severe tropical storms—and never emerged.
In March, a team of sub-sea search specialists will be taking three autonomous submarines to search the sea floor beneath the area where parts of the plane were found. What they most want to find are the flight recorders, to help piece together what happened that night. Previous attempts have proved fruitless, but the submarines now have cutting-edge upgrades that the team believes give them a far better chance of finding the wreckage.
The expedition, which will start on 18 March, is charged with emotional significance, a fact not lost on team leader David Gallo of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Massachusetts (WHOI). “We recently met some of the families and loved ones of the victims,” he says. “For their sake, not just the flying public and the aviation industry, we’re now extremely motivated to find out exactly what happened to this aircraft.”
All that is known of the Airbus A330’s demise comes from its last communications: a series of automated messages from the aircraft’s computers, chirped via satellite to an Air France maintenance centre just over 3 hours after take-off. They warned that inconsistent airspeed data was being fed to the flight computers.
Search teams turned up little else, finding the bodies of just 50 of the 228 people on board and small amounts of floating wreckage—including the plane’s severed tail fin—1000 kilometres north-east of Brazil’s Fernando de Noronha islands. To date only 3 per cent of the aircraft, by weight, has been recovered.
Crucially, the two black box recorders remain missing. The team will be searching for the shoebox-sized devices in a 10,000-square-kilometre area stretching across the mid-Atlantic ridge, a vast undersea mountain range that has stymied three previous expeditions. Volcanic boulder-covered ridges, some with near-vertical slopes, rise to within 600 metres of the surface. Troughs can plunge 4000 metres into the abyss.
One way to find objects on the sea floor is to use a ship towing a sonar array. This provides an acoustic image of the seabed. The problem with the mid-Atlantic ridge is that the sonar has to “fly” so high to avoid its tether snagging on ridges and boulders that the resolution is very poor.
Last year, in an attempt to get around this difficulty, WHOI used its Remus 6000, an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) that has its own, high-resolution sonar scanner. It searched for the flight recorders on pre-programmed routes, but kept having to stop scanning while it manoeuvred around the many ridges.
The sub has now been upgraded, says WHOI senior engineer Mike Purcell. Its sonar system uses sound waves with double the wavelength of the original, meaning it can generate an acoustic image from 130 metres above the sea floor instead of 90 metres, at the same high resolution. “In rugged terrain with sharp changes in depth we will maintain bottom tracking more of the time,” Purcell says. This time the WHOI is sending three of the torpedo-shaped Remus 6000s.
The subs’ autonomous guidance software has also been rewritten to increase their dive angle from 15 degrees to up to 25 degrees, so they can scan more of the steep ground that was previously missed.
Improved control software will reduce the chance of sea-floor collisions, and object recognition software will enable the subs to automatically identify unusually shaped objects as “interesting” and drop to within 7 metres for a closer look with their cameras.
The team will use the upgraded AUVs in staggered shifts, running them 24 hours a day from the expedition ship MV Alucia in three 30-day search programmes.
Finding the flight recorders would help families seeking compensation, says Peter Neenan, a lawyer with Stewarts Law in London, which is prosecuting a case for the families of 50 AF447 victims in a court in California. The claimants allege that equipment supplied by several firms, including Airbus and Thales, was “defective and unreasonably dangerous in one or more respects”. Thales makes pitot tubes—the instruments that intercept airflow to measure airspeed.
Interim findings by the BEA, the French bureau for civil aviation security, said that icing of the aircraft’s three pitot tubes could have led to confused speed readings. These might have crashed the flight computers or misled pilots flying manually, risking the critical loss of lift known as a stall.
Still, it is not yet clear who is at fault, if anyone. “Finding the recorders would make things a lot easier. We’ve got our fingers crossed,” says Neenan.
Airbus, which along with Air France is funding the search, also wants the recorders: “Unreliable speed data from pitots alone would not have led to what happened—but it could have contributed,” says spokesman Justin Dubon.
If the recorders are located, the French government has agreed to finance their retrieval. It might also fund recovery of the remaining bodies, depending on the state and location of the wreckage.
Neenan says the AF447 families desperately need answers and closure. Ironically, another Atlantic disaster may help: WHOI has just finished mapping the debris field around the wreck of the Titanic with a Remus 6000. The sub spotted items as small as pots and pans from 600 metres away, lending hope that AF447’s elusive recorders might yet be found.
New Scientistreports, explores and interprets the results of human endeavour set in the context of society and culture, providing comprehensive coverage of science and technology news.
Image Credit: Wikipedia | <urn:uuid:860af65c-5e6d-4c8f-8300-904ba860d6e2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gizmodo.com.au/2011/02/robot-submarines-seek-a-downed-planes-secrets/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952511 | 1,248 | 2.71875 | 3 |
BIG WATER (UTAH)
Agency History #119
The Big Water town site, originally called Glen Canyon City, was first settled in the 1950s as a construction camp for workers on the Glen Canyon Dam. Operation of the dam as well as the Navajo Power Plant near Page, Arizona sustained Glen Canyon City after the dam's completion. In 1976 Alex Joseph and his extended polygamous family settled in Glen Canyon City because they had been forced off Bureau of Land Management (BLM) land they had unsuccessfully attempted to homestead. Joseph and his group became politically active and successfully petitioned for incorporation. Glen Canyon City was incorporated with a new name, Big Water, on 29 Dec 1983. Alex Joseph became the first mayor.
Although Big Water was incorporated in December 1983, municipal government did not become fully functional until the beginning of the following fiscal year, which was 1 July 1984. On that day the town council proclaimed a "Big Water Zero Centennial Celebration." Utah municipal governments perform numerous functions, including the maintaining of law and order, guarding public health and sanitation, managing public services, and promoting community development. Immediately after incorporation the Big Water town council obtained a postal contract so Big Water could have its own mail delivery. The council began regulating waste disposal at a municipal dump site. The council identified its highest priorities in 1985 as: 1) building roads suitable for other than four wheel drives; 2) building a ball park; 3) building a fire station; and 4) building a town hall and improved health facility. The council began developing the ball park in 1988. During the decade of the 1990s Big Water built a new town hall and fire station. Throughout the 1990s the council worked on town roads. In 2000 Big Water roads were graveled and renamed.
The Big Water council has contracted with GarKane Power and other private companies for electricity and other utilities. Prior to incorporation, the Glen Canyon City Special Service District had developed a culinary water system. After incorporation (ca. 1986), Mayor Alex Joseph appointed himself and other council members to the water board and assumed responsibility for billing. Opposed to Big Water's control of the water district, the Kane County Commission reorganized the board (1992). The town of Big Water countered with a law suit, but control of the Special Service District returned to the county.
Big Water has been highly involved in land issues. The National Park Service and the Bureau of Land Management border the town on either side, and the BLM owns 83% (1995) of the land in Big Water city limits. From the beginning the Big Water council has emphasized the need to obtain title to all land within and adjacent to corporate limits, and has expended every effort to accomplish this goal. In 1988 Mayor Alex Joseph threatened to 'raze Kane' by separating Big Water from Kane County and forming Dry Powder County because he felt the county was not supportive enough of his efforts to obtain title to federal land. In 1995 the U.S. Senate approved the "Lake Powell Gateway Community Act," which would have granted land to Big Water "to better enable the town to become a vital gateway to Lake Powell Recreation Area," but the bill was never enacted. President Clinton's subsequent creation of the Grand Staircase Escalante National Monument has strengthened a policy of federal control, especially in Kane County. The Big Water council has remained vigilant and has been watchful of BLM land trades with SITLA (School and Institutional Trust Lands Administration) in the National Monument area.
The council has viewed zoning and development of BLM land as a means of encouraging the BLM to relinquish ownership. Therefore the council has been highly involved in all issues relating to zoning and community planning. The council adopted a zoning ordinance in January 1986 and has continued to revise it. The council has worked hard to develop an attractive community in the wake of poverty, abandoned mobile homes, junk cars, and a general ramshackle appearance. The council declared 1998 as clean up year.
Creation of the National Monument is forcing Big Water to become more involved with state and national agencies. Monument designation effectively stopped coal mining development (by Andalex), which the town council had long supported. Monument management currently provides trash disposal for Big Water. Police and fire protection, as well as road maintenance and improvement, are also being coordinated with other agencies involved in managing the National Monument. In 2000, the Big Water council participated in planning and building a Grand Staircase National Monument visitor's center in Big Water.
Big Water has a traditional municipal government in which a mayor and four council members provide leadership for the community. The mayor, who is elected by general municipal election, is the chief executive officer. He or she presides at city council meetings and supervises all other city officers. He or she signs official contracts as well as city ordinances and resolutions. Utah city councils function as legislative governing bodies, and are responsible for all aspects of community management, such as appointing officials and setting their salaries, levying taxes, establishing a budget, maintaining public services and utilities, and regulating business, building, and other activity within the community.
Big Water municipal politics have been fraught with tension. Some Big Water residents have opposed the leadership of Alex Joseph, a polygamist and a Libertarian, and the appointment of his wives and relatives to municipal offices. In December 1990 Joseph detractors petitioned to disincorporate Big Water. The issue was put to election and Big Water remained incorporated. Internal conflict has continued since Joseph's ten-year tenure. Mayors Thomas Kimble and Fred Colburn resigned in 1999 and 2000, respectively; Colburn walking out of a council meeting because "city government gets no respect." Tonya Graffis (Roseberry), who replaced Colburn, advocated putting aside past differences and bitterness. However, under her administration (2001) dissenters once more unsuccessfully campaigned to disincorporate Big Water.
Immediately after incorporation, the Big Water town council appointed a number of offices, including town attorney, treasurer, recorder/clerk, marshal, justice of the peace, planning director, and building inspector. The council immediately created a planning commission and volunteer fire department, and appointed a board of adjustments in 1986. The town also has hired a post master, a facilities maintenance person, and while the town controlled the water system, someone to handle water bills and read meters. In 1990 the council created the position of administrative assistant, and in 1994 hired a zoning administrator. In 1995-1996 a policies and procedures committee assisted the council in bringing together an indexed policies and procedures manual which is similar in format to codified ordinances.
PRIOR NAMES: GLEN CANYON CITY
|Alex Joseph||1984, Jan - 1993, Dec|
|Geraldine Rankin||1994, Jan - 1997, Nov|
|Thomas Kimble||1997, Dec - 1999, Nov|
|Fred Colburn||1999, Dec - 2000, Sep|
|Tonya Roseberry||2000, Oct - 2001, Dec|
|Will Marshall||2002, Jan -|
COMPILED BY: Rosemary Cundiff , May 2003
Big Water (Utah). Council minutes, Utah State Archives, (Series 24190).
Big Water (Utah). General plan, Utah State Archives, (Series 24186).
Big Water (Utah). Planning commission minutes, Utah State Archives, (Series 24188).
Bradley, Martha Sonntag, A History of Kane County. Utah State Historical Society; Kane County Commission (Salt Lake City: 1999).
Deseret News. "Big Water Folks Want to Split Kane, Form Dry Powder County," June 6, 1988; ""Big Water Decides to Remain a Town," December 19, 1990; "Big Water Wants Judge to Decide who Controls its Drinking Water," August 31, 1992; "Kane Revises Panel in Water Dispute," September 21, 1992. | <urn:uuid:d6f1b06c-0be5-4a24-b60b-d4573809c99d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://archives.utah.gov/research/agencyhistories/119.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00049-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959335 | 1,607 | 2.625 | 3 |
Guidance System in Denmark – Introduction
Provision of educational and vocational guidance is given high priority in Denmark. The Danish act on guidance aims to develop a transparent guidance system with easy access to high quality guidance services. The act supports the Danish Government’s declared goals that by 2015, 95% of all young people should complete a youth education programme. Today the Ministry for Children, Education and Gender Equality (www.uvm.dk) and the Ministry of Higher Education and Science (www.ufm.dk) are responsible for guidance and have a controlling and coordinating role in relation to the guidance system.
There are three types of centres which are independent from sectoral and institutional interests:
- Youth Guidance Centres with responsibility for guidance in relation to the transition from compulsory school to youth education and for outreach services for young people outside education and employment.
- Regional Guidance Centres with responsibility for guidance in relation to the transition from youth education to higher education.
- eGuidance provides guidance to all citizens via various virtual communication channels.
In order to ensure that all citizens have access to quality information about education and professions, the Ministry for Children and Education provides a national Internet-based guidance portal: http://www.uddannelsesguiden.dk/ or simply www.ug.dk. UddannelsesGuiden means the “Education Guide”, and it provides information on:
- education and training possibilities at all levels
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- study programmes taught in English at Danish colleges and universities.
Other features of the portal include an e-mail based enquiry service, the possibility of developing an interactive personal education plan, an electronic guidance tool facilitating the choice of education and career, and links to educational institutions and guidance centres.
Moreover, the eGuidance service is a part of the guidance portal www.ug.dk. Every person in Denmark who seeks information on education and employment can now receive guidance from experienced counsellors via chat, telephone, e-mail, SMS and Facebook every day of the week. Clients appreciate the anonymity as well as the flexibility of the service which means that they can get in touch with a guidance counsellor on a Tuesday evening or Saturday afternoon.
The Ministry for Children Education and Gender Equality has established a National Dialogue Forum on Guidance in order to secure a close dialogue between the Ministry and relevant stakeholders, such as social partners, organisations, institutions, guidance practitioner associations, end users and individuals holding a leading position in the field of guidance.
Quality in guidance is a topic that is continuously debated in Denmark. One way of enhancing the quality of guidance provision is to improve the qualifications of the guidance practitioners. Five centres of Higher Education in Denmark offer a one-year modular common training programme at diploma level for guidance practitioners across sectors. Furthermore, the Danish School of Education, Aarhus University offers a Master of Education programme in guidance counselling. It is a requirement that guidance practitioners working in the education system complete the diploma programme or, alternatively, that they – through assessment and recognition of prior learning – can document that they hold the required qualifications.
The Division for Guidance in the Danish Ministry for Children, Education and Gender Equality is actively involved in international cooperation in the field of guidance, and the main aims and elements of the Danish guidance reform are very much in line with the EU Resolution on Lifelong Guidance and with EU and OECD recommendations on guidance policies and practices.
Guidance for Adults
Denmark has a long tradition of improving the competencies of the workforce beyond compulsory stages of education. In fact, the notion is that learning is a lifelong occupation. There are a number of opportunities for adults wishing to receive education and update their competencies.
13 Centres for Adult Education and Continuing Training (VEU-centre) offer guidance related to a wide range of education programmes to adults, either employed or unemployed. Some of them give a second chance to people who left compulsory school without the necessary exams. Others offer highly specialized continuing vocational training courses (AMU) or general upper secondary programmes (VUC). As part of this adult educational system there is a provision of guidance.
At the centres guidance counsellors provide free and non-binding career guidance to companies as well as to individuals. People in employment or outside the labour market can get an overview over the various education and training programmes. They will receive an individual plan for their further education and training, which can lead them towards their career target.
More information on the Danish guidance system can be found in the publication ‘Guidance in Education – the educational guidance system in Denmark’. | <urn:uuid:641c8d64-08b9-4dcf-a2f0-88afb5e898a1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://euroguidance.eu/guidance-in-europe/national-guidance-systems/guidance-in-denmark-introduction/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00167-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931574 | 948 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Long-distance migration can lower parasite prevalence if strenuous journeys remove infected animals from wild populations. We examined wild monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) to investigate the potential costs of the protozoan Ophryocystis elektroscirrha on migratory success. We collected monarchs from two wintering sites in central Mexico to compare infection status with hydrogen isotope (δ2H) measurements as an indicator of latitude of origin at the start of fall migration. On average, uninfected monarchs had lower δ2H values than parasitized butterflies, indicating that uninfected butterflies originated from more northerly latitudes and travelled farther distances to reach Mexico. Within the infected class, monarchs with higher quantitative spore loads originated from more southerly latitudes, indicating that heavily infected monarchs originating from farther north are less likely to reach Mexico. We ruled out the alternative explanation that lower latitudes give rise to more infected monarchs prior to the onset of migration using citizen science data to examine regional differences in parasite prevalence during the summer breeding season. We also found a positive association between monarch wing area and estimated distance flown. Collectively, these results emphasize that seasonal migrations can help lower infection levels in wild animal populations. Our findings, combined with recent declines in the numbers of migratory monarchs wintering in Mexico and observations of sedentary (winter breeding) monarch populations in the southern U.S., suggest that shifts from migratory to sedentary behavior will likely lead to greater infection prevalence for North American monarchs.
Citation: Altizer S, Hobson KA, Davis AK, De Roode JC, Wassenaar LI (2015) Do Healthy Monarchs Migrate Farther? Tracking Natal Origins of Parasitized vs. Uninfected Monarch Butterflies Overwintering in Mexico. PLoS ONE 10(11): e0141371. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141371
Editor: Casper Johannes Breuker, Oxford Brookes University, UNITED KINGDOM
Received: July 4, 2015; Accepted: October 6, 2015; Published: November 25, 2015
Copyright: © 2015 Altizer et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited
Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.
Funding: This work was supported by a National Science Foundation (www.nsf.gov) grant (DEB-0643831) to SA and Environment Canada (www.ec.gc.ca/financement-funding/) operating grants to LIW and KAH. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Many animals migrate long distances to follow seasonal changes in resources and suitable habitats [1,2]. For some species, these journeys span entire continents or hemispheres, can take several months to complete, and are accompanied by high energetic demands and extreme physiological changes [3,4]. Migration can have profound ecological and evolutionary consequences on a global scale , including effects on the spread and prevalence of infectious diseases . For some species, migration increases pathogen exposure as animals move between and encounter different habitat types [7,8]. Long-distance migration can also have the opposite effect of reducing parasite prevalence (reviewed in ) if heavily infected animals migrate poorly (i.e., migratory culling), or if migration allows animals to escape from habitats where parasites have accumulated (i.e., migratory escape).
Interactions between monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) and a protozoan parasite (Ophryocystis elektroscirrha) have become a model system for studying the effects of seasonal migration on host-pathogen dynamics. Monarchs in eastern North America migrate up to 2500 km southwards each fall to discrete wintering sites in Central Mexico [9,10]. In spring, many of the same individuals migrate north to recolonize their breeding range [11,12]. Monarchs in western North America migrate shorter distances to winter along the coast of California , with increasing evidence that these monarchs intermix with eastern North American monarchs [14–16]. Monarchs also form non-migratory populations that breed year-round in locations such as southern Florida, Pacific and Caribbean Islands, and Central and South America [17,18].
The protozoan O. elektroscirrha (OE) is a specialist neogregarine sporozoan reported to infect monarch and queen (D. gilippus) butterflies [19,20]. Parasites are transmitted when infected adults scatter dormant spores onto milkweed leaves, especially during oviposition. Larvae ingest the spores, the parasites replicate within larval and pupal tissues, and butterflies emerge covered with millions of spores on the outsides of their bodies [19,20,21]. Previous research across multiple monarch populations suggested that parasite prevalence was lower in migratory compared to non-migratory populations , an effect that could stem from the combined effects of migratory culling and migratory escape. Infected monarchs were shown to have lower flight endurance and speed than healthy monarchs when flown in captivity . Among monarchs in eastern North America, infection prevalence decreased as monarchs moved southwards during their fall migration, consistent with the prediction that infected monarchs migrate poorly . However, more direct estimates of the relationship between parasite load and migration distance remain elusive, in part owing to difficulties in tracking migration success of healthy and infected butterflies in the field.
Here, we tested whether parasite infection predicts successful long-distance migration in eastern North American monarchs traveling different distances from natal to wintering grounds. We used stable-hydrogen isotope measurements of wings to link adults sampled at wintering sites in central Mexico to the natal grounds where they developed from larvae (following [25,26]). We hypothesized that the natal origins of parasitized monarchs that successfully reached Mexico would correspond more strongly to southerly latitudes (indicating that infected monarchs migrated shorter distances) compared to unparasitized butterflies, and we further hypothesized that estimated flight distances would decrease with increasing parasite loads within the subset of infected butterflies. We tested whether other factors (sex, wing area and measures of wing and body condition) predicted estimated migration distances, and used citizen science data from the previous summer to query whether variation in butterfly natal origins could be explained by more prevalent parasite infections in certain regions of eastern N. America.
Field sites and sampling wild monarchs
In February 2008, we collected adult monarchs at two discrete overwintering sites in the Neovolcanic Mountains of Central Mexico: (i) Sierra Chincua and (ii) Cerro Pelon. Both sites are located in Michoacan, Mexico [27,28]. Butterflies were collected using standard aerial nets with expandable poles. The prevalence of monarchs heavily infected with OE at each of these two locations in 2008 was 14.4 and 13.6%, respectively, based on a total sample of 1686 individuals. From ten replicate clusters (five clusters per site), we randomly selected healthy and infected butterflies following preliminary screening of parasite samples in the field, for a total of 75 healthy and 100 heavily infected monarchs. Monarchs were sampled under collecting permits from SEMARNAT (Secretaria de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, Permit # 08202) and the Monarch Biosphere Reserve (Mariposa Monarcha Reserva de la Biosfera, Permit # RBMM-DIRECT-0050.08), exported under permission from PROFEPA (Procuraduría Federal de Protección al Ambiente, Permit # 23811 21/Enero/2008) and imported with permission from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the US Department of Agriculture (P526P-06-02137).
Measuring infection status
We initially used a non-destructive method to assess individual infection status by pressing clear adhesive stickers on adult abdomens (described in ). Spores of OE were counted at 50X magnification, and samples with >100 spores were considered to be heavily infected. This classification includes the two highest spore load categories as defined by Altizer et al. and excludes the majority of monarchs that acquired spores through horizontal transfer among adults [29,30]. Monarchs with 0–20 spores per individual were considered in this analysis to be uninfected. After samples were returned to our laboratory, we obtained a quantitative measure of parasite infection for the subset of heavily infected monarchs. Monarch abdomens were vortexed at high speed in 5ml H2O for 5 mins and we estimated total spore loads per sample using a haemocytometer slide as described in De Roode et al. .
Isotopic analysis and natal assignment
The right hind wing of each monarch was stored and processed for hydrogen isotope (δ2H) analyses at the Stable Isotope Laboratory of Environment Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. Wings were placed in glass vials, solvent cleaned with a 2:1 chloroform:methanol solution to remove lipid residues and air dried. For δ2H analysis, 0.35mg of wing tissue was loaded into 4.0 x 3.2 mm silver capsules. The Comparative Equilibration method to determine the δ2H of non-exchangeable H in the wing tissue was used as described in Wassenaar and Hobson [26,31]. Lipid-free keratin standards (EC1—CBS, caribou hoof keratin, -197 ± 2 ‰; and EC2—KHS, kudu horn keratin, -54 ± 1 ‰) were used to normalize the results, and are reported in delta (δ) notation as parts per thousand (‰) deviation from the VSMOW–SLAP standard scale (Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water–Standard Light Antarctic Precipitation).
The hydrogen isotopic analysis builds on previous work showing that, for the eastern breeding population of North America, δ2H values in monarch wing chitin decrease linearly with increasing latitude . In particular, the δ2H in adult wing membranes is controlled by the geospatial location of the larval host plant, and associated isotopic values of precipitation [31, 32]. As a result, δ2H has been used to estimate the latitudinal geographical origins of monarchs overwintering in Mexico , during the fall in Cuba , and during the spring recolonization in eastern N. America [12, 34]. The demonstrated regular pattern of depletion with latitude of δ2H in wing chitin of known-origin monarchs throughout their eastern range , a phenomenon also demonstrated experimentally with monarchs raised on milkweed of known isotopic compositions , makes wing δ2H a convenient proxy for latitude in our study. This phenomenon is well known and apparent also in other taxa [35,36].
Butterfly wing data
The dorsal sides of left and right monarch forewings were scanned with a flatbed scanner to obtain digital versions of their wings for measurement [37–40]. Using the FoveaPro plugin (Reindeer Graphics, Inc.) for Adobe Photoshop ®, we measured the area of each forewing in mm2. Forewing area is a predictor of among-population variation in migratory behavior , and therefore could impact individual flight distances. Prior to analysis, measures of left and right wings were averaged, and we excluded data for monarchs with torn or damaged forewings. Prior analyses examined monarch wing color in relation to monarch migratory status and flight propensity, and found that deeper orange hue was associated with migratory status and flight performance [37,38]. However, because the monarchs we examined here were over 5 months old and many had faded wings with visible scale loss, we chose not to include wing color in our analyses as the scale loss would affect color measurements.
Citizen science data
To infer the geographic distribution of infection by O. elektroscirrha during the summer breeding period, we used Project Monarch Health (MH) data in which volunteers from across the US and Canada collected parasite samples from wild-caught monarchs by pressing transparent 1cm2 stickers against adult monarch abdomens. Samples were returned to the University of Georgia and scored for the presence/absence of heavy infection based on the presence of > 100 parasite spores per sample. Protocols for this program are described online (www.monarchparasites.org) and in Bartel et al. and Satterfield et al. . Across 2006–2011, a total of 124 volunteers participated from 23 states and two Canadian provinces. To make inferences about the relative contribution of different geographic regions to monarch infection, we focused on data for monarchs sampled between Aug 15 and Oct 15, 2007, as these monarchs would be most likely to have contributed to the overwintering population in Central Mexico sampled in Feb 2008. We recorded the latitude of each observer based on the city and state (or province) where monarchs were sampled, and further divided observer locations into one of three regions based on the following categories: South = between 30 to 36.9° latitude, N = 190; Central = between 37 to 41.49° latitude, N = 542; and North = between 41.5 to 49° latitude, N = 354. We omitted samples collected below 30° latitude, as monarchs have been reported to breed year-round at these sites, and thus are unlikely to contribute to the overwintering population in Mexico [41–43]. To limit observer-induced contamination from volunteer-derived MH samples, we removed data from observers for which prevalence was ≥ 60% based on five or more samples returned in a given year, as some observers in the early years of the project were less aware of the need to employ sterile rearing and sampling protocols, and thus unintentionally contaminated the majority of their samples. In total, we omitted 78 lines of data from 5 observers (out of an initial 1164 lines of data from 63 observers). One observer was omitted from the south, 3 observers were omitted from the central region, and 1 observer was omitted from the north.
Analyses were conducted in SPSS ver. 19.0 . We used logistic regression to examine the relationship between monarch infection status (assigned as 0/1 based whether or not monarchs were heavily infected or not) and the following dependent variables: δ2H values (as a proxy for latitudinal origin and distance migrated), sex, site (Cerro Pelon or Sierra Chincua) and cluster (as a random variable nested within site). Next, we used general linear models (GLM) to test the relationship between infection status and natal origin in a different way, using δ2H values as the dependent variable, and the following independent variables: infection status (assigned as 0/1 as before), site (Cerro Pelon or Sierra Chincua), cluster (as a random variable nested within site), sex, and forewing area. Using data for the subset of heavily infected monarchs only, we used linear regression to examine the relationship between δ2H values (as the dependent variable) and quantitative spore load and forewing area (as independent variables).
For the analysis of regional differences in infection patterns from citizen science observations during summer 2007, we used logistic regression to examine the effect of latitude (as a continuous variable) on OE infection probability, treating each sample as an independent observation. We also used logistic regression to test for the effects of region (North, Central, South) on OE infection probability, with state nested within region as a separate variable to control for uneven sampling among states.
Logistic regression showed a strong positive relationship between infection probability and δ2H as a proxy for north-south distance migrated, with infected monarchs, on average, originating from more southerly latitudes (Wald χ2 = 12.78, d.f. = 1, p < 0.0001; Fig 1). No other variables were significant predictors of monarch infection status (Sex: Wald χ2 = 0.451, d.f. = 1, p = 0.502; Colony: Wald χ2 = 0.019, d.f. = 1, p = 0.890; Cluster: Wald χ2 = 0.767, d.f. = 4, p = 0.943). GLM analysis of δ2H values as the dependent variable showed that uninfected monarchs had significantly lower δ2H values than heavily infected monarchs, again indicating uninfected individuals originated from farther north (F 1, 163 = 13.43, p < 0.0001). This was true for monarchs sampled at the Sierra Chincua and Cerro Pelon overwintering sites, and we found no significant effects of colony, cluster, or sex on δ2H values (colony: F 1, 163 = 1.073, p = 0.333; cluster: F 6, 163 = 1.892, p = 0.085; sex: F 1, 163 = 0.303, p = 0.583). Monarchs with larger forewings also had lower δ2H values, indicating a positive relationship between the distance migrated and wing area (F 1, 163 = 6.17; p = 0.014). This relationship between wing area and δ2H was highly significant for the subset of uninfected monarchs (Fig 2) but was non-significant for infected monarchs.
Lower δ2H values correspond to more northerly latitudinal natal origins. Bars are colored according to two distinct overwintering sites in Central Mexico. Error bars show standard errors.
Lower δ2H values correspond to more northerly latitudinal natal origins. Data shown for uninfected monarchs only, as the relationship was non-significant when tested using the subset of infected monarchs. Dashed line shows linear regression (β = -0.39, t = -3.53, P = 0.001; R2 = 0.15).
Quantitative spore loads for heavily infected monarchs ranged from 5.01 x 103 to 6.31 x 105, representing a 125-fold difference in untransformed values. In a model focused on data for heavily infected monarchs only, we found a positive relationship between δ2H values and log10-transformed spore load, indicating that monarchs with heavier parasite loads originated from more southerly latitudes (β = 5.63, d.f. = 99; t = 2.30, p = 0.023).
Our analysis of infection patterns among the late summer / early fall 2007 monarchs sampled by volunteer observers showed no significant effect of latitude as a continuous variable on infection probability (Wald χ2 = 0.099, d.f. = 1, p = 0.753). When treated as a categorical variable, we found a higher infection probability among summer breeding monarchs sampled in the Central region relative to the North and South regions, but this effect was not significant (Wald χ2 = 0.000, d.f. = 2, p = 1.000; Fig 3) in an analysis that also included the effect of state nested within region (Wald χ2 = 18.10, d.f. = 17, p = 0.381; Fig 3). Including samples that were omitted from the 5 observers with high prevalence caused infection prevalence to increase to 19% for the North (N = 375), 23% for the Central region (N = 559) and 21% for the South (N = 230) relative to levels shown in Fig 3, but the effect of region on infection prevalence remained non-significant (Wald χ2 = 0.000, d.f. = 2, p = 1.000).
Regions correspond to description in Methods as follows: South = between 30 to 36.9° latitude, Central = between 37 to 41.49° latitude, and North = between 41.5 to 49° latitude. Samples below 30°N latitude were excluded from analysis, and prevalence of infection was determined from Monarch Health data as described in Methods. Error bars represent standard errors.
Our analysis showed that uninfected monarchs overwintering in Mexico travelled, on average, farther distances between their summer breeding and wintering sites than butterflies that were infected with the protozoan O. elektroscirrha. Moreover, within the class of infected hosts, monarchs with the heavier quantitative parasite loads originated from more southerly locations (closer to their wintering sites) compared to less heavily infected monarchs. One possible explanation for these findings is that heavily parasitized monarchs that originate from more northern latitudes (farthest from their wintering sites) simply do not reach Mexico, whereas healthy monarchs are better able to travel the farthest distances. This explanation would be consistent with the general idea that long-distance migration can lower pathogen prevalence by removing infected animals from the population (i.e., ‘migratory culling’, [6,23,24,45]). In this scenario, diseased animals suffering from infection are less likely to successfully migrate long distances owing to the combined physiological demands of migration and infection.
All evidence to date indicates that the fall migration and wintering period is energetically costly to monarchs, such that even a small cost of infection could be the tipping point between successful migration and premature death. Adult butterflies emerging in the late summer in eastern N. America weigh only ~0.5 g, yet must travel up to 5000 km round trip . Moreover, monarchs use lipids stored during the fall to fuel their long distance flight and also to maintain themselves during the five-month overwintering period in Mexico, during which nectar resources are extremely limited [46,47]. Because OE infection causes reduced adult body size, shorter adult life span [21,48], and reduced flight performance in captive monarchs , the demands of migration likely remove a substantial fraction of heavily infected individuals each year, which would be consistent with the isotopic results reported here. Moreover, a previous field study showed that O. elektroscirrha prevalence decreased as monarchs moved southward along the east coast flyway during their annual fall migrations , consistent with the idea that infected animals migrate less successfully .
Evidence for hindered migratory ability among infected individuals has been reported for a few other animal species, including the fall armyworm moth (Spodoptera frugiperda) infected by an ectoparasitic nematode (Noctuidonema guyanense); in this case, adults appeared to have reduced migratory ability because few or no parasites were detected in moths recolonizing sites as they returned north . Other work on Bewick’s swans (Cygnus columbianus bewickii) showed that infection by low-pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses delayed departure dates for fall migration by over a month, and reduced the travel distances of infected birds compared with healthy individuals . Studies of other species showed little or no effect of infection state on migration [51–53] suggesting that some species can better tolerate infection during long distance journeys. This raises the possibility that migration could select for high infection tolerance, owing to the high fitness costs of migrating while harboring a debilitating pathogen.
We used citizen science data to examine an alternative explanation for the negative relationship observed between monarch infection status and latitude of natal origin (δ2H) by testing whether lower latitudes late in the breeding season give rise to more infected monarchs. Although monarchs sampled in the central part of eastern N. America were more likely to be infected as compared to monarchs sampled in the north and south of their breeding range, this effect of region was not significant, and we further found no consistent effect of latitude as a continuous variable on late summer infection probability. It is also important to note that a recent analysis of OE infection probability across four separate years showed that regions with the highest prevalence differed among years , and in no years was late summer infection prevalence significantly higher at southern latitudes. Taken together, these results suggest that latitudinal differences in the natal origins of infected vs. uninfected monarchs that successfully reach Mexico are probably driven more by differences in migration ability than by differences in transmission among different breeding locations.
One possible confounding factor that could affect our analysis of quantitative spore loads within the infected class is that adult monarchs might lose spores from their bodies during the journey south, thus causing a negative relationship between quantitative spore load and distance migrated. In fact, an analysis of captive monarchs held in outdoor enclosures during the summer indicated that reproductively active adults could lose up to 90% of spores between eclosion and death . Thus, although we found a five-fold difference in average spore load between monarchs at the extreme distributions of the δ2H range, some portion of this difference could be due to the loss of spores during migration. On the other hand, direct comparison between the results of De Roode et al. and our study are difficult because mating and oviposition in caged monarchs could lead to the loss of higher numbers of spores relative to flight alone (i.e., monarchs in the caged study were actively landing on plants and laying eggs continuously, whereas migrating monarchs spend a great deal of time in gliding flight). In addition, the loss of spores during migratory flight would not account for the differences in infection status as a binomial variable, because heavily infected butterflies would not lose enough spores to be misclassified as an uninfected monarch.
