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This is the starting point of the stone path that has been preserved to this day, leading from the Pano Vouves area to the stream below the area, strectching 100m long. It is an important example of old stone path.
The History of Crete, the Southest piece of land of Europe continent, encompasses the ancient Minoan civilization. After this civilization was destroyed by natural catastrophes, Crete developed an Ancient Greece influenced organazition of city states, and then successinely became part of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, the Venetian Republic, and the Ottoman Empire. Modern Crete embraces all western habits and faculties with in a multilayered-multicultured attitude due its history. It's mostly touristic without loosing its traditional nature. Visitors can choose from five stars luxury hotels to traditional villas and from hidden tracks, picturesque beaches to dancing clubs, bars and wild night life. Everyone can find his choise in Crete. | <urn:uuid:eff00e02-9f16-4d7b-8b80-b2b19f67c198> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.360cities.net/da/image/cobbled-road-near-the-olive-tree-mouseum-in-vouves-chania | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915331 | 204 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Honeymooners, spring breakers and retirees the world over agree that the Dominican Republic and its capital, Santo Domingo, is the quintessential Caribbean haven: clear blue waters, sandy beaches, beautiful weather. However, this gorgeous part of the world might be in serious danger of disappearing, as the capital city is considered to be one of the coastal cities most affected by climate change.
The World Bank published a study on Thursday that listed Santo Domingo in the top five of cities that will experience serious climate-change damage by 2050. The other four are Alexandria (Egypt), Barranquilla (Colombia), Napoli (Italy) and Sapporo (Japan).
The Caribbean coast is home to 70 percent of the population of the region. Most big cities there, including other capitals like Port-au-Prince and Havana, are within two miles of a sea shore. Flooding and erosion caused by salt water are two of the main consequences mentioned in the study.
The Dominican Republic is aware of the situation and has started taking measures to fight it, but there is still plenty of work to do. According to Jerry Meier, climate change expert for the World Bank, the country continues to carry out construction projects in dangerous zones. “There is a lack of knowledge about the floodplains and there are no exclusion zones, so the situation will stay the same,” Meier warned.
The study also points out that most of the people living in floodplains are from lower socioeconomic status. Many reside along the edge of the Ozama River. A higher storm surge or more heavy rains caused by climate change would make these people even more vulnerable.
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Another risk factor is coastal erosion, which would seriously cut the usable land in a highly touristy area of the world. The Caribbean was visited by 25 million tourists last year, according to the Caribbean Tourism Organization -- and 4.5 million went to the Dominican Republic. The effect of the sea level rising is already noticeable in many Caribbean islands, like Grenada, St. Lucia and Dominica, where the Cane Field airport floods every year.
The coastal erosion could bring another potential risk, of salt-water infiltration into its freshwater. As sea levels rise, it increases the risk of salty water getting into drinkable water reserves, which are already endangered because of over-irrigation, hydroelectric and poor water management. If not solved quickly, many countries face the possibility of having to finance the costly process of desalination.
The World Bank recommended the countries to rearrange their urban planning in order to prevent future flooding and prepare for changes in rainfall. | <urn:uuid:b7535197-3c38-4fb0-9854-df9293af4cdd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ibtimes.com/santo-domingo-among-cities-biggest-risk-being-affected-climate-change-1461488 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947333 | 540 | 3.34375 | 3 |
Sabbatarians falsely teach that Christian would be keeping the Sabbath in 70 AD when Jerusalem was destroyed.
"Whoever is in the field must not turn back to get his cloak . "But woe to those who are pregnant and to those who are nursing babies in those days ! "But pray that your flight will not be in the winter , or on a Sabbath . " (Matthew 24:18-20)
Jesus said "But pray that your flight may not be on a Sabbath". Matt 24:20. Jesus told them to pray, not so that Christians wouldn't break the Sabbath, but because, living in Jerusalem, the Jews who controlled the city, always closed the gates and the Christians could not escape!
The true reason why Jesus said, "pray that your flight may not be on a Sabbath" Mt 24:20:
A. The reason Jesus said to pray that the city would not be destroyed beginning on a Sabbath day is obvious to anyone but Sabbatarians!
Jerusalem was a Jewish dominated town which kept 100% of the law of Moses up to 70AD.
The Gates of the city would be closed on the Sabbath: Neh 13:15-22
This would hinder the Lord's instructions to the Christians to GET OUT OF THE CITY before the Roman armies destroyed the city as Jesus said in Luke 21:20
B. Jesus lists 3 things that would hinder fleeing the city: Mt 24:15-21
Pregnant or Nursing mothers hindered for obvious reasons.
Winter would hinder because of exposure to cold and snow.
Sabbath day because gates of the Jewish controlled city of Jerusalem would be locked and they could not get out!