Our analysis also found a positive association between monarch wing area and estimated distance flown based on δ2H. This same result was found in a prior (unpublished) investigation , and suggests that monarchs with larger wings are successful at migrating the farthest distances. While this conclusion seems intuitive, past evidence that wing size affects migration success (in monarchs) has only been circumstantial. For example, multiple studies showed that monarchs captured late in the fall migration season (which presumably fell behind) had smaller wings than those that migrated early [55–57]. This result could arise if monarchs with small wings fly more slowly and stay longer at stopover sites, resulting in a slower migration pace . Slow-migrating monarchs are also at higher risk of mortality from extreme weather such as storms or falling temperatures . In addition, long before the location of the overwintering sites were known, Beall noted that monarchs found dead along the shore of Lake Erie were significantly smaller than those captured alive in this region during the fall, implying that small-winged monarchs are less successful at navigating water crossings within the flyway. Finally, monarchs from non-migratory populations tend to have smaller forewings than those from migratory populations [39,61]. Collectively, our results concerning monarch wing size are consistent with work on other migratory species showing that the demands of long-distance flight select for greater wing area to maximize powered and gliding flight [61–65].
We were surprised to find that the significant relationship between wing size and migration distance observed among uninfected monarchs did not appear in the infected group. We can only speculate as to the cause of this finding. It could be that the culling of smaller-winged monarchs is more likely over extremely long spans of travel, for monarchs that originate from the highest latitudes. Because the sample of infected monarchs successfully reaching Mexico is biased towards those that started out from more southerly origins, the culling of smaller monarchs might be less extreme at these shorter distances. In other words, it could be that infected monarchs that start out from more northerly locations simply do not reach Mexico, regardless of their wing size.
The monarchs’ fall migration in eastern North America is both unique and declining. Estimates of overwintering colony sizes fluctuate from year to year, but on average show evidence of a long-term decline of up to 90% during the past 20 years [66,67], with the last 3 consecutive years representing the lowest numbers of overwintering monarchs recorded in Mexico to date. The overall drop is thought to be due to loss of breeding habitat, especially within the Midwestern U.S. [68,69], which prior isotopic analysis identified as a major source of the Mexico overwintering population . Over this same time period, some monarchs have become non-migratory and breed on exotic milkweed in the extreme southern US during the winter months rather than travel to Mexico [43,70]. A recent analysis of citizen science data on parasite infection showed that OE prevalence was markedly higher among winter breeding monarchs compared with migratory monarchs , suggesting that diminished migration increases infection risk. In combination with this recent work, results presented here predict that human activities that threaten monarch migration and cause shifts towards sedentary status may increase parasite transmission, potentially leading to greater population-wide infection prevalence across eastern North America.
In summary, our study is consistent with a growing body of scientific knowledge suggesting that infected migratory animals are less likely to successfully traverse long distances, and thereby highlights the role that migration can play in lowering parasitism in wild animal populations . Thus, in contrast to human populations, for which long-distance travel can allow pathogens to spread across the globe in a matter of hours [71,72], migratory animals undertake strenuous long-distance journeys on their own power, and heavily infected animals might not survive these costly journeys. Importantly, monarch migrations, like the migrations of many other animal species , are considered an endangered phenomenon . Already, human activities that discourage long-distance animal movements and encourage the formation of local year-round populations have enhanced the emergence of zoonotic pathogens in wildlife and humans [75,76]. Thus, results of our study underscore the need to conserve long-distance animal migrations to mitigate infection processes in wild animal populations, with implications for future disease risks in humans and threatened species.
S1 File. Raw data used in analyses.
Data are provided on isotopic values for field collected monarchs from two overwintering sites in central Mexico, February 2008, and on Monarch Health citizen science data tracking infection by the protozoan parasite Ophryocystis elektroscirra during late summer / early fall 2007.
We thank Rachel Rarick, Michael Maudsley, Adam Federman, Jeff Smith, Eduardo Rendon, and Isabella Ramirez for field assistance and Ernie Osburn, Samantha Burton and Michael Maudsley for laboratory assistance.
Conceived and designed the experiments: SA. Performed the experiments: SA LW KH. Analyzed the data: SA AKD JCdR. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: SA LW KH. Wrote the paper: SA KH AKD JCdR LW.
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- 12. Miller NG, Wassenaar LI, Hobson KA, Norris DR. Migratory connectivity of the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus): Patterns of spring re-colonization in eastern north america. PloS One. 2012; 7: e31891. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0031891. pmid:22427813
- 13. Nagano CD, Sakai WH, Malcolm SB, Cockrell BJ, Donahue JP, Brower LP. Spring migration of monarch butterflies in california. In: Malcolm SB, Zalucki MP (eds) Biology and Conservation of the Monarch Butterfly. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. 1993.
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- 16. Pierce A.A., Zalucki MP, Bangura M, Udawatta M, Kronforst MR, Altizer S, et al. Serial founder effects and genetic differentiation during worldwide range expansion of monarch butterflies. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 2014; 281: 20142230 doi: 10.1098/rspb.2014.2230
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- 76. Plowright RK, Foley P, Field HE, Dobson AP, Foley JE, Eby P, et al. Urban habituation, ecological connectivity and epidemic dampening: The emergence of Hendra virus from flying foxes (Pteropus spp.). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 2011; 278: 3703–12. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2011.0522 | <urn:uuid:871de553-8477-42ee-ac3a-ecad444e0bfb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0141371 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.86017 | 11,679 | 3.171875 | 3 |
ANN ARBOR, Mich.---It takes a village to keep a pregnant woman at her healthiest, a new University of Michigan study shows.
The study compared African American and European American women and women of lower and higher socioeconomic status to see what effects communalism, or a strong sense of community, had on African American women and women of lower socioeconomic status.
The pregnant African American women and women of lower socioeconomic status had overall higher levels of stress, negative effect and blood pressure than women of higher status based on race or education and income. However, these ethnic and socioeconomic disparities were not observed among women with higher communalism.
The study followed 297 African American and European American women through 32 weeks of pregnancy. Results suggest that a sense of community was more important for a pregnant woman's mental health than ethnicity or socioeconomic status over the lifespan, said Cleopatra Abdou, a social health psychologist who completed the study as a Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Health and Society Scholar at U-M School of Public Health.
The findings of Abdou and her colleagues also suggest that communalism negates the effects of ethnic minority status and lower socioeconomic status on a pregnant woman's blood pressure.
"This paper suggests that it can be very important to distinguish culture from ethnicity and social status, not only as concepts, but also in terms of effects on health and other important life outcomes," said Abdou, who starts this fall as assistant professor at USC in the Davis School of Gerontology.
"I think it's critical to put these results in context. Communalism is associated with better health, especially for women of color and women who have experienced socioeconomic disadvantage at some point in the lifespan," Abdou said. "Nevertheless, we see very clear evidence that higher socioeconomic status is associated with higher communalism, regardless of your ethnic background. It seems that it's just easier to have more of every type of resource, including cultural resources, in this case communalism, when you have more money,"
|Contact: Laura Bailey|
University of Michigan | <urn:uuid:e065b209-8006-4a6c-85eb-3549898d7665> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bio-medicine.org/medicine-news-1/Healthiest-pregnant-women-feel-a-strong-sense-of-community-75038-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959734 | 414 | 2.75 | 3 |
was a servant who attended upon and executed
the commands of certain Roman magistrates, to whom he bore the same relation
as the lictor did to other magistrates. The name viatores
was derived from the circumstance of their being chiefly
employed on messages either to call upon senators to attend the meeting of
the senate, or to summon the people to the comitia, &c. (Cic. de Senect. 16
, 56; Fest. p.
371; cf. Plin. Nat. 18.20
magistrates who had no lictors employed their viatores instead (Liv. 2.56
; Cic. in Vat. 9
, 22; TRIBUNUS
). Here they had to
carry out the jus prendendi
but not vocandi.
On the other hand, those magistrates who
had lictors used the lictors as their personal attendants [see LICTOR
], but the viatores to
summon the senate and for other official messages (Liv.
; Cic. pro Cluent.
27, 74). The viatores of the Aerarian quaestors
were employed as subordinates in the Aerarium.
Viatores were mostly freedmen or of low birth (V. Max.
); but those of the Quaestores
aerarii were of equestrian rank (C. I. L.
Mommsen infers from inscriptions that there were three decuriae of viatores
for the superior magistrates (one being reserved for consuls), and one
decuria for tribunes (see Mommsen, Staatsrecht,
1.360 f., and
inscriptions there cited). Viatores were employed also as attendants by
Augurs, Septemviri Epulones, and Sodales Augustales (Marquardt, | <urn:uuid:771a611c-8bc7-4012-bee9-bc85c816165b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0063:alphabetic%20letter=U:entry%20group=1:entry=viator-cn&toc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0063%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DI | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00099-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.898962 | 401 | 3.21875 | 3 |
Media and information literacy: policy and strategy guidelines
This comprehensive MIL Policy and Strategy Guidelines resource is the first of its kind to treat MIL as a composite concept, unifying information literacy and media literacy as well as considering the right to freedom of expression and access to information through ICTs. These guidelines offer a harmonized approach, which in turn enables all actors to articulate more sustained national MIL policies and strategies, describing both the process and content to be considered.
In the evolving knowledge societies of today, some people are overloaded with information, others are starved for information. Everywhere, people are yearning to freely express themselves, to actively participate in governance processes and cultural exchanges. Media and information literacy (MIL) provides all citizens with critical competencies to survive in the 21st Century.
Recognizing that to achieve MIL for all will require national policies, UNESCO has published Media and Informational Literacy Policy and Strategy Guidelines.
As Professor Ulla Carlsson, Director of the Nordic Information Centre of Media and Communication Research, notes in her Preface, “this publication is of vital importance toward improving efforts to promote MIL on national and regional levels”.
The Guidelines is divided in two parts. Part 1, MIL Policy Brief, is designed for policy or decision makers and can serve as a summary of the publication. Part 2 is divided into several comprehensive chapters discusses: 1) how to enlist MIL as development tool; 2) conceptual frameworks for MIL policies and strategies; and 3) model MIL policy and strategies that can be adapted by countries globally.
- Bibliographic reference
- Collation: 196 p., illus.
- Author(s): Grizzle, Alton; Moore, Penny; Dezuanni, Michael; Asthana, Sanjay; Wilson, Carolyn; Banda, Fackson; Onumah, Chido
- Publication year: 2013
- ISBN: 978-92-3-0-01239-7 | <urn:uuid:e7fe7335-a299-4d7e-b3d5-23a7aafb33c6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/resources/publications-and-communication-materials/publications/full-list/media-and-information-literacy-policy-and-strategy-guidelines/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.899124 | 399 | 2.75 | 3 |
||Parliament established. It contains
2 chambers. One is 'the Lords' - unelected aristocrats. The
other is 'the Commons'. These Members of Parliament (MPs) are
smaller landowners and are elected only by male landowners.
||English Civil War. This is a war between
the Parliament and the King for who has control of the state.
King Charles I is executed and England is briefly a Republic.
In 1660 the monarchy is returned, but it never regains its power.
From now on, the Prime Minister, chosen by Parliament has the
||Act of Union unites England/Wales
and Scotland. The United Kingdom is now formed.
||The Peterloo Massacre. A mass demonstration
in favour of universal male suffrage is attacked by troops and
15 people are killed.
||Great Reform Act. Before this time
only landowners could vote for MPs to sit in the House of Commons.
This meant 1 in 7 men could vote. (440,000 people) After 1832
the male urban middle classes gain the vote, and so the electorate
increases to 1 in 5 men (650,000 people).
||Second Reform Act. This extends the
vote to the skilled urban male working class. The electorate
increases to 1 in 3 men.
||Third Reform Act. The vote is now
given to working class men in the countryside. The electorate
is now 2 out of 3 men.
||Representation of the People Act.
Almost all men over 21 years old, and women over 30 years old
now have the vote.
||Effectively all women and men over
21 now have the vote. | <urn:uuid:6790597b-ddd6-4858-804d-594e48464755> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www2.stevenson.ac.uk/comenius/articles/univsuff/uk_dg/suff_1a.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916435 | 350 | 3.53125 | 4 |
The physician is checking for skin temperature as a clue to general health but will also look at the shape of the nails and the color of the skin. Clubbed nails and fingertips are evidence of congenital heart problems. Spoon shaped nails may indicate a lack of iron (p. 205-206). The following colors will indicate corresponding problems: yellow—jaundice; bronze—Addison disease; cyanosis—pulmonary disease; pallor—shock, stress; hematoma—trauma (pp. 198-200). | <urn:uuid:f54a1d18-663c-4c40-a532-ec417a1ba810> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/homework-help/anatomy-and-physiology-the-unity-of-form-and-function-5th-edition-chapter-6-solutions-9780077388058 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.88824 | 107 | 2.703125 | 3 |
A. What Is A Compressed Gas?
Compressed gas cylinders are defined by the U. S. Department of Transportation (DOT) as any materials or mixtures in containers having an absolute pressure in excess of 40 psi at 20oC (70oF) or in excess of 104 psi at 54.5oC (130oF).
Compressed gas cylinders should be considered high energy sources regardless of the type of gas and all should be treated as potential explosives. Compressed gases have many properties that make them a unique hazard such as their pressure, diffusivity, low flash points for flammable gases, low boiling points, and, for some, no visual and/or odor warnings.
The following are general safety precautions for working with compressed gases.
B. Cylinder Storage
Delivery Area Storage
Large cylinders are stored in a designated location until they are needed in the laboratory, as are all empty cylinders. Storage of cylinders outside of the building is prohibited. Storage areas must be in securable areas, storage in hallways is not allowed.
- Store oxygen away from flammable gases. Oxygen and fuel gases must be separated by a distance of at least 25 feet or by a 5-foot high noncombustible wall when stored. As an alternative, oxygen can be moved directly to the area of use.
- The valve protection cap must be kept on at all times, except when a cylinder is in use.
- Each cylinder must be chained or strapped tightly in place to prevent it from falling over. Cylinders must be secured individually. The attachment point must be below the neck and tapered portion of the cylinder.
- Corrosive gases should be stored for the shortest possible time period: under three months is preferable.
Cylinder storage in the laboratory should consist primarily of lecture bottle size cylinders. These cylinders pose the same hazards as larger cylinders, and storage should comply with the four standards listed above for Delivery Area Storage.
C. Inspection Of Cylinders
Before moving cylinders they should be inspected to ensure that:
- the cylinder has:
- a valve protection cap
- a DOT or ICC label
- the date of the last hydrostatic test (usually stamped on the cylinder just below the serial number)
- labels or stenciling identifying the contents (color coding is not acceptable as a contents label because there is no universal color code for identifying gas cylinders)
- identity of the manufacturer
- the cylinder shows no signs of damage or corrosion.
D. Moving Cylinders
Faculty members, staff, or trained students will move all large cylinders from the Delivery Area to the laboratory.
- Always consider cylinders full and handle them accordingly; the same hazards exist even if the cylinder is only partially full.
- Use a hand truck to transport cylinders that cannot be easily carried. Do not drag, roll, or slide cylinders.
- The valve protection cap should remain on until the cylinder has been secured in its final position and is ready for use.
- Never drop a cylinder or permit cylinders to strike each other violently.
- Protect cylinders from any object that will produce a cut or abrasion in the surface of the metal.
- Mount cylinders so that the valve is easily accessible and the label is readable.
- Always chain or strap cylinders immediately. Cylinders must be secured individually. The attachment point must be below the neck and tapered portion of the cylinder. Do not leave a cylinder in a laboratory if equipment is not available to secure it.
E. Laboratory Use
- Attach the proper regulator designed for the particular gas that is being used. Cylinder valves have been standardized for specific families of gases to prevent the interchange of regulator equipment between gases that are not compatible. Do not force the fitting of a regulator to a cylinder. Be sure that all components of a distribution system are compatible with the gas in use. Corrosive gases require special attention to the materials in the distribution system.
- After connecting the regulator secure all hose connections with clamps, secure any loose hoses to prevent sudden movement when pressure is supplied, and place a trap between the regulator and the reaction vessel to prevent suckback.
- Bond and ground all cylinders and piping containing flammable gases to prevent the hazards caused by the buildup of static electricity.
- Start the gas flow with the following procedure:
- With the regulator secured to the cylinder valve outlet, turn the delivery pressure adjusting screw counterclockwise until it turns freely.
- Next slowly open the cylinder valve until the cylinder pressure gauge on the regulator reads the cylinder pressure. The cylinder valve should be opened by hand; never use a wrench or other tool unless the vendor supplies a special tool for that purpose.
- With the cylinder valve open and the flow control valve (the outlet from the regulator) in closed position, set the desired delivery pressure by turning the delivery-pressure adjusting screw clockwise until the desired pressure is reached.
- Flow from the cylinder can now be commenced by opening the flow control valve at the outlet of the regulator.
- Door signs should be posted in rooms in which flammable compressed gases are present.
- Never mix gases in a cylinder, unless it is a specially designed cylinder such as for calibration gases.
- Never completely empty a cylinder. Leave a slight pressure (about 25 pounds) to keep out contaminates that may react with the contents or corrode the cylinder.
F. Special Precautions
- Gaseous acetylene under pressure may also decompose with explosive force, and should not be used at pressures in excess of 15 psig (30 psi absolute pressure). Acetylene pressure gauges should have a warning red line at this point.
- Acetylene in cylinders is dissolved in a liquid (e.g. acetone) and should always be used in an upright position. Do not use a cylinder which has been stored or handled in a non-upright position until it has remained in an upright position for at least 30 minutes.
- The outlet line of an acetylene cylinder must be protected by a flash arrester.
- Use the correct kind of tubing to transport the gaseous acetylene. Some tubing materials, such as copper, form explosive acetylides.
Oxidizers under pressure (oxygen, chlorine, etc.) will rapidly oxidize organic material, such as oil or grease, resulting in an explosion. Never use oil or grease on valves or gauges intended for oxygen cylinders. | <urn:uuid:57c55975-a112-4dc1-b301-cfca3c4dd1ae> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.mtholyoke.edu/ehs/science-center-safety-handbook/vfcompgas | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.901612 | 1,333 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Based on a historic approach taken by instructors at MIT, this text is geared toward junior and senior undergraduate courses in analytic and projective geometry. Starting with concepts concerning points on a line and lines through a point, it proceeds to the geometry of plane and space, leading up to conics and quadrics developed within the context of metrical, affine, and projective transformations. The algebraic treatment is occasionally exchanged for a synthetic approach, and the connection of the geometrical material with other fields is frequently noted.
Prerequisites for this treatment include three semesters of calculus and analytic geometry. Special exercises at the end of the book introduce students to interesting peripheral problems, and solutions are provided.
Reprint of the Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1953 edition.
|Availability||Usually ships in 24 to 48 hours|
|Author/Editor||Dirk J. Struik|
|Dimensions||5 3/8 x 8| | <urn:uuid:8cb70642-ec3d-45c1-bf72-fcbf987a8d43> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://store.doverpublications.com/0486485951.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.876677 | 197 | 2.84375 | 3 |
PTSD: National Center for PTSD
Research on PTSD, Aggression, and Violence
Research Findings on PTSD and Violence
Individuals with PTSD are not dangerous. Although PTSD is associated with an increased risk of violence, the majority of Veterans and non-Veterans with PTSD have never engaged in violence. When other factors like alcohol and drug misuse, additional psychiatric disorders, or younger age are considered, the association between PTSD and violence is decreased.
How is violence defined?
Violence is inflicting or threatening to inflict serious physical harm on another person. Examples include beating someone, physically forcing someone to have sex, or using or threatening to use a gun or knife (1).
When reviewing research or media reports about violence and PTSD, it is important to pay close attention to how violence is defined. Milder forms of aggression such as slapping, threatening to throw something, or pushing have sometimes been labeled as violence. Similarly, criminal behavior has sometimes been used interchangeably with violence even though most criminal behavior is non-violent. Including these behaviors in measures of violence falsely inflates reported rates of violence among people with and without PTSD.
Understanding violence and PTSD
The best epidemiological evidence on violence and PTSD comes from studies of the U.S. general population and of post-9/11 Veterans in the U.S. and the United Kingdom. According to these studies, the prevalence of violence among individuals with PTSD ranged from 7.5% among US adults to 8.6% to 19.5% among post-9/11 Veterans (2-4). In the same studies, the prevalence of violence ranged from 2.0% in US adults with no mental health disorders and 3.0 to 6.4% among post-9/11 Veterans without PTSD.
There have been no comparable studies of PTSD and violence in other Veteran cohorts. However, a large epidemiological study of Vietnam and Vietnam-era Veterans that was conducted in the mid-1980s examined intimate partner violence (ranging from slapping and pushing to using a knife or gun), and found that 33.0% of Veterans with PTSD compared to 13.5% of those without PTSD reported intimate partner violence in the past year (1).
Interpreting findings on the relationship between PTSD and violence
Individuals with PTSD have an elevated prevalence of risk factors that are associated with increased violence, such as substance misuse and comorbid psychiatric disorders. Because of this, findings regarding the relationship between PTSD and violence should be interpreted cautiously if they are based on analyses that do not take risk factors other than PTSD into account. For example, in one study of Veterans who served post-9/11, PTSD when examined on its own was associated with an increased risk of violence. However, when alcohol misuse was statistically controlled, PTSD was no longer associated with an increased risk of violence (3). The prevalence of violence in PTSD is comparable to the prevalence in anxiety and depressive disorders, which ranges from 5.0% to 11.7% (2,5). The prevalence of violence is higher among individuals with alcohol or substance misuse (range = 9.1% to 34.7%) (2,6,7). Furthermore, the more diagnoses someone has, the greater the likelihood of violence.
Considerations regarding violence among post-9/11 Veterans with PTSD
The data showing that the prevalence of violence among individuals with PTSD is 7.5% in the US population and 19.5% in post-9/11 Veterans suggest that the association between PTSD and violence is especially strong in this Veteran cohort. However, to understand these findings, it is important to consider that post-9/11 Veterans are relatively young (median age = 34) and that younger age is associated with increased risk of violence (2-4). For example, in the National Comorbidity Survey of the US general population, the prevalence of violence in the past year was 32.7% among men between the ages of 25-34 but only 1.3% among men aged 35-44 (2). Findings like these suggest that age and perhaps other demographic characteristics need to be considered when comparing the post-9/11 cohort with non-Veterans or with Veterans of other eras.
Although PTSD is associated with increased risk of violence, most people with PTSD have never engaged in violence. Research suggests that when risk and protective factors correlated with PTSD are considered, the association between PTSD and violence diminishes (2,3). Consequently, it is important to consider a wide array of risk factors in addition to PTSD in order to understand the relationship between PTSD and violence.
Learn more about Assessing Risk of Violence in Individuals with PTSD.
- Jordan, K. B., Marmar, C. R., Fairbank, J. A., Schlenger, W. E., Kulka, R. A., Hough, R. L., & Weiss, D. S. (1992). Problems in families of male Vietnam Veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 916-926. doi: 10.1037//0022-006X.60.6.916
- Corrigan, P. W., & Watson, A. C. (2005). Findings from the National Comorbidity Survey on the frequency of violent behavior in individuals with psychiatric disorders. Psychiatry Research, 136, 153-162.
- Elbogen, E. B., Johnson, S. C., Wagner, H. R., Sullivan, C., Taft, C. T., & Beckham, J. C. (2014). Violent behaviour and post-traumatic stress disorder in US Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans. British Journal of Psychiatry. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.113.134627
- MacManus, D., Dean, K., Jones, M., Rona, R. J., Greenberg, N., Hull, L., Fahy, T., Wessely, S., & fear, N. T. (2013). Violent offending by UK military personnel deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan: a data linkage cohort study. Lancet, 381, 907-917. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60354-2
- Swanson, J. W., Holzer, C. E., Ganju, V. K., & Jono, R. T. (1990). Violence and psychiatric disorder in the community: Evidence from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area surveys. Hospital and Community Psychiatry; 41, 761-770.
- Elbogen, E. B., Johnson, S. C., Wagner, H. R., Newton, V. M., Timko, C., Vasterling, J. J., & Beckham, J. C. (2012). Protective factors and risk modification of violence in Iraq and Afghanistan War Veterans. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 73, 767-773. doi: 10.4088/JCP.11m07593
- Coid, J., Yang, M., Roberts, A., Ullrich, S., Moran, P., Bebbington, P., Brugha, T., Jenkins, R., Farrell, M., Lewis, G. & Singleton, N. (2006). Violence and psychiatric morbidity in a national household population: A report from the British Household Survey. American Journal of Epidemiology, 164, 1199-1208. | <urn:uuid:2db4783a-5063-4772-a56d-dc27bd9aacc5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/co-occurring/research_on_ptsd_and_violence.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911513 | 1,528 | 2.90625 | 3 |
GILBERT STUART'S YOUTH
Gilbert Charles Stuart was born on December 3, 1755 in North Kingstown, Rhode Island, he grew up in Newport and was tutored by Cosmo Alexander, Scottish painter living there, later relocating with Alexander to Scotland to finish his studies. His mentor died in Edinburgh in 1771, and after briefly trying to earn a living at his art, Stuart returned to Newport in 1772.
GILBERT STUART AS AN ARTIST
Stuart left for England in 1775 to pursue what became his second unsuccessful attempt at a vocation in painting, becoming after a time a protege of Benjamin West, with whom he studied for the following six years. The relationship was a successful one, and Stuart was exhibiting at the Royal Academy by 1777.
By 1782, Stuart's third attempt to make a living at his art met with considerable success, largely based on the acclaim from his Portrait of William Grant, "The Skater". Despite the number of commissions, however, Stuart's na´vete with regard to finances soon led to his falling into considerable debt, for which he was threatened with debtors' prison. He therefore fled to Ireland in 1787, where he painted with equal success and managed his money equally miserably.
Stuart returned to the United States in 1793, settling briefly in New York City and relocating the next year to Philadelphia, where he opened a studio. It was here he would gain not only a foothold in the art world but lasting fame, executing portrait paintings of many of the most important Americans of the day, including several of George Washington of which the most famous is probably the "Athenaeum Head" currently on the dollar bill.
In 1803 Stuart opened a studio in Washington, D. C. where he was in an optimum position to paint portraits of presidents and other major personages. By the end of his career, he had painted over a thousand portraits of American political figures.
GILBERT STUART'S DEATH
He moved to Boston in 1805, continuing his history of critical acclaim and financial troubles. In 1825 he began to show signs of paralysis, but continued to paint. Stuart died in Boston on July 9, 1828 at the age of 72 and is buried there in the Old South Burial Ground. | <urn:uuid:9c549990-6dee-43c5-b0af-d721fd008935> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.artinthepicture.com/artists/Gilbert_Stuart/Biography/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00008-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.985521 | 485 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Aiwohikupua said to the man, “You go and say I am a fellow to have some fun with the boxers, but not with anyone who is not strong.”
The man answered, “Haunaka is the only strong one in this crowd, and he is to be sent to Kohala to fight with the Kauai man.”
Said Aiwohikupua, “Go ahead and tell Haunaka that we two will have some fun together.”
When the man found Haunaka, and Haunaka heard these words, he clapped his hands, struck his chest, and stamped his feet, and beckoned to Aiwohikupua to come inside the field, and Aiwohikupua came, took off his cape, and bound it about his waist.
When Aiwohikupua was on the field he said to Haunaka, “You can never hurt the Kauai boy; he is a choice branch of the tree that stands upon the steep."
As Aiwohikupua was speaking a man called out from outside the crowd, who had seen Aiwohikupua fighting with Cold-nose, “O Haunaka and all of you gathered here, you will never outdo this man; his fist is like a spear! Only one blow at Cold-nose and the fist went through to his back. This is the very man who killed Cold-nose.”
Then Haunaka seized Aiwohikupua’s hand and welcomed him, and the end of it was they made friends and the players mixed with the crowd, and they left the place; Aiwohikupua’s party went with their friends and boarded the canoes, and went on and landed at Laupahoehoe.
In Chapter V of this story we have seen how Aiwohikupua got to Laupahoehoe. Here we shall say a word about Hulumaniani, the seer who followed Laieikawai hither from Kauai, as described in the first chapter of this story.
On the day when Aiwohikupua’s party left Paauhau, at Hamakua, on the same day as he sailed and came to Laupahoehoe, the prophet foresaw it all on the evening before he arrived, and it happened thus:
That evening before sunset, as the seer was sitting at the door of the house, he saw long clouds standing against the horizon where the signs in the clouds appear, according to the soothsayers of old days even until now.
Said the seer, “A chief’s canoe comes hither, 19 men, 1 high chief, a double canoe.”
The men sitting with the chief started up at once, but could see no canoe coming. Then the people with him asked, “Where is the canoe which you said was a chief’s canoe coming?”
Said the prophet, “Not a real canoe; in the clouds I find it; to-morrow you will see the chief’s canoe.”
A night and a day passed; toward evening he again saw the cloud rise on the ocean in the form which the seer recognized as Aiwohikupua’s—perhaps as we recognize the crown of any chief that comes to us, so Aiwohikupua’s cloud sign looked to the seer.
When the prophet saw that sign he arose and caught a little pig and a black cock, and pulled a bundle of awa root to prepare for Aiwohikupua’s coming. | <urn:uuid:ec6ab6ca-c698-48c2-a339-d7351a3dd79f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bookrags.com/ebooks/13603/66.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975437 | 780 | 2.625 | 3 |
noun, plural: hydrolases
For instance, hydrolases act on the following reaction:
A–B + H2O → A–OH + B–H
Hydrolases are classified as EC 3 (according to the EC number classification of enzymes). Hydrolases can be further classified into various subclasses based on the bonds they act upon, such as nucleases for the hydrolysis of nucleic acids, proteases for proteins, etc.
Word origin: hydrolysis: Gk, comb. form of hýdōr, water + -ase, suffix for names of enzymes. | <urn:uuid:cad2d707-3e55-4107-98a3-cf4830210f5c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Hydrolase | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.866059 | 129 | 3.21875 | 3 |
Department of Plant PathologyIowa State Universitymgleason@iastate.edu
Michael Hazen is the field supervisor in charge of nursery production for Johnson Nursery. Located in the Upper Midwest, Johnson Nursery provides a full line of both bare-root and container-grown plants to the nursery industry, with more than 6 million plants held in their cold storage facilities each year. Woody plants make up the bulk of the sales, but hostas and daylilies, which are herbaceous perennials, are not far behind. Bare-root plants produced at the nursery's field sites are potted and distributed each spring to nursery dealers in 45 states. (Figure 1)
It was one such dealer, Jerry Mullen, the owner of Jerry's Garden Center, with whom Michael had just spoken. Jerry called Michael's cell phone in a fury, accusing Johnson Nursery of shipping him diseased plants. The order, shipped in April, had included 300 hostas in one-gallon (3.7 liter) pots. Now it was late June and more than half of the plants had been sold to retail customers. Of the remaining 140 plants, Jerry had discarded more than 60 as unmarketable because they looked sick. Jerry also had received two complaints from his own customers, who indicated that the plants weren't doing well in the landscape.
Jerry described the problem as rotting of the plants at the soil line. The leaves were yellow and wilting, and it was easy to pull them off the plant. The bases of the petioles were rotted and brown. (Figure 2) White "threads" were visible on the rotted portion of the plant. (Figure 3) Numerous, 1- to 2-mm-diameter, reddish brown spheres were scattered on the infected petioles and potting medium surface of the rotted plants but were absent from the plants without problems. (Figure 4) At first Jerry thought these might be fertilizer granules, but the spheres were too small. (Figure 5)
The plants had been healthy-looking until two weeks ago. About that time, the weather turned hot and humid, and the plants started wilting. Jerry didn't know what had caused the problem, but he was convinced that it wasn't his fault.
While assuring Jerry that he'd get to the bottom of this situation and promising to call him back the next day, Michael had a sinking feeling in his stomach. He knew exactly what Jerry's problem was and felt even worse because he also knew that his nursery was the most likely source.
Over the past three years, Michael had observed the same symptoms on hostas in several Johnson Nursery production fields. (Figures 6,7 and 8) When the problem first showed up, Michael dug up a few sick plants, took photos of the fields, and brought both to Laura Simpson, a consultant specializing in plant disease diagnosis. Laura examined the symptoms on the plants and placed some of the tiny spheres on nutrient agar plates.
Based on the symptoms and results from agar-plate culturing, Laura diagnosed the problem as petiole rot, a disease caused by Sclerotium rolfsii var. delphinii, a soilborne fungus that attacks many species of plants. Laura also gave Michael some basic information about the life cycle of the disease cycle and explained why he needed to take it very seriously:
When Laura had made her diagnosis 3 years earlier, Michael had attempted a management solution. He knew that it was best to try to avoid the disease in the first place. The field crews were already trained to survey the crowns for obvious disease symptoms before transplanting. Unfortunately, inspecting every crown for tiny sclerotia clinging to the crowns seemed too labor-intensive (and therefore too expensive) to be practical.
Another problem is that Johnson Nursery relied on mechanical tillage to control weeds. Michael knew this practice might be spreading the sclerotia as soil was moved throughout the field. Machinery is used several times a year, not only to prepare the fields but also to plant the crowns, apply fertilizer, control weeds, cut back the foliage each fall, and eventually undercut the root systems at harvest time during the fall. Using chemical herbicides could replace mechanical tillage for weed control, eliminating about 75% of the soil-disturbing activities, but a switch to herbicide would increase the cost of weed control.
Three years ago, Michael decided that the best solution was to begin a fungicide spray program in the 5-acre (2 ha) hosta field showing symptoms of S. rolfsii var. delphinii petiole rot. Three applications per season of the fungicide pentachloronitrobenzene (PCNB), at $16 per acre per spray, seemed to be a good compromise. It kept disease at a low level in that field and didn't add much in terms of labor or other costs.
What the company didn't anticipate was that plants in two more fields, totaling 20 acres (8 ha), would become infected over the next three years and also would require the fungicide treatment. No one knew whether the new infestations were introduced when planting the fields with crowns purchased from a supplier or through spread of sclerotia within Johnson Nursery. (Figure 9)
During these three years, Johnson Nursery went to considerable effort to apply fungicide to hostas from "problem" fields and to sell only healthy-looking plants to its customers. After a crop was harvested, it was brought into the packing shed. The crowns were shaken to remove attached soil from the roots, and rotted or discolored crowns were discarded. The next step was to divide the crowns. Workers cut the crowns into quarters, using either a band saw or a knife, depending on the size of the crown. (Figure 10) The pieces were then dipped in a fungicide to control storage rot fungi such as Botrytis, packed in crates, and placed in cold storage for several months. In the spring, the crowns were transplanted into 1-gallon (3.7 liter) pots and shipped to wholesale customers. (Figure 11)
Keeping this history in the back of his mind, Michael now took a quick inventory of the infected hosta fields he had noted during the past growing season. He was very worried about another large loss of revenue to S. rolfsii var. delphinii. This year the disease caused losses of about $26,000 for the nursery. Losses had been approximately $14,000 last year and $7,500 the year before. Clearly, the problem was escalating despite the fungicide applications.
Johnson Nursery's worst nightmare was coming true: it was accused of selling diseased plants, and potentially alienating its own customers. Michael must manage the disease crisis more effectively, offer a solution to irate customers like Jerry, and act quickly, before the situation becomes even worse.
Michael is faced with a dilemma that many growers encounter: What should he do to stop losing money (i.e. salable hostas) to disease? Time is short and he needs to plan the spring nursery activities. He also needs to keep the disease from showing up in stock sold to customers or he'll be out of a job! Michael needs to devise a practical solution for this disease problem; what should he do?
Field 1: A 0.8-acre (0.3 ha) field with 20,000 3-yr-old hosta plants. Disease incidence (% of field with symptomatic plants) was 30-40%. Most affected plants showed extensive collapse typical of petiole rot, with abundant production of sclerotia (at least several hundred sclerotia per plant). The plants were to be harvested within a few days.
Field 2: A 5-acre (2 ha) field with over 60,000 2-yr-old plants, in which disease incidence was about 1-2%.
Field 3: A 0.5-acre (0.2 ha) field with 5,000 1-yr-old hostas, in which disease incidence was <1% of plants.
Three-year-old hosta plants are usually large enough to be divided into quarters, with each division worth $3.50 when sold wholesale. Thus, each 3-year-old plant should be worth $14.00 in sales revenue. | <urn:uuid:6f0b8746-56e9-4961-b890-08deea038c31> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/instcomm/TeachingArticles/HostaTakeover/Pages/HostaTakeoverCase.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00105-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978614 | 1,737 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Russian agriculture underwent drastic changes after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. A large-scale collective system, with a planned economy, was expected to enter the market economy rapidly with the help of new legislation and programs. Things did not go as the central Russian government and international development organizations had planned. Instead of joining the global capitalist system, rural Russians turned to small private plots and practiced subsistence agriculture for survival. Some people attempted to start private farms but were often not successful because of a lack of capital and structural support. Other enterprises remained variations of collective farms, but without as much state support as before their productivity declined. Overall during the 1990s agricultural output fell sharply. This paper examines why Russian agriculture, specifically in rural Siberia, has thus far not been able to join the larger global market. It employs the lens of political ecology with a specific focus on the role of the Russian state and distance, both physical and political.
Engebretson, Elizabeth C., "What Replaced the Kolkhozes and Sovkhozes? A Political Ecology of Agricultural Change in Post-Soviet Russia" (2007). German and Russian Studies Honors Projects. Paper 3.
© Copyright is owned by author of this document | <urn:uuid:5403925e-432c-4749-8279-76396476df64> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/gerrus_honors/3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00150-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946102 | 247 | 2.921875 | 3 |
FLORIDA, March 19, 2013 - The Journal of Neuroscience has published a study led by researchers at the Max Planck Florida Institute for Neuroscience, the first and only U.S. extension of the prestigious Max Planck Society, that may hold a stunning breakthrough in the fight to treat Alzheimer's disease. The study potentially identifies a cause of Alzheimer's disease--based on a newly-discovered signaling pathway in cellular models of Alzheimer's disease--and opens the door for new treatments by successfully blocking this pathway. The Institute, which recently opened in December 2012, focuses solely on basic neuroscience research that aims to analyze, map, and decode the human brain--the most important and least understood organ in the body.
"This study transforms our understanding of the direct cause of Alzheimer's disease," said Principal Investigator Dr. Ryohei Yasuda. "With further research, we may open up an entirely new avenue for treatments to combat this disease."
The scientific community so far has widely accepted that Alzheimer's disease is caused by the accumulation of a peptide called Amyloid beta. When Amyloid beta is applied to neurons, neuronal morphology becomes abnormal and synaptic function is impaired. However, how Amyloid beta causes dysfunction is unknown. The MPFI research indicates that the presence of Amyloid beta triggers increased levels of a signaling protein, called centaurin-1 (CentA1), that appears to cause neuronal dysfunction - a potentially groundbreaking discovery that uncovers an important intermediary step in the progression of the disease.
As part of the research, the scientists were able to identify CentA1 and measure its negative effects on neurons. Utilizing an RNA silencing technique, they turned down the cellular production of CentA1, and showed that affected neurons, exposed to Amyloid beta and exhibiting Alzheimer's related symptoms, returned to normal morphology and synaptic function, even with the continued presence of Amyloid beta. They further found that increased CentA1 activates a series of proteins, and these proteins form a signaling pathway from CentA1 to neuronal dysfunction. Thus, inhibiting other proteins in the pathway also "cured" affected neurons.
The initial tests reported were conducted on rat brain slices. MPFI has already started to expand their studies to mouse models of Alzheimer's disease and preliminary experiments show promising results. Ultimately, targeting the components of this newly identified signaling pathway has the potential to open the door for new pharmacological and gene therapies in treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Dr. Yasuda also anecdotally reports that the effects of CentA1 knock down were observed to be sustained over several weeks and an avenue for future study will be to examine how long the positive effects on neurons are sustained which may indicate the potential impact of treatments derived from this research. The full study will be available at http://www.
About the Max Planck Florida Institute for Neuroscience
The Max Planck Florida Institute for Neuroscience is the first American institute established by Germany's prestigious Max Planck Society. It brings together top research neuroscientists from around the world to collaborate on unlocking the mysteries of the brain--the most important and least understood organ in the body--by providing new insight into the functional organization of the nervous system, and its capacity to produce perception, thought, language, memory, emotion, and action. The Max Planck Florida Institute for Neuroscience meets this challenge by forging links between different levels of analysis--genetic, molecular, cellular, circuit, and behavioral--and developing new technologies that make cutting edge scientific discoveries possible. The results of the research will be shared publicly with scholars, universities and other institutions around the globe to advance life-saving and life-improving treatments and cures for brain disorders ranging from autism, to Parkinson's to Alzheimer's. For more information, visit http://www. | <urn:uuid:e81e50cf-c4eb-4ed2-97e6-b8fabffba919> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2013-03/rci-mpf031913.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00014-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93559 | 768 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Understanding language's meaning requires coordination between the left and right parts of the brain.
Recent research on human decision-making in high-pressure situations has yielded some surprising results.
Quite apart from the crocodile lore, crocodiles share an interesting physiological feature with marine turtles and other reptiles.
Brain studies are making scientists look at human interaction in a whole new light.
A psychological study shows how emotions can be spread like infectious disease.
Psychologists say suppressing anger is actually bad for your health, while showing emotion can encourage constructive communication.
Can you tell if someone is smiling even if you aren't looking at them, but just hearing their voice?
We've all felt guilty at some point it seems, but have you ever stopped to wonder why we feel this emotion? What role does guilt serve?
When teens need to be careful about getting enough vitamins and minerals to stay healthy during puberty, they often start skipping meals and eating junk food.
How good are you at reading faces? Scientists have found that your gender may affect this ability. | <urn:uuid:d4037c8f-be3a-486a-9517-53fcda238b5c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/tag/emotion/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95045 | 212 | 2.625 | 3 |
“Thunderbolts are the fires of the three upper planets… heavenly fires are spit forth by the planets as crackling charcoal flies from a burning log.” Pliny the Elder
“The twins (poles) had hardly moved from their stations when the world, with no-one to control it, teetered off balance, spun round crazily, then rolled over twice.” Book of the Hopi
“Hey Diddle Diddle, the Cat and the Fiddle, the Cow jumped over the Moon.
The Little Dog laughed to see such fun, and the Dish ran away with the Spoon.”
Mytho-Historical Nursery Rhyme
Mytho-Historical Theory of Creation and Human Origins
“From the smallest particle to the largest galactic formation, a web of electrical circuitry connects and unifies all of Nature, organising galaxies, energising, giving birth to planets and, on our own world, controlling weather and animating biological organisms.”
Thunderbolts of the Gods by David Talbott and Wallace Thornhill
I studied the Solar System wearing a ‘Catastrophist’ hat for trips into prehistory, maybe because I thought I had discovered something, maybe because I dread one day being all dressed up with nowhere to go. I reasoned that, if politics comes out of history, history out of geography and geography out of geology, then I needed to know – How were the planets formed? Everything Humanity is, where it has come from and where it is going, depends on the answer. Can there be another question more important?
It sounds presumptuous to say I used Albert Einstein’s method of intuitive leaps backed by bricks of reason, and Dmitry Mendeleyev’s exception principle used to predict elements in his Periodic Table, yet these thought processes inspired my empirical distillation of mytho-history to determine the origins of the Solar System and Humanity!
In the secluded world of astrophysics, the ‘tidal’, ‘accretion’, ‘disk-instability’ and ‘passing-crashing star’ theories all lack something. Given so many opinions, theories, and ‘rethinks’, with distinguished scientists holding different positions, surely there was room for my mytho-historical model!
The mytho-historical record reveals an astonishing saga of interplanetary cataclysms in times when planets were closer to the Earth, appearing bigger and far more important than the Sun and the Moon. Due to the shocks their constantly changing orbits bestowed on the human psyche, these planets and their cometary offspring were transformed by astrologer-priests into gods, goddesses, and angels, subsequently immortalised in word and stone… such as the Newton Stone!
From time immemorial, titles such as ‘Sons (and daughters) of the Sun’ and ‘Born from the Sun’ have identified kings, khans, Incas, pharaohs, and other rulers as earthly representatives of the Sun God. What gave rise to this global custom? Egyptian records mention that, in the beginning, only one brilliant globe circled the heavens – Ur-Atum! In our model, we identify it as a Greek proto-Uranus, ‘born’ from its ‘mother’ Gaia, goddess of the Earth!
We introduce three assumptions to interpolate an earlier, immeasurable period of ‘primordial chaos’. First, that virgin births of Suns and planets are generated by absorption, agitation, and explosive discharge of electro-magnetically – or galactrically – charged material from similar, larger bodies. Second, that the Sun erupted in this manner from some Great Star, the inner section of its spiraling tail cannibalised by massive gravitational forces, the outer section forming the faint rings that now circle the far reaches the Solar System, having dispersed a vast ocean of dust and ash, variously called by ancient peoples the Apsu, Nun, etc. Third, that the Sun ejected a spinning gas globe and tail called (in our model) proto-Gaia. (Note: From here on ‘p’ signifies ‘proto’).
Here, mytho-history confirms p-Gaia as the mother of p-Uranus and the residual Gaia. In turn, p-Uranus, agitated by galactricity and similar nuclear and electromagnetic disturbances, collides with mother Gaia, giving birth to the so-called Titans, the Cyclops, and Giants – in our model, huge gaseous moons!
The residual Uranus is loyally recognized by witnesses as ‘ruler of the heavens’, until it collides with, and is ‘disemboweled’ and ‘dethroned’ by, the youngest Titan-moon, identified in our model as p-Saturn. In the resulting chaos a greatly diminished Gaia – p-Earth – is captured by p-Saturn.
If there was ever a Golden Age of Saturn – or, rather, proto-Saturn – it would be during this period, ending when p-Saturn is similarly dethroned by its own violent offspring Jupiter trailing a huge serpentine tail (Typhon/Tampa/Ahriman/Seth etc). P-Saturn, whilst giving birth to Jupiter, also produces Neptune – which spins off the powerful Jupiter in opposite axial rotation – together with a host of bright, crackling comets, among these p-Mercury, p-Mars, and p-Moon. The latter p-planets become charged and pock-marked by collisions with Typhon’s tail and a vast number of ejected comets, meteors and asteroids milling around in the Apsu, also by ‘bolts from heaven’, ‘arrows’ and ‘swords of gods’ unleashed by orbiting gas giants, their moons and tails. The continual bombardment and acquisition of debris generates melting temperatures, remanent magnetism, and radioactivity in the surface strata. (Lunar craters, Tycho and Aristarchus, each show striking evidence of a single, massive, interplanetary discharge, similar to the effects of lightning striking flagpoles on putting greens).
The mytho-histories of the old Arcadian, Preselenian and Phrygian peoples of the Mediterranean mention a time when the Earth had no Moon, and when the ‘messenger of the gods’, Mercury (Hermes/Thoth), complete with (smoking) rod and entwining serpents, apparently endangered the Earth on three occasions.
Neptune – together with the now diminished Saturn and Uranus – was cast out, just like the Egyptian Osiris (Saturn), into the ‘Taieous’, or ‘netherworld’, gradually cooling and forming rings of debris, irrefutable evidence of cataclysmic contact. Today, Neptune and Uranus are scientifically recognized as being too far from the Sun to have formed in their present positions.
The last galactrically generated virgin birth was variously recorded as Venus ‘springing from the head’ of Jupiter, Athena from the head of Zeus, Horus the Younger from Horus the Elder, etc., its polar axis spinning, like Neptune, contrary to those of the other planets.
Homer mentions – as do many ancient nursery rhymes, including Hey Diddle Diddle, Cock Robin, Jack and Jill, Mary Had a little Lamb, Old King Cole, Rock-a-Bye- Baby, etc. – collisions between Athena-Venus, Ares-Mars, Hermes-Mercury and Aphrodite-Moon, in his account of the Trojan Wars – a good starting point for historians and astrophysicists to begin reviewing and correcting the current orthodoxy.
All mythologies recount the same story using different names for the planets, some, like the Egyptians, using different names for the same planet, depending on which quarter of the day with it is identified. Today, the days of the week carry the names of the seven major solar globes, evidence of their impacts on peoples before the current stablisation of the Solar System enabled Time to be measured with confidence.
Assuming p-Gaia gave birth to Ur-Atum, these cataclysmic events accurately reflect the creation sequence evidenced in the mytho-historical record. Our ‘Sun Born’ model presumes a form of ‘reverse osmosis’ to fabricate the timeless pre-Ur-Atum period, a reasonable presumption given that the same electromagnetic, gravitational and physical forces were involved.
1. Evidently, planets can be classified as ‘female’ since they generate ‘virgin’ births. No ‘male’ planets exist for astronomical or mytho-historical purposes, male characteristics having been introduced by priesthoods and cults that recognized and opportunised the physical, mental and emotional impacts a galactrically-charged solar system had imposed on humans. A virgin-born planet can therefore be described as a daughter that originates inside her mother but lives outside her.
2. The explosive spinning bodies of gas giants and their tails and moons, and the new heavens and ages they ‘created’ (including formation of the asteroid belt, the biblical ‘hammered bracelet’), were witnessed and recorded for posterity by intelligent, literate peoples.
3. Our hypothesis identifies ‘interplanetary catastrophism’ as the missing link between evolutionism and creationism.
4. Here disclosed is the origin of a covenanted exchange of power and divinity presumed between priesthoods and planets, cultivated from the cataclysmic events of the mytho-historical record.
5. Various gas planets, during their proto-stages were, at some period, in close proximity to the Earth, a fact evidenced by the vastly more important role these planets play in the mytho-historical record compared with the Sun and Moon. (Uranus (1781). and Neptune (1846), were only re-discovered after the invention of the telescope).
6. That the four gas giants and also Venus, in the 1980s, were discovered to be much hotter than previously expected, supports our solar Sun Born model.
7. All the old tales of serpents, dragons, celestial gods, avenging angels, extraterrestrial beings, lightning weapons, swords of god, pillars of smoke and fire, warlocks, hobgoblins and all, and ALL other miraculous and enigmatic events, find a logical place in the Sun Born mytho-creation model.
The question of when – whether measured in billions, millions, or thousands of years – each major virgin birth created a new heaven, and when and how human consciousness, spirituality, love, and distortions such as gigantism and mutations, might have evolved, remains a mystery. The problem arises because, in the mytho-historical record, p-Uranus erupts from the goddess Gaia, or proto-Earth. Gaia was anciently identified as a goddess because, whilst erupting from p-Uranus, she appeared also to be giving birth to a brilliant new partner, our present Uranus.
We arrive at an astounding possibility! Sometime before it was possible to measure Time, human beings now lost in the mists of the ages actually recorded these events. But who were they? How was it possible amid such interplanetary maelstrom?
If the mytho-historical Creation model is to function, Gaia (now planet Earth) must be part of the gaseous giant that gave birth to p-Uranus/Ur-Atum. In our model, Gaia is subsequently captured by p-Saturn, then rejected, then deluged with warm, saline water – also with showers of gold and platinum that recall visions of the legendary Golden Fleece – during the birth of Jupiter and its tail from proto-Saturn. It is precisely during the birth of Jupiter and, later, Venus, that the ancients mention showers of gold and platinum. (Author: also mercury, nickel, and various metals of the platinum family including the iridium of the current – erroneous – dinosaur extinction theory).
The similarities between Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Indian, Scandinavian and American mytho-histories are astonishing, though Asian and Amerindian myths and legends lack early detail. There is no way they could be so similarly described unless people around the globe witnessed similar celestial events.
Our Sun Born model requires consideration of an extraordinary hypothesis regarding the origin of mankind in the Solar System – and beyond!
Let us assume survivors of cataclysmic events would be too traumatised to compile new records or save old records. Let us also assume that Jupiter – the giant vacuum cleaner of those asteroids and comets that should have devastated the Earth as they did other planets and moons – appeared at the end of the Golden Age of p-Saturn. Given these two factors, we are left with a choice of discarding our Sun Born Creation model or considering it as a basis for introducing a literate extra-solar civilization that existed before the proto-Saturn Golden Age. Such a civilization, apparently of incalculable age – and the cataclysmic events, new ages, and new heavens it recorded for posterity – must have continued to exist, in whatever diminished capacity, until comparatively recent times, evidently when the mytho-historical record of the Solar System’s earliest Humanity began to evolve.
Somebody, somewhere, was there!
“borrowed” from : http://www.goldlibrary.com/sun_born_model.html | <urn:uuid:16f18264-819c-4530-8169-48bef3ab98be> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://kovtr.com/wordpress/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00099-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933259 | 2,868 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Very tight braiding or weaving is linked to a permanent type of hair loss that affects many African American women, new research suggests.
While the findings can't prove hair grooming is at the root of the problem, women might still want to take them into consideration, said Dr. Angela Kyei, who worked on the study.
"I won't tell you not to braid your hair, but I don't want you to braid it so tightly that you need to take pain medication," said Kyei, of the Cleveland Clinic in Ohio.
Prolonged pulling at the hair strands may cause inflammation of the hair follicle, which has been shown to lead to scarring. In principle, that could lead to a type of balding that dermatologists call central centrifugal cicatricial alopecia, or scarring hair loss.
This type of balding starts at the top of the scalp and slowly spreads to the rest. It occurs only in black women. Because there is no treatment for it, Kyei decided to try to find out what is causing it instead.
Read more here. | <urn:uuid:087c513c-a778-46de-8adc-c2df5c3f7db0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.onyxroseonline.com/2011/04/link-of-day-black-womens-hair-loss.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00141-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971538 | 231 | 2.703125 | 3 |
What is the rate law for this reaction? Is the experimental rate law reasonable given the proposed mechanism?
If the reaction NO2 (g) + CO (g) ----> CO2 (g) + NO (g) occurs by a one step process, what would be the expected rate kaw for this reaction?
b.) The actual rate law is Rate = k[NO2]^2. Could the reaction actually occur by a one step collision between NO2 and CO. Explain your answer.
1 Answer | Add Yours
If the reaction occurs in one step, then the given reaction can be considered an elementary reaction.
NO2 (g) + CO (g) ----> CO2 (g) + NO (g)
For an elementary reaction, we can determine the the rate law from the reactants and their coefficients. Treating this as an elementary reaction means that the rate law would be
rate = k[NO2][CO]
However, based on experimental data, the rate law is found to be
rate = k[NO2]^2
which indicates that the mechanism is not a one-step process as proposed but rather that the rate determining step occurs from the collison of two NO2 molecules. Since [CO] is not found in the experimental rate law, it is not involved in the rate determining step and must enter the reaction in another step eliminating the possibility of a one-step mechanism.
We’ve answered 328,247 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question | <urn:uuid:de8256e1-1fdf-42b2-ba7a-832c3179dd79> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/chemistry-rate-law-question-316405 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00198-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939027 | 317 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Thousands of dolphins were spotted on February 14, 2013 off the coast of San Diego, a boat captain told NBC 7 San Diego. Capt. Joe Dutra of Hornblower Cruises said he saw a “super mega-pod” of common dolphins while he was on his daily tour. According to him the pod was more than 7 miles long and 5 miles wide. Dutra said the boat tour followed the pod for more than an hour and said he’s never seen anything like it. Dutra estimated there were about 100,000 dolphins swimming in the area.
“They were coming from all directions, you could see them from as far as the eye can see. I’ve seen a lot of stuff out here… but this is the biggest I’ve ever seen, ever.” Capt. Joe Dutra.
According to marine mammal expert Sarah Wilkin, the reason the large pod might be there is because there’s plenty of food in the area, including sardines, herring and squid. Though dolphins typically travel in groups of 200 or less, Wilkin said “super-pods” are not unheard of.
At the beginning of January 2013, a pod of about 1,000 common dolphins began a stampede, churning across the blue-gray waters off Dana Point at a rapid pace. Dave Anderson, the captain of Capt. Dave’s Dolphin and Whale Safari, said that in the decades he’s spent on the water and out among Southern California’s dense dolphin population, it’s a phenomenon he’s encountered only rarely. Bellow is the amazing video.
Southern California has the greatest density of dolphins per square mile than anywhere on earth. This includes nearly 450,000 common dolphins like the ones in this video. Dana Point is one of the best places in the world to see one of these large megapods that can number in herds of up to 10,000. Porpoising is their fastest mode of travel as there is less resistance in air than water.
Sources: NBCBayArea, FoxSanDiego
Featured image: Photo of the dolphins swimming in a "super mega-pod. (Courtesy of Antonio Ramirez) | <urn:uuid:39509602-7453-4506-ad78-355ae2ec203a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://thewatchers.adorraeli.com/2013/02/16/thousands-of-dolphins-spotted-off-the-coast-of-san-diego-us/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00170-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968547 | 460 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Chlamydia is an infection caused by the bacteria Chlamydia trachomatis. It is most often spread through sexual contact.
Both males and females may have chlamydia without having any symptoms. As a result, you may become infected or pass the infection to your partner without knowing it.
You are more likely to become infected with chlamydia if you:
- Have sex without wearing a male or female condom
- Have more than one sexual partner
- Use drugs or alcohol and then have sex
In men, chlamydia may cause symptoms similar to gonorrhea. Symptoms may include:
- Burning feeling during urination
- Discharge from the penis or rectum
- Tenderness or pain in the testicles
- Rectal discharge or pain
Symptoms that may occur in women include:
- Burning feeling during urination
- Painful sexual intercourse
- Rectal pain or discharge
- Symptoms of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), salpingitis (inflammation of the fallopian tubes), or liver inflammation similar to hepatitis
- Vaginal discharge or bleeding after intercourse
Exams and Tests
If you have symptoms of a chlamydia infection, your health care provider will collect a culture or perform a test called a PCR:
- The culture will be collected during a pelvic exam in women, or from the tip of the penis or rectum in men.
- Results will take 1 to 2 days to come back.
- Your health care provider may also check you for other types of infections, such as gonorrhea.
Even women with no symptoms may need a chlamydia test if they:
- Are 25 years old or younger and are sexually active (get tested every year)
- Have a new sexual partner or more than one partner
Most of these tests may also be done on urine samples.
Your health care provider may also check you for syphilis, HIV, hepatitis, trichomoniasis, and herpes.
The usual treatment for chlamydia is antibiotics.
Sexual partners must be treated so they do not pass the infection back and forth. A person may become infected with chlamydia many times.
A follow-up evaluation may be done in 4 weeks to see if the infection has been cured.
Antibiotic treatment almost always works if you and your partner take the medicines as directed.
If chlamydia spreads into your uterus, it can cause scarring and make it harder for you to get pregnant. You can help prevent this by:
- Finishing your antibiotics when you are treated
- Talking to your health care provider about being tested for chlamydia
- Going to see your health care provider if you have symptoms
- Wearing condoms and practicing safe sex
When to Contact a Medical Professional
Call your health care provider if you have symptoms of chlamydia.
Because many people with chlamydia may not have symptoms, sexually active adults should be screened periodically for the infection.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendations for laboratory-based detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae. MMWR. 2014;63(No. RR-2):1-24. PMID: 17380109 www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17380109.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines. MMWR. 2010;59(RR-12):1-110. PMID: 21160459 www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21160459.
Geisler WM. Diseases caused by chlamydiae. In: Goldman L, Shafer AI, eds. Goldman's Cecil Medicine. 24th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2011:chap 326.
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for chlamydial infection: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2007;147:128-34. PMID: 17576996 www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17576996.
Reviewed By: Cynthia D. White, MD, Fellow American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Group Health Cooperative, Bellevue, WA. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Isla Ogilvie, PhD, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team. | <urn:uuid:520602ae-670c-4682-9510-a814068e2538> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://westernbaptist.adam.com/content.aspx?productId=109&pid=1&gid=001345 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.866818 | 932 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Samuel Langhorne Clemens (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910), better known by his pen name Twain-by-twain-mark/work/274039' >Mark Twain, was a famous and popular American humorist, novelist, writer and lecturer.
At his peak, he was probably the most popular American celebrity of his time. William Faulkner wrote that Twain was "the first truly American writer, and all of us since are his heirs." Clemens maintained that the name "Mark Twain" came from his years on the riverboat, where two fathoms (12 ft, approximately 3.7 m) or "safe water" was measured on the sounding line, was marked by calling "mark twain". But it is often thought that the name actually came from his wilder days in the West, where he would buy two drinks and tell the bartender to "mark twain" on his tab. The true origin is unknown. In addition to Mark Twain, Clemens used the pseudonym "Sieur Louis de Conte". Twain himself wrote:
The old gentleman [Captain Isaiah Sellers] was not of literary turn or capacity, but he used to jot down brief paragraphs of plain practical information about the river, and sign them "MARK TWAIN," and give them to the "New Orleans Picayune." They related to the stage and condition of the river, and were accurate and valuable; and thus far, they contained no poison. [...] I burlesqued it broadly, very broadly, stringing my fantastics out to the extent of eight hundred or a thousand words. I was a "cub" at the time. I showed my performance to some pilots, and they eagerly rushed it into print in the "New Orleans True Delta." It was a great pity; for it did nobody any worthy service, and it sent a pang deep into a good man's heart. There was no malice in my rubbish; but it laughed at the captain. It laughed at a man to whom such a thing was new and strange and dreadful. I did not know then, though I do now, that there is no suffering comparable with that which a private person feels when he is for the first time pilloried in print. [...] He never printed another paragraph while he lived, and he never again signed Mark Twain to anything. At the time that the telegraph brought the news of his death, I was on the Pacific coast. I was a fresh new journalist, and needed a nom de guerre; so I confiscated the ancient mariner's discarded one, and have done my best to make it remain what it was in his hands-- a sign and symbol and warrant that whatever is found in its company may be gambled on as being the petrified truth; how I have succeeded, it would not be modest in me to say.
Mark Twain was "born" here, in the office of the Nevada Territorial Enterprise, when Clemens first used that name on an article published 3 February 1863. Clemens died on 21 April 1910. Halley's Comet was again visible in the night sky. MT's first novel was The Gilded Age, 1873. Oxford awarded Samuel L. Clemens the LLD (Doctor of Letters) in 1907. In 1894, over $100,000 in debt, MT declared bankruptcy.
Samuel Langhorne Clemens was born in Florida, Missouri, the third of four surviving children of John and Jane Clemens.
When he was four years old, The Family moved to the river town of Hannibal, Missouri, hoping their fortunes would improve there. It was this town and its inhabitants that the author Mark Twain later put to such imaginative use in his most famous works, especially The Adventures Of Tom Sawyer (1876).
Clemens' father died in 1847, leaving many debts. The oldest son, Orion, soon began publishing a newspaper and Sam began contributing to it as a journeyman printer and occasional writer. Some of the liveliest and most controversial stories in Orion's paper came from the pen of his younger brother--usually when Orion was out of town. Clemens also traveled to St. Louis and New York City to earn a living as a printer.
But the lure of the Mississippi eventually drew Clemens to a career as a steamboat pilot, a profession he later claimed would have held him to the end of his days, recounting his experiences in his book Life On the Mississippi
After a brief stint with a local militia (an experience he recounted in his short story, "The Private History of a Campaign That Failed" in 1885), he escaped further contact with the war by going west in July of 1861 with Orion, who had been appointed secretary to the territorial governor of Nevada. The two traveled for two weeks across the Plains by stagecoach to the silver-mining town of Virginia City, Nevada.
Clemens' experiences out West formed him as a writer and became the basis of his second book, Roughing It. Once in Nevada he became a miner, hoping to strike it rich digging up silver in the Comstock Lode and staying for long periods in camp with his fellow prospectors--another mode of living that he later put to literary use. Failing as a miner, he fell into newspaper work in Virginia City for the Territorial Enterprise, where he adopted the pen name "Mark Twain" for the first time. In 1864, he moved down to San Francisco and wrote for several papers there.
In 1865, Twain had his first literary success. At the behest of humorist Artemus Ward (whom he had met and befriended in Virginia City during Ward's lecture tour of 1863), he submitted a humorous short story for a collection Ward was publishing. The story arrived too late for that book, but the publisher passed it to the Saturday Press. That story, originally entitled "Jim Smiley and his Jumping Frog" but now better known as "The Celebrated Jumping Frog Of Calaveras County," was reprinted nationwide, and called by Atlantic Monthly editor James Russell Lowell "the finest piece of humorous literature yet produced in America."
In the spring of 1866 he was commissioned by the Sacramento Union newspaper to travel to the Sandwich Islands (now Hawaii) to write a series of letters reporting on his journey there. On his return to San Francisco, the success of the letters and the personal encouragement of Colonel John McComb (publisher of San Francisco's Alta California newspaper) led him to try his hand at the lecture circuit, renting the Academy of Music and charging a dollar a head admission. "Doors open at 7 o'clock," Twain wrote on the advertising poster. "The trouble to begin at 8 o'clock."
The first lecture was a wild success, and soon Twain was traveling up and down the state, lecturing and entertaining to packed houses.
But it was another trip that established his fame as an author. Twain convinced Col. McComb of the Alta California to pay for Twain's passage aboard the steam packet Quaker City on an American excursion to Europe and the Middle East. The resulting letters Twain produced for the newspaper reporting on the trip formed the basis of his first book, The Innocents Abroad, a large and humorous travelogue that pointedly failed to worship Old World arts and conventions. Sold by subscription, the book became hugely popular and put its author in a spotlight he never willingly relinquished for the rest of his life.
After the success of Innocents Abroad he married Olivia Langdon in 1870 and moved to Buffalo, New York, then to Hartford, Connecticut. They had four children: Langdon, Susy, Clara, and Jean. Langdon died in 1872, and the three others were born between 1872 and 1880. During this period, he lectured often in the United States and England.
Later he wrote as an avid critic of American society. He wrote about politics with his Life on the Mississippi.
Twain's greatest contribution to American literature is generally considered to be the novel Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. As Ernest Hemingway himself said:
"All modern American literature comes from one book by Mark Twain called Huckleberry Finn. ...all American writing comes from that. There was nothing before. There has been nothing as good since."
Also popular are The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, The Prince and The Pauper, A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court and the non-fictional Life on the Mississippi.
Twain began as a writer of light humorous verse; he ended as a grim, almost profane chronicler of the vanities, hypocrisies and acts of killing committed by mankind. At mid-career, with Huckleberry Finn, he combined rich humor, sturdy narrative and social criticism in a way almost unrivaled in world literature.
Twain was a master at rendering colloquial speech, and helped to create and popularize a distinctive American literature, built on American themes and language.
Twain had a fascination with science and scientific inquiry. Twain developed a close and lasting friendship with Nikola Tesla. They spent quite a bit of time together from time to time (in Tesla's laboratory, among other places). A Connecticut Yankee In King Arthur's Court featured a time traveller from the America of Twain's day who used his knowledge of science to introduce modern technology to Arthurian England. Twain also patented an improvement in adjustable and detachable straps for garments.
Twain was a major figure in the American Anti-Imperialist League, which opposed the annexation of the Philippines by the United States. He wrote Incident in the Philippines, posthumously published in 1924, in response to the Moro Crater Massacre, in which six hundred Moros were killed.
In recent years, there have been occasional attempts to ban Huckleberry Finn from various libraries, because Twain's use of local color offends some people. Although Twain was against racism and imperialism far in front of public sentiment of his time, some with only superficial familiarity of his work have condemned it as racist for its accurate depiction of the language in common use in the United States in the 19th century. Expressions that were used casually and unselfconsciously then are often perceived today as racism (in present times, such racial epithets are far more visible and condemned). Twain himself would probably be amused by these attempts; in 1885, when a library in Massachusetts banned the book, he wrote to his publisher, "They have expelled Huck from their library as 'trash suitable only for the slums', that will sell 25,000 copies for us for sure."
Many of Mark Twain's works have been suppressed at times for one reason or another. 1880 saw the publication of an anonymous slim volume entitled 1601: Conversation, as it was by the Social Fireside, in the Time of the Tudors. Twain was among those rumored to be the author, but the issue was not settled until 1906, when Twain acknowledged his literary paternity of this scatological masterpiece.
Twain at least saw 1601 published during his lifetime. Twain wrote an anti-war article entitled The War Prayer during the Spanish-American War. It was submitted for publication, but on March 22, 1905, Harper's Bazaar rejected it as "not quite suited to a woman's magazine." Eight days later, Twain wrote to his friend Dan Beard, to whom he had read the story, "I don't think the prayer will be published in my time. None but the dead are permitted to tell the truth." Because he had an exclusive contract with Harper & Brothers, Mark Twain could not publish The War Prayer elsewhere and it remained unpublished until 1923.
In his later life Twain's family suppressed some of his work which was especially irreverent toward conventional religion, notably Letters From the Earth, which was not published until 1962. The anti-religious The Mysterious Stranger was published in 1916.
Perhaps most controversial of all was Mark Twain's 1879 humorous talk at the Stomach Club in Paris entitled Some Thoughts on the Science of Onanism (masturbation), which concluded with the thought "If you must gamble your lives sexually, don't play a lone hand too much." This talk was not published until 1943, and then only in a limited edition of fifty copies.
Twain's fortunes then began to decline; in his later life, Twain was a very depressed man, but still capable. Following the erroneous publication of a premature obituary in the New York Journal, Twain famously responded: "The reports of my death are greatly exaggerated" (June 2, 1897).
His only son, who was sick from the time of his birth, died after Clemens took him out for a walk on a blistery day without covering his carriage. His most favored daughter died while Clemens was in Australia completing a lecture series. After giving birth to four children, his wife was sickly for most of her adult life. All in all he lost 3 out of 4 of his children, and his beloved wife, Olivia Langdon, before his death in 1910. He also had some very bad times with his businesses. His publishing company ended up going bankrupt, and he lost thousands of dollars on one typesetting machine that was never finished. He also lost a great deal of revenue on royalties from his books being plagiarized before he even had a chance to publish them himself.
In 1893, Twain was introduced to industrialist and financier Henry Huttleston Rogers, one of the principals of Standard Oil. Rogers reorganized Twain's tangled finances, and the two became close friends for the rest of their lives. Rogers' family became Twain's surrogate family and Twain was a frequent guest at the Rogers townhouse in New York City and summer home in Fairhaven, Massachusetts. The two were drinking and poker buddies. In 1907, they traveled together in Rogers' yacht Kanawha to the Jamestown Exposition held at Sewell's Point near Norfolk, Virginia in celebration of the 300th anniversary of the founding of the Jamestown Colony.