C. Sabbatarians argue that Jesus mentioned the Sabbath in order that they might not sin and break the Sabbath which Christians were required to keep:
This is nonsense, for Jesus showed that the life of a man was worth more than the Sabbath day!: Mk 2:27
Are Adventists really willing to say that Jesus excepted a man to break the Sabbath to get a farm animal out of a pit but a man could not run to save his own life on the Sabbath? Adventists really don't think through their arguments very well.
Jesus taught that under such circumstances such fleeing the city on the Sabbath WOULD NOT BE SIN!!!
Obviously then, Jesus did not have the sacredness of the day in mind when he told them to pray that their flight out of the city of Jerusalem not be on the Sabbath.
D. Jesus prophesied that the city of Jerusalem was to be destroyed in 70 AD: Lk 21:5-24
Lk 21:5 And while some were talking about the temple, that it was adorned with beautiful stones and votive gifts, He said, "As for these things which you are looking at, the days will come in which there will not be left one stone upon another which will not be torn down."
Lk 21:20 "But when you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then recognize that her desolation is at hand."
E. Historical records that the city was destroyed in 70 AD: Lk 21:5-24
- Encyclopedia Britannica 1979, Vol 17:950-951 "Herod and his successors could not wipe out all resistance to Hellenism among the Jews. There were, of course, varying degrees of resistance. Herod's supporters sought to bridge the gap between the two cultures and thus have the best of both worlds; the Sadducees combined a strict adherence to the Mosaic Law with at least a partial acceptance of Hellenism; the Pharisees were sterner opponents of foreign culture but more flexible in their attitude toward Judaism; the Essenes and other groups hoped for a messiah to deliver them from Roman domination and restore an independent Jewish nation. The Zealots had the most important influence on political events. They condemned anything foreign and insisted that force was the only weapon with which to combat it. At first only a minority, they grew powerful as Roman policy toward the Jews changed. The mad Caligula reversed the formerly tolerant Roman policy by attempting to install his own statue in the Temple, and only his timely murder saved the day. After Claudius' inauguration of the province in 44 AD, conditions worsened under a series of greedy and incompetent procurators, and in 66 AD revolt broke out (the First Jewish Revolt 66-77). ... The governor of Syria could not quell the uprising, and the emperor Nero entrusted the campaign to the veteran commander Vespasian. With superior forces Vespasian slowly and effectively subdued Galilee and Judaea. When he was recalled to Rome to become emperor himself, he gave his army to his son Titus. In 70 Titus captured and completely destroyed Jerusalem with great slaughter. In 73 the last flames of revolt were put out at Masada, where the last rebels committed suicide rather than fall into Roman hands."
- Josephus: "all the calamities which had befallen any nation from the beginning of the world were but small in comparison with those of the Jews" Wars 6:8:5; 9:2:3; 5:11:1.
- Further, Josephus tells us that during the sieges grip, when there was no grain left, there was wholesale ransacking within the walls of Jerusalem; food was so short that any locked door meant someone was eating a meal inside; marauders would break down the doors, rush in, and grab the throats of those inside, hoping to squeeze a morsel of food from their throats. whole families perished during the siege. Tomb-robbing was rampant. Josephus mentions that he saw 600,000 bodies thrown out the gates of the city. One deserter was caught with gold he swallowed to smuggle out of the city. Suspecting that many Jews were attempting such, in one night the Romans killed 2000 Jews and ripped their stomachs open. Josephus tells of one mother who was so hungry that she roasted, her infant son and ate half of him, offering the other half to her neighbor. In short, there has been nothing in history to match the violence, savageness; famine, pestilence, despair present in the siege of Jerusalem. It was indeed the blackest and cruelest war in the annals of mankind, yet for those who were watchful, there was a way of escape.
- "Now as soon as the army had no more people to slay to to plunder, because there remained none to be the objects of their fury...Caesar gave orders that they should now demolish the entire city and temple" Josephus Wars 7:1:1.
We Speak truth in LOVE
"you are seeking to kill Me, a man who has told you the truth" Jn 8:40
Go To Start: WWW.BIBLE.CA | <urn:uuid:b0c20f0e-95fc-437b-98f6-401dd88bfbc3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bible.ca/7-pray-flight.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973358 | 1,407 | 2.890625 | 3 |
School Health Program
1. Provide quality improvement activities related to Nebraska state statutes and federal guidelines for school health:
b. Health screening;
c. Medication administration,
d. Self-management plans for diabetes & allergy/asthma
e. Physical and visual exams;
f. Emergency medical response to breathing emergencies;
g. School services for children with special health care needs;
2. Provide resources and guidance in the areas of disease and infection control practices at school.
3. Promote healthy school environments and practices to increase the prevalence of healthy weight in Nebraska children.
4. Promote healthy school environments and practices to reduce child and adolescent tobacco and alcohol use, and decrease exposure to secondhand smoke.
5. Provide a plan for gathering data from schools in order to: Provide a plan for gathering data from schools in order to:
a. Measure the delivery of required services and interventions at school;
b. Identify emerging trends in the health needs of Nebraska’s school children;
c. Assess the capacity of schools to meet child health needs that require attention at school.
6. Promote evidence-based, theoretically-sound, best practices in the delivery of professional school nursing services in the state of Nebraska.
7. Integrate early childhood health issues and service delivery into the school health program.
8. Promote community awareness of the health needs of children at school, and the role of school health professionals. Promote community awareness of the health needs of children at school, and the role of school health professionals.
9. Network with public and private agencies and organizations to improve community systems of care for children and families.
10. Serve as a resource & liaison for the development of school-located health care delivery in Nebraska.
For More Information Contact:
Carol Tucker, BSN, RN, NCSN
School & Child Health Program Manager
P.O. Box 95026
Lincoln, NE 68509-5026
Phone: (402) 471-1373
Fax: (402) 471-7049 | <urn:uuid:e87f6e82-731d-4c68-a8c8-95af1f7959b1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://dhhs.ne.gov/publichealth/Pages/schoolhealth_goals.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00040-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920353 | 432 | 2.765625 | 3 |
(HealthDay) -- Only 29 human cases of a new strain of "swine" flu have been identified in two years, but the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is making sure it's prepared should the H3N2 strain become more widespread.
"This virus is still principally a swine virus, but it doesn't seem to have onward spread. It's still not a human virus," Dr. Joseph Bresee, from the CDC's influenza division, stressed during a noon press conference Friday.
"Even so, a H3N2 candidate vaccine has been prepared and clinical trials are being planned for this year," he said.
The reason the CDC is concerned about this particular virus is that it contains an element seen in the pandemic 2009 swine flu strain, H1N1, which may make it more likely for the virus to spread from person-to-person.
All 29 cases were infected with strains of H3N2 "that contained the matrix (m) gene from the influenza A H1N1 pandemic virus," Bresee explained. "This 'm' gene may confer increased transmissibility to and among humans, compared with other variant influenzas viruses."
In addition, the virus appears to have become more active recently, the CDC said. "The virus was first detected in humans in July 2011, and since then there have been 29 total cases of H3N2 variant virus detected, including the 16 cases occurring in the last three weeks," Bresee said.
Of the 12 cases reported this week, 10 were from Ohio and one each came from Hawaii and Indiana, the CDC said.
According to Bresee, "29 cases of infection with this H3N2 virus since 2011 is a significant increase for these types of viruses that we have seen in recent years."
Flu viruses commonly circulate in pigs, Bresee noted. But they are generally different from those that spread to people. Sometimes these viruses can spread to people, however, which happens most often when someone comes into close contact with an infected animal, he explained.
"Swine influenza viruses have not been shown to be transmissible to people through eating, or handling pork or other products derived from pigs. It is not a food-borne disease," Bresee said.
Each of the recent 16 cases were among people who had direct contact with pigs. In 15 cases, contact happened at a county fair, he added.
It may yet be possible, however, to transmit this virus from one infected person to another, Bresee said.
No human-to-human transfer of the virus occurred in the more recent cases, Bresee said, although scientists did find evidence of limited human-to-human transmission in three cases in 2011.
Fortunately, sustained person-to-person transmission of the virus hasn't happened yet, he added.
Of the 16 new cases, 13 arose in children, according to the CDC. Studies indicate that children may be more susceptible to the infection than adults, as occurred during the 2009-2010 pandemic H1N1 flu outbreak, Bresee said.
Right now, there is no cause for alarm, the CDC said. Symptoms of this flu are similar to seasonal flu, none of the recent 16 cases required hospitalization and there were no deaths. This flu did hospitalize three people with underlying disease last year, he noted.
"We expect more cases from contact with pigs and through limited human-to-human spread," Bresee said. "We also suspect that some of the cases might be severe."
Reported cases usually represent a small number of actual cases, since most people don't see a doctor and many doctors don't report flu cases.
Bressee said, however, it's too early to hazard a guess about how many cases of this flu there might actually be.
"Because influenza viruses are always evolving, we will watch closely for signs that the virus has gained capacity for efficient and sustained human-to human transmission," Bresee said.
"Thus far, we have not seen this type of transmission and therefore are not seeing features consistent with an influenza pandemic."
To prevent contracting this flu, the CDC advises people to limit their contact with swine and avoid contact with sick swine. People who have contact with these animals should take precautions such as washing their hands, not eating or drinking in areas with swine and controlling their cough.
Explore further: CDC: 2 children sickened by novel swine flu strain
More information: For more on H3N2 flu, visit the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. | <urn:uuid:8a460b1f-e51d-410e-9f2c-e616e2bde07b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://medicalxpress.com/news/2012-08-cdc-vaccine-swine-flu.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975968 | 948 | 3.375 | 3 |
"Stop taking the tablets" is not a message often heard in medical circles.