While Twain openly credited Rogers with saving him from financial ruin, there is also substantial evidence in their published correspondence that the close friendship in their later years was mutually beneficial, apparently softening at least somewhat the hard-driving industrialist Rogers, who had apparently earned the nickname "Hell Hound Rogers" when helping build Standard Oil earlier in his career. In one of history's ironies, Rogers was introduced by Twain to investigative journalist Ida Tarbell, who is widely credited with exposing the dark side of Standard Oil, and did so largely through information she obtained through meetings with Rogers. During the years of their friendship, influenced by Twain, Rogers helped finance the education of Helen Keller and made substantial contributions to Dr. Booker T. Washington. After Rogers' death, Dr. Washington revealed that Rogers (with a much-hated public persona) had been generously funding many small country schools and institutions of higher education in the South for the betterment and education of African Americans for over 15 years.
Although by this late date he was in marginal health, in April, 1909, Twain returned to Norfolk with Rogers, and was a guest speaker at the dedication dinner held for the newly completed Virginian Railway, a "Mountains to Sea" engineering marvel of the day. The construction of the new railroad had been solely financed by industrialist Rogers.
When Rogers died suddenly in New York less than two months later. Twain, on his way by train from Connecticut to visit Rogers, was met with the news at Grand Central Station the same morning by his daughter. His grief-stricken reaction was widely reported. He served as one of the pall-bearers at the Rogers funeral in New York later that week. When he declined to ride the funeral train from New York on to Fairhaven, Massachusetts, for the interment, he stated that he could not undertake to travel that distance among those whom he knew so well, and with whom he must of necessity join in conversation.
Twain himself died less than one year later. He wrote in 1909, "I came in with Halley's Comet in 1835. It is coming again next year, and I expect to go out with it." And so he did. Halley's comet can be seen in the Earth's skies once every 75-76 years. It was visible on November 30, 1835, when Mark Twain was born and was also visible on April 21, 1910, when he died (although the exact dates of Halley's highpoint were November 16th and April 10th, respectively).
After his death, one of the prominent figures who paid public tribute to him was the President of the United States at the time, William H. Taft. In his words, "Mark Twain gave real intellectual enjoyment to millions, and his works will continue to give such pleasures to millions yet to come. He never wrote a line that a father could not read to a daughter." (Taft was presumably unaware of 1601). | <urn:uuid:8490b4c4-7d2b-413a-80a7-51856688b192> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.biblio.com/mark-twain/author/174 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00107-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.985748 | 3,481 | 2.75 | 3 |
- Digital Camera Basics: Understanding Exposure
- Working with Shutter Speeds and f-stops
- f-stops and Depth of Field
- Reality Check
- Shutter Speeds
- Digital and Mechanical Shutters
- Slow and Steady
- Shutter Speeds and f-Stops: a Balancing Act
- Low-Light Photography: Pushing at the Limits
- Determining the Correct Exposure
- Locking Down Good Exposure Readings
- Using Your Camera's Exposure Controls
- Finessing Exposure
- Exposure Compensation
- ISO Equivalencies
- Program Modes
Slow and Steady
A slow shutter speed will blur motion. That includes any camera motion or movement. In other words, if you use a slow shutter speed, even the slightest movement or shake of your hand can blur your photo. Think your hands are rock steady? Think again. Just the natural act of breathing will cause your hand to move or shake enough. If your shutter speed is fast enough, the natural shaking of your hand won't significantly affect your picture. But at slower speeds, the slightest movement can cause your photo to look less than sharp and out of focus.
Here are some guidelines for handling your camera at slower shutter speeds:
For the average person, any shutter speed slower than 1/60 of a second should be shot on a tripod. Some very experienced, rock steady photographers can get away with hand holding at 1/30 of a second, but for most of us, it is generally inadvisable.
If you don't have a tripod handy, brace your camera on a table, gate, tree, wall, or other solid immovable surface. If you have nothing else available, brace it by locking your elbows against your chest and pressing the camera against your forehead.
S-q-u-e-e-z-e, rather than press the shutter button. A light touch is far less likely to jolt the camera than a vigorous click. Most cameras have a two-step shutter (pressing halfway freezes exposure and focus settings), and the best way to take a shot is to depress the shutter halfway just before you are ready to shoot, and then lightly depress it the rest of the way to take a picture.
To eliminate even the tiny bit of shaking that you can cause by squeezing the shutter button, use the self-timer on your camera. (See Figure 6-6 .) Most cameras have a 10-second delay (good if you want to be part of the picture), but a number also feature a more useful 2-second delay. | <urn:uuid:2bacb14d-77a8-461c-b6cc-2a3a570ead8d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,1777911,00.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.903626 | 532 | 3.765625 | 4 |
Freshly cut sugar cane, India.
"Biofuels and Certification"
A Workshop at the Harvard Kennedy School of Government
Liquid biofuels can provide a substitute for fossil fuels in the transportation sector. Many countries have mandated the use of biofuels, by creating targets for their use. If not implemented with care, however, actions that increase biofuel production can put upward pressure on food prices, increase greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and exacerbate degradation of land, forest, and water sources. A strong global biofuels industry will not emerge unless these environmental and social concerns are addressed.
Interested parties around the world are actively debating the design and implementation of policies to meet the biofuel goals, particularly those established in the United States and Europe. In general, policy options for managing the potential risks and benefits of biofuel development should specify not only clear standards governing biofuel content and production processes, but also certification processes for verifying whether particular biofuels meet those standards, and specific metrics or indicators on which to base the certification. Historically, many standards in the energy and environment fields have ultimately been set or supported by governments. Many of the certification processes have been voluntary, carried out by independent third parties. The biofuels case is a young one, however, with questions of goals, standards, certification, and metrics still in interdependent flux. The workshop focused its discussions on certification issues, but found the discussions naturally reaching into ongoing debates regarding possible goals, standards, and metrics.
Many countries are proposing that for a biofuel to qualify as contributing to government-mandated targets or goals, it must be certified to meet certain standards. These standards could be limited to the amount of GHG emitted in the production process or could include a number of other environmental sustainability concerns ranging from deforestation and biodiversity to water resources. While the threat to both forests and food supplies from increased biofuel production is real, it is not clear that setting broad sustainability standards and then requiring sellers to certify that all of those standards have been met is the best way to address these interconnected problems. In particular, if too many standards and related certification requirements are put in place too soon, this could constrain the development of a global biofuels market. In contrast, certification targeted at a specific and limited set of problems and designed with the flexibility to adjust to changes in policies and programs can enhance the public's acceptance of the biofuel option while protecting key social and environmental goals.
A second set of questions revolves around the locus of responsibility for certifying whether biofuel production meets sustainability targets. Should the biofuel processing firms, third parties, or governments be responsible for certifying the production of biofuels? This question also elicited significant discussion. While it could be easier to have individual country governments assume the certification of production responsibility, some governments may not have the capacity to implement an effective certification process. Production facilities that comply with international standards should not be kept out of the market because of their government's inability to manage the process. The possible contribution to effective certification of third party organizations or public-private partnerships should not be underestimated.
For more information about this publication please contact the ENRP Program Coordinator at 617-495-1351.
For Academic Citation: | <urn:uuid:cb5a053f-6bb6-4045-afa0-c0222710e29a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/19188/biofuels_and_certification.html?breadcrumb=%2Fpublication%2Fby_type%2Freport_chapter | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936623 | 658 | 3.328125 | 3 |
Match Each Construct with the Definition
|1) Perceived Susceptibility||a) Belief about the potential positive aspects of a health action|
|2) Perceived Severity||b) Factors which trigger action (e,g. media)|
|3) Perceived Benefits||c) Belief about getting a disease or condition|
|4) Perceived Barriers||d) Belief that one can achieve the behavior required to execute the outcomes|
|5) Cues to Action||e) Belief about the seriousness of the condition or leaving it untreated and its consequences|
|6) Self-Efficacy||f) Belief about the potential negative aspects of a particular health action||Answers: 1) c 2) e 3) a 4) f 5) b 6) d|
Match the Diabetes Prevention Survey Item to HBM Construct
|1) Perceived Susceptibility||a) My chances of having a diabetes-related complication is high.|
|2) Perceived Severity||b) I am sure that I can monitor my blood sugar on a daily basis.|
|3) Perceived Benefits||c) It is serious to have high blood sugar.|
|4) Perceived Barriers||d) It takes too much time to monitor my blood sugar every morning.|
|5) Cues to Action||e) Monitoring my blood sugar makes diabetes easier to live with.|
|6) Self-Efficacy||f) Hearing about diabetes though the media reminds me to take care of myself.||Answers: 1) a 2) c 3) e 4) d 5) f 6) b|
Quiz Questions / Review
- If one were developing an education intervention to prevent osteoporosis in women, what HBM construct(s) might one apply? What type of information would one be interested in gathering? Remember to apply some of the less-widely used constructs, such as cues to action.
- If one were assessing the acceptability of a HIV counseling and testing center, what would one need to know before one implemented the service? Use an HBM framework to develop your answer.
- What HBM constructs and measures would one use to increase mammography adherence among women over 40 years of age in county in Texas. How would one ensure that the measures were both reliable and validated? | <urn:uuid:72696744-f232-41ca-aa1c-1a014e80af98> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.med.upenn.edu/hbhe4/part2-ch3-quiz-questions.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.885442 | 490 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Freshwater - Drivers and pressures (Norway)
In the last 50 years, there have been major changes in settlement patterns and patterns of leisure activity in Norway. More and more people have moved from rural districts to urban areas, and major improvements have been needed in the way waste water from towns and urban areas is managed and treated. The changes in settlement patterns have put more pressure on watercourses near the largest urban areas. However, Norway utilises only one per mil of its water resources, and water extraction puts little pressure on water resources.
Environmental pressures on Norwegian rivers and lakes can be divided into three main groups:
•pollution: includes point sources, fugitive emissions, and long-range transboundary pollution, which may result in acidification, eutrophication and the spread of hazardous substances
•physical alteration: mainly as a result of hydropower developments, but other examples are transport infrastructure, which may act as a barrier to fish migration, and canalisation of rivers for agricultural purposes
•biological pressures: include the introduction of alien species such as minnows and pondweed, the escape of farmed fish, and parasites such as salmon lice.
The most important pressures on Norwegian water bodies are long-range pollution and morphological alterations of water bodies, followed by pollution from agriculture and waste water.
Major hydropower developments are not an issue at present, but existing plans and regulations pose great stress on habitats. Hydrological alterations in form of fluctuations, dry rivers and sedimentation impair quality on habitats and can have lethal effects on species.
For references, please go to www.eea.europa.eu/soer or scan the QR code.
PDF generated on 25 Jun 2016, 09:39 AM | <urn:uuid:266a9a4f-fc52-401c-9a38-448aac2eeeee> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eea.europa.eu/soer/countries/no/freshwater-drivers-and-pressures-norway/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00059-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935728 | 358 | 3.4375 | 3 |
In order to mop the kitchen floor, the Right Way to prepare the bucket of cleaning agent is…
fill with water, then pour some soap
pour some soap, then fill with water
fill water only
mopping is unnecessary
only my spouse needs to know this
I pay someone to mop
This post was preceded by an hour long IRC discussion about what English terms to use for where I use “soap” and “cleaning agent” above. There weren't too many good suggestions for “cleaning agent” (there's “solution”), and I'm not really satisfied with that phrase. However, there were more possibilities instead of “soap”: qw“detergent bleach ammonia surfactant”, “pine cleaner”. I tried to defend the statement that the dictionary definition for “soap” is clear enough in that it includes only produces whose main element is an organic substance made from fat and alkali, whereas you usually mop with a product whose main ingredient is hydrogen chloride. We decided this was false, “soap” includes both kind of substances in informal speech. Indeed, most people don't even know the difference, which is why there are home accidents from mixing bleach made of hydrogen chloride with basic chemicals, when a chemical reaction causes poisonous chlorine gas to be released (don't try this at home).
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by Dr. (Mrs.) Jyotsna Kamat
One would expect that in medieval times women were almost like domesticated pets caged in the house, considering all the equality and libertarian movements the mankind has gone though. Lawmaker Manu's oft-quoted statement that women are not worthy of freedom strengthens this expectation. However, the inscriptions, literary sources and sculptures of the period give an astonishingly different picture of status of women in South India in medieval times.
According to B.P.Mazumbar, Northern India did not have any women administrators of provinces or kingdoms during this period. In contrast, Karnataka had women who administered villages, towns, divisions and heralded social and religious institutions. Piriyaketaladevi, a queen of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI ruled three villages. According to an inscripture of 1148 A.D. Lakkadevi was a village headman. Jakkiabbe ably administered seventy villages after premature death of her husband. Mailalladevi, a senior queen of Someshwara-I ruled the important province of Banavasi comprising 12,000 villages.
It is evident from a inscripture of 1187 A.D. that the Jain nuns enjoyed the same amount of freedom as their male counterparts. There were female trustees, priestesses, philanthropists, musicians and scholars.
The historical sources of the period are abundantly filled with stories of accomplished women of the time. Shantaladevi, the Hoysala queen was an expert in singing, dancing and instrumental music. Fig 242 shows her in a graceful dancing pose. She also held durbar with her illustrious husband Vishnuvardhana. Fig 244 shows a rare carving where a woman is shown writing.
COURTESANS, TEMPLE GIRLS AND ACTRESSES
Description of courtesans had become an essential part of classics. They were recognized, tolerated and at times held respectable place in the society.
Dedicating girls to temples was an ancient practice and by the tenth century, it had become well established. They were called Devadasis (servant of God) and served priests, and noble men. Temple grants included expenses for Devadasis. Some of them were experts of arts including singing, dancing and acting performances. The institution of Devadasis continued sporadically in India till recent times (see Given to Goddess).
BONDMAIDS AND WORKING WOMEN
All menial tasks like cleaning in temples and private households were undertaken by bondmaids whose position was not high in the society. The saint-poet Basaveshwara tried to better their lot and that of their children by declaring that after initiation into Veerashaivism, the latter were to be considered holy and duly honored.
In addition to their household duties, women gave a helping hand to their men in their vocations. The occupation of a nurse (dhatri) was quite common. Women also worked in fields.
Basaveshwara's theory of Kayaka (Kayakave-Kailasa) , led many women to realize God through their humble occupations.
INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE
Marriage was compulsory for all the girls except for those opted for asceticism. Brahman girls were married between ages 8 and 10 from sixth or century onwards up to the modern times. Polygamy was permitted to all who could afford and it was especially popular among Kshatriaysa for political reasons. According to Mansasollsa, the king should marry a Kshatria girl of noble birth for a chief queen though he is permitted to have Vaisya or Sudra wives for pleasure.
SATI OR SAHAGAMANA
Sati was prevalent among certain classes of women, who either took the vow or deemed it a great honor to die on the funeral pyres of their husbands. Ibn Batuta observed that Sati was considered praiseworthy by the Hindus, without however being obligatory. The Agni Purana declares that the woman who commits sahagamana goes to heaven and Medhatiti pronounced that Sati was like suicide and was against the Shastras. In an age of such divergent views, women of the Deccan followed a middle path. They were not coerced, although several wives committed Sati. The majority of the widows did not undergo Sati. (see: Love? Duty? or Sacrifice?)
Mahasati stones were erected in memory of brave women who committed Sati and are periodically worshipped. The number of such stones are a few, indicating a small number of such women. There are no instances of remarriage of widows. (see also: Hero-stones)
Alberuni writes that Indian women preferred self immolation by Sati to the suffering of life of a widow. Ibn Batuta also felt that the plight of widows was miserable. A widow was considered an inauspicious person and was prohibited from wearing colorful clothes, ornaments, decorate hair, as is seen from descriptions in literature.
However, there are no concrete pointers to indicate that widows had to shave their heads, as became the norm in later years (see: Plight of Widows in India)
A few women of the time who despised their husbands, attracted other men by wanton behaviors. A sculpture in Bhatkal depicts a case of a woman's infidelity. A husband catches the paramour of his wife red-handed and is about to punish him. The wife is shown as pleading for her lover (figure 246).
Pictures 247 and 248 show punishments to women for immoral behavior.
There was a class of men who believed in the superiority of women. Somadeva thought that discrimination between men and women was valid in respect of physical ability, but the latter were superior in intellectual ability. Achale was a lady of rare distinction and it is said that Chandramauli, a minister of the Hoysala Kings was a befitting husband for her. This is an expression used contrary to the normal belief of a wife being worthy of her husband.
The women of medieval Deccan were complimentary to men and not
competitive in all fields and they together made a complete unit. Women faced hardships
bravely, and excelled in the field of charity, exhibiting their sense of social service.
They were good housewives, pursued fine arts and when given a chance, shone as good
administrators and fought battles. In spiritual field also, they made their contributions.
Excerpted from Author's 1980 Book, Social Life in Medieval Karnataka, Abhinav, New Delhi.
See Related Topics at Kamat's Potpourri
References on Women of India
|Kamat's Potpourri Timeless Theater Ancient India Women|
Merchandise and Link Suggestions | <urn:uuid:63d15ee8-d5c1-4085-9132-0739627598da> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.kamat.com/jyotsna/women.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978005 | 1,416 | 3.390625 | 3 |
The challenge for you is to make a string of six (or more!) graded
Can you make a 3x3 cube with these shapes made from small cubes?
Find all the ways to cut out a 'net' of six squares that can be
folded into a cube.
How can we as teachers begin to introduce 3D ideas to young
children? Where do they start? How can we lay the foundations for a
later enthusiasm for working in three dimensions?
A half-cube is cut into two pieces by a plane through the long diagonal and at right angles to it. Can you draw a net of these pieces? Are they identical?
Here are some pictures of 3D shapes made from cubes. Can you make
these shapes yourself?
Can you mentally fit the 7 SOMA pieces together to make a cube? Can
you do it in more than one way?
You have 27 small cubes, 3 each of nine colours. Use the small cubes to make a 3 by 3 by 3 cube so that each face of the bigger cube contains one of every colour.
Here are four cubes joined together. How many other arrangements of four cubes can you find? Can you draw them on dotty paper?
This problem is about investigating whether it is possible to start at one vertex of a platonic solid and visit every other vertex once only returning to the vertex you started at.
In this investigation, you must try to make houses using cubes. If
the base must not spill over 4 squares and you have 7 cubes which
stand for 7 rooms, what different designs can you come up with?
Is it possible to remove ten unit cubes from a 3 by 3 by 3 cube made from 27 unit cubes so that the surface area of the remaining solid is the same as the surface area of the original 3 by 3 by 3. . . .
Explore the properties of oblique projection.
Can you visualise whether these nets fold up into 3D shapes? Watch the videos each time to see if you were correct.
This article explores ths history of theories about the shape of our planet. It is the first in a series of articles looking at the significance of geometric shapes in the history of astronomy.
Explore the properties of isometric drawings.
This is the first article in a series which aim to provide some insight into the way spatial thinking develops in children, and draw on a range of reported research. The focus of this article is the. . . .
The second in a series of articles on visualising and modelling shapes in the history of astronomy.
A tennis ball is served from directly above the baseline (assume
the ball travels in a straight line). What is the minimum height
that the ball can be hit at to ensure it lands in the service area?
This article, written for teachers, looks at the different kinds of
recordings encountered in Primary Mathematics lessons and the
importance of not jumping to conclusions!
Explore the properties of perspective drawing.
This article (the first of two) contains ideas for investigations.
Space-time, the curvature of space and topology are introduced with
some fascinating problems to explore. | <urn:uuid:cfa2765b-b46e-49a1-8640-9248408afa5e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nrich.maths.org/public/leg.php?code=114&cl=2&cldcmpid=6931 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93306 | 650 | 3.765625 | 4 |
Viral load is the term used to describe the amount of HIV in your blood. The more HIV there is in your blood (and therefore the higher your viral load), then the faster your CD4 cell count will fall, and the greater your risk of becoming ill because of HIV.
Viral load tests measure the amount of HIV’s genetic material in a blood sample. The results of a viral load test are described as the number of copies of HIV RNA in a millilitre of blood. But your doctor will normally just talk about your viral load as a number. For example, a viral load of 10,000 would be considered low; 100,000 would be considered high. Viral load changes can be very large, so they are sometimes quantified using the powers of ten, or ‘log scale’. A 1-log change is the same as a ten-fold change (so 5,000 to 50,000 or vice versa); a 2-log change is a 100-fold change and is written as 102.
Your viral load if you are not taking HIV treatment
You should have your viral load measured when you are first diagnosed with HIV. If it is known that you have very recently become HIV positive (a period known as primary infection), you will have it measured three to six months later to determine your viral load ‘set point’ – the level of your viral load once it stabilises when the period of primary infection is over.
Your viral load will be monitored at your regular HIV clinic appointments – generally twice a year if you don’t have any symptoms. This is because the level of your viral load can provide important information about the way that HIV might affect your health if it is left untreated. Amongst people with the same CD4 cell count, those with a high viral load tend to lose CD4 cells and become ill faster.
When you’re not taking HIV treatment, the level of your viral load can fluctuate between tests. Often increases in your viral load are nothing to worry about. Even a doubling in your viral load might not be significant.
Vaccinations, such as a flu injection, and infections can cause a temporary increase in your viral load. Talk to your doctor about whether you should delay your next viral load test – sometimes it is recommended to wait at least one month after having a vaccination or getting over an infection.
Like your CD4 count, it’s best to look at the trend in your viral load over time. When viral load results over several months show a continuing increase, or when the increase is greater than three-fold, there may be a cause for concern.
For example, an increase from 5,000 to 15,000 shouldn’t cause you to worry when you are not on treatment. A rise from 50,000 to 100,000 may not be significant, but a rise from 5,000 to 25,000 is likely to be significant. This result suggests your viral load is five times the level it was at your last viral load test.
Your doctor will probably want to confirm this trend with a repeat test.
When you’re thinking about starting HIV treatment, one of the factors your doctor will discuss with you is your viral load. As mentioned earlier, it is recommended that people start HIV treatment when their CD4 cell count is around 350. Your viral load can also be a factor in choosing which anti-HIV drugs you start treatment with.
You’ll have a viral load test just before you start HIV treatment.
Viral load if you are taking HIV treatment
Your viral load should start to fall once you start HIV treatment. Taking your treatment in the right way, every day, gives it the best chance of working. If you’re having difficulty taking your treatment, for any reason, it is really important to talk to your doctor or another member of your healthcare team about it.
Your doctor will check your viral load within a month of starting treatment, and again three months after starting. Your viral load four weeks after starting HIV treatment is a good indicator of whether it will become undetectable on this combination of anti-HIV drugs.
The aim of HIV treatment is an undetectable viral load. Your viral load should have fallen to undetectable levels within three to six months of starting HIV treatment. If this doesn’t happen, your doctor will talk to you about possible reasons for this and next steps.
Once you have an undetectable viral load, you will have your viral load monitored every three to four months. If you have had an undetectable viral load for some time and are doing well on treatment, your doctor may offer you the option to have your viral load measured every six months.
Undetectable viral load
All viral load tests have a cut-off point below which they cannot reliably detect HIV. This is called the limit of detection. Tests used most commonly in the UK have a lower limit of detection of either 40 or 50 copies/ml, but there are some very sensitive tests that can measure below 20 copies/ml. If your viral load is below 50, it is usually said to be undetectable. The aim of HIV treatment is to reach an undetectable viral load.
But just because the level of HIV is too low to be measured doesn’t mean that HIV has disappeared completely from your body. It might still be present in the blood, but in amounts too low to be measured. Viral load tests only measure levels of HIV in the blood, which may be different to the viral load in other parts of your body, for example in your genital fluids, gut or lymph nodes.
Why it’s good to have an undetectable viral load
Having an undetectable viral load is important for a number of reasons.
First of all, because your immune system is able to recover and become stronger, it means that you have a very low risk of becoming ill because of HIV. It also reduces your risk of developing some other serious illnesses as well. There is some evidence that the presence of HIV (especially a higher viral load) can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease (illnesses such as heart disease and stroke).
Secondly, having an undetectable viral load means that the risk of HIV becoming resistant to the anti-HIV drugs you are taking is very small.
Finally, having an undetectable viral load reduces the risk of passing on HIV to someone else. This is discussed in more detail below.
Detectable viral load if you are taking HIV treatment
If your viral load hasn’t fallen to undetectable levels within three to six months of starting HIV treatment, then your doctor will talk to you about your current treatment. They may ask some detailed questions about how and when you take your anti-HIV drugs and whether you have taken any other drugs – including prescription, over-the-counter, herbal or recreational drugs – at the same time. This is because not taking treatment regularly, or interactions with other drugs, can cause the levels of anti-HIV drugs in your body to be too low to work. You may have a blood test to look at the level of anti-HIV drugs in your blood and to see if your HIV has developed resistance to any drugs.
Then they will discuss the options with you. This may involve changing your anti-HIV drugs to find a combination that works for you.
Having a detectable viral load when you are taking HIV treatment can mean that your HIV will become resistant not only to the anti-HIV drugs you are taking, but also to other similar anti-HIV drugs as well.
If you are taking HIV treatment and have had an undetectable viral load, and then you have a test that shows a detectable viral load, you will need to have another test to confirm the result. It may just be what is called a viral load ‘blip’.
If later tests still show your viral load has become detectable again, you will probably need to change your HIV treatment. Your doctor will discuss your options with you.
Viral load blips
People with an undetectable viral load sometimes experience what are called ‘blips’ in their viral load. Their viral load increases from undetectable to a low but detectable level before becoming undetectable again on the next test.
Viral load blips do not necessarily show that your HIV treatment is no longer working.
There are a number of theories about the reasons for blips. These include variations in the laboratory processes, or having an infection like a cold or the flu.
If your viral load stays above detectable on two consecutive tests, or possibly if you have fairly frequent blips, your doctor will want to discuss possible causes and whether you need to change your treatment.
Viral load and sexual transmission of HIV
If you have a high viral load in your blood, then you might also have a high viral load in other body fluids, including your semen or vaginal fluid. People with high viral loads are more infectious and can pass HIV on more easily.
As well as reducing viral load in your blood, HIV treatment also reduces viral load in other body fluids, such as semen and vaginal fluid.
There’s been a lot of debate about how infectious someone is to their sexual partner if they are on HIV treatment and have an undetectable viral load.
It is clear that having an undetectable viral load when taking HIV treatment can greatly reduce the risk of HIV being passed on (sometimes called ‘treatment as prevention’). But, as yet, we don’t know whether having an undetectable viral load completely removes the risk of passing on HIV. Having an undetectable viral load in a blood test does not necessarily mean viral load would be undetectable in semen, vaginal fluids or breast milk. Viral load could fluctuate between tests and other factors can affect infectiousness. For example, sexually transmitted infections may cause virus levels to rise.
Looking at CD4 and viral load together
If you’re not currently taking HIV treatment, looking at your viral load and CD4 cell count can help predict your risk of becoming ill because of HIV in the future. While your CD4 cell count is the main indicator your doctor will use to help monitor the health of your immune system, viral load testing can also provide important information.
Among people with the same CD4 cell counts, research has shown that those with a higher viral load tend to develop symptoms more quickly than those with a lower viral load.
In addition, among people with the same viral load, those with lower CD4 cell counts tend to become ill more quickly. | <urn:uuid:9779d1e1-f04c-498a-9396-56bae9e86f84> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://napwha.org.au/health-treatments/viral-load | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00017-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951724 | 2,202 | 3.28125 | 3 |
Gulf War syndrome has no formal medical definition. But that is just the start of the problem.
Since it first emerged in the complaints of Army reservists from Indiana in 1992, the term has come to mean a group of symptoms that commonly include fatigue, joint pains, skin rash, diarrhea, sleeplessness, sleep disturbances, difficulty concentrating and mood instability. How big the problem is and what explains it remain issues of maddening uncertainty and rancorous disagreement, despite a decade of research.
Researchers have established with near certainty that Gulf War veterans have not died or been hospitalized at higher rates than other veterans who served at the same time. Nor have they had more children with birth defects. But determining how many of the 697,000 men and women who served in the Gulf subsequently became chronically ill has been much harder.
More than 100,000 people enrolled in registries established by the Department of Veterans Affairs and the Department of Defense in the years immediately after the war's end. Muscle and joint pain were the most frequently cited symptoms, reported by 40 percent of people in the VA registry and by 52 percent of those in the Defense Department registry. Fatigue and headache were reported by one-fourth to nearly one-half of the people, with dozens of other complaints less common.
Because those who registered were a self-selected group, however, they gave an unreliable estimate for the whole population of Gulf veterans. A survey begun by VA epidemiologists in 1995 provided a better one.
The researchers selected 15,000 Gulf War veterans and 15,000 veterans who served elsewhere at the same time and asked them to fill out a long questionnaire about 42 symptoms and numerous other things. Gulf veterans complained of all the symptoms at higher rates, and 23 percent described their health as fair or poor.
If the VA sample truly represents Gulf War veterans as a whole, then as many as 160,000 men and women may consider themselves to be in less than optimal health since the war. Many theories have been offered over the years about the cause of the problems, including the effects of smoke, dust, vaccines, tropical infections, depleted-uranium ammunition, minute quantities of chemical weapons agents, the drug pyridostigmine bromide and pesticides. But 14 expert panels, including a presidential commission that met for two years, rejected all those explanations.
Nearly all the panels pointed to psychological stressand in particular the threat of chemical and biological attackas a likely cause of some illnesses. The stress theory, however, is controversial, and greatly resented by many veterans.
After every American conflict dating at least to the Civil War, physicians have noted a syndrome of vague physical complaints in large numbers of veteranspresumably arising from the stress of war. Gulf War syndrome, many think, is this war's version of that phenomenon.
Evidence for unusual levels of stress-related psychiatric illness in Gulf veterans is inconsistent. The VA study found post-traumatic stress syndrome in 10 percent of Gulf veterans, compared with 4 percent of non-Gulf veterans. Some other studies, however, have found much lower rates.
Today, the scientific consensus is that Gulf War syndrome is not a unique entity and has no specific cause. Instead, it is a catch-all label for problems with myriad causes.
At the severe end of the spectrum are people with serious degenerative ailments (such as Lou Gehrig's disease or early-onset Alzheimer's) for which the causes are unknown but are believed by many current sufferers to have arisen from their Gulf War service. In the middle are people with psychiatric disorders that have physical manifestations. At the mild endaccounting for most of the complaintsare people whose symptoms are little different from those experienced daily by the general population, but have been magnified by attention and attributed to the Gulf War.
Not everyone agrees. A few scientists continue to seek a single cause, or cluster of war-time exposures, to account for Gulf War syndrome. | <urn:uuid:1bdcd11a-0ab0-4d4f-9620-2d677d30b1d9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/27c/065.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00141-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968646 | 803 | 3.484375 | 3 |
What is a Genotype?
A genotype is the genetic constitution of an organism; it refers to the combination of alleles and genes.
A phenotype is the expression of the genotype and its expression with the environment. For example, there are genes for height, however, if growing up, someone doesn't have good nutrition, they will never grow very tall.
At this level, you should already know about alleles and dominance and recessiveness (see here if you don't). We use the term heterozygous when there is a pair of different alleles (Aa) and homozygous when they are the same (BB).
The sex of someone is determined not by individual genes but by an entire chromosome pair. In humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes, the last pair is normal in females (is said to be XX), but in males, one of the chromosomes is shorter than the other (males are said to be XY). See the diagram below
It is also possible to have other chromosome combinations for example XXY and XO (only one X chromosome), and these lead to genetic disorders; for more see here. However, it is interesting to note that having the combination XYY has no observable affect, and those with this configuaration are normal males.
There are different forms of gene called alleles. These different forms of gene are what cause variation amoungst living things. There are two types of allele: dominant and recessive. Let's look at an example to understand this.
One type of gene is for eye colour. The allele for brown is dominant and thus represented as 'B' (capital letter). The allele for blue eyes is recessive and represented as 'b' (lower case).
the MOTHER has brown eyes and the genotype Bb
the FATHER has blue eyes and the genotype bb.
If they have a baby, it gets an allele from each parent. You can work out the possible outcomes by representing it in a 'punnet square'.
Two of the outcomes are Bb. This means the baby has a 50% chance of having brown eyes. As, even though it has a b (blue eye) allele, it has one B allele, and as this is dominant the baby will have this characteristic. In order to have blue eyes, the baby must have two recessive blue alleles (bb).
Inheriting Blood Group
Monohybrid inheritance is fairly simple. But now we willl look at codominance and dihybrid inheritance by studying blood groups and the associated genetics.
You will not always have one recessive and one dominant allelle; sometimes, there might be two or more that are codominat. Take the example of blood group, where A and B are dominant to O, and A and B are codominant. This means that if you have the genotype AO or BO then your blood type will be A or B, but having AB means you have both A and B blood group, and the only way to have blood group O is to have the genotype OO.
However, there are other markers that affect blood group. One of these is known as the Rhesus factor and is either positive or negative. Positive is dominant and negative is recessive. This means we have two types of gene for the same thing. It is possible to work out the possible outcomes of offspring when these are crossed; this is called: dihybrid inheritance, and it works as follows:
As shown in the chromosome diagram above, the male Y chromosome has much less genetic information; this means that it doesn't have some genes that the homologous X does. So males only have one copy of a gene and therefore are more likely to be affected by recessive disorders.
If they had a daughter, there would be a 50% chance of HH, and 50% chance of Hh (heterozygous) and a 0 chance of being affected because two affected allelles are needed.
Epistasis is an interaction between two genes where one allelle affects the expression of another, this can lead to a graduation of phenotype. It is best explained by example, so here is a (fictitious) example of rat colouration.
The default colour in this example. Is to have white fur. If the rat has the dominant gene A, then a pigment is produced to make a brown rat. Then if the rat has the dominant allelle B on top of this the pigment is modified again to make a black rat. If the rat has the B allelle but not A, then it will remain white because it is a continuum . If you wanted to work out the genetic possibilities, you would use the dihybrid inheritance explained above. | <urn:uuid:f60c8035-7909-467d-9a72-d6f5429461ca> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://scienceaid.co.uk/biology/genetics/inheritance.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00158-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953988 | 984 | 4.5 | 4 |
Sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella) is one of the herbs in Essiac tea. In April of 1974 Rene Caisse wrote the following to Dr. Chester Stock of Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center: "The herb that will destroy a cancer is the dog-eared sheep sorrel, sometimes called sourgrass. The entire plant must be used." Rene Caisse used the whole sheep sorrel plant, including the roots, and she stated that sheep sorrel roots were "very essential" to the Essiac formula.
According to the GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE: "Sheep sorrel is gaining popularity as an anticancer agent and for its ability to break down and reduce tumors. A poultice made from sheep sorrel is reported to have a drawing effect on tumors or cysts. Sheep sorrel's rutins and polysaccharides act to prevent tumors and other cancerous growths. The beta carotene contained in sheep sorrel acts as an antioxidant, increasing the production of white blood cells and T-cells (cancer-killing cells). The chlorophyll in sheep sorrel acts to purify the liver, promote regeneration of tissue, decrease swelling of the pancreas, strengthen cell walls, cleanse the blood, and may increase resistance to x rays. The oxalic acid also has antitumor and anticancer properties. Sheep sorrel has also been used to treat the side effects of chemotherapy.