Rather the reverse: keep on taking them is the instruction. Doctors justify their existence by handing out prescriptions for the magic pills, and pharmaceutical companies make a fat living from making and selling them.
When it comes to antibiotics, however, more is less. The world is swimming in a toxic soup of the drugs which have become so ubiquitous that they are losing their power and, more worryingly, stimulating the development of new bacteria that can trigger life-threatening infections. As our front-page report yesterday explained, infections resistant to almost all antibiotics are spreading across Europe at an alarming rate. In some countries – Greece is an example – up to 50 per cent of infections with one bug, K. pneumoniae, which causes urinary and respiratory conditions, are resistant to the most powerful class of antibiotics, called carbapenems. Greece also happens to be the country with the highest use of antibiotics.
While the threat from untreatable infections is growing, the supply of new antibiotics to combat them has dwindled. The difficulty of finding new agents, and the cost of bringing them to market, with all the paraphernalia of clinical trials needed to demonstrate safety and efficacy, have proved prohibitive.
The pharmaceutical industry cannot be blamed for this. New antibiotics are used only as a last-line treatment after other drugs have failed and are taken for only a short period, until the infection has cleared. Compared with a drug for diabetes, say, or high blood pressure, which must be taken for life, this is a poor business proposition. The commercial return is not sufficient to stimulate innovation.
We need a new business model, and the European Commission promised yesterday to provide it with a public-private collaboration to research new antibiotics and accelerated approval for drugs discovered. Where, however, the pharmaceutical industry bears blame is in fostering the "pill for every ill" culture that has brought the world to the brink of the abyss. It must now help us to curb that costly habit. | <urn:uuid:3080140d-0358-47df-b02a-a2ed2af53d2a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/editorials/leading-article-antibiotics-expensive-and-harmful-6264639.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00003-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954885 | 413 | 2.59375 | 3 |
In October 2008, Michigan Gov. Jennifer Granholm signed into law Public Act 295, known as the Clean, Renewable and Efficient Energy Act. The law instituted the state’s “renewable energy standard.”
This standard requires that the “renewable energy resources” specified in the bill generate 10 percent of the annual retail electricity sales made by investor-owned electric utilities, alternative suppliers, electric cooperatives and municipal electric utilities by the year 2015 and thereafter. Under the law, renewable energy resources are “ultimately derived from solar power, water power, or wind power” and include biomass energy, geothermal energy and energy from landfill gas produced by municipal solid waste. The act stipulates that a renewable energy resource “does not include petroleum, nuclear, natural gas, or coal”; nor does it include a new hydroelectric facility or a “hydroelectric pumped storage facility.”
The act also requires that before 2015, Michigan’s power suppliers steadily increase the percentage of electricity sold[*] from new renewable energy resources. The RES mandates that in 2012, providers supply enough electricity generated by renewable energy to cover 20 percent of the gap between 10 percent full compliance and baseline electricity production from renewable energy resources in the year prior to passage of the act. In 2013, 33 percent of the gap must be filled. In 2014, 50 percent of the gap between the baseline and full compliance must be covered, with full compliance required in 2015. The 10 percent standard would have to be maintained in subsequent years.
The act also contains a cost cap meant to limit the impact on retail customers of implementing the renewable energy standard. This means that electricity providers are not required to comply if, as determined by the Michigan Public Service Commission, the cost to end-users has any of the following effects per month: The RES increases the average electricity bill by $3 for a residential customer meter; by $16.58 per commercial secondary customer meter; or by $187.50 per commercial primary or industrial customer meter.
While the cost cap could prove effective in preventing large price increases, we set it aside in our calculations in order to determine the economic impact if the RES standard is met in full. We will discuss this assumption and its relationship to our findings below, but we would note that the cost caps do not apply to consumers’ overall electrical bills; rather, they “apply only to the incremental costs of compliance [with the RES] and do not apply to costs approved for recovery by the commission other than as provided in this act.” In other words, a consumer’s bill can rise by more than the cap as long as the amount considered attributable to the RES is less than the cap. In addition, if the Michigan Public Service Commission does enforce the cost caps, the cost of the policy would be reduced, but the direction of the standard’s effect would not change. The policy’s net costs would not become net benefits or vice versa.
The law assigns bonus credits for specific types of electricity generation.[†] Solar power generation effectively counts for three total megawatt-hours of production toward the RES: one for the actual production, and two bonus credits. In addition, renewable generation that takes place utilizing equipment manufactured in Michigan receives an additional 0.1 MWh, or 10 percent of one credit, for the first three years of production. Similarly, if in-state workers are used to build the facility, then an additional 0.1 MWh, or 10 percent of one credit, for the first three years of production is awarded. Despite the bonus credits, the U.S. Energy Information Administration’s projections — which account for Michigan’s RES — estimate that solar power will not deliver any significant electricity production in Michigan between now and 2035.