"Herbalists recommend sheep sorrel for treating mouth and throat ulcers, digestive disorders, hemorrhoids, loss of appetite, fevers, scurvy, and infections. The juice extracted from the fresh plant is used to treat urinary and kidney disease. Sheep sorrel can be applied externally as a topical wash for skin problems such as herpes, eczema, and itchy rashes including poison ivy and hives.
"All parts of sheep sorrel (leaves, flowers, roots, and stems) are used medicinally. The leaves and stems should be harvested in the spring or summer before the flowers form. The roots are harvested in the fall. Small quantities of the leaves of sheep sorrel may be eaten in salads or boiled as a green vegetable. Sheep sorrel is also available in tincture, capsule, or tea form. The leaves are brewed as a tea to treat fever, inflammation, and scurvy. A tea made from the roots is used for diarrhea and excessive menstrual bleeding." [THE GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE, pp. 1570-1571]
Garden sorrel (Rumex acetosa) is not medicinally the same as the smaller, wild sheep sorrel called (Rumex acetosella) and therefore garden sorrel should not be substituted for Rumex acetosella.
CLICK HERE to learn about the importance of including sheep sorrel roots in Essiac tea.
CLICK HERE to read about sheep sorrel solution used by Rene M. Caisse to treat patients at her Cancer Clinic.
CLICK HERE to find out how Essiac tea works. This is very important information about sheep sorrel.
"We all have the right to benefit from Essiac because no one can stop us making it, no one can stop us taking it and no one can stop us deciding how and when we're going to do it." [THE ESSIAC BOOK by Mali Klein, 2006]
ESSIAC QUESTIONS? For answers to your Essiac questions we recommend THE ESSIAC BOOK by Mali Klein. Please do not ask the webmaster to diagnose or treat any ailment as this should be done by a competent, experienced naturopath or nutrition-oriented medical doctor who has personally examined you. It is important to remember that each individual's body has specific requirements for nutrition. Therefore, the information offered on this web site is for general information only and not to be construed as medical advice or treatment for anyone.
Rene Caisse and her Herbal Cancer Treatment, ESSIAC
* ESSIAC INFO * * ESSIAC FAQ *
* CLICK HERE to find sources for authentic Essiac Tea *
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All Rights Reserved in Natural Law http://www.HealthFreedom.info. | <urn:uuid:63b8ca1f-6348-4a40-8bdc-15f54d4ea72b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.healthfreedom.info/sheep_sorrel.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.913532 | 935 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Sustaining a thriving lobster fishery through science and community.
| Table of Contents
What's in a name?
Molting & Growth
Nervous & Sensory Systems
Muscular System & The Lobster's Tail
Larvae & PostLarvae
The Lobster's Future
Arthropods evolved from a common lineage with annelids and mollusks and therefore share some fundamental organizational features of their nervous systems. The most primitive examples of this lineage consist of a bilaterally symmetrical nervous system of one ganglia per body segment, each of which is composed of paired hemi-ganglia, one on each side of the body. The ganglia of adjacent segments are connected by intersegmental connectives, while the contralateral hemiganglia are connected by commissures. This neuronal architecture comprises a ladder-like chain consisting of a brain, two circumesophageal connectives, and a ventral nerve cord.
The supraesophageal ganglion forms the brain, which typically contains integrative centers for the major senses and pre-motor systems controlling many segmental ganglia. This ganglion represents the fusion of several paired ganglia. Circumesophageal connectives run ventrally (towards the tail) around the esophagus and are reconnected with each other by the tritocerebral commissure. In other words, the lobster's gut penetrates its brain. A pair of connective ganglia, known as the stomatogastric ganglia, lie on the circumesophageal connectives. The ventral nerve cord then continues on towards the telson and is made up of the subesophageal ganglion (which is due to the fusion of three cephalic ganglia and the first two thoracic ganglia), five additional thoracic ganglia, and six abdominal ganglia. The subesophageal ganglia controls the mouthparts. Much seemingly normal behavior can occur when the circumesophageal connectives are severed, pointing to many higher level functions of the subesophageal ganglia. The remaining segmental ganglia control postural musculature, appendages on the segments, and some organs, such as the intestine.Lobsters have compound eyes, as do most arthropods, but these are stalked to provide a broader field of view and increased binocular spread. In clawed lobsters, each eye has 13,500 ommatidia which are light capturing, image forming organs. Lobster eyes are adapted for use in low-light environments, but appear to be only monochromatic (no true color discrimination ability). How good is their eyesight? How much do they rely on it, relative to other sensory systems like smell, taste, or touch? Lobsters, with their eyes perched on top of their heads, certainly detect shadows of potential predators looming above them - - whether that detection is perceived simply as quick changes in light intensity or whether an image is formed is not known. Lobsters also use some obvious visual displays in agonistic encounters. Still, chemical and tactile senses appear to be the keys to successful social encounters and prey detection. However, vision in lobsters has not been well studied.
Even though lobsters live in a watery world, they have highly developed systems of both smell and taste. The first antennae, properly known as antennules (little antennae), act as the "nose" of the lobster. Hundreds of fine hairs cover the antennules and are the actual organs of smell. These hairs are incredibly sensitive to amino acids, the building blocks of all proteins, of which animal tissue is made. However, the hairs are densely packed on the antennules and this proves to be a problem in a watery environment. Water is much more viscous (sticker) than air, as oils are more viscous than water. When fine structures are densely packed together and placed in a water environment, the water between these structures is not easily moved - - in other words, a boundary of nonmoving water is formed around the structure. In order for a lobster to be able to smell something, or to be able to walk towards a smell, it has to constantly sample the chemicals in the water to determine their changing concentration. Lobsters do this in the same way that humans do - - they sniff. Sniffing is accomplished by flicking the antennule downward quickly - - this removes the old water and replaces it with new water and a new odor sample. Flicking can be easily observed by watching a lobster in a tank (at an aquarium,restaurant, supermarket, or lobster pound) for just a few moments. Because lobsters have two antennules, they can determine the direction of the smell by comparing the difference in concentrations between the two antennules. Humans use a similar mechanism for distinguishing between different concentrations (noise levels) of the same signal to determine the direction of sounds.
The legs and mouthparts possess the taste organs, which are also hairs, but of different shapes from those found on the antennules. Legs probe the sediment for food items and pass these items to the mouthparts which provide the final determination of whether something should be swallowed or not. Clawed lobsters generally use a combination of claws, legs, and mouthparts while consuming food. The claws are used for crushing mollusks. Spiny lobsters lack claws and use their extremely strong jaws (mandibles) to break open mollusks. Slipper lobsters lack both claws and strong jaws and instead use the incredibly sharp points of their legs to slice open mollusks. If the food is fleshy, the lobster will grip one end in its jaws (mandibles, the final pair of mouthparts before the esophagus) and use the first pair of mouthparts and/or the pincers of the legs to pull the flesh downward. This stretches and tears the muscle fibers of the flesh and the lobster then consumes "strings" of flesh. Lobsters have been misclassified as scavengers - - eaters of rotting flesh and dead animals. Lobsters generally reject rotting material and greatly prefer live or freshly killed food over dead decaying tissue.
Mechanoreception (touch, water movements, equilibrium, motion control, and hearing) is also a very important sense for lobsters. The large antennae house the major touch receptors. Lobster antennae can detect uni- and bidirectional water movements, which would help in orientation to currents or swells. Their carapace has numerous hairs which probably serve to detect water movements similar to the lateral line system of fishes - - this is the case in crayfish, but has yet to be proven in lobsters. This sense would be particularly useful in small lobsters who are prey to many moving predators and to lobsters attempting to capture food when vision may not be possible, as it would provide much information on moving objects. The entire exoskeleton has cuticular receptors that monitor stress (pressure) on the cuticle (shell) itself.
Statocysts (an organ for orientation and equilibrium) lie in the base of the antennules. They are composed of 400-500 hairs distributed in 4 rows that project into the statolith (sand grains cemented together). When the animal shifts its orientation, fluid in the statocyst moves the hairs in a particular direction, relative to the statolith, which moves at a different rate because of its inertia. This differential movement stimulates some hairs more than others and gives the animal a sense of the direction of the movement. Similarly, the organ is used to detect the overall position of the animal - - whether it is right side up or upside down. The purpose of the statocyst is to give the animal a sense of equilibrium and it functions much like our inner ear system.
Lobsters also possess proprioreceptors - - sensory hairs that are internal and provide information about limb movement, posture, and equilibrium. These are generally located at joints and within muscles and are stimulated when the joint is bent or straightened and when the muscles are stretched. Proprioreception is critical to maintaining proper posture and coordination during movements.
Lobsters are also capable of producing and detecting low-frequency sounds. Clawed lobsters produce a growl or rasplike sound by contracting a small sonic muscle in the base of the large antennae. These sounds are not made during social interactions, but have been recorded for lobsters resting in their shelters and can be felt (not heard) when a human pulls a lobster from its tank or natural habitat. Their purpose is completely unknown, but may have something to do with defense. In contrast, spiny lobsters possess a stridulatory organ at the base of the second antennae that makes a variety of sounds: rasps (during aggressive encounters or when predators are nearby), slow rattles/flutters (when secluded), pops (when the lobster is out of its shelter), and mating calls. They do not, however, possess the functional equivalent of ears and thus do not hear these sounds in the same fashion as we do. But sounds are simply vibrations that travel through the medium they are produced in (air or water) and thus, they can be detected by mechanoreceptors that are sensitive to water vibrations.
Do lobsters feel pain? This question has been asked by many a person who tosses a live lobster into a boiling pot or slices the live lobster down the middle to bake stuff. The answer is not at all clear. The lobster's nervous system has been extremely well-studied because it serves as a "simple" model of neural circuitry in something less complicated than the highly cephalized vertebrates. Lobsters do not possess any kind of receptor akin to our pain receptors. However, they do possess stress receptors and certainly perceive the slice of a knife. It is not known whether they possess any kind of temperature sensitivity, although each species is adapted to live in a certain range of temperatures and will eventually die if forced to live beyond its normal temperature range. Scientists have not discovered how a lobster's "brain" processes sensory information from cuticular stress or temperature, so we cannot say for sure if they feel pain or not. Many people have debated how to "humanely" kill a lobster with ideas ranging from electrocution to freezing before boiling (though that also exposes them to an unpleasant temperature and it takes some time before they die). The general consensus is that death is most rapid - - and, if they do indeed "feel" something, it is only momentary - - if they are placed into a boiling pot of water.
The muscular system of the lobster brings about movements and constitutes the motor (movement) component of all behavior. It is also the culinary part of the lobster - - particularly as the muscle, or meat, is relatively fat-free. However, it is important for another reason and that is that the lobster, over its lifespan of 50+ years, shows few conventional signs of aging or of muscular disease. They have two basic muscle fiber types which are grouped in bundles: fast and slow and the muscles are composed of single-type bundles (fast or slow) or mixed bundles. In clawed lobsters, the muscles of the prominent claws change from mixed bundles to primarily slow bundles in the crusher (largest) claw and fast bundles in the cutter or seizer claw. Neuron specialized for muscle (called motorneurons) penetrate into the muscles and are either excitatory (elicit contractions) or inhibitory (prevent contraction). This entire neuro-musculatory system undergoes remodeling over the entire lifespan of the lobster and particularly at periods of growth, where the animal sheds its old shell and puts on a new, larger shell.
The abdomen consists of little other than muscle, intestine, ventral nerve cord, and an artery. The two masses of muscles present are made up of small, dorsal (top surface) abdominal muscles which lie above the intestine and artery and function as extensors, and very large, ventral (on the underside) abdominal muscles, which function as flexors. Within the ventral nerve cord that innervates the ventral muscles are two kinds of giant axons: the medial giants and lateral giants, as well as groups of non-giant axons.
The giant axons mediate two types of escape reflexes or rapid tail flips. The first type is caused by the medial giant axons, which project forward to the brain and throughout all of the abdominal segments, and propels the lobster directly backward. This kind of response occurs when the lobster is startled by abrupt rostral visual or tactile stimuli (such as a rap on the head). The second type is caused by the lateral giant axons, which are found in the first three abdominal segments, but not in the last three. This kind of a response occurs when the lobster received abrupt tactile stimulation along its abdomen. Because the last three segments are not innervated, they remain straight, like paddles, and redirect the thrust generated by the flexion of the first three abdominal segments downward. Thus, the lobster flips upward and somersaults. After this somersault flip, there are one or two pitching flips which cause the lobster to land on its back, followed by two to three twisting flips which turn the lobster upright. Slower, swimming tail flips are produced by the non-giant axons, whose processes originate in the subesophageal ganglia, and generally follow the escape tail flips mediated by the medial or lateral giants. (Figure redrawn by Sapir Ad.)
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|Material provided in this document is not to be cited or used without permission. Copyright by The Lobster Conservancy, 2004.| | <urn:uuid:636403a4-0cd8-4d5f-aa58-451ac1285bb5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lobsters.org/tlcbio/biology6.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00035-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944829 | 2,879 | 3.515625 | 4 |
NASA’s Space Shuttle, which will make its last flight sometime later this year, has been a boon to the local economy surrounding the Kennedy Space Center, which is located in Cocoa, Florida. The closest county, Brevard, is where many of the workers that help maintain and launch the shuttle reside, and because of the presence of the space center, many a bar, restaurant, and local business have thrived.
This is in part due to those that work in the space industry, both for NASA itself and many of its private contractors. There are also the thousands of tourists that flock to the region to view launches and take tours of the Kennedy Space Center. All this, however, will change once the shuttle program is finished, and with five-year gap (at least) until the Constellation program gets rolling, the “Space Coast” may take quite a hit economically.
The end of the shuttle program will potentially eliminate as many as 7,000 – 8,000 jobs, some of which will need to be filled once again when the Constellation program is in full swing. But during the gap, many workers are expected to vacate the area in search of jobs elsewhere. This will impact the local economy that relies on these residents, and as many as 14,000 workers in the area may be indirectly affected.
According to a state study, in the 2008 fiscal year NASA generated $4.1 billion dollars in revenue and benefits for the state. $2.1 billion of that was in household income, and over 40,000 jobs were created due to NASA-related activities.
The local unemployment rate has already risen to 11.9 percent at present, largely due to the nationwide economic problems. Housing and construction have taken a hit as well, and will continue to suffer as the area sees the space workers leave.
This is the second time in NASA’s history that they’ve had to wind down a human space program, the first being the Apollo missions which ended in 1972. After the end of Apollo, Brevard county saw a dramatic downturn in the economy, as 10,000 workers left the region to find jobs and unemployment rose to 15 percent.
Estimations of the economic aftereffects of the end of the shuttle program aren’t as grim as those figures for the post-Apollo period, but there will be repercussions nonetheless.
There are several other factors that complicate the renewal of these lost jobs once the Constellation program starts up in earnest. Since Constellation utilizes a non-reusable launch system, fewer workers will be needed for repair and retrofit between launches.
Frank DiBello of the state agency Space Florida told Florida Today, “There is no escaping the transition that will occur when we go from a very labor intensive, reusable space flight system to one that is expendable. Simply by its nature, it is going to take a smaller workforce.”
Almost one-third of the current NASA employees working on the shuttle are up for retirement, so these posts would have been vacated anyway, and approximately 2,000 civil servants for NASA will retain their jobs over the gap between programs.
Though the region surrounding the Kennedy Space Center will surely struggle these next few years, it’s possible that many aerospace workers will flock to the private space industry during the gap, and companies like Virgin Galactic will benefit. | <urn:uuid:9687d648-6ac8-4a9c-adb7-223c3384b980> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.universetoday.com/50343/end-of-shuttle-program-will-slow-floridas-economy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00190-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966921 | 692 | 3.09375 | 3 |
A continuation of the British mandate seemed not to be in the cards, because Britain was bankrupt and they were going to pull out of their main base in Egypt anyway, so Palestine had less and less strategic importance to them (once they had to give up the Suez Canal). One possibility was a UN Mandate, but those have been problematic. A unitary state would have likely lead to a Lebanon-type situation with an ongoing civil war, with the Arabs jealous of Jewish economic dominance. So what did Magnes think was the solution?Oy, I simply can't answer that important question now. And, needless to say, 1948 is not 2008. But here it is in brief: Magnes was a pragmatist and a tireless diplomat. As I have said before, he should be distinguished from Buber, Simon, and the Brit Shalom crowd. Before the establishment of the state, he pushed for a binational state, and was encouraged by the minority UNSCOP that called for a federal state. The latter solution was also rejected by the Arab States; some of the Arab side were prepared to allow the Jews to have minority rights and a certain degree of cultural autonomy, but not parity of any sort. As the article states, Magnes was prepared for a temporary UN mandate or trusteeship, and he was also in favor of postponing the implementation of partition (as was the US State Department). Following the establishment of the State of Israel, he argued for a federation of several states with a joint army, economic and foreign policies. The tragedy of Magnes was that his ideas were, I believe, right in principle, but their timing was wrong. Neither the Zionists nor the Arabs were willing to listen, and he understood quite well the logic of their positions. After the semester is over, I will post a fascinating debate between Aubrey (Abba) Eban and Judah Magnes that appeared in Commentary in 1948. He called then for a United States of Palestine. Who would have thought sixty years ago, and in a much altered situation, that so much of that debate is relevant?
1948 diaries: Saving the Jews from themselves By Ofri Ilani
Judah Magnes, a founder of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and its first president, was in poor health on April 13, 1948. The 70-year-old Magnes knew the end was near, but that didn't stop him from flying to Washington, D.C., in an effort to end the violence in the soon-to-be-born State of Israel. He represented almost no one other than a group of peace-seeking professors, but was nonetheless able to access and influence the American administration.He had access because the State Department wanted to slow down partition, and they wanted Magnes to influence Truman. It didn't work.
The details of this forgotten period during Israel's struggle for independence are revealed in excerpts of Magnes' diary, published here for the first time, which describe the Zionist leader's attempt to convince the president of the United States to force a cease-fire and prevent both the implementation of the partition plan and the establishment of a Jewish state. When the United Nations passed the partition plan on November 29, 1947, not all the Jews celebrated in the streets. A group of intellectuals, most of them Hebrew University lecturers, believed that the war that would break out in the wake of the establishment of a Jewish state would bring disaster down on the Jews and the Arabs alike. Magnes, a Reform rabbi, pacifist and anti-imperialist who was known for his opposition to World War I, was one of the most important Zionist leaders of his era. He was a leading figure in the New York Jewish community and was a key liaison between the Zionist leadership and the American administration. He moved to Israel in 1922 and came out in support of the establishment of a single, binational state for Jews and Arabs, with a government comprised of representatives from both peoples. Magnes' personal diary, which he wrote in English, discusses his despair at the violence as the British Mandate came to an end, intermingling those accounts with descriptions of his worsening health and his nightmares. On April 12, 1948, Magnes wrote in his diary: "For more than a generation I have been pleading for peace, conciliation, understanding. How can I not and stand before the world and say: 'Friends, stop the bloodshed. Understanding is possible.' This is the moment I have been preparing for all these years." The American consul told Magnes that if no trusteeship were formed by May 15, Palestine would enter a period full of "very grave danger with bloodshed," Magnes wrote the same day. "Great need of courageous, constructive attitude such as mine," he wrote. "Therefore time come for me and others selected... or me alone to come to U.S. in order to cooperate." Magnes expressed the hope that if a state were declared, the United States would impose sanctions on Israel, saying that there can be no war without money or ammunition.
On April 13, Magnes was informed that 34 Hebrew University and Hadassah hospital employees were killed in an attack on a convoy to Mount Scopus. All told, 77 people were killed in the attack, many of them Magnes' friends. But Manges was no less shocked by the massacre than he was by the circumstances that preceded it: Four days earlier, the Irgun and Lehi pre-state Jewish underground militias killed more than 100 Palestinians at Deir Yassin. At the funerals of those killed in the convoy attack, Magnes condemned the cruelty of both sides, and was denounced as a traitor by many members of the Yishuv (Jewish community in Palestine). "Unlike other Zionist leaders, like [David] Ben-Gurion, Magnes' diaries are not just a political document," says Hebrew University Prof. Aryeh Goren, who is researching and editing Magnes' writings. "His writing is very personal - he shares and talks about his misgivings and his weaknesses." Magnes considered himself to be a follower of Mahatma Gandhi and the prophet Jeremiah, and opposed all forms of nationalism that are based on military force. The Ihud (Unity) association he established with several others is seen as the flagship group of left-wing Zionists regarding all that pertains to Jewish-Arab relations. Its members were attacked by nearly all the political parties in the pre-state period, and were described as defeatists, ghetto-like and anti-patriotic.A long study of the Ichud was published by Prof. Joseph Heller in Hebrew a few years ago. Unfortunately, it is only in Hebrew, and the author can't afford to have it translated into English. (I should mentioned in passing that the author does not share Magnes's views, or thinks that they would have worked.)
"Magnes predicted that even if we win the war, there would then be another war, and another one. It would never end," says Goren. "When the battles of the War of Independence began, he tried to halt the implementation of the UN decision and advance the idea that was promoted then by the American State Department, that the UN would freeze the partition decision and in the interim force both sides into a trusteeship with a temporary government, until the conditions suit another arrangement. Magnes thought that this was an opportunity to stop the turn of events, in the hope that in the meantime there would be understanding and it would be possible to talk."Magnes died several months after the establishment of the state. His loss was not only a great loss to the Jewish people but to Zionism and the State of Israel. He is virtually a forgotten figure. And the reason for that, aside from the obvious one that he went against the master narrative, is that, as an American and a reform Jew, he was an outsider in a country founded by Russian Jewish nationalists on a European socialist model. In a sense, the failure of Magnes was the first of countless failures of liberal Zionist American Jews to have an impact on the country. His writings have never been translated into Hebrew, and, aside from Heller's book, very few have studied him. But his time will come | <urn:uuid:3ff7bb60-4d9a-4ac8-ad16-6d4cfd89157c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jeremiahhaber.com/2008/05/judah-magnes-forgotten-prophet.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.986182 | 1,681 | 2.890625 | 3 |
• Deloria states that from the 1890's through the1960's, few Americans had knowledge about the American Indian.
• 1968 was the first of several Indian protests against the government for unfair treatment and failure to honor prior treaties.
• The American Indian Religious Freedom Resolution protect the religious and ceremonial rites of Indians.
• Deloria claims that prior to Wounded Knee, Indians were typically stereotyped into two categories: warlike savages and wise elders sitting around a camp fire.
• Deloria believes the Civil Rights Movement brought attention to the American Indians and consequently many books were written on Indian culture and religion.
• Deloria attributes the 1970's as an era that saw a rampant increase in interest in Indian beliefs and customs.
• Deloria states Indian beliefs and experiences are based on their relationships with other living beings.
• According to Deloria, tribal religions are not defined with accepted doctrine and temporal concepts.
This section contains 508 words
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SEPTEMBER GARDENING TIPS
Time to sow seeds of snapdragons, dianthus, pansies, and other winter flowers in flats for planting outdoors during October.
Dig and divided spring flowering bulbs and perennials such as daffodil, iris, daylily, ajuga, liriope, and canna.
Plant leaf and root vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, radish, spinach, and lettuce late in the month.
This month or early next month, sow seeds of wildflowers into weed-free, well-tilled soil.
Sow or overseed cool season grasses such as fescue and rye, but remember, if you apply any pre-emergent weed killers to your lawn, newly applied grass seed will not germinate.
Rejuvenate heat-stressed geraniums, petunias, begonias, and chrysanthemums for the fall season by lightly pruning and fertilizing them.
Remove weak, unproductive growth from roses to stimulate new growth for fall beauty.
Prune out dead or diseased wood from trees and shrubs. Hold off on major pruning until mid-winter. Pruning now will stimulate tender growth that may be damaged by frost.
Root prune established trees and shrubs that you intend to move this winter. This allows them to establish new roots within the zone of soil that will eventually be moved with them. Do not cut any taproots at this time.
Caladiums require plenty of water at this time of year if they are to remain lush and attractive until fall.
Don’t allow plants with green fruit or berries to suffer from lack of moisture. Hollies will frequently drop their fruit under drought conditions.
Prepare the beds for spring flowering bulbs as soon as possible. Incorporate organic matter to improve drainage to prevent the bulbs from rotting when planted next spring.
Fertilize and groom verbenas, perennial salvias and lantanas by lightly pruning and removing non-vigorous growth to stimulate a long and productive fall season. | <urn:uuid:ab18148a-4776-48ac-b851-e4f96077d9ce> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ktep.org/post/september-gardening-tips | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00091-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.910355 | 442 | 2.9375 | 3 |
CRIMINAL LAW IN PAKISTAN
PUNISHMENTS AND OBJECTIVES OF CRIMINAL LAW IN PAKISTAN
Criminal law is distinctive for the uniquely serious potential consequences or sanctions for failure to abide by its rules. Every crime is composed of criminal elements. Capital punishment may be imposed in Pakistan for the most serious crimes. Physical or corporal punishments were imposed such as whipping or caning in martial law period in Pakistan, although these punishments are prohibited under democratic governments normally. Government
supervision may be imposed, including house arrest, and convicts may be required to conform to particularized guidelines as part of a parole or probation regimen. Fines also may be imposed, seizing money or property from a person convicted of a crime.
Widely accepted objectives by the courts in Pakistan for enforcement of the criminal law include:
- Retribution – Criminal law in Pakistan should be used to make Criminals suffer in some way.
- Deterrence – Criminal law in Pakistan should be provide Individual deterrence toward the specific offender.
- Incapacitation – Criminal law in Pakistan should be Designed simply to keep criminals away from society so that the public is protected from their misconduct.
- Rehabilitation – A Criminal law in Pakistan should be aimed at transforming an offender into a valuable member of society.
- Restitution – Criminal law in Pakistan should be also provide for compensation to victim and/or victim representatives.
WHAT LAW AND LEGISLATION GOVERNS CRIMINAL LAW IN PAKISTAN?
Pakistan gained independence from india in 1947, although the prevalent law introduced by the british was as it is imposed in Pakistan. Criminal law prevailing in Pakistan these days is also the same over 60 years later with minor amendments. Code of Criminal Procedure (V of 1898) that was implemented in colony is still largely the prescribed criminal procedure followed by the courts in Pakistan. Similarly the Penal Code (XLV of 1860), later named as Pakistan Penal Code (PPC) is predominant law on crimes in Pakistan.
Code of Criminal Procedure (V of 1898) Of Pakistan deals in defining all the offences and mentioning their punishments along, you may say this statute defines the procedure as evident from its name, while the Pakistan Penal Code forms the material portion of criminal law in Pakistan. Apart from these codes, criminal liability may attracted under other statutes like, Negotiable Instruments Act which attracts criminal liability in case of dishonoured cheque, although new provision of section 489-F has also been added in Pakistan Penal Code, regarding dishonestly issuing a cheque. Therefore any criminal case will be primarily tried under the foregoing legislation in Pakistan.
Supreme Court of Pakistan is the apex court of appeal in Pakistan, appeals may be made up to this level, however, President of Pakistan is empowered by legislation to annull the conviction.
REQUIREMENTS OF BEING PROVEN GUILTY
The criminal law generally prohibits undesirable acts. Thus, proof of a crime requires proof of some act. Scholars label this the requirement of an actus reus or guilty act. Because of the potentially severe consequences of criminal conviction, judges at common law also sought proof of an intent to do some bad thing, the mens rea or guilty mind. As to crimes of which both actus reus and mens rea are requirements, judges have concluded that the elements must be present at precisely the same moment and it is not enough that they occurred sequentially at different times.
A murder, defined broadly, is an unlawful killing. Unlawful killing is probably the act most frequently targeted by the criminal law. In Pakistan, the crime of murder is divided into various gradations of severity, e.g., murder in the first degree, based on intent. Malice is a required element of murder. Manslaughter is a lesser variety of killing committed in the absence of malice, brought about by reasonable provocation, or diminished capacity. Involuntary manslaughter, where it is recognized, is a killing that lacks all but the most attenuated guilty intent, recklessness.
- Initiation of Criminal Proceedings in Pakistan: The law is set into motion with a complaint to the concerned police station, resulting in registration of a criminal case in the shape of a First Information Report (FIR). In case of delay in the same we may assist you in seeking Court order for registration of a criminal case in the event the police, for some reason or another.
- Private Criminal Complaints in Pakistan: The Law firm has enormous experience in scenarios where Local Police was not communicating well and we resorted to private prosecution.
- Harassment Petitions: Criminal intimidation, threats and harassment activities are treated as serious offences under Pakistani Law, which is a right guaranteed under the Constitution of Pakistan.
- Bail Matters: Importance of getting bailed out in a criminal matter is the primary concern whether it be Pre-arrest, post arrest, anticipatory bails or else.
- Trials :Adopting the right course of action, coupled with a planned and well thought-out strategy, plays a pivotal role behind every successful trial.
- Appeals :Lawyers/Attorneys at our law firm are committed to aggressive and prompt appeal in case of negative orders.
- Criminal Investigation in Pakistan
- Private Investigation in Pakistan
In case you have a criminal matter and are thinking of engaging a prominent and reliable attorney/lawyer you know Masood And Masood is the place to go. | <urn:uuid:077f550c-1ee9-4f46-81ea-0578aab47934> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://masoodandmasood.com/mm-business-solutions-pakistan/mm-law-practice-corporate-and-legal-consultancy-pakistan-law-lawyer-firm/criminal-law-lawyer-in-pakistan-crim/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944886 | 1,109 | 3.1875 | 3 |
Improving the reception of commercial FM radio (88Mhz - 108Mhz) can be done by you at home, simply by replacing the antenna with a 5/8 wave folded dipole antenna. Many radios and most home stereo receivers include antenna terminals for the connection of an external antenna. Usually the supplied antenna is a minimalist design (sometimes only an "internal" type, or as a telescopic rod or a short length of wire). This can be greatly improved for very little money outlay. All of the items needed are available from a local electronics store or hardware stores.
1Determine the frequency of the station desired to be tuned. The antenna is tuned to a certain length, based on the frequency of the connected radio. Regardless of the particular frequency, the entire FM broadcast band (88 - 108 Mhz) of the radio's tuner will receive stronger signals from the antenna, with the largest increase seen at the frequency selected in this step, and slightly less as the radio is tuned away from the design frequency.
2Calculate the length of the antenna. The formula for a 5/8 wave antenna using typical 300 ohm "twin lead" is L = 300/f x 5/8 x 1/2; where "L" is the length in meters of the antenna and "f" is the frequency in Mhz of the station to be tuned. This can be simplified to L = 93.75/f.
- An antenna built for middle of the 88Mhz - 108Mhz FM band (98 Mhz) would be: 0.9566 meters (3.1 ft) or 95.66 cm (centimeters) long. For those more familiar with imperial units than metric, the formula to convert centimeters to inches is: cm X 0.3937. This means 95.66cm X 0.3937 = 37.66 inches long.
3Improve the antenna design. The antenna improvement in this article is a design for a simple 5/8 wave "folded dipole" or "T" shaped antenna. This design will outperform any internal or telescopic rod antenna that may have been supplied with the receiver. It is also similar to those provided with some more expensive home stereo receivers.
- To improve upon this simple design, simply double, triple, quadruple, etc. this value as such: 37.66" x 2 = 75.32", or 37.66" x 3 = 112.98", and so forth.
- The 112.98 inch antenna will outperform the 75.32 inch antenna, which outperforms the 37.66 inch antenna.
- Of course, there is a "point of no return" when the multiple is so great that the signal at the ends of the antenna cannot travel the entire length due to the electrical resistance of the wire. This limit is around 100 meters (a little more than the length of a football field).
4Cut the feed line. As described above, this antenna looks like a "T". Thus far, the calculation has been for the top horizontal part (top of the T) of the antenna. A vertical (bottom of the T) needs to be connected to the top horizontal to facilitate connection of the antenna to the receiver's antenna terminals. While both the horizontal and vertical parts function as an antenna, the vertical portion is referred to as the feed line.
- Cut a length of twin lead that is equal to or a multiple of the length calculated above. That will be long enough to extend between the receiver's antenna terminals and the horizontal portion when installed.
- 600 Ohm Ladder Line and 450 Ohm line are physically larger than 300 Ohm Twin Lead and is rated at 600 and 450 ohms respectively; as opposed to 300 ohms for twin lead. These cables can be used, but require the use of a different formula to design. Standard 300 Ohm twin lead cable was selected because it enjoys wide availability.
5Prepare the antenna for connection to the feed line. Locate and mark the halfway point on the length of the horizontal portion of the antenna.
- Use a razor knife to cut a 1 inch (2.5cm) long slit (centered on the halfway mark), parallel to and between the two wires in the antenna's twin lead cable.
- Cut through one of the twin lead wires at the halfway mark.
- Strip the insulation from the cut ends of the wire at the halfway point and the ends of the entire horizontal length (this should be about a 1/2 inch (1.27cm) from each side).
6Prepare the feed line for connection to the antenna. Use a razor knife to cut a slit between the wires of the twin lead about an inch (2.5cm) in length at both ends. Carefully remove a half inch (1.27cm) of insulation from each of the wires on both ends.
7Tin the exposed twin lead wires with solder. Re-twist the individual strands of all wires to keep them tightly grouped together. If soldering is not an option, skip to the next step after stripping insulation from the wires indicated at the end of this step.
- Apply a small amount of electrical grade soldering flux (do not use plumber's flux as it contains acid). A small 20 to 50 watt soldering gun or iron to heat the wires is sufficient.
- Shortly after the flux melts, apply electrical grade solder to the wire near the soldering gun's / iron's tip (use of straight solder or flux core solder is fine - but do not use acid core solder).
- Apply just enough solder to the heated wire so that melted solder flows back into the insulation, then remove the solder and heat from the wire. Do this for both wires at (1) both ends of the feed line, (2) both wires at both ends of the horizontal antenna piece and (3) both wires at the cut made at the center of the horizontal antenna piece.
8Solder the antenna and feed line together. Solder the two wires at one end of the horizontal piece together and repeat for the other end (if not soldering, create a solid electro-mechanical connection by tightly twisting the wires together instead of soldering).
- Lay an end of the feed line at the center of the horizontal antenna piece so that the soldered leads of are close to each other. The left wire of the feed line should be soldered to the left wire of the antenna, and the right wire of the feed line should be soldered to the right wire of the antenna.
- When completed correctly, a path can be traced that starts on one wire in the feed line that continues to one wire in the bottom of the antenna and continues to one end of the antenna. It continues across the top wire of the antenna to the opposite end. It begins the return on the other bottom wire of the antenna to the other wire in the feed line and finally terminates at the end of the feed line.
- A "300 to 75" ohm balun will be needed if the receiver offers only a 75 ohm (coaxial cable)antenna connection. These are devices that allow for the connection of 300 ohm twin lead that converts to and provides a screw-on 75 ohm connector.
- The antenna constructed here is "balanced" and will be inconvenient to connect to the typical telescoping antenna, which is "unbalanced". If there is no external antenna connector on your radio, you might do just as well by attaching a length (any length, but the longer the better) of wire (any kind) to the existing antenna and routing the wire up (the higher the better) and toward the transmitter you want to receive.
- Antennas that are placed outdoors should have lightning protection on the feed line.