Still, these large government subsidies may lead to the installation of solar energy, even in Michigan, where Detroit experiences approximately 20 percent clear days, 30 percent partly cloudy and 50 percent cloudy days. To take this possibility into account, we assumed that Michigan installs solar capacity equal to the projected national level of solar capacity. Each MWh produced would in effect count as three MWh under the RES, reducing the total amount of renewable energy required. This solar power scenario falls under our “high-cost case” below. In the early years of the RES, the relatively immature solar power market increases the net cost of the RES by displacing other renewables, such as biomass and wood waste, that are more affordable. As time passes, the cost of solar power would decline relative to other renewables.
Another component of the act — the banking of unused Renewable Energy Credits — could help defray costs. By producing more green energy than required by the act, energy suppliers could bank credits to use for RES compliance in the future. However, the EIA projections made prior to the law show a baseline scenario in which renewable electricity generations will fall below RES minimums. Therefore, it is unlikely that producers will supply excess renewable energy to trigger banking. Producers will use all renewable energy production to fulfill the requirement that same year, and not bank any for future compliance. For this reason, we assume that banking will have no effect on overall price of renewable energy production.
Finally, the RES contains a costing provision that applies to two specific electricity companies. In addition to the percentage-based mandates discussed above, Public Act 295 institutes a separate renewable energy “capacity” requirement. This capacity standard requires that the companies install 500 megawatts of renewable energy capacity by the end of 2015 (with an interim mandate of 200 MW by the end of 2013) if they have between 1 million and 2 million retail customers as of Jan. 1, 2008. Similarly, utility companies with two million or more customers as of Jan. 1, 2008, must have 600 MW of renewable capacity by the end of 2015 and 300 MW by the end of 2013.
Consumers Energy is the only utility that qualifies under the first case, while DTE Energy is the only utility that qualifies under the second. It is difficult to determine the exact cost effect of this section of the law, but a few details are obvious. First, both of these companies will need to build capacity, buy contracted capacity or buy RECs to cover their RES requirements. The first two would count toward the capacity requirement, while the third would not. So it appears that the capacity requirement was put in place to require these two larger companies not to fulfill their RES requirement via RECs only. Why part of the law would seemingly encourage the use of RECs while another section does not is not understood. We believe that this section of the law is adequately accounted for in our range of estimates.[‡]
[*] The mandates in the Clean, Renewable, and Efficient Energy Act are sometimes based on energy sales and sometimes on energy production. Compare, for instance, MCL § 460.1027(3), where computations involve generation and production, and MCL § 460.1027(4)(b), where computations involve the amount of electricity sold. As noted in the main text, the act contains a requirement for renewable energy capacity as well.
[†] MCL § 460.1039(2). These bonus credits are technically referred to as “Michigan incentive renewable energy credits.”
[‡] Based on our projections, the RECs will have little effect on prices and therefore will not affect our range of estimates. | <urn:uuid:d2548f48-4b6b-424b-bda6-c97432bbf922> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.mackinac.org/17573 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00056-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942304 | 1,531 | 2.984375 | 3 |
The protection of the submerged portions of a ship's hull, and the necessity of it, whatever material the ship may be constructed of, seems to have been long acknowledged and practised. The materials employed for this purpose are almost innumerable, and we find wood, copper, lead, zinc, porcelain, Roman cement, Portland cement, leather, tin, yellow metal, india-rubber, tinned iron, woven metal and vegetable fabrics, brass, glass, plaster, &c. &c.; in fact, it would seem that almost everything had at one time or other been pressed into the service.
Atheneus, quoted by Ewbank, informs us that the ship of Archimedes was fastened everywhere by copper bolts weighing ten pounds each and upwards, whilst the bottom was sheathed with lead.
Lead was used as a material for sheathing in the second century, for Alberti tells us, in his work on architecture, which was published in the fifteenth century, that whilst he was writing that book a ship, called "Trajan's Ship," was raised from the bottom of Lake Riccia, which had been submerged for above 1300 years, and that "over all there was lead sheathing fastened on with little copper nails."
A boat, thirty feet in length, was found in the fifteenth century sunk in the Mediterranean in twelve-fathoms water, which had the deck covered with paper and linen, and sheets of lead fastened with gilt nails over all; and when stripped off, parts of the covered portion were found quite dry, the boat being estimated to have been 1400 years submerged. The hull was of cedar and larch.
A Roman ship sunk in the Lake of Nemi was found to have been coated with bitumen, over which sheets of lead had been nailed with gilt nails. The seams of this vessel were caulked with tow and pitched, the material of the hull being larch.