Things You'll Need
- 300 ohm twin lead antenna wire
- 20 - 50 watt soldering iron / gun
- Solder w/ rosin flux core (not plumber's solder)
- Flux (not plumber's flux) (if not integral to solder wire)
- 300 / 75 Ohm balun (if needed)
- Wire stripper
- Wire cutter
In other languages:
Thanks to all authors for creating a page that has been read 855,191 times. | <urn:uuid:35447e7b-e27d-43dc-9c32-b6e0a4a0d18b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wikihow.com/Make-an-FM-Antenna | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911346 | 1,716 | 2.625 | 3 |
f(x)= 1/sq rt(x) + 2
find y '
is this answer -1 and if so if the sq root had x^2 under it would the answer be -2
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Which is correct?
how did you get the 1/ 2sqrt(x) in the numerator, do you chand the sq rt to x^2
The derivative of a function in the form is . This is known as the quotient formula for derivatives.
yea i was trying to figure out the process step by step on how sq rt (x) equals 2sq rt(x)
The derivative of is given by the power rule: .
What you have is .
Taking the derivatives:
View Tag Cloud | <urn:uuid:0386ddf1-dc87-436f-a639-14f4b2aaea72> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mathhelpforum.com/calculus/51430-solved-derivative.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00012-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946178 | 168 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Archery in many forms, has been practiced for centuries. Many cultures developed archery as a means of hunting for food, a weapon to fend off others and an implement of war. Now archery is a recognized sport around the world. These crossbow plans will guide you in how to make a crossbow.
Warning: A crossbow can be a very dangerous weapon. Always keep it out of the hands of children and treat the crossbow in the same manner you would a rifle or hand gun.
Always read the instruction on how to make a crossbow carefully and make sure that there is enough information provided for you to be able to complete the project - before you invest in materials. Some of the plans are excellent, giving a great deal of instruction in text, pictures and drawings while other plans are only drawings and still others are only sketches.
These free crossbow plans are for the intermediate to expert woodworker.
Also see archery plans - bows and arrows. | <urn:uuid:03d7bffc-3017-44aa-a243-45eff06ea3f1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.free-diy-plans.com/plans-crossbow.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00068-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950419 | 198 | 2.609375 | 3 |
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by mapping information about them into a spatial context.
If you have any questions you can e-mail your instructor Rebecca Gigli now! | <urn:uuid:4ac0a3b6-55c2-430b-ac9a-a64078522ccb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~weidenrl/m.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917115 | 143 | 2.734375 | 3 |
CONSTRUCT VALIDATION OF A PHYSICAL ACTIVITY INTERVENTION TO INCREASE SELF-REGULATION FOR PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN ADOLESCENTS
The purpose of this study is to complete a construct validation of a physical activity intervention on the subjects’ knowledge and use of 8 self-regulation strategies: self-monitoring, goal setting, social support, environmental aid, self-reinforcement, time-management, self-efficacy, and tailoring. Using a one group pre-test post-test design, a physical education instructor delivered a 5-week intervention to all sixth (n=20), seventh (n=28) and eighth (n=24) graders at a private school in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. A self-report self-regulation instrument was administered at baseline and immediately post-intervention. Students also completed a knowledge test at the end of the intervention. Seven of the eight subscales as well as global self regulation for physical activity were found to be significantly changed from pre-test to post-test (p<.006). The mean score on the knowledge test was 17.5 out of 22 points.
School:The Ohio State University
School Location:USA - Ohio
Source Type:Master's Thesis
Keywords:physical activity construct validation social cognitive theory intervention education
Date of Publication:01/01/2002 | <urn:uuid:b47408b6-2624-412e-a2b0-b3b79478f25b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.openthesis.org/documents/Construct-validation-physical-activity-intervention-531270.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00141-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.89328 | 286 | 2.609375 | 3 |
WikipediaJames Bond films have featured some truly incredible modes of transportation throughout the years. The 1995 film Goldeneye featured villain Alec Trevelyan on board an unbelievable Soviet armored train.
Even though Bond movies are known to dive into fiction, these trains are real and just as incredible in real life as they are on film.
The armored train was first seen in the American Civil War, according to The Jamestown Foundation. It came to prominence in World War I, when Russia used it as a means of defense during cross-country travel.
The trains were used by a number of nations in World War II: Poland took advantage of them extensively, Nazi Germany reacted and began using them, the Russians kept their fleet up, and even Canada patrolled their west coast with one for a time in case of an invasion, according to Canada's Virtual Museum.
These trains were not just armored, they were heavily armed. Cannons, machine guns, anti-aircraft weapons, and even tanks were on board these moving walls of terror.
While the armored train could transport large amounts of firepower rapidly cross country, they also had quite a few drawbacks.
They were not stealthy at all (mainly because it was a large, loud train...).
It obviously had to stay on the tracks to get anywhere, meaning its reach was limited to a country's rail infrastructure.
If an enemy were to know what track it was on, sabotage of the rail meant an easy derailment.
After World War II, automotive technology had caught up sufficiently to render the armored train obsolete. But these insane trains have left an indelible mark on history. | <urn:uuid:7852b765-bd9d-4103-8bf7-7dc9ab231895> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.businessinsider.com/world-war-two-armored-trains-2011-11?op=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00019-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.989052 | 336 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Jupiter | .. . . o o O O . . . . . . . .
(not to scale)
Jupiter rules when it comes to satellite count with a current (December 2002) count at 39. Saturn comes in next at 30 and then Uranus at 20. This does not include the Trojans (which number 960 at the L4 point and 587 at the L5 point).
The regular satellites of Jupiter
eat fiber have circular orbits and have for the most part, have orbital inclinations less than one degree (Thebe is the most odd here at an orbital inclination of 1.070; the next most inclined moon is that of Europa at 0.467 degrees off. Metis, Adrastea and Io have orbital inclinations less than 0.04 degrees from the Jovian equator). Furthermore, these moons have very low eccentricity, with Io and Europa being perfectly circular. Once again, Thebe is the oddest of the bunch with an orbital eccentricity of 0.018. For comparison, Earth's orbital eccentricity is 0.0167.
There are two groups of regular satellites - the inner ones, and the outer ones. The four outer ones are the ones that Galileo observed and are quite sizable at that - Ganymede (5262 km) is larger than Mercury (4879 km) makeing it the largest satellite in the solar system. The inner four are much smaller (between 8 and 49 km across) and are thought to lose material from bombardments which produces Jupiter's rings. All of these satellites are thought tho have been created at about the same time out of a disk of dust and gas that surrounded the proto-Jupiter during the period of the formation of the planets.
Beyond the orbit of Callisto are two groups of satellites and an oddball. Most of these are rather small, the largest is that of Himalia at 150 km across (which was the first of the irregular satellites discovered in 1904) though the vast majority are unnamed chunks of rock about 5km across or so.
The oddball is S/2000 J1 - the first satellite of Jupiter to be discovered in the year 2000. It is 9 km across has an orbital inclination of 45 degrees and an eccentricity of 0.208. It orbits at 7,411,410 km out, or about 4 times the orbit of Callisto.
The first group of irregulars is that of the prograde irregulars. These number five and include Leda, Himalia, Lysithea, and Elara along with the 4km across moon with the name S/2000 J11. These moons orbit between 11,165,000 and 12,656,940 km out, have orbital inclinations between 27.46 and 28.61 degrees. Orbital eccentricities range from
0.112 and 0.215.
The second group of irregulars is rather large in count, though there are many many small bodies. The named moons in this group are Ananke, Carme, Pasiphae, and Sinope. The largest of this set is Pasiphae at 58 miles across. There are 21 other moons with boring names. All of these moons have a retrograde orbit (they orbit the 'wrong way') and very very high orbital inclination - ranging from 145.9 and 165.7 degrees. This means that these moons orbit Jupiter in almost a polar orbit rather than about the equator. There is also a wide range of inclination - from 0.096 to 0.601. The orbits range from 20,478,570 km to 24,240,750 km with one at 18,978,000 km.
It is believed that the irregular satellites are captured bodies early on that have then broken up with a larger atmosphere of an early Jupiter. The best evidence for this capture is the retrograde moons which can't be accounted for with the disk of dust and gas that formed the regular moons. Similar density and albedo of these bodies seems to indicate that they were part of a larger object before.
Most of these moons were discovered in 1999, 2000 and 2001 with large CCDs attached to telescopes. However, at some point, someone said thats too small to be a moon (as opposed to saying thats too big to be a space station) - initial surveys listed hundreds of irregular satellites.
The names of the named moons of Jupiter comes from a tradition established by by Simon Marius (who also discovered the Galilean moons of Jupiter) based upon a suggestion of Kepler:
Jupiter is much blamed by the poets on account of his irregular loves. Three maidens are especially mentioned as having been clandestinely courted by Jupiter with success. Io, daughter of the River, Inachus, Callisto of Lycaon, Europa of Agenor. Then there was Ganymede, the handsome son of King Tros, whom Jupiter, having taken the form of an eagle, transported to heaven on his back, as poets fabulously tell .... I think, therefore, that I shall not have done amiss if the First is called by me Io, the Second Europa, the Third, on account of its majesty of light, Ganymede, the Fourth Callisto ...
Here is the list of moons spelled as a table:
Distance Radius Mass
Satellite (000 km) (km) (kg) Discoverer Date
--------- -------- ------ ------- ---------- -----
Metis 128 20 9.56e16 Synnott 1979
Adrastea 129 10 1.91e16 Jewitt 1979
Amalthea 181 98 7.17e18 Barnard 1892
Thebe 222 50 7.77e17 Synnott 1979
Io 422 1815 8.94e22 Galileo 1610
Europa 671 1569 4.80e22 Galileo 1610
Ganymede 1070 2631 1.48e23 Galileo 1610
Callisto 1883 2400 1.08e23 Galileo 1610
Leda 11094 8 5.68e15 Kowal 1974
Himalia 11480 93 9.56e18 Perrine 1904
Lysithea 11720 18 7.77e16 Nicholson 1938
Elara 11737 38 7.77e17 Perrine 1905
Ananke 21200 15 3.82e16 Nicholson 1951
Carme 22600 20 9.56e16 Nicholson 1938
Pasiphae 23500 25 1.91e17 Melotte 1908
Sinope 23700 18 7.77e16 Nicholson 1914
Names for the newer (discovered in the year 2000 or before) moons have been established (Oct 22, 2002):
Jupiter XVII Callirrhoe = S/1999 J 1
Jupiter XVIII Themisto = S/1975 J 1 = S/2000 J 1
Jupiter XIX Megaclite = S/2000 J 8
Jupiter XX Taygete = S/2000 J 9
Jupiter XXI Chaldene = S/2000 J 10
Jupiter XXII Harpalyke = S/2000 J 5
Jupiter XXIII Kalyke = S/2000 J 2
Jupiter XXIV Iocaste = S/2000 J 3
Jupiter XXV Erinome = S/2000 J 4
Jupiter XXVI Isonoe = S/2000 J 6
Jupiter XXVII Praxidike = S/2000 J 7
was discovered in 1975 and then lost for 25 years until it was rediscovered in 2000 - thus the two designations.
Please note that I have no intention of making the ASCII art used to include the various irregulars under 10km across - that would make for quite a mess. If you happen to be so inclined, feel free to message me. | <urn:uuid:24175873-2533-4820-af94-03022e384d14> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://everything2.com/title/The+Moons+of+Jupiter?author_id=744222 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00175-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.896852 | 1,608 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Labour consists of regular uterine contractions resulting in cervical change, and normally accompanied by descent of the fetus. These changes are confirmed and monitored during labour by vaginal exam.
The exam can often be unpleasant for the woman, and also increases the risk of maternal and infant infection. As such, vaginal exam should be performed as minimally as possible, usually every two hours, unless there are potentially important changes (i.e. the woman is feeling an urge to push, or the fetal heart rate changes significantly).
Erin R. is a 27 year old woman who is 36 weeks pregnant comes to the labour and delivery triage with cramping. She is otherwise healthy and the pregnancy has been uncomplicated. She does not report a fluid leak, any per vaginal bleeding and the baby is moving well. The cramping is in the LLQ and RLQ, symmetrical, and will come on every 15-20minutes for an hour, disappear for a few hours and then return. Erin would like to know if she is in labour.
While preparing for the vaginal exam, explain to the mother what you are doing, and ensure you are chaperoned if you are a male. Prior to performing the exam, wash hands with soap and water or alhocol rinse. Use sterile gloves and lubricant. In many settings, antiseptic such as chlorhexidine is also advised. Use one hand to separate the labia and use the index and middle fingers of the other hand to palpate internally. A vaginal exam of a woman suspected to be in labour consists of the following parts:
The cervix is one of the most important structures to be assessed. Focus on determining dilatation, effacement, consistency, and application.
Dilatation: Opening of the cervix expressed in cm diameter (0cm = no dilation, 10cm = full dilation). Providers will often compare the cervix with their finger width to assess dilatation.
One example is as follows:
Repeated practice is critical to gain skill in assessing dilatation, and simple simulators can be fashioned to assist with this. An example is shown in the picture below:
Different health care providers will vary slightly in their assessment of the extent of dilatation, and it is helpful that the same provider perform ongoing assessment for consistency.
Effacement: Thinning of the cervix caused by pressure from the fetus’ head. It is expressed either as a percent (0% = no effacement, 100% = complete thinning) or by length (2cm, 1cm, 0cm). Again, there can be some variability between assessments done by health care providers, especially if using percentages, and repeated practice is necessary to become skilled in this assessment.
Consistency: The cervix softens with increasing effacement and becomes thin and stretchy.
Application: The amount of contact between the cervix and the presenting part; good application is ideal to prevent a cord prolapse.
Are the membranes ruptured or intact? If ruptured, determine the amniotic fluid color to determine if meconium is present. If there is a question, there are various ways of confirming this (see here).
Examples of fluid:
While presentation has ideally been determined beforehand by modified Leopold's maneuvers, the vaginal exam is also very important. Determine if the fetus is cephalic or breech by feeling for:
An obstetric emergency is the palpation of the umbilical cord as the presenting part – a cord prolapse (main article).
Station is the location of the presenting part in relation to the ischial spines, and describes descent of the fetus. It is denoted as follows:
Image: Labour assessment station – Kim Colangelo, 2010
If the presenting part is occiput, attempt to determine the direction it is facing by palpating the fontanelles. Begin by feeling for the saggital suture, present in the midline. The anterior fontanelle is diamond shaped, and may be felt as four sutures coming together. The triangular posterior fontanelle, on the other hand, is the union of three suture lines. The direction is denoted as OA if the occiput of the fetus is anterior in relation to the maternal pelvis, OT if transverse, and OP if posterior.
While no longer done or recommended as a component of routine care, clinical pelvimetry may be used to assess the size of the bony pelvis and provide general information about feasibility of birth.
Measure diagonally from the sacral promontory to the point of the symphysis that is most exterior; this should be greater than 11.5 cm. The ischial spines should also be palpated; if they are very prominent, delivery can be more difficult.
Pelvic Exam During Labour – Brookside Press | <urn:uuid:ba7f1fd3-fa24-4f14-85a6-bfcfec0b16e4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sharinginhealth.ca/clinical_assessment/labour_assessment.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939681 | 1,011 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Ask a few friends whether they prefer yams or sweet potatoes and you`ll get quite an earful. Of course yams are better, they`ll tell you. They`re richer, moister, smoother and sweeter. It`s a fact, they`ll say, that the paler sweet potatoes just can`t compare. They know, because they`ve tried them both in a variety of ways: mashed, souffled, candied and just plain roasted.
What your friends might not know is that they`re talking about the same vegetable: Ipomoea batatas. The label on a can of yams tells the tale; the list of ingredients shows you are buying sweet potatoes.
Sweet potatoes-or ``batatas`` and ``padadas``-as they were originally called-are indigenous to the tropics. They were introduced to Spain by Christopher Columbus and his explorers in the late 15th Century (Europeans considered them an aphrodisiac), and to North America, where the climate in the Southern states was ideally suited to their growth.
Today, three types of sweet potatoes are available commercially, distinguishable by color and texture, according to Harold H. Hoecker, executive director of the Sweet Potato Council of the United States. The white-fleshed type, once the most popular, has been replaced by the pale yellow, dry-textured sweet potato, favored by Northern growers for its hardiness. The dark orange type, which is moister and much sweeter than the others and is grown throughout the South, is frequently called a yam.
The word yam was originally given to sweet potatoes by African slaves in remembrance of a vegetable from their homeland called nyami. Nyami is a rhizome, or an underground stem, that belongs to the dioscoreaceae family.
In Africa, sweet potatoes are white and closely resemble the light-yellow sweet potatoes grown in America.
Charity Apreku, a research officer with the Ghanaian Mission to the United Nations, is an accomplished cook who grew up eating both nyami and sweet potatoes in Africa. ``There`s a very big difference between the two,``
she says. ``The pale-colored yams are not as sweet as the dry sweet potatoes.`` In Ghana, nyamis are often roasted, fried or boiled, then cut into pieces and added to soups. ``They become quite soft when cooked,`` Apreku says, ``just like sweet potatoes.``
She says she knows of no dish in Ghana quite like the candied sweet potatoes that often appear on tables in America. ``We mash ours with palm oil and spices and add a little cooked fish.``
It is the rich creaminess of the deep orange variety of sweet potato that is preferred by American cooks like LaMont Burns, author of ``Down Home Southern Cooking`` (Doubleday, $17.95). Burns, like most Southern cooks, refers to the deep-orange sweet potatoes as yams. ``The consistency of the orange-red yams is meatier and less fibrous than the paler sweet potatoes,``
he says. ``They are also sweeter and more flavorful, and I find them far superior for making a pie.``
Gene Hovis, the author of ``Gene Hovis`s Uptown Down Home Cookbook,``
(Little, Brown, $17.95), also prefers dark-colored sweet potatoes.
``They`re much sweeter,`` he says, ``and the creamy texture is desirable when making a mashed casserole or pie.``
Hovis considers sweet potatoes one of the most versatile vegetables.
``You can create all manner of side dishes to serve with meat, poultry and game, and also make them into breads, muffins, cakes and pies,`` he says.
``But one of my favorite ways to eat a sweet potato is when it`s plain baked and served with butter and pepper.``
The following recipe is adapted from ``Gene Hovis`s Uptown Down-Home Cookbook`` (Little, Brown, $17.95).
BAKED YAM CASSEROLE
Six to eight servings
Preparation time: 40 minutes
Cooking time: 1 1/2 hours
6 medium-size yam sweet potatoes
2 tablespoons butter, plus butter for greasing the casserole
4 tablespoons light brown sugar, firmly packed
Grated rind of 1 medium-size orange
3 to 4 tablespoons Cognac
Salt to taste, if desired
3 slices white bread, crust removed and cut into 1/4-inch cubes
2 tablespoons light brown sugar
1 teaspoon ground cinnamon
2 tablespoons melted butter
1. Put sweet potatoes in water to cover and cook 30 minutes. Peel and mash.
2. Heat oven to 325 degrees and grease a 2-quart casserole.
3. Whip together all casserole ingredients until light and fluffy to form the sweet potato base. Scrape into greased casserole.
4. To prepare topping, toss bread cubes, sugar and cinnamon in a small bowl until well combined. Sprinkle over the sweet potato base and pour melted butter over the top. Bake 1 hour and serve.
SWEET POTATO-STUFFED APPLES
Preparation time: 40 minutes
Cooking time: 40 minutes
4 medium-size sweet potatoes
4 tablespoons butter, plus butter for greasing a pie plate
1/2 teaspoon salt
1/8 teaspoon white pepper
2 tablespoons brown sugar
4 large baking apples (such as Mutsu or Rome Beauty)
About 24 whole cloves
Marshmallows or syrup for garnish, if desired
1. Put sweet potatoes in water to cover and cook 20 minutes. Peel and mash.
2. Heat oven to 325 degrees and butter a pie plate.
3. In a medium-size bowl beat together potatoes, 4 tablespoons butter, salt, pepper and sugar.
4. Core and scoop out centers from apples, leaving 1/2-inch thick shells. Do not remove any peel from apple shell.
5. Stuff apples with sweet potato mixture and stick 6 whole cloves into each apple skin. Place on pie dish and bake 20 minutes.
6. If desired, top with marshmallows or syrup and return to the oven for a few extra minutes or pop under the broiler to brown. | <urn:uuid:e02b2975-77e5-4029-928f-f773723cd54f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1988-02-18/entertainment/8803310647_1_sweet-potatoes-yams-sweeter | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.918281 | 1,344 | 2.875 | 3 |
If the ceiling is not raised, the United States would only have weeks before it runs out of cash to pay its bills, according to government estimates.
The Treasury had expected to run up against the ceiling between April 5 and May 31.
The warning came as US lawmakers, battling over how to slash spending, eyed a stopgap measure to avert a government shutdown.
[ For complete coverage of politics and policy, go to Yahoo! Politics ]
Although the issues of extending the debt ceiling and keeping the government funded are not linked, they have become enmeshed thanks to Washington’s political deal making.
President Barack Obama’s Republican foes have tied raising the debt limit to fierce spending cuts, which are seen as too extreme by many Democrats. | <urn:uuid:344aba6b-c002-46a1-848e-f11dfd637e15> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.capitolhillblue.com/node/39215 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00052-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969029 | 154 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Germany Could No Longer Remain Idle
By Adolf Hitler
September 1, 1939
For months we have been suffering under the torture of a problem which the Versailles Diktat created - a problem which has deteriorated until it becomes intolerable for us. Danzig was and is a German city. The Corridor was and is German. Both these territories owe their cultural development exclusively to the German people. Danzig was separated from us, the Corridor was annexed by Poland. As in other German territories of the East, all German minorities living there have been ill-treated in the most distressing manner. More than 1,000,000 people of German blood had in the years 1919-1920 to leave their homeland.
As always, I attempted to bring about, by the peaceful method of making proposals for revision, an alteration of this intolerable position. It is a lie when the outside world says that we only tried to carry through our revisions by pressure. Fifteen years before the National Socialist Party came to power there was the opportunity of carrying out these revisions by peaceful settlements and understanding. On my own initiative I have, not once but several times, made proposals for the revision of intolerable conditions. All these proposals, as you know, have been rejected - proposals for limitation of armaments and even, if necessary, disarmament, proposals for limitation of warmaking, proposals for the elimination of certain methods of modern warfare. You know the proposals that I have made to fulfill the necessity of restoring German sovereignty over German territories. You know the endless attempts I made for a peaceful clarification and understanding of the problem of Austria, and later of the problem of the Sudetenland, Bohemia, and Moravia. It was all in vain.
It is impossible to demand that an impossible position should be cleared up by peaceful revision and at the same time constantly reject peaceful revision. It is also impossible to say that he who undertakes to carry out these revisions for himself transgresses a law, since the Versailles Diktat is not law to us. A signature was forced out of us with pistols at our head and with the threat of hunger for millions of people. And then this document, with our signature, obtained by force, was proclaimed as a solemn law.
In the same way, I have also tried to solve the problem of Danzig, the Corridor, etc., by proposing a peaceful discussion. That the problems had to be solved was clear. It is quite understandable to us that the time when the problem was to be solved had little interest for the Western Powers. But that time is not a matter of indifference to us. Moreover, it was not and could not be a matter of indifference to those who suffer most.
In my talks with Polish statesmen I discussed the ideas which you recognize from my last speech to the Reichstag. No one could say that this was in any way an inadmissible procedure on undue pressure. I then naturally formulated at last the German proposals, and I must once more repeat that there is nothing more modest or loyal than these proposals. I should like to say this to the world. I alone was in the position to make such proposal, for I know very well that in doing so I brought myself into opposition to millions of Germans. These proposals have been refused. Not only were they answered first with mobilization, but with increased terror and pressure against our German compatriots and with a slow strangling of the Free City of Danzig - economically, politically, and in recent weeks by military and transport means.
Poland has directed its attacks against the Free City of Danzig. Moreover, Poland was not prepared to settle the Corridor question in a reasonable way which would be equitable to both parties, and she did not think of keeping her obligations to minorities.
I must here state something definitely; German has kept these obligations; the minorities who live in Germany are not persecuted. No Frenchman can stand up and say that any Frenchman living in the Saar territory is oppressed, tortured, or deprived of his rights. Nobody can say this.
For four months I have calmly watched developments, although I never ceased to give warnings. In the last few days I have increased these warnings. I informed the Polish Ambassador three weeks ago that if Poland continued to send to Danzig notes in the form of ultimata, and if on the Polish side an end was not put to Customs measures destined to ruin Danzig's trade, then the Reich could not remain inactive. I left no doubt that people who wanted to compare the Germany of to-day with the former Germany would be deceiving themselves.
An attempt was made to justify the oppression of the Germans by claiming that they had committed acts of provocation. I do not know in what these provocations on the part of women and children consist, if they themselves are maltreated, in some cases killed. One thing I do know - that no great Power can with honour long stand by passively and watch such events.
I made one more final effort to accept a proposal for mediation on the part of the British Government. They proposed, not that they themselves should carry on the negotiations, but rather that Poland and Germany should come into direct contact and once more pursue negotiations.
I must declare that I accepted this proposal, and I worked out a basis for these negotiations which are known to you. For two whole days I sat in my Government and waited to see whether it was convenient for the Polish Government to send a plenipotentiary or not. Last night they did not send us a plenipotentiary, but instead informed us through their Ambassador that they were still considering whether and to what extent they were in a position to go into the British proposals. The Polish Government also said that they would inform Britain of their decision.
Deputies, if the German Government and its Leader patiently endured such treatment Germany would deserve only to disappear from the political stage. But I am wrongly judged if my love of peace and my patience are mistaken for weakness or even cowardice. I, therefore, decided last night and informed the British Government that in these circumstances I can no longer find any willingness on the part of the Polish Government to conduct serious negotiations with us.
These proposals for mediation have failed because in the meanwhile there, first of all, came as an answer the sudden Polish general mobilization, followed by more Polish atrocities. These were again repeated last night. Recently in one night there were as many as twenty-one frontier incidents: last night there were fourteen, of which three were quite serious. I have, therefore, resolved to speak to Poland in the same language that Poland for months past has used toward us. This attitude on the part of the Reich will not change.
The other European States understand in part our attitude. I should like here above all to thank Italy, which throughout has supported us, but you will understand that for the carrying on of this struggle we do not intend to appeal to foreign help. We will carry out this task ourselves. The neutral States have assured us of their neutrality, just as we had already guaranteed it to them.
When statesmen in the West declare that this affects their interests, I can only regret such a declaration. It cannot for a moment make me hesitate to fulfill my duty. What more is wanted? I have solemnly assured them, and I repeat it, that we ask nothing of those Western States and never will ask anything. I have declared that the frontier between France and Germany is a final one. I have repeatedly offered friendship and, if necessary, the closest co-operation to Britain, but this cannot be offered from one side only. It must find response on the other side. Germany has no interests in the West, and our western wall is for all time the frontier of the Reich on the west. Moreover, we have no aims of any kind there for the future. With this assurance we are in solemn earnest, and as long as others do not violate their neutrality we will likewise take every care to respect it.
I am happy particularly to be able to tell you of one event. You know that Russia and Germany are governed by two different doctrines. There was only one question that had to be cleared up. Germany has no intention of exporting its doctrine. Given the fact that Soviet Russia has no intention of exporting its doctrine to Germany. I no longer see any reason why we should still oppose one another. On both sides we are clear on that. Any struggle between our people would only be of advantage to others. We have, therefore, resolved to conclude a pact which rules out for ever any use of violence between us. It imposes the obligation on us to consult together in certain European questions. It makes possible for us economic co-operation, and above all it assures that the powers of both these powerful States are not wasted against one another. Every attempt of the West to bring about any change in this will fail.
At the same time I should like here to declare that this political decision means a tremendous departure for the future, and that it is a final one. Russia and Germany fought against one another in the World War. That shall and will not happen a second time. In Moscow, too, this pact was greeted exactly as you greet it. I can only endorse word for word the speech of Russian Foreign Commissar, Molotov.
I am determined to solve (1) the Danzig question; (2) the question of the Corridor; and (3) to see to it that a change is made in the relationship between Germany and Poland that shall ensure a peaceful co-existence. In this I am resolved to continue to fight until either the present Polish government is willing to continue to bring about this change or until another Polish Government is ready to do so. I am resolved t remove from the German frontiers the element of uncertainty, the everlasting atmosphere of conditions resembling civil war. I will see to it that in the East there is, on the frontier, a peace precisely similar to that on our other frontiers.
In this I will take the necessary measures to se that they do not contradict the proposals I have already made known in the Reichstag itself to the rest of the world, that is to say, I will not war against women and children. I have ordered my air force to restrict itself to attacks on military objectives. If, however, the enemy thinks he can form that draw carte blanche on his side to fight by the other methods he will receive an answer that will deprive him of hearing and sight.
This night for the first time Polish regular soldiers fired on our territory. Since 5.45 A.M. we have been returning the fire, and from now on bombs will be met by bombs. Whoever fight with poison gas will be fought with poison gas. Whoever departs from the rules of humane warfare can only expect that we shall do the same. I will continue this struggle, no matter against whom, until the safety of the Reich and its rights are secured.
For six years now I have been working on the building up of the German defenses. Over 90 millions have in that time been spent on the building up of these defense forces. They are now the best equipped and are above all comparison with what they were in 1914. My trust in them is unshakable. When I called up these forces and when I now ask sacrifices of the German people and if necessary every sacrifice, then I have a right to do so, for I also am to-day absolutely ready, just as we were formerly, to make every possible sacrifice.
I am asking of no German man more than I myself was ready throughout four years at any time to do. There will be no hardships for Germans to which I myself will not submit. My whole life henceforth belongs more than ever to my people. I am from now on just first soldier of the German Reich. I have once more put on that coat that was the most sacred and dear to me. I will not take it off again until victory is secured, or I will not survive the outcome.
Should anything happen to me in the struggle then my first successor is Party Comrade Goring; should anything happen to Party Comrade Goring my next successor is Party Comrade Hess. You would then be under obligation to give to them as Fuhrer the same blind loyalty and obedience as to myself. Should anything happen to Party Comrade Hess, then by law the Senate will be called, and will choose from its midst the most worthy - that is to say the bravest - successor.
As a National Socialist and as German soldier I enter upon this struggle with a stout heart. My whole life has been nothing but one long struggle for my people, for its restoration, and for Germany. There was only one watchword for that struggle: faith in this people. One word I have never learned: that is, surrender.
If, however, anyone thinks that we are facing a hard time, I should ask him to remember that once a Prussian King, with a ridiculously small State, opposed a stronger coalition, and in three wars finally came out successful because that State had that stout heart that we need in these times. I would, therefore, like to assure all the world that a November 1918 will never be repeated in German history. Just as I myself am ready at any time to stake my life - anyone can take it for my people and for Germany - so I ask the same of all others.
Whoever, however, thinks he can oppose this national command, whether directly of indirectly, shall fall. We have nothing to do with traitors. We are all faithful to our old principle. It is quite unimportant whether we ourselves live, but it is essential that our people shall live, that Germany shall live. The sacrifice that is demanded of us is not greater than the sacrifice that many generations have made. If we form a community closely bound together by vows, ready for anything, resolved never to surrender, then our will will master every hardship and difficulty. And I would like to close with the declaration that I once made when I began the struggle for power in the Reich. I then said: "If our will is so strong that no hardship and suffering can subdue it, then our will and our German might shall prevail."
Proclamation to the German People
Adolf Hitler , Chancellor of the Reich,
September 3, 1939
Great Britain has for centuries pursued the aim of rendering the peoples of Europe defenseless against the British policy of world conquest by proclaiming a balance of power, in which Great Britain claimed the right to attack on threadbare pretexts and destroy that European State which at the moment seemed most dangerous. Thus, at one time, she fought the world power of Spain, later the Dutch, then the French, and, since 1871, the German.
We ourselves have been witnesses of the policy of encirclement which has been carried on by Great Britain against Germany since before the war. Just as the German nation had begun, under its National Socialist leadership, to recover from the frightful consequences of the Diktat of Versailles, and threatened to survive the crisis, the British encirclement immediately began once more.
The British war inciters spread the lie before the War that the battle was only against the House of Hohenzollern or German militarism; that they had no designs on German colonies; that they had no intention of taking the German mercantile fleet. They then oppressed the German people under the Versailles Diktat the faithful fulfillment of which would have sooner or later exterminated 20 million Germans.
I undertook to mobilize the resistance of the German nation against this, and to assure work and bread for them. But as the peaceful revision of the Versailles Diktat of force seemed to be succeeding, and the German people again began to live, the new British encirclement policy was resumed. The same lying inciters appeared as in 1914. I have many times offered Great Britain and the British people the understanding and friendship of the German people. My whole policy was based on the idea of this understanding. I have always been repelled. I had for years been aware that the aim of these war inciters had for long been to take Germany by surprise at a favourable opportunity.
I am more firmly determined than ever to beat back this attack. Germany shall not again capitulate. There is no sense in sacrificing one life after another and submitting to an even worse Versailles Diktat. We have never been a nation of slaves and will not be one in the future. Whatever Germans in the past had to sacrifice for the existence of our realm, they shall not be greater than those which we are to-day prepared to make.
This resolve is an inexorable one. It necessitates the most thorough measures, and imposes on us one law above all others: If the soldier is fighting at the front, no one shall profit by the war. If the soldier falls at the front no one at home shall evade his duty.
As long as the German people was united it has never been conquered. It was the lack of unity in 1918 that led to collapse. Whoever offends against this unity need expect nothing else than annihilation as an enemy of the nation. If our people fulfills its highest duty in this sense, that God will help us who has always bestowed His mercy on him who was determined to help himself.
ARMISTICE AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE GERMAN HIGH COMMAND OF THE ARMED FORCES AND FRENCH PLENIPOTENTIARIES
JUNE 22, 1940
Between the chief of the High Command of the armed forces, Col. Gen. [Wilhelm] Keitel, commissioned by the Fuehrer of the German Reich and Supreme Commander in Chief of the German Armed Forces, and the fully authorized plenipotentiaries of the French Government, General [Charles L. C.] Huntziger, chairman of the delegation; Ambassador [Léon] Noel, Rear Admiral [Maurice R.] LeLuc, Army Corps General [Georges] Parisot an Air Force General [Jean-Marie Joseph] Bergeret, the following armistice treaty was agreed upon:
The French Government directs a cessation of fighting against the German Reich in France as well as in French possessions, colonies, protectorate territories, mandates as well as on the seas.
It [the French Government] directs the immediate laying down of arms of French units already encircled by German troops.
To safeguard the interests of the German Reich, French State territory north and west of the line drawn on the attached map will be occupied by German troops.
As far as the parts to be occupied still are not in control of German troops, this occupation will be carried out immediately after the conclusion of this treaty.
In the occupied parts of France the German Reich exercises all rights of an occupying power The French Government obligates itself to support with every means the regulations resulting from the exercise of these rights and to carry them out with the aid of French administration.
All French authorities and officials of the occupied territory, therefore, are to be promptly informed by the French Government to comply with the regulations of the German military commanders and to cooperate with them in a correct manner.
It is the intention of the German Government to limit the occupation of the west coast after ending hostilities with England to the extent absolutely necessary.