In the reign of Henry VIII large vessels had a coating of loose animal hair attached with pitch, over which a sheathing board of about an inch in thickness was fastened, "to keep the hair in its place." It seems, however, that sheathing the hull or building another over it was not approved of by these early navigators, and in 1668 the officers of the fleet fitting out under Sir Thomas Allen to attack the Algerians petitioned that they might not have their vessels "so encumbered," as they "were always unable to overtake the light-sailing unsheathed vessels of the enemy." This petition was granted on condition that the ships' bottoms were cleaned very frequently.
In the reign of Charles II the "Phœnix" was sheathed with lead, and soon after about twenty ships were so sheathed, milled lead fastened with copper nails being used.
In 1667, during the same reign, it is noted "that wee and divers of our subjects are att great charges in the sheathing shipps for the streights and other foreign parts." For many years, and up to the middle or latter end of the last century, the sheathing generally in use seems to have been a doubling of the skin of the ship with wood, which was kept constantly payed over with tar, grease, or a mixture of these compounds. The writer of these pages remembers a small schooner which was so constructed, and after some time had a sheathing of copper or yellow metal laid on this wooden sheathing.
In 1670 a patent was granted for the use of milled lead for sheathing, and it was ordered that "no other than milled lead sheathing should be used on His Majesty's ships." In the year 1700 lead was acknowledged to have proved a failure, and the use of wood sheathing was again resorted to.
In 1677 and 1678 Sir John Narborough and Sir John Kempthorne complained that the rudder irons of the "Plymouth" and "Dreadnought" were so much eaten as to make it unsafe for them to go to sea; and in 1682 similar complaints were made of the effects of lead in contact with iron.
In the year 1682 a commission was appointed to investigate the subject, and the result was that lead sheathing was abandoned. In the latter half of the last century, however, the "Marlborough" was sheathed with lead, and laid up in ordinary at Sheerness. In a few years after, or in 1770, she was docked at Chatham, and it was found that the lead had eaten away the iron fastenings very considerably, in consequence of which the lead was stripped off, and wood sheathing substituted.
Alloys of lead have also been tried, but all produced similar results, and were consequently abandoned.
Lead stands next to copper in its galvanic action on iron, and although it is far cheaper than copper, still its injurious effects, and the trouble, complication, and expense, necessary to insulate it, preclude its use as a material for sheathing iron ships. In 1687 a patent was obtained for using rollers to mill lead into sheets, "as well for the sheathing of ships as for any other use or purpose whatsoever," and in 1728 another patent was obtained for a "new method of sheathing and preserving the planks of ships." this consisted of "rooled copper, brass, tin, iron, or tinned plates." In 1779 was patented a "compound metal capable of being forged when red hot or when cold, more fit for making bolts, nails, and sheathing for ships, than any metals heretofore used." This was a very close approach to Muntz's metal. In 1800 was patented "red, yellow, and white sheathing," consisting of various mixtures of copper, zinc, and tin. This was again a near approach to Muntz's metal. In 1800 the manufacture of zinc into sheathing for ships was patented.
From this period numerous patents were obtained for materials or their mode of application in sheathing vessels, such as electrotyping the whole hull, and various other contrivances, most of them exhibiting an utter disregard of chemical knowledge, such, for instance, as that of Mr. J. E. M'Connell, who in 1802 proposed to apply sheets of brass or copper directly to the hull of the vessel and riveted thereto, without the interposition of any insulating material, galvanic action being thus set at defiance! Others, again, proposed to sheathe the iron hull with wood, to which the metal sheathing may be applied, as in a wooden ship; and then, again, various nostrums against fouling and corrosion are patented, such as glass, phosphorus, arsenic, &c., all of which are either so absurd or worthless as not to need further attention.
Sheathing or protecting the hulls of iron ships comprehends the following points:— Materials used, mode in which they are applied, principles involved in their action, their advantages or disadvantages, cost, durability.
The materials used have been metallic or non-metallic. The disadvantages of the metallic are that, unless carefully selected with reference to their action on the iron hull of the ship, they give rise to one or all of the following serious objections:— They do not fail to set up a serious destructive galvanic action with the hull of the ship, and thus become rapidly foul, at the same time dooming the hull to certain destruction, and their application has been a complicated and unsatisfactory process. They are not readily applicable to an iron ship, unless she be specially constructed for the purpose of being sheathed, with facilities for attaching the plates.