The French Government is permitted to select the seat of its government in unoccupied territory, or, if it wishes, to move to Paris. In this case, the German Government guarantees the French Government and its central authorities every necessary alleviation so that they will be in a position to conduct the administration of unoccupied territory from Paris.
French armed forces on land, on the sea, and in the air are to be demobilized and disarmed in a period still to be set. Excepted are only those units which are necessary for maintenance of domestic order. Germany and Italy will fix their strength. The French armed forces in the territory to be occupied by Germany are to be hastily withdrawn into territory not to be occupied and be discharged. These troops, before marching out, shall lay down their weapons and equipment at the places where they are stationed at the time this treaty becomes effective. They are responsible for orderly delivery to German troops.
As a guarantee for the observance of the armistice, the surrender, undamaged, of all those guns, tanks, tank defense weapons, war planes, anti-aircraft artillery, infantry weapons, means of conveyance, and munitions can be demanded from the units of the French armed forces which are standing in battle against Germany and which at the time this agreement goes into force are in territory not to be occupied by Germany.
The German armistice commission will decide the extent of delivery.
Weapons, munitions, and war apparatus of every kind remaining in the unoccupied portion of France are to be stored and/or secured under German and/or Italian control—so far as not released for the arming allowed to French units.
The German High Command reserves the right to direct all those measures which are necessary to exclude unauthorized use of this material. Building of new war apparatus in unoccupied territory is to be stopped immediately.
In occupied territory, all the land and coastal fortifications, with weapons, munitions, and apparatus and plants of every kind are to be surrendered undamaged. Plans of these fortifications, as well as plans of those already conquered by German troops, are to be handed over.
Exact plans regarding prepared blastings, land mines, obstructions, time fuses, barriers for fighting, etc., shall be given to the German High Command. These hindrances are to be removed by French forces upon German demand.
The French war fleet is to collect in ports to be designated more particularly, and under German and/or Italian control to demobilize and lay up—with the exception of those units released to the French Government for protection of French interests in its colonial empire.
The peacetime stations of ships should control the designation of ports.
The German Government solemnly declares to the French Government that it does not intend to use the French War Fleet which is in harbors under German control for its purposes in war, with the exception of units necessary for the purposes of guarding the coast and sweeping mines.
It further solemnly and expressly declares that it does not intend to bring up any demands respecting the French War Fleet at the conclusion of a peace.
All warships outside France are to be recalled to France with the exception of that portion of the French War Fleet which shall be designated to represent French interests in the colonial empire.
The French High Command must give the German High Command the exact location of all mines which France has set out, as well as information on the other harbor and coastal obstructions and defense facilities. Insofar as the German High Command may require, French forces must clear away the mines.
The French Government is obligated to forbid any portion of its remaining armed forces to undertake hostilities against Germany in any manner.
French Government also will prevent members of its armed forces from leaving the country and prevent armaments of any sort, including ships, planes, etc., being taken to England or any other place abroad.
The French Government will forbid French citizens to fight against Germany in the service of States with which the German Reich is still at war. French citizens who violate this provision are to be treated by German troops as insurgents.
French commercial vessels of all sorts, including coastal and harbor vessels which are now in French hands, may not leave port until further notice. Resumption of commercial voyages will require approval of the German and Italian Governments.
French commercial vessels will be recalled by the French Government or, if return is impossible, the French Government will instruct them to enter neutral harbors.
All confiscated German commercial vessels are, on demand, to be returned [to Germany] undamaged.
Flight by any airplane over French territory shall be prohibited. Every plane making a flight without German approval will be regarded as an enemy by the German Air Force and treated accordingly.
In unoccupied territory, air fields and ground facilities of the air force shall be under German and Italian control.
Demand may be made that such air fields be rendered unusable. The French Government is required to take charge of all foreign airplanes in the unoccupied region to prevent flights. They are to be turned over to the German armed forces.
The French Government obligates itself to turn over to German troops in the occupied region all facilities and properties of the French armed forces in undamaged condition.
It [the French Government] also will see to it that harbors, industrial facilities, and docks are preserved in their present condition and damaged in no way.
The same stipulations apply to transportation routes and equipment, especially railways, roads, and canals, and to the whole communications network and equipment, waterways and coastal transportation services.
Additionally, the French Government is required on demand of the German High Command to perform all necessary restoration labor on these facilities.
The French Government will see to it that in the occupied region necessary technical personnel and rolling stock of the railways and other transportation equipment, to a degree normal in peacetime, be retained in service.
There is an immediate prohibition of transmission for all wireless stations on French soil. Resumption of wireless connections from the unoccupied portion of France requires a special regulation.
The French Government obligates itself to convey transit freight between the German Reich and Italy through unoccupied territory to the extent demanded by the German Government.
The French Government, in agreement with the responsible German officials, will carry out the return of population into occupied territory.
The French Government obligates itself to prevent every transference of economic valuables and provisions from the territory to be occupied by German troops into unoccupied territory or abroad.
These valuables and provisions in occupied territory are to be disposed of only in agreement with the German Government. In that connection, the German Government will consider the necessities of life of the population in unoccupied territory.
The French-Government will bear the costs of maintenance of German occupation troops on French soil.
All German war and civil prisoners in French custody, including those under arrest and convicted who were seized and sentenced because of acts in favor of the German Reich, shall be surrendered immediately to German troops.
The French Government is obliged to surrender upon demand all Germans named by the German Government in France as well as in French possessions, colonies, protectorate territories, and mandates.
The French Government binds itself to prevent removal of German war and civil prisoners from France into French possessions or into foreign countries. Regarding prisoners already taken outside of France, as well as sick and wounded German prisoners who cannot be transported, exact lists with the places of residence are to be produced. The German High Command assumes care of sick and wounded German war prisoners.
French troops in German prison camps will remain prisoners of war until conclusion of a peace.
The French Government assumes responsibility for the security of all objects and valuables whose undamaged surrender or holding in readiness for German disposal is demanded in this agreement or whose removal outside the country is forbidden. The French Government is bound to compensate for all destruction, damage or removal contrary to agreement.
The Armistice Commission, acting in accordance with the direction of the German High Command, will regulate and supervise the carrying out of the armistice agreement. It is the task of the Armistice Commission further to insure the necessary conformity of this agreement with the Italian-French armistice.
The French Government will send a delegation to the seat of the German Armistice Commission to represent the French wishes and to receive regulations from the German Armistice Commission for executing [the agreement].
This armistice agreement becomes effective as soon as the French Government also has reached an agreement with the Italian Government regarding cessation of hostilities.
Hostilities will be stopped six hours after the moment at which the Italian Government has notified the German Government of conclusion of its agreement. The German Government will notify the French Government of this time by wireless.
This agreement is valid until conclusion of a peace treaty. The German Government may terminate this agreement at any time with immediate effect if the French Government fails to fulfill the obligations it assumes under the agreement.
This armistice agreement, signed in the Forest of Compiègne, June 22,1940, at 6:50 p.m., German summer time.
The line mentioned in Article II of the armistice agreement begins in the east on the French-Swiss border at Geneva and runs thence nearly over the villages of Dôle, Paray, Le Monial, and Bourges to approximately twenty kilometers east of Tours. From there it goes at a distance of twenty kilometers east of the Tours-Angouléme-Liborune railway line and extends through Mont de Marsan and Orthez to the Spanish border.
German Declaration of War with the United States:
December 11, 1941
December 11, 1941
The German Charg d'Affaires, Dr. Hans Thomsen, and the First Secretary of the German Embassy, Mr. von Strempel, called at the State Department at 8:00 A.M. on December 11, 1941. The Secretary, otherwise engaged, directed that they be received by the Chief of the European Division of the State Department, Mr. Ray Atherton. Mr. Atherton received the German representatives at 9:30 A.M.
The German representatives handed to Mr. Atherton a copy of a note that is being delivered this morning, December 11, to the American Charg d'Affaires in Berlin. Dr. Thomsen said that Germany considers herself in a state of war with the United States. He asked that the appropriate measures be taken for the departure of himself, the members of the German Embassy, and his staff in this country. He reminded Mr. Atherton that the German Government had previously expressed its willingness to grant the same treatment to American press correspondents in Germany as that accorded the American official staff on a reciprocal basis and added that he assumed that the departure of other American citizens from Germany would be permitted on the same basis of German citizens desiring to leave this country. He referred to the exchange of civilians that had been arranged at the time Great Britain and Germany broke off diplomatic relations.
The German Charg d'Affaires then stated that the Swiss Government would take over German interests in this country and that Dr. Bruggmann had already received appropriate instructions from his Government.
He then handed Mr. Atherton a note from the German Government. Mr. Atherton stated that in accepting this note from the German Charg d'Affaires he was merely formalizing the realization that the Government and people of this country had faced since the outbreak of the war in 1939 of the threat and purposes of the German Government and the Nazi regime toward this hemisphere and our free American civilization.
Mr. Atherton then said that this Government would arrange for the delivery of Dr. Thomsen's passports and that he assumed that we would very shortly be in communication with the Swiss Minister. He added that Dr. Thomsen must realize, however, that the physical difficulties of the situation would demand a certain amount of time in working out this reciprocal arrangement for the departure of the missions of the two countries. The German representatives then took their leave.
The text of the note which the German representatives handed to Mr. Ray Atherton, Chief of the European Division of the State Department, at 9:30 A.M., December 11, the original of which had been delivered the morning of December 11 to the American Charg d'Affaires in Berlin, follows:
MR. CHARG D'AFFAIRES:
The Government of the United States having violated in the most flagrant manner and in ever increasing measure all rules of neutrality in favor of the adversaries of Germany and having continually been guilty of the most severe provocations toward Germany ever since the outbreak of the European war, provoked by the British declaration of war against Germany on September 3, 1939, has finally resorted to open military acts of aggression.
On September 11, 1941, the President of the United States publicly declared that he had ordered the American Navy and Air Force to shoot on sight at any German war vessel. In his speech of October 27, 1941, he once more expressly affirmed that this order was in force. Acting under this order, vessels of the American Navy, since early September 1941, have systematically attacked German naval forces. Thus, American destroyers, as for instance the Greer, the Kearney and the Reuben James, have opened fire on German sub-marines according to plan. The Secretary of the American Navy, Mr. Knox, himself confirmed that-American destroyers attacked German submarines.
Furthermore, the naval forces of the United States, under order of their Government and contrary to international law have treated and seized German merchant vessels on the high seas as enemy ships.
The German Government therefore establishes the following facts:
Although Germany on her part has strictly adhered to the rules of international law in her relations with the United States during every period of the present war, the Government of the United States from initial violations of neutrality has finally proceeded to open acts of war against Germany. The Government of the United States has thereby virtually created a state of war.
The German Government, consequently, discontinues diplomatic relations with the United States of America and declares that under these circumstances brought about by President Roosevelt Germany too, as from today, considers herself as being in a state of war with the United States of America.
Accept, Mr. Charge d'Affaires, the expression of my high consideration.
December 11, 1941.
Adolf Hitler Radio address
After failed assassination attempt by Claus von Stauffenberg
My fellow Germans! Yet another of the countless attempts on my life has been planned and carried out. I am speaking to you for two reasons:
1. So that you can hear my voice and know that I myself am not injured and well.
2. So that you can hear the details of a crime without parallel in German history.
A very small clique of ambitious, unscrupulous, criminal and stupid officers formed a conspiracy to do away with me and at the same time to wipe out virtually the entire staff of the German High Command.
The bomb which was planted by Colonel von Stauffenberg exploded two meters to my right. It seriously injured a number of my colleagues who are very dear to me; one has died. I myself am completely unhurt apart from a few minor skin abrasions, bruises and burns. I interpret this as confirmation that Providence wishes me to continue my life's mission as I have in the past. For I can solemnly state in the presence of the entire nation that since the day I moved into the Wilhelmstraße my sole thought has been to carry out my duty to the best of my ability. And from the time when I realized that the war was unavoidable and could no longer be delayed, I have known nothing but worry and hard work; and for countless days and sleepless nights have lived only for my People!
At the very moment when the German armies are engaged in a most difficult struggle, a small group formed in Germany, as happened in Italy, which thought that as in 1918 it could now deliver the stab in the back. However, this time they totally miscalculated. The claim by these usurpers that I am no longer alive, is at this very moment proven false, for here I am talking to you, my dear fellow countrymen. The circle which these usurpers represent is very small. It has nothing to do with the German armed forces, and above all nothing to do with the German army. It is a very small clique composed of criminal elements which will now be mercilessly exterminated. I therefore give the following orders with immediate effect:
1. That no civilian agency is to obey an order from a government agency which these usurpers claim that they command.
2. That no military installation, no commander of a unit, no soldier is to obey any order by these usurpers. On the contrary, any person conveying or issuing such an order is to be immediately arrested or, if they resist, shot on the spot.
In order to restore complete order, I have appointed Minister of the Reich Himmler to be Commander of the Home Forces. I have drafted into the General Staff General Guderian to replace the Chief of the General Staff who is at the moment absent due to illness, and have appointed a second proven leader from the Eastern Front to be his aide.
In all the other agencies of government within the Reich everything remains unchanged. I am convinced that with the departure of this small clique of traitors and conspirators, we will finally create the atmosphere here at home, too, which the soldiers at the front need. For it is intolerable that at the front hundreds of thousands and millions of brave men are willing to make the ultimate sacrifice, while here at home a small clique of ambitious, despicable creatures constantly tries to undermine this attitude. This time we will settle accounts as we National Socialists are accustomed to. I am convinced that at this time every decent officer, every honest soldier will understand that.
Few people can begin to imagine the fate which would have overtaken Germany had the assassination attempt succeeded. I myself thank Providence and my Creator not for preserving me - my life consists only of worry and work for my People - I thank him only for allowing me to continue to bear this burden of worry, and to carry on my work to the best of my ability.
It is the duty of every German without exception to ruthlessly oppose these elements, and either to arrest them immediately or, if they resist arrest, to shoot them on the spot. These orders have been issued to all military units. They will be carried out to the letter with the discipline typical of the Germany army.
Once again I take this opportunity, my old comrades in arms, to greet you, joyful that I have once again been spared a fate which, while it held no terror for me personally, would have had terrible consequences for the German People. I interpret this as a sign from Providence that I must continue my work, and therefore I shall continue it.
Anniversary of coming to power
by Adolf Hitler
Last Radio address
Last Radio address
January 30, 1945
GERMAN COMPATRIOTS! NATIONAL SOCIALISTS!
Twelve years ago, when, as the leader of the strongest party, I was entrusted by the deceased Reich President, [Field Marshal Paul] von Hindenburg, with the office of Chancellor, Germany found herself faced with the same situation internally as the one that today faces it externally. The forces of economic destruction and annihilation of the Versailles dictate led to a situation that had gradually become a permanent one-namely, the existence of almost 7,000,000 unemployed, 7,000,000 part-time workers, a destroyed farmers' class, a ruined industry and a commerce that had become correspondingly prostrate.
The German ports were nothing but ship cemeteries. The financial situation of the country threatened at any moment to lead to a collapse not only of the state but also of the provinces and of the communities. The decisive thing, however, was this: Behind this methodical destruction of Germany's economy, there stood the specter of Asiatic bolshevism. It was there then, just as much as it is there today.
In the years before our assumption of power the bourgeois world was incapable of opposing this development effectively on a small scale, just as it is incapable of doing so today on a large scale. Even after the collapse of 1918 this bourgeois world had failed to realize that an old world was vanishing and a new one being born and that there is no use in supporting and thus artificially maintaining what has been found to be decayed and rotten, but that something healthy must be substituted for it. A social structure that had become obsolete had cracked and every attempt to maintain it was bound to fail.
It was no different from today on a large scale, when the bourgeois states are doomed and when only clearly defined and ideologically consolidated national communities can survive the most difficult crisis Europe has seen in many centuries.
We were granted only six years of peace after Jan. 30, 1933. During these six years tremendous feats were achieved, and even greater ones were planned, so many and such huge ones that they caused envy among our democratic, impotent neighbors.
But this was decisive: That we succeeded during these six years, with superhuman exertions, to restore the German nation militarily-that is, to imbue it with the spirit of resistance and self-assertion rather than to equip it with a material war potential.
The horrid fate that is now taking shape in the east and that exterminates hundreds of thousands in the villages and market places, in the country and in the cities will be warded off in the end and mastered by us, with the utmost exertion and despite all setbacks and hard trials.
But if this is possible at all, it is only because a change has taken place in the German people since 1933. If Germany today were the Germany envisaged by the Versailles Treaty, Europe would long since have been swept away by the hurricane from Central Asia. It is hardly necessary to argue with those eternal blockheads who maintain that an unarmed Germany would, owing to its impotence, not have become the victim of this Jewish international world plot. Such reasoning would amount to a reversal of all laws of nature.
When was a helpless goose ever not eaten by the fox because she was constitutionally incapable of harboring aggressive designs? And when has a wolf ever reformed and become a pacifist because sheep do not wear armor? If there are still bourgeois states who earnestly believe this, that only proves how necessary it was to do away with an era that by its educational system managed to cultivate and maintain such notions, nay, even granted them political influence.
The fight against this Jewish Asiatic bolshevism had been raging long before National Socialism came into power. The only reason why it had not already overrun Europe during the years 1919-20 was that it was then itself too weak and too poorly armed.
Its attempt to eliminate Poland was not abandoned because of its compassion for the Poland of that time but only because of the lost battle before Warsaw. Its intention to annihilate Hungary was not discarded because they changed their minds, but because Bolshevist power could not be maintained militarily. Nor was the attempt to smash Germany given up because this achievement was not desired but because it proved impossible to overcome the natural resistance stamina of our people.
Thereupon Judaism began systematically to undermine our nation from within, and it found its best ally in those narrow-minded bourgeoisie who would not recognize that the era of a bourgeois world is ended and will never again return, that the epoch of unbridled economic liberalism has outlived itself and can only lead to its self-destruction and, above all, that the great tasks of our time can be mastered only under an authoritarian coordination of natural strength, based on the law of same rights for all and, thence, of same duties. On the other hand, the fulfillment of the same duties must necessarily entail an equality of rights.
Thus National Socialism, in the midst of gigantic economic, social and cultural reconstruction work, has also educationally given to the German people that armor without which no military values can be created.
The power of resistance of our nation has increased so tremendously since Jan. 30, 1933, that it cannot be compared any more with that of former times But the maintaining of this inner power of resistance is by the same token the safest guarantor of final victory. If Europe today finds itself stricken with a severe illness, the stricken countries will either overcome this illness by exerting their full and utmost power of resistance or they will succumb.
Yet the convalescent and survivor overcomes the climax of such an illness only in a crisis, a crisis that utterly weakens him, but in spite of all, it is all the more our immutable will not to shrink from anything in this battle for the salvation of our people from the most dreadful fate of all times and unflinchingly and faithfully to obey the law of the preservation of our nation.
God the Almighty has made our nation. By defending its existence we are defending His work. The fact that this defense is fraught with incalculable misery, suffering and hardships makes us even more attached to this nation But it also gives us that hard will needed to fulfill our duty even in the most critical struggle; that is, not only to fulfill our duty toward the decent, noble Germans, but also our duty toward those few infamous ones who turn their backs on their people.
In this fateful battle there is therefore for us but one command: He who fights honorably can thus save his own life and the lives of his loved ones. But he who, because of cowardice or lack of character, turns his back on the nation shall inexorably die an ignominious death.
That National Socialism succeeded in awakening and strengthening this spirit in our German people is a great achievement. Only when this mighty world drama will have died away and the bells of peace are ringing will realization come of what the German people owes to this spiritual renaissance: No less than its existence in this world.
Only a few months and weeks ago Allied statesmen openly outlined the German fate. Thereupon they were warned by some newspapers to be more intelligent and rather to promise something, even though nobody intended to keep this promise later.
As an inexorable National Socialist and a fighter for my people, I now wish to assure these statesmen once and for all that every attempt at influencing National Socialist Germany through slogans, lies and distortions presupposes a simple-mindedness unknown to the Germany of today. The fact that political activities and lies are inextricably linked in a democracy is of no consequence. Decisive is that every promise given by these statesmen to a people is today quite meaningless, because they are not in a position ever to fulfill any such promise. This is as if one sheep promised another sheep to protect it against a tiger.
I herewith repeat my prophecy: England will not only not be in a position to control bolshevism but her development will unavoidably evolve more and more toward the symptoms of this destructive disease.
The democracies are unable to rid themselves now of the forces they summoned from the steppes of Asia.
All the small European nations ,who capitulated, confident of Allied assurances, are facing complete annihilation. It is entirely uninteresting whether this fate will befall them a little earlier or later; what counts is its implacability. The Kremlin Jews are motivated only by tactical considerations; whether in one case they act with immediate brutality or, in another case, with some reticence, the result will always be the same.
Germany, however, shall never suffer this fate. The guarantor thereof is the victory achieved twelve years ago within our country. Whatever our enemies may plot, whatever sufferings they may inflict on our German cities, on German landscapes and, above all, on our people, all that cannot bear any comparison with the irreparable misery, the tragedy that would befall us if the plutocratic-Bolshevistic conspiracy were victorious.
Therefore, it is all the more necessary on this twelfth anniversary of the rise to power to strengthen the heart more than ever before and to steel ourselves in the holy determination to wield the sword, no-matter where and under what circumstances, until final victory crowns our efforts.
On this day I do not want to leave any doubt about something else. Against an entire hostile world I once chose my road, according to my inner call, and strode it, as an unknown and nameless man, to final success; often they reported I was dead and always they wished I were, but in the end I remained victor in spite of all. My life today is with an equal exclusiveness determined by the duties incumbent on me.
Combined, they are but one: To work for my people and to fight for it. Only He can relieve me of this duty Who called me to it. It was in the hand of Providence to snuff me out by the bomb that exploded only one and a half meters from me on July 20, and thus to terminate my life's work. That the Almighty protected me on that day I consider a renewed affirmation of the task entrusted to me.
In the years to come I shall continue on this road, uncompromisingly safeguarding my people's interests, oblivious to all misery and danger, and filled with the holy conviction that God the Almighty will not abandon him who, during all his life, had no desire but to save his people from a fate it had never deserved, neither by virtue of its number nor by way of its importance.
Therefore I now appeal to the entire German people and, above all, to my old fellow-fighters and to all the soldiers to gird themselves with a yet greater, harder spirit of resistance, until we can again-as we did before-put on the graves of the dead of this enormous struggle a wreath inscribed with the words: "And yet you were victorious."
Therefore I expect every German to do his duty to the last and that he be willing to take upon himself every sacrifice he will be asked to make; I expect every able-bodied German to fight with the complete disregard for his personal safety; I expect the sick and the weak or those otherwise unavailable for military duty to work with their last strength; I expect city dwellers to forge the weapons for this struggle and I expect the farmer to supply the bread for the soldiers and workers of this struggle by imposing restrictions upon himself; I expect all women and girls to continue supporting this struggle with utmost fanaticism.
In this appeal I particularly address myself to German youth. In vowing ourselves to one another, we are entitled to stand before the Almighty and ask Him for His grace and His blessing. No people can do more than that everybody who can fight, fights, and that everybody who can work, works, and that they all sacrifice in common, filled with but one thought: to safeguard freedom and national honor and thus the future of life.
However grave the crisis may be at the moment, it will, despite everything, finally be mastered by our unalterable will, by our readiness for sacrifice and by our abilities. We shall overcome this calamity, too, and this fight, too, will not be won by central Asia but by Europe; and at its head will be the nation that has represented Europe against the East for 1,500 years and shall represent it for all times: our Greater German Reich, the German nation.
Middle and High School Curriculum Supplement
For More Information Click Here
|U.S. Dollar Presidential Coin Mr. Klos vs Secretary Paulson - Click Here| | <urn:uuid:473f635e-a39a-4742-ae84-134ff2577fb8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.worldwarii.org/p/hitler-speeches.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970626 | 10,475 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Caregivers are responsible for the care and well-being of others. Most people who go into this field are known for their sensitivity, their giving nature and their nurturing desire to help those in need. Care-giving typically entails responsibilities such as bathing, dressing, feeding and overseeing the safety and emotional needs of their charges. Some caregivers work in childcare positions, while others focus on geriatric home care or medical recovery. Most medical careers also feature a care-giving component, though the type of training necessary for various positions varies according to industry.
One of the best qualities a caregiver can have is a sense of empathy for those being cared for. Whether you’re caring for a small child in daycare or helping an elderly person recover from surgery, a sense of personal understanding and connection is vital. Good caregivers understand their charges may feel vulnerable, scared, confused and uncomfortable, and being able to identify and allay these fears can create a sense of calm and trust for those being cared for.
People receiving care typically lack the ability to be fully independent and self-sufficient, which can lead to frustration and lashing out. Whether it’s a child who can’t express his hunger or pain verbally or a paralyzed house-bound individual who feels trapped and out-of-control, patience is vital to the role of caregiver. You must be able to separate yourself from potential anger and resentment and not take the situation personally, all while still providing high-quality care services.
People being cared for often take longer than usual to complete simple tasks or routines. Understanding the limitations of those you care for can help reduce tension in the environment. Good caregivers recognize capabilities and encourage self-sufficiency while still providing necessary levels of care and attention. Having realistic expectations about what an individual under your care is capable of can help you provide individualized and appropriate care.
Caregivers often deal with bodily fluids, wound care, bathing and other personal hygiene routines of their charges. A good caregiver does not shy away from delicate situations and works to help those they care for retain a sense of dignity. A caregiver never chides or shames her charges for incontrollable body functions, regardless of age or circumstance.
Good caregivers know how to calm and sooth their charges. People in care-giving situations must often be prompted to eat, drink and cooperate to some degree in their own care. Being a voice of encouragement is a good quality for a caregiver, as is the ability to calm and reassure those being cared for.
Reliability is a vital trait in a caregiver. People receiving care come to rely on and depend upon their caregivers and often feel a sense of personal attachment. Caregivers must continually be on time, particularly if administering food or medical care is part of the position’s responsibility.
- Stockbyte/Stockbyte/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:6aec71e7-105e-43b7-80be-39bd7f377fd2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://work.chron.com/good-qualities-caregiver-9470.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946034 | 585 | 3.15625 | 3 |
|Aliens and Cattle Mutilations
Aliens Gathering Genetic Material for Species Propagation
Cattle mutilation is the apparent killing and then mutilation
of cattle under unusual or anomalous circumstances. Sheep and horses
have allegedly been mutilated under similar circumstances.
hallmark of these incidents is the surgical nature of the mutilation,
and unexplained phenomena such as the complete draining of the animal's
blood, loss of internal organs with no obvious point of entry, and
surgically precise removal of the reproductive organs and anal coring.
reported event is that the animal is found 'dumped' in an area where
there are no marks or tracks leading to or from the carcass, even when
it is found in soft ground or mud.
The surgical-type wounds tend
to be cauterized by an intense heat and made by very sharp/precise
instruments, with no bleeding evident.
Often flesh will be removed to
the bone in an exact manner, consistent across cases, such as removal of
flesh from around the jaw exposing the mandible.
Since the time
that reports of purported animal mutilations began, the causes have been
attributed variously to natural decomposition, normal predators,
cryptid predators (like the Chupacabra), extraterrestrials, secretive
governmental or military agencies, and cults.
"Mutilations" have been
the subject of two independent federal investigations in the United
Although the exact nature of mutilations varies from case to case, a
typical mutilation might involve any or all of the following:
- The removal of eyes, udders and sexual organs very cleanly with surgical precision.
- The removal of the anus to a depth of around 12 inches similar in appearance to surgical coring.
- The removal of the lips and/or tongue deeply cut out from the throat.
- The removal of one ear.
- The removal of major organs (such as heart or liver)
with no obvious entry/excision marks. Often, if the heart is missing,
apart from no excision wound, the Pericardium will still be present and
intact, with the heart missing.
- The stripping of hide and flesh from the jaw and the area directly beneath the ear to the bone.
- The removal of soft organs from the lower body.
- The presence of incisions and cuts across the body that appear to have been made by a surgical instrument.
- Unexplained damage to remaining organs, but no sign of damage to the surrounding area.
- A lack of predation signs (including teethmarks, tearing of the skin or flesh, or animal footprints) on or around the carcass.
- Lack of obvious scavenging.
- In many cases, a draining of the majority of blood
from the animal. What blood is left exhibits color anomalies and may not
coagulate for days.
- The animal will appear 'dumped' or dropped in a
secluded area, with no animal, human or vehicle track(s) leading to or
from the site. Some have been found draped over fences or in treetops.
- The ground under the animal appears depressed, as if the animal was dropped on the site from a height leaving an impact crater.
- The animal's bones found to be fractured with injuries consistent with being dropped.
- Strange marks/holes in the ground around the carcass.
- Other cattle avoid the carcass and the area where it's found.
- Eyewitness reports of aerial objects in the vicinity of cattle at the time of an animal going missing.
mutilation is the alleged killing and then subsequent mutilation of
cattle. Sheep or horses have also been similarly mutilated, according to
Mutilations include removal of parts of the mouth and hind regions,
especially the anus and sexual organs. Some attribute these mutilations
to extraterrestrials, such as "bad" aliens.
Others, including cryptozoologists, attribute them to malevolent alien creatures released by other aliens.
Reports of mutilated cattle first surfaced in the United States in the early 1960s when it was allegedly largely confined to the states of Pennsylvania and Kansas.
The phenomenon remained largely unknown outside cattle raising communities until 1967, when the Pueblo Chieftain in Pueblo, Colorado published a story about a horse named Lady who was mutilated in mysterious circumstances, which was then picked up by the wider press and distributed nationwide.
This case was also the first to feature speculation that extraterrestrial beings and unidentified flying objects were associated with mutilation.
Cattle Mutilation In Colorado Mar 11th, 2009
A cattle rancher made a horrific and mysterious discovery Sunday when he
found the carcass of one of his cattle that was missing its udders and
other female parts.
one is sure what killed the cow on a pasture near the Purgatoire River,
but Trinidad rancher Mike Duran said he definitely finds the death
Duran, 49, said Monday that after the cow had been
missing for two days, he went to look for it in a pasture where he runs
cattle a mile west of the town of Weston near Colorado 12.
"I last saw her Friday. She's an older cow so I thought she may have died.
Sunday, I spotted her near the (Purgatoire) river bottom and went and
looked at her. She was on her side and it looked a little odd. "When I
took a closer look I saw that her udders had been removed," Duran said.
The cow had its udders cleanly cut off with no blood on or around the carcass, Duran said. "It
was a perfect circle almost like a laser cut," he said. "It's not like a
knife. it seemed to be cut and sealed at the same time," he said.
This is not the first time Duran has found a mutilated cow on his ranch.
In 1995, Duran said he found a cow that had been mutilated the exact
same way on the same pasture. "The
other cow's udders were snipped off the same way. It's hard to imagine
what or who could have done this to me again," Duran said.
The mutilation in 1995 never has been solved.
who operates a 30-head cattle ranch, said that in both occurrences,
there were no animal or human tracks around the carcasses. "There was no
blood around either and if you cut off an udder there would be a whole
lot of blood," Duran said.
The Cattle Mutilation Phenomena
Cattle mutilation phenomena
involve thousands of cases in North America in which cattle have been
found mutilated under unusual circumstances.
The cows are found dead (although the cause of death is undetermined),
exsanguinated (all their blood has been removed) and have had certain
organs removed from their bodies. Often their reproductive and rectal
parts have been removed.
thousands of reported cattle mutilations in the United States and
around the world dating to the 1970s have spawned theories about aliens
sent to Earth to slice up cows.
"I don't know if aliens are doing this or what, but whoever it is, I don't like it," Duran said.
look at cattle mutilations in other places and it's just really
something that can't be explained. I don't know, maybe it's UFOs
(unidentified flying objects) or maybe not," he said with a laugh.
Duran said neighbors near the pasture told him that they had not heard or seen anything this past weekend. Duran,
who also is a teacher at Trinidad High School, said he is no expert on
the subject of cattle mutilations, but has studied information on the
"I looked up some pictures and facts last night and
there are similar occurrences to what has happened to me. Some are
exactly the same," he reported.
Duran said he has notified the Las Animas County Sheriff's Department about the mutilated cattle. Las
Animas County Undersheriff Derek Navarette said his office takes cattle
mutilations seriously, although no one has ever been charged with the
"If it's someone here killing livestock, that's a crime,"
Navarette said. "The problem is that there's never any evidence around
to support that anyone was there. "It's an odd phenomenon. The cattle is just there dead," Navarette said. There
hasn't been a cattle mutilation case in the area for several years,
Navarette said. The case is similar to most around the United States.
"The same body parts were removed." The place where the cow was found
Sunday is almost impossible for a vehicle to get to. "It's an unusual
place," he said. Navarette said his office will continue to investigate
"This is simply a mystery and it is very odd," he said.
cases mutilation wounds appear to be clean, and carried out surgically.
Mutilated animals are usually, though not always reported to have been
drained of blood, and have no sign of blood in the immediate area or
around their wounds.
George E. Onet, a doctor of veterinary microbiology and cattle
mutilation investigator claims that allegedly mutilated cattle are
avoided by large scavengers "such as coyotes, wolves, foxes, dogs,
skunks, badgers, and bobcats" for several days after its death.
Similarly, domestic animals are also reported to be "visibly agitated"
and "fearful" of the carcass.
Cattle Mutilation Statistics
In FBI records from 1975,
mutilations of the eye occurred in 14 percent of cases, mutilation of
the tongue in 33 percent of cases, mutilation of the genitals in 74
percent of cases, and mutilation of the rectum in 48 percent of cases.
According to a later survey taken by the National Institute for
Discovery Science (NIDS), mutilation of the eye occurred in 59 percent
of cases, mutilation of the tongue in 42 percent of cases, the genitals
in 85 percent of cases, and the rectum in 76 percent of cases.
According to Dr. Howard Burgess,
nearly 90 percent of mutilated cattle are between four and five years
old. Some mutilations are said to occur in very brief periods. A 2002
NIDS report relates a 1997 case from Utah. Two ranchers tagged a
specific calf, then continued tagging other animals in the same pasture.
The ranchers were, at the most, about 300 yards from the calf. Less than
an hour later, the first calf was discovered completely
eviscerated—most muscle and all internal organs were missing. There was
no blood, entrails, or apparent disturbance at the scene. Independent
analysts both uncovered marks on the calf's remains consistent with two
different types of tools: a large, machete-type blade, and smaller, more
The absence of tracks or footprints around the site of the mutilated
carcass is often considered a hallmark of cattle mutilation. However, in
some cases, strange marks or imprints near the site have been found.
In the famous "Snippy" case, there was an absolute absence of tracks in a
100 ft radius of the carcass (even the horse's own tracks disappeared
within 100 ft of the body.) But within this radius several small holes
were found seemingly "punched" in the ground and two bushes were
UFO Files - Cattle Mutilations
In Rio Arriba County, New
Mexico, June 1976, a "trail of suction cup-like impressions" were found
leading from a mutilated three-year-old cow.
The indentations were in a
tripod form, 4 inches in diameter, 28 inches apart, and disappeared 500
feet from the dead cow.
Similar incidents were reported in the area in
carried out on some mutilated animals have shown unusually high or low
levels of vitamins or minerals in tissue samples, and the presence of
chemicals not normally found in animals.
However, not all mutilated animals display these anomalies, and those
that do have slightly different anomalies from one another.
On account of the time between death and necropsy, and a lack of
background information on specific cattle, investigators have often
found it impossible to determine if these variations are connected to
the animals' deaths or not.
In one case documented by New Mexico police and the FBI,
an 11 month old cross Hereford-Charolais bull, belonging to a Mr. Manuel
Gomez of Dulce, New Mexico, was found mutilated on March 24th, 1978.
It displayed 'classic' mutilation signs, including the removal of the
rectum and sex organs with what appeared to be “a sharp and precise
instrument” and its internal organs were found to be inconsistent with a
normal case of death followed by predation.
“Both the liver and the heart were white and mushy. Both organs had the texture and consistency of peanut butter” - Gabriel L Veldez, New Mexico Police
The animal's heart as well as bone and muscle samples were sent to the
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, part of the University of California,
for microscopic and bacteriological studies, while samples from the
animal's liver were sent to two separate private laboratories.
Los Alamos detected the presence of naturally occurring Clostridium
bacteria in the heart, but was unable to reach any conclusions because
of the possibility that the bacteria represented postmortem
contamination. They did not directly investigate the heart's unusual
color or texture.
Samples from the animal's liver were found to be completely devoid of
copper and to contain 4 times the normal level of zinc, potassium and
phosphorus. The scientists performing the analysis were unable to
explain these anomalies.
Blood samples taken at the scene were reported to be "light pink in
color" and “Did not clot after several days” while the animal's hide was
found to be unusually brittle for a fresh death (the animal was
estimated to have been dead for 5 hours) and the flesh underneath was
found to be discolored.
None of the laboratories were able to report any firm conclusions on the
cause of the blood or tissue damage. At the time, it was suggested that
a burst of radiation may have been used to kill the animal, blowing
apart its red blood cells in the process.
This hypothesis was later discarded as subsequent reports from the Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory later confirmed the presence of
anti-coagulants in samples taken from other cows mutilated in the
Various hypotheses suggest cattle mutilations have been committed by aliens gathering genetic material for unknown purposes.
Most of these hypotheses are based on the premise that earthly entities
could not perform such clean dissections in such a short space of time
without being seen or leaving evidence behind at the mutilation site,
and around laboratory reports suggesting the use of unconventional
cutting tools and other unexpected phenomena.
Some suggest that as cows make up a significant part of the global human
diet a study is being carried out on this element of the human food
chain. Numerous speculative theories abound, but others center on possible
specific nutrient requisites, hormone procurement, species propagation
(reproduction), and rote experimentation on mammalian populations. | <urn:uuid:429f8a6e-9347-4b39-8d43-ecbddf7e6def> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://sites.google.com/site/paranormalzonex/aliens-info/aliens-alien-ufo-ufos-073 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960182 | 3,284 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Inflammatory Breast Cancer
What is inflammatory breast cancer?
Inflammatory breast cancer is a rare and very aggressive disease in which cancer cells block lymph vessels in the skin of the breast. This type of breast cancer is called “inflammatory” because the breast often looks swollen and red, or inflamed.
Inflammatory breast cancer is rare, accounting for 1 to 5 percent of all breast cancers diagnosed in the United States. Most inflammatory breast cancers are invasive ductal carcinomas, which means they developed from cells that line the milk ducts of the breast and then spread beyond the ducts.
Inflammatory breast cancer progresses rapidly, often in a matter of weeks or months. At diagnosis, inflammatory breast cancer is either stage III or IV disease, depending on whether cancer cells have spread only to nearby lymph nodes or to other tissues as well.
Additional features of inflammatory breast cancer include the following:
- Compared with other types of breast cancer, inflammatory breast cancer tends to be diagnosed at younger ages.
- Inflammatory breast cancer is more common and diagnosed at younger ages in African American women than in white women.
- Inflammatory breast tumors are frequently hormone receptor negative, which means they cannot be treated with hormone therapies, such as tamoxifen, that interfere with the growth of cancer cells fueled by estrogen.
- Inflammatory breast cancer is more common in obese women than in women of normal weight.
Like other types of breast cancer, inflammatory breast cancer can occur in men, but usually at an older age than in women.
What are the symptoms of inflammatory breast cancer?
Symptoms of inflammatory breast cancer include swelling (edema) and redness (erythema) that affect a third or more of the breast. The skin of the breast may also appear pink, reddish purple, or bruised. In addition, the skin may have ridges or appear pitted, like the skin of an orange (called peau d'orange). These symptoms are caused by the buildup of fluid (lymph) in the skin of the breast. This fluid buildup occurs because cancer cells have blocked lymph vessels in the skin, preventing the normal flow of lymph through the tissue. Sometimes the breast may contain a solid tumor that can be felt during a physical exam, but more often a tumor cannot be felt.
Other symptoms of inflammatory breast cancer include a rapid increase in breast size; sensations of heaviness, burning, or tenderness in the breast; or a nipple that is inverted (facing inward). Swollen lymph nodes may also be present under the arm, near the collarbone, or both.
It is important to note that these symptoms may also be signs of other diseases or conditions, such as an infection, injury, or another type of breast cancer that is locally advanced. For this reason, women with inflammatory breast cancer often have a delayed diagnosis of their disease.
How is inflammatory breast cancer diagnosed?
Inflammatory breast cancer can be difficult to diagnose. Often, there is no lump that can be felt during a physical exam or seen in a screening mammogram. In addition, most women diagnosed with inflammatory breast cancer have dense breast tissue, which makes cancer detection in a screening mammogram more difficult. Also, because inflammatory breast cancer is so aggressive, it can arise between scheduled screening mammograms and progress quickly. The symptoms of inflammatory breast cancer may be mistaken for those of mastitis, which is an infection of the breast, or another form of locally advanced breast cancer.
To help prevent delays in diagnosis and in choosing the best course of treatment, an international panel of experts published guidelines on how doctors can diagnose and stage inflammatory breast cancer correctly. Their recommendations are summarized below.
Minimum criteria for a diagnosis of inflammatory breast cancer include the following:
- A rapid onset of erythema (redness), edema (swelling), and a peau d'orange appearance (ridged or pitted skin) and/or abnormal breast warmth, with or without a lump that can be felt.
- The above-mentioned symptoms have been present for less than 6 months.
- The erythema covers at least a third of the breast.
- Initial biopsy samples from the affected breast show invasive carcinoma.
Further examination of tissue from the affected breast should include testing to see if the cancer cells have hormone receptors (estrogen and progesterone receptors) or if they have greater than normal amounts of the HER2 gene and/or the HER2 protein (HER2-positive breast cancer).
Imaging and staging tests include the following:
- A diagnostic mammogram and an ultrasound of the breast and regional (nearby) lymph nodes
- A PET scan or a CT scan and a bone scan to see if the cancer has spread to other parts of the body
Proper diagnosis and staging of inflammatory breast cancer helps doctors develop the best treatment plan and estimate the likely outcome of the disease. Patients diagnosed with inflammatory breast cancer may want to consult a doctor who specializes in this disease.
How is inflammatory breast cancer treated?
Inflammatory breast cancer is generally treated first with systemic chemotherapy to help shrink the tumor, then with surgery to remove the tumor, followed by radiation therapy. This approach to treatment is called a multimodal approach. Studies have found that women with inflammatory breast cancer who are treated with a multimodal approach have better responses to therapy and longer survival. Treatments used in a multimodal approach may include those described below.
- Neoadjuvant chemotherapy: This type of chemotherapy is given before surgery and usually includes both anthracycline and taxane drugs. Doctors generally recommend that at least six cycles of neoadjuvant chemotherapy be given over the course of 4 to 6 months before the tumor is removed, unless the disease continues to progress during this time and doctors decide that surgery should not be delayed.
- Targeted therapy: Inflammatory breast cancers often produce greater than normal amounts of the HER2 protein, which means that drugs such as trastuzumab (Herceptin) that target this protein may be used to treat them. Anti-HER2 therapy can be given both as part of neoadjuvant therapy and after surgery (adjuvant therapy).
- Hormone therapy: If the cells of a woman’s inflammatory breast cancer contain hormone receptors, hormone therapy is another treatment option. Drugs such as tamoxifen, which prevent estrogen from binding to its receptor, and aromatase inhibitors such as letrozole, which block the body’s ability to make estrogen, can cause estrogen-dependent cancer cells to stop growing and die.
- Surgery: The standard surgery for inflammatory breast cancer is a modified radical mastectomy. This surgery involves removal of the entire affected breast and most or all of the lymph nodes under the adjacent arm. Often, the lining over the underlying chest muscles is also removed, but the chest muscles are preserved. Sometimes, however, the smaller chest muscle (pectoralis minor) may be removed, too.
- Radiation therapy: Post-mastectomy radiation therapy to the chest wall under the breast that was removed is a standard part of multimodal therapy for inflammatory breast cancer. If a woman received trastuzumab before surgery, she may continue to receive it during postoperative radiation therapy. Breast reconstruction can be performed in women with inflammatory breast cancer, but, due to the importance of radiation therapy in treating this disease, experts generally recommend delayed reconstruction.
- Adjuvant therapy: Adjuvant systemic therapy may be given after surgery to reduce the chance of cancer recurrence. This therapy may include additional chemotherapy, hormone therapy, targeted therapy (such as trastuzumab), or some combination of these treatments.
What is the prognosis of patients with inflammatory breast cancer?
The prognosis, or likely outcome, for a patient diagnosed with cancer is often viewed as the chance that the cancer will be treated successfully and that the patient will recover completely. Many factors can influence a cancer patient’s prognosis, including the type and location of the cancer, the stage of the disease, the patient’s age and overall general health, and the extent to which the patient’s disease responds to treatment.
Because inflammatory breast cancer usually develops quickly and spreads aggressively to other parts of the body, women diagnosed with this disease, in general, do not survive as long as women diagnosed with other types of breast cancer.
It is important to keep in mind, however, that survival statistics are based on large numbers of patients and that an individual woman’s prognosis could be better or worse, depending on her tumor characteristics and medical history. Women who have inflammatory breast cancer are encouraged to talk with their doctor about their prognosis, given their particular situation.
Ongoing research, especially at the molecular level, will increase our understanding of how inflammatory breast cancer begins and progresses. This knowledge should enable the development of new treatments and more accurate prognoses for women diagnosed with this disease. It is important, therefore, that women who are diagnosed with inflammatory breast cancer talk with their doctor about the option of participating in a clinical trial.
What clinical trials are available for women with inflammatory breast cancer?
NCI sponsors clinical trials of new treatments for all types of cancer, as well as trials that test better ways to use existing treatments. Participation in clinical trials is an option for many patients with inflammatory breast cancer, and all patients with this disease are encouraged to consider treatment in a clinical trial.
Below are links to clinical trials for inflammatory breast cancer patients. These clinical trials can be found in NCI’s list of clinical trials. For information about how to search the list, see Help Finding NCI-Supported Clinical Trials.
People interested in taking part in a clinical trial should talk with their doctor. Information about clinical trials is available from NCI’s Cancer Information Service at 1–800–4–CANCER and in the NCI booklet Taking Part in Cancer Treatment Research Studies. Additional information about clinical trials is available online. | <urn:uuid:4e7903a6-7408-4294-ba4d-d8694690feb5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cancer.gov/types/breast/ibc-fact-sheet | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944435 | 2,056 | 3.03125 | 3 |
The haunting music that takes you back 1,800 years: Expert records '100% accurate' version of song as heard in ancient Greece
- Musical rhythms were preserved in the patterns of words of ancient texts
- Instruments used are known from paintings and archaeological remains
- Ancient documents found on stone reveal how the pitch should have risen
- Dr D'Angour claims the 'magical' recordings are 100% accurate
The beautiful texts of ancient Greece have captivated our imaginations for thousands of years.
From the tragedies of Sophocles to the epics of Homer, modern literature throughout the world continues to be inspired by these classics.
But the haunting music these poems were originally sung to have long since been lost, with researchers instead focusing on the meaning of the words.
Scroll down to listen to the music...
The music of ancient Greece, which hasn't been heard for more than 2,000 years, is being reconstructed by Armand D'Angour, a musician and tutor in classics at Oxford University
Now an expert from Oxford University has reconstructed the music, and rediscovered some of the instruments that played them - and he claims the recordings are 100 per cent accurate.
‘There is no question that we can reconstruct what this fascinating music sounded like,’ Dr Armand D'Angour, a musician and tutor in classics at Oxford University, told MailOnline.
‘We have been left with clear instructions, thousands of years old, about how to create instruments used to play the music with mathematical precision.’
One of the great Greek lyrists and few known female poets of the ancient world, Sappho was born some time between 630 and 612 BC. Her love poetry would have been composed to music, such as the tune heard above
The result, according to Dr D'Angour, is ‘something quite magical’ which may sound odd to our ears, but was hugely popular with audiences at the time.
To reconstruct the music, Dr D'Angour and his team put together existing clues about the tunes, rhythms and the instruments of the time.
The rhythms, for instance, are preserved in the patterns of long and short syllables in the words of the texts themselves.
The instruments used – such as lyre and reed-pipes - are known from, paintings and archaeological remains.
The instruments used - such as lyre and reed-pipes - are known from, paintings and archaeological remains, such as this illustration from The Odyssey by Homer
The lyre (left) is a string instrument known for its use in Greek classical antiquity and later. The right image shows the Seikilos epitaph, the oldest surviving example of a complete musical composition. The song is in the ancient Greek musical notation, was found engraved on a tombstone, near Aidin, Turkey
A SONG FROM 200 AD
Some of the surviving melodies are immediately attractive to a modern ear, said Dr D'Angrour.
One complete piece, inscribed on a marble column and dating from around 200 AD, is a haunting short song of four lines composed by Seikilos.
The words of the song may be translated as:
While you’re alive, shine:
Never let your mood decline.
We’ve a brief span of life to spend:
Time necessitates an end.
Meanwhile, ancient documents found on stone in Greece and papyrus in Egypt, reveal exactly how the pitch should have risen throughout the composition.
Inscribed with a vocal notation devised around 450 BC, the documents show alphabetic letters and signs placed above the vowels of the Greek words that reveal the mathematical ratios of musical intervals.
Dr D'Angour said that similar music to that played in ancient Greece can today found in the folk music traditions of Sardinia and Turkey, providing an insight into the sounds and techniques used.
For instance, in ancient Greece, a musical note would go up in pitch on certain syllables and fall on others, rather than being stressed.
'One of the things Greeks were fascinating by at all times was the notion of imitation,' said Dr D'Angour. Pictured is artwork from the Ambrosian Iliad, a 5th century illuminated manuscript of the Iliad of Homer, depicting a battle scene. This poem may would have been set to music to enhance the emotions it evoked
The music of this period also used delicate intervals such as quarter-tones, and the melody was often different to the vocal pitches used in the poems.
‘We’re talking about a period of around 1000 years so there was lots of different styles and sounds that many of which would have been lost,’ said Dr D'Angour.
‘In so far as we’re aware of different sounds the earliest music, say from 5th C BC, are more alien to us that the later music from 200 AD, which sounds a bit like early church melodies.’
Dr D'Angour has only just begun his collaborative two-year project, at the end of which he hopes to uncover exactly what music meant to ancient Greeks.
‘One of the things Greeks were fascinating by at all times was the notion of imitation,’ said Dr D'Angour.
‘The idea that they could find auditory phenomena that could imitate emotion meant that the music had to feel like it had some kind of enhanced meaning.
‘Some of it absolutely haunting but one of the things I feel most of all is that it’s amazing to hear music that hasn’t been heard for 2,000 years.’
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All dog waste contains cause certain types of bacteria and other parasites, stomach ailments and other diseases, if it is swallowed. However, the main risk Hundehaufen toxocariasis.
Toxocariasis is basically an infection of a specific type of nematode called Toxocara canis.
Young children are vulnerable to such illnesses because their immune week and there so it is easy to the body when they come into contact with dog faeces into force. The larvae try to migrate through the human body, how's about a dog, but they treated the human body as a foreign body that causes a reaction and tissue damage.
How to reduce the risk of these diseases
• Scoop your dog poop immediately after bad dog, either at home or on the street make sure to use a doggy bag so as not to defile himself.
• Make it a point to put de worm your dogs with the use of pills by a veterinarian is available.
The Bag It and Bin
Immediately after a dog has a lodge, to ensure that you clean up as soon as possible. It is advisable to have a poop scoop used to hold the house and put it in a bag, the dogs in the trash the rear, which can in most parks and Dog Walking areas are raised, or if it can fly away to be used in a biodegradable bag other biodegradable waste can or take a dog down the toilet. Some dogs are flushable bags, so you can take home your used doggy bag and flush down the toilet. What happens if you are sure do not touch on the aft deck, how you can become infected if they accidentally wash your hands immediately be contacted.
Doggy bags can be found in many places, can in supermarkets, pet shops, veterinary clinics, including gardens, parks and Dog Walking, airports, hotels and motels that allow dogs to be purchased. It is always advisable to have a doggy bag with you when you walk with your dog only if you have to take a poo.
It is strongly recommended that pregnant women take extra precaution when it have to do dog waste, such as wearing gloves and place it comes from and the tail immediately after use. | <urn:uuid:dc68a747-e9d6-487a-aa03-9b89cb147441> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://robertsinterest.blogspot.com/2010/10/dog-feces-and-associated-health-risks.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00115-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959399 | 455 | 2.78125 | 3 |
As I've said before, there are people who think there's been enough attention given to the Holocaust. How can they think this? It was a crime of such magnitude that you could never plumb the depths of it. If you tried merely to count the dead, your mouth would begin to crack and bleed.
In April 1942 on the Island of Guernsey, the first deportation began. Three women[,] Auguste Spitz, Marianne Grunfield, and Therese Steiner, were ordered to pack their bags and were forced onto a ship headed for the French mainland.
Ernest Plevin, a Police Clerk Sergeant in Guernsey during the Occupation, remembers:
["]... Guernsey Police were ordered to advise specified Jews to report to Police Headquarters. I was to instruct them to pack their bags and report to the designated German authority. I remember - well - Therese coming into the office, where I conveyed to her the instructions given to the Guernsey Police by the German Military Authorities. Therese became extremely distressed, bursting into tears, and exclaiming that I would never see her again."
The night before their deportation Therese Steiner and Auguste Spitz visited their friend Elisabet Duquemin, a fellow registered Jewish refugee from Vienna. Elisabet Duquemin remembered:
"They had a paper with them from the Germans that they had to report the next morning to be taken away to France and were in a terrible state of anxiety. They borrowed a suitcase from me and I never saw the poor girls again".
Reverend Douglas Ord confirmed their state of anxiety:
["]When I last spoke with her [Therese Steiner] she had Orders to go to France. She was in great distress and seemed to feel that her feet were now set upon her Via Dolorosa. I did what I could to comfort her but what can you say or do"?
On July 20th of the same year the three women were caught up with a large transport to Auschwitz and their subsequent fate is unknown. It is believed they were sent to the gas chambers[,] having been chosen with the initial selection upon arrival.
50. Shimon Srebrnik (his testimony):'There were three gas vans [at Chelmno]. The exhaust gas from the engine entered the van through a gridiron on the floor. Each van held 80 people... During the ride [from Chelmno to the forest] gas entered the van...'
51. The figure 2700-2800:
On the night of December 13, 1941, Latvian policemen arrested the Jews of Liepaja and took them to jail. Those with work permits, along with their families, were released.
The remaining Jews were taken to Skede, north of Liepaja, to the dunes overlooking the Baltic Sea, the site of a former military training [ground]. A long ditch had been dug just before the dunes. The Jews were forced to strip off their clothes except for their underwear. Near the ditch they then were made to take off their remaining clothes and assemble in groups of ten. They were executed by members of a Latvian SD guard platoon, units of the 21st Latvian police battalion, and members of the Schutzpolizei-Dienstabteilung (German security police) under the command of the local SS and Police Leader Fritz Dietrich. On the 15-17 of December, 2,700-2,800 Jews were massacred, most of them women and children.
Even though 67 years had passed since they last saw each other, Wladyslawa Dudziak and Rozia Beiman reunited as if they hadn't missed a moment.
Dudziak, 85, was flown to New York last week from Poland to meet with Beiman, whom she had saved from the Nazis more than a half-century before.
Dudziak lived in Lublin during World War II and asked her family to look after Beiman when Beiman's parents went missing - presumably sent to the nearby Majdanek concentration camp. Although extremely poor, the family hid Beiman in its home and pretended she was a niece until the city was liberated in 1944.
(For an index to the whole series, see here) | <urn:uuid:a71fc963-ded3-4e0c-a183-62005426b3db> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://normblog.typepad.com/normblog/2012/12/figures-from-a-dark-time-xiv.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.986557 | 886 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Frozen Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls once have been Frozen in 1911, during an extended winter cold snap, it naturally formed ice sculpture, the phenomenon has been known as "Ice Bridge".
In winter of 1934 the "ice bridge" phenomenon was expected to happen again but only half of the waterfall was frozen.
As reported in the Buffalo Express newspaper:
"The Falls of Niagara can be compared to nothing but a mere mill dam this morning. In the memory of the oldest inhabitants, never was there so little water running over Niagara’s awful precipice, as at this moment! Hundreds of people are now witnessing that which never has, and probably never may again be witnessed on the Niagara River. Last night at 11 o’clock the factories fed from the waters of this majestic river were in full operation, and at 12 o’clock the water was shut off, the wheel suddenly ceased their revolutions, and everything was hushed into silence. Various are the conjectures as to the cause; the most reasonable of which is that Lake Erie must be making a grand delivery of ice, and this the mouth of the Niagara, although large, is not quite enough to take in the whole at once, and that the consequences are, back water." | <urn:uuid:e9a34237-2a52-40ef-98f6-7e40685f29fa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.buffalohistory.com/frozen-niagara-falls.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00139-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977736 | 254 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Physics » Universal Physics
Updated - January 25, 2015
Question 17: When two objects with
different weights are dropped, why does the
heavy one accelerate at the same rate toward the Earth as the lighter one?
Article XII: Weight - a work in progress.
Question 16: Web discussions of Universal Physics?
Article XI: Reaction Forces - Remodeled to include Newton's quote "That force which opposes itself"
Introduction: The Universal Physics Journal is dedicated to the verification and improvement of Classical Physics as founded by Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton. The goal is the development of Universal Physics where man's understanding of common everyday events meets with the approval of a logical, impartial, distant, non-accelerating observer. To view the complete mission statement, visit the Introduction page. Begin your own investigation by selecting one of the many articles, questions or events listed below. The Articles are written to be read in the order published.
History: A brief overview of the history of Classical Physics is presented on the History page with emphasis upon the absolute nature of many of the early concepts.
Definitions: Visit the Definitions page to broaden your understanding of such Universal Physics concepts as rest-motion, acceleration/Action, acceleration/Reaction, present time and gravitation.
|Articles: The original and complete articles published in the Universal Physics Journal contain the conceptual core of Universal Physics.|
|Article I: The Reality of Newton's Inertia||Article VII: The Nature of Time.|
|Article II: Discussing the concept of rest-motion.||Article VIII Universal Gravitation - force or forceless?|
|Article III: The Universal Law of Mutual Forces.||Article IX: Galileo Galilei's Law of Constant Acceleration.|
|Article IV: Discovering the acceleration/Reaction support force.||Article X: The Universal Physics Rules for Force & Motion|
|Article V: Questioning the net force theory of acceleration.||Article XI: Reaction Forces.|
|Article VI: Comparing gravitational events with accelerational events.||Article XII: Weight|
|Events: The Events section holds practical applications of the concepts of Universal Physics.|
|Event 1: The Physics of balancing a broom handle.|
|Event 4 The Physics of a tornado.|
|Event 5: The Physics of Earth's tides.|
|Questions: A collection of questions with answers written from a Universal Physics perspective.|
|Question 1: Isaac Newton's LAW I verses the net force theory of acceleration.||Question 9: Why Aristotle's work in Physics has never really gone away.|
|Question 2: A study of the forces present between impacting objects.||Question 10: Analysis of a college pendulum event.|
|Question 3: Focusing in on the forces present for a rotating object, such as Earth.||Question 11: Why do objects initially fall at the same rate of acceleration?|
|Question 4: The equilibrium of internal forces experienced by the A.C.E. satellite.||Question 12: Do Newton's laws hold in accelerating frames of reference?|
|Question 5: The reality of outward-directed centrifugal (a/R) forces.||Question 13: Questioning the bowling-ball-on-a-rubber-sheet event.|
|Question 5 Addendum: Additional thoughts on accelerating frames of reference.||Question 14: Confusing conclusions of an accelerating observer.|
|Question 6: The source of the heat energy emitted from an automobile's brakes.||Question 15: Why does a lightened flywheel improves 1/4 mile times?|
|Question 7: Examining the reality of curved space.||Question 16: Web discussions of Universal Physics?|
|Question 8: The Universal Physics force-based cause of Earth's tides.||Question 17: Two objects, different weights, fall at equal rates of acceleration. Why?|
|Have a question of your own? Ask it at the bottom of the Questions page.|
Download complete Articles, Events and
Questions in easy-to-read or print, PDF format.
Links: On the Links page you will find every off-site link referenced on Universal Physics.org.
Author's Log: New for 2004, log entries at irregular times will afford the reader some additional insight into where next the author's thoughts are focusing.
Contacts: Visit the Contacts page to learn
how to reach the Universal Physics Journal by
US mail, or Qwest telephone.
The Authority Principle
In questions of science, the authority of a thousand is not worth the humble reasoning of a single individual.
Galileo Galilei - 1626
The Acceptance Principle
No concept shall attain acceptance without firm and logical support nor retain that acceptance after the loss of such support.
The Confusion Principle
The more complex and confusing the solution, the less likely it will face proper challenge and the more likely it will one day be proven incorrect.
The Lost-Logic Principle
Once an illogical concept is accepted within a science as true, the science itself becomes illogical. As long as the original illogical concept is retained, it is not possible to restore logic to the science as a whole since future concepts accepted within the science must be equally illogical to remain compatible with the original. Thus logic and progress become forever lost to the science until such time as all illogical concepts, including the original, are correctly identified and set aside.
The Common-Sense Principle
If the repeated professions of others in support of some cause are insufficient in helping you to improve your understanding and thereby upgrade the logic that forms the basis of your common sense, then accept their professions as evidence that is insufficient to affect the advance of their cause beyond the starting-gate status of a theory.
The Homocentric Principle
Man's effort to describe the Universe in terms agreeable with his vision of his own existence as being central to all that exists knows no bounds.
The False-Truth Principle
Acceptance of even one false concept as true, effectively blinds one's mind to recognition and acceptance of a wide range of related concepts that actually are true.
The Advancement Principle
The advancement of physics always involves the destruction of the majority opinion.
Samuel Ting - 2003
Universal Physics Journal (C) Copyright 2000-2014 by Ethan Skyler. All rights reserved.
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A mental health disorder where there are clear and present physical symptoms that are suggestive of a somatic disorder, but where there is no detectable organic damage or neurophysiological dysfunction.
Chucky Charlie: Medical Student Syndrome
A 2 year Cohort Study of 71 medical students. School of Medicine University Malaysia Sabah.
Family Practice Notebook: Somatoform Disorder
Background information, pathophysiology, subclass list, and associated syndromes.
Medical Students' Disease
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia offers a description of this disorder also known as hypochondriasis of medical students.
Pseudoseizures or Somatoform Spells, Hysteroepilepsy or Somatoform
Examination of a new nomenclature which resembles epileptic seizures but which are in reality psychogenically induced.
Somatoform Disorder and Implicit Memory Bias (Ott et al, 2000)
Summary of a poster presentation examining experiments comparing two sets of individuals, one set with the disorder and the second being a healthy control group.
Somatoform Disorder: What It Is and How to Cope
Familydoctor.org offers an overview, describes causes, symptoms and possible treatments.
Psyweb.com offers a general definition of this disorder. Includes details on the various types.
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The latency period refers to the time between initial asbestos exposure and when a doctor definitively diagnoses the cancer. The long period of time between exposure and illness is one of the hallmarks of mesothelioma.
Get help connecting with the nation's top mesothelioma doctors and cancer centers.
The typical mesothelioma latency period is 20 to 50 years, with recent studies finding a median of 30 to 45 years. Under normal circumstances, the shortest possible latency period is 10 to 15 years, while the longest is more than 50 years. The time period depends on a number of factors such as the duration and intensity of asbestos exposure, as well as the patient’s gender and the type of mesothelioma. Because of this long time span, most people diagnosed with mesothelioma and other asbestos-related disease are in their 60s or 70s. Those diagnoses come after symptoms of the disease — persistent cough or difficulty breathing — become nagging or debilitating.
Studies show lower exposure levels and shorter durations of exposure can lead to longer latency periods. Conversely, individuals with high levels of exposure for long periods of time have significantly shorter latency periods.
The latency period ends when symptoms finally begin and a doctor can diagnose the patient. For most illnesses, a latency period begins when an individual is exposed to a virus or another illness-inducing entity and ends when the person first begins experiencing symptoms. Although some experts use this definition for mesothelioma latency period, most agree this asbestos-related cancer is considered latent until it is actually diagnosed.
This is because symptoms of mesothelioma can actually arise before a patient has the cancer. Asbestosis, a non-cancerous illness caused by asbestos, has many of the same symptoms and some people with asbestosis go on to develop mesothelioma. So a person diagnosed with asbestosis could have mesothelioma-like symptoms such as a persistent cough and chest pain before the cancer manifests itself.
At later stages of development, the cancer is more difficult to treat and the patient generally has a shorter life expectancy. But a prompt diagnosis followed by immediate treatment can lead to an improved prognosis.
Recent studies conflict on the matter of what affects latency period, but most research agrees that cancer location and type of exposure can have an effect. Studies have also found that higher doses of the substance result in shorter latency periods.
Exposure to extremely high levels of asbestos can lead to a shorter mesothelioma latency period, even if the duration of exposure is only a few months. Because of this, individuals at risk of having the shortest latency periods include first responders. Some paramedics, firefighters and police officers who worked immediately after the World Trade Center terrorist attacks and during Hurricane Katrina have already developed asbestos-related mesothelioma from short-term, high-level exposure.
One paramedic worked near the World Trade Center for several months after September 11, 2001. Although she had no other known exposure to the mineral, she died from the disease less than five years later.
As years pass, medical experts expect to see an elevated amount of these cases in first responders. Many of these new patients are expected to have abnormally short latency periods, putting them among the 1 percent of mesothelioma patients who receive a diagnosis within 15 years of initial exposure.
Like exposure to high levels of asbestos, exposure for longer periods of time can also shorten the expected latency period. Consequently, people with a history of heavy occupational exposure typically experience shorter-than-average latency periods. One study found that it was shortest in insulation workers, who experienced an average latency period of slightly less than 30 years.
More than 75 occupations put workers at risk of asbestos exposure. Of these occupations, certain ones exposed workers to high concentrations of asbestos. People with extensive exposure to asbestos — whether through short-term, high-concentration exposure or long-term moderate-concentration exposure — may exhibit shorter latency periods.
Some of these high-risk occupations include jobs in:
Secondhand asbestos exposure happens when someone directly exposed to asbestos accidentally exposes others to asbestos fibers remaining on their body.
People who work with asbestos may bring the toxic fibers home on a regular basis, posing a threat to household members. This results in low-level asbestos exposure that is associated with longer latency periods than direct, heavy exposure.
In 1995, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health told Congress that the health effects of household asbestos contamination were real and serious. They reported on family members who developed mesothelioma, lung cancer, ovarian cancer, gastrointestinal cancer, asbestosis and other lung conditions.
Some researchers estimate that the latency period is longest for pleural mesothelioma, about 30 to 50 years, while latency period for other types typically falls between 20 and 40 years. But a 2011 study reported a statistically insignificant difference in latency periods. In the study of 238 mesothelioma cases, researchers found a latency period of 49 years for pleural mesothelioma and 46 years for peritoneal mesothelioma.
The study also reported that women have an average latency period of 53 years, five years longer than men. Other studies similarly found that women have longer mean latency periods. Researchers hypothesize that this is a result of overall lower exposure levels in women. Historically, men have been exposed to asbestos while working in lines of work such as construction. These jobs exposed them to heavy concentrations of asbestos for long durations. Conversely, women were most often exposed secondhand, such as when handling their husbands’ work clothes. These were lower exposure doses which lasted for shorter periods of time.
Some researchers suspect age at the time of exposure may impact latency. The immune system functions less optimally as people age. Theoretically, the older someone is at the time of exposure, the harder it could be for the body to eliminate asbestos fibers or control the damage they cause, potentially leading to shortened latency.
For example, someone heavily exposed in their 40s or 50s could potentially develop mesothelioma within two decades instead of the typical three to five. It is challenging to pinpoint age as a factor in asbestos disease latency because it usually takes decades for asbestos to cause damage that leads to disease.
Symptoms such as shortness of breath, chest pain and fatigue may not appear until the cancer is in later stages. Even after symptoms do appear, asbestos exposure may be overlooked as a factor. Because asbestos exposure occurred so long ago in most cases, many patients overlook it when considering possible causes of their illness. They may ignore chest pain or difficulty breathing and assume these common symptoms are caused by something minor. In some cases, this could delay an accurate diagnosis, allowing the disease more time to progress.
Aside from the long time it takes for asbestos to cause disease, delayed onset of symptoms can contribute to late-stage diagnosis. For example, mesothelioma usually doesn’t cause noticeable symptoms until stage III. By then, the cancer has spread into the chest cavity and is more difficult to treat.
This delayed onset of symptoms is what most contributes to a poor prognosis for people with mesothelioma. Patients have the longest expected life spans when they are diagnosed in earlier stages of the disease. Treatments are more effective before cancer growth has spread, so an early treatment plan makes a greater impact in lengthening life span.
Seeking a second opinion from a mesothelioma specialist is highly recommended. These doctors have the most experience and use the latest treatment options to extend survival.
Some mesothelioma researchers believe the actual latency period of mesothelioma actually could be greater than the typically observed 20 to 50 years. They believe that the typical latency period appears shorter because of people's already-limited life spans.
In the past, an asbestos-exposed individual may have died of old age or unrelated health problems before the illness had sufficient time to develop. But individuals are now outliving the life expectancy of decades past: Life expectancy in the United States in 2003 was 78 years, nearly a decade more than the life expectancy of 40 years earlier.
This has resulted in a greater occurrence of the cancer in older individuals. From 1999 to 2008, 62 percent of new mesothelioma patients were 70 years or older. While they now live long enough to see the cancer fully develop, similarly exposed individuals of previous generations may have died before the cancer had sufficient time to manifest itself.
It is expected that as modern life spans become longer, the mean and median observed latency periods for the cancer will become longer. As life expectancy continues to rise, researchers expect to observe correspondingly longer latency periods among mesothelioma patients.
View our resources for patients and familiesGet Help Today | <urn:uuid:330d91f2-f970-4385-8621-ae9e16b5296c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.asbestos.com/mesothelioma/latency-period.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00034-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949579 | 1,805 | 3.359375 | 3 |
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