The non-metallic sheathing is either in the form of a paint and smeared on, or else laid on, plastered or spread as a paste or mortar, or stuck on by means of some adhesive glue or other medium. As the adhesion is merely that of plaster on a wall, and is influenced by wet, damp, or the state of the atmosphere when being laid on, and it cannot be attached with such a degree of firmness as can be done with sheets of metal, none of them are calculated in any way to fulfil the prime requirements of the case, viz. the complete protection of the hull from the action of the sea-water, and causing the action of that sea-water to induce a constant renewal and cleansing of the surface, whereby alone fouling can be prevented and the corrosion of the hull avoided. Not even the "enamelling," which is so beautifully done, is of the slightest use, as it presents a permanent surface, and does not exfoliate; besides which the difference of expansion of the iron of the hull and the enamel causes it continually to chip off. Most of the plans for sheathing or protecting the hulls of iron ships seem to have been originated with the view of their application to ships already constructed, and until 1863, when Mr. T. B. Daft, C.E., patented his improved plan of constructing ships, so as to admit of their being readily sheathed, this point seems to have been overlooked. In order to apply sheathing to ships already built, it becomes needful to attach a coating of wood, to which this sheathing is to be nailed, and the difficulty they all labour under is that they are not component parts of the structure of the ship, but are, as it were, plastered on to the hull, and consequently easily damaged and readily detached.
By the plan of Mr. Daft the hold for the sheathing nails is incorporated in the body of the vessel, and thus becomes a part and parcel of it, placing the vessel and her sheathing in the same position as a Coppered wooden hull, exposed to similar casualties in regard to stripping, &c. This plan increases the facilities for sheathing, decreases the expense, and does not increase the bulk of the hull by more than the thickness of the zinc sheathing used for the purpose, besides making a flush surface, and a better job in all respects.
Wood sheathing on the hull of an iron ship is a mistake. It is of no use to prevent fouling; it does not strengthen the ship; it becomes water soaked; it enlarges the midship section, and consequently does not increase the ship's speed; it is sure to be quickly attacked and destroyed by worms; in fact, it can only be at once and unhesitatingly condemned, more particularly when it is accompanied with the pernicious arrangement of sheet copper or yellow metal laid on it.
The cost of this complicated arrangement, viz. first giving the ship a coating or two of red lead, marine glue, cement, or some other delightful material, then a coating or sheathing of felt or india-rubber, or both combined, then a coating of wood, and then the sheathing of copper or yellow metal, is no small trifle, the "Royal Sovereign" being estimated to cost £3000, which may be looked on as thrown entirely away, first, because the plan is inefficient; secondly, because it brings in the fatal objection of galvanic action; and thirdly, because it is eminently lacking in solidity and durability — points that should never be lost sight of in carrying out such undertakings.
Zinc as a material for the sheathing and protecting of ships' bottoms is a comparatively new application in this country, for it seems that, though patented in 1805, in 1848 there were only five British ships on which it was known to be employed. So well did it answer, however, that by the year 1850 there had been 300 ships sheathed in British ports, which number had increased in 1852 to upwards of 1000, and its increase still appears to be great. All these vessels were of wood, however, and it was specially requested that in applying this material to ships fastened with copper, yellow metal, or iron bolts, layers of tarred felt should be placed over them to prevent galvanic action destroying the zinc.
Zinc rolling mills seem to have been first started in the year 1834 at Dartford, in Kent, the machinery being made by Hall, the well-known engineer of that place.
So little was the action of sea-water upon the copper or metal sheathing of a vessel understood, that it was believed and asserted to have kept clean by the oxide poisoning the zoophytes, &c., which adhered to it; and when after some time the copper sheathing of our ships of war was found to wear out, it was assumed that this action ought to be stopped, and accordingly Sir Humphrey Davy was applied to to introduce some mode of removing this evil.
For this purpose he arranged iron "protectors" in connection with the copper, which were applied to the "Magicienne," and it was found that this plan only gave local protection, the greater part of the copper oxidising as usual, only the parts contiguous to the protectors being protected, and these portions were covered with barnacles. These experiments, when carried further by means of plates of tin, zinc, or other easily oxidizable metal, applied to coppered ships, gave so perfect a protection that the ships' bottoms became covered with barnacles and weeds, thus introducing a far more serious evil than the one it was desired to remedy. It would have been thought that these facts would have afforded excellent grounds on which to form a theory of the mode in which copper sheathing operated in removing fouling, and to have led to a serious consideration of the subject; but it seems not to have excited any attention, and the poisoning theory continued, and still remains in force in some cases at the present moment.
There can be no doubt that, had proper attention been given to the chemical action of metals in contact with sea-water, we should not meet with the constant reference to the destructive action of corrosion in our iron-clads and other iron ships, which so constantly appear in the columns of the daily press, nor would there have been the enormous expense we now have to encounter from the fouling of our large iron ships, and their consequent docking, cleaning, painting, &c., and loss of time involved thereby, as due consideration must have led to the devising of some practical mode of construction and sheathing by which all this would have been obviated.
At the present moment this question is little understood by many, and some have even gone so far as to compound a mixture to be smeared over the copper, yellow metal, or zinc sheathing of ships, to prevent the very action by which it keeps free from fouling, namely, exfoliation! and advance as an argument in its favour that it will not wash off, and it completely arrests the oxidation or wear of the sheathing, stating that the full weight of the metal sheathing will be returned whenever it may be taken off, and recommend its use on account of the immense saving that it would effect.
Now, on analysing the subject and its economical results, the following particulars are obtained:— First, a ship is sheathed with copper, yellow metal, or zinc, in order that the loss of speed and fouling found to ensue if they be not used may be prevented by their exfoliation, and the hull saved from the attacks of worms. Second, in order to prevent the copper exfoliating, and thus keeping clean, and also the waste caused by that exfoliation, a mixture or compo' is smeared all over the copper. Third, this mixture or compo' is said to prevent fouling and oxidizing, and also to prevent the attacks of the worm. Therefore it follows, if this be true, that the compo' will do all that the metals can, and that consequently any metal sheathing is unnecessary.
Against any advantage that may be claimed for paints, compo', &c., must be set the certain fact that they do not remove the necessity for frequent docking, cleaning, and repaying, or plastering, with all their accompanying delays, expenses, and drawbacks; and it is certain that whatever weight of copper or other metal sheathing they may prevent the waste of, over a period of say three or four years, if their application be continued so long, it is equally certain that the use of this protective compo', its docking, renewals, and other expenses, will be found to far exceed any possible saving that might be effected, and, in fact, to be more than the cost of recoppering or sheathing the ship at the end of such a period.
It is now a decided fact that no material which presents and maintains a permanent surface is of the slightest use in preventing fouling or corrosion. The general ignorance of the action of copper sheathing in keeping clean has caused the continuance of the evil, and perpetuated a host of nostrums of the most expensive, useless, and troublesome description, without in the slightest degree abating the nuisance, added to which it has introduced and encouraged the useless and highly dangerous plan of placing sheet copper or yellow metal on iron hulls, for no other reason than because they have been used, and keep clean on wooden hulls; and this too, in defiance of all that is known in. regard to galvanic action, its causes and results. Did any individual shipowner choose to experiment on the readiest and surest way of destroying his own iron fleet, there would not be much said about it; but when such absurdities are carried out on a national fleet, on which millions have been expended, and in which all are interested, it then becomes a very serious matter.
There can be little reason to doubt that the constant advocacy of copper or yellow metal as the only proper material for the sheathing of iron ships arises from an ignorance of the action of it in preventing fouling, it being almost the universal opinion that the "poisoning" process is what causes it to keep clean. That the poisoning theory is a fallacy the success of zinc (which is admitted to be non-poisonous) when applied to iron, in keeping free from fouling, sufficiently proves; and where the mechanical assistance to the process, viz. the friction caused by the ship in passing through the water, which aids in rubbing off the exfoliation, does not take place — for example, when the ship lies at her moorings — a limited degree of fouling still takes place on the surface of the copper or yellow metal, in spite of sufficient verdigris or poisonous matter being on the surface, to give ample proof whether the theory be right or wrong.
The action of copper in keeping clean is thus stated by the 'Engineer' of December 21st, 1866:— "The beneficial action which continuously keeps a copper bottom from sea-weed is evidently due to a double process of exfoliation and of a generation of a poison (verdigris) inimical to the development of organic life."
The idea of copper keeping clean by the poisoning process killing the zoophytes was held by Sir Humphrey Davy, and in order to prevent what was then considered the unnecessary waste of copper sheathing, by corrosion or exfoliation, he protected it by zinc or iron. The experiment succeeded scientifically and thoroughly in preventing exfoliation or loss; but it failed to be a practical benefit, inasmuch as the sheathing became covered with sea-weed, shell-fish, &c., which it did not do when the copper exfoliated, consequently his plan had to be given up, to the great mortification of Sir Humphrey.
If this idea of poisoning the weeds, barnacles, polypi, and other annoyances which seem to have such great "proclivities" for ships' bottoms, were correct, there can be no doubt that such action would take place just as surely and well whether the ships were at anchor or under way; and there would not then be found the constant records of the failures which greet all the multifarious attempts which have been and are yet made to obtain success by this process, whether sought for by the application of compositions, plasters, or by the application of the metal in sheets.
The fallacy of the "poisoning" theory will be proved further on in this work from the results of actual experiments; and it is well known that all the "compositions" compounded in accordance with this theory have totally and utterly failed when tried in actual use.
It is a curious fact, that but little attention has been given to investigate the action required in whatever is used as a means for preventing the fouling of ships' bottoms; but it has at once been assumed that the action required is that of poisoning, and on this hypothesis nearly all the inventors have proceeded. The results will be found recorded in the chapter on Fouling.
It was stated at a late meeting of the Scottish Shipbuilders' Association, by the chairman, that an iron plate had been coated in squares with four of the best-known "anti-fouling" compositions, and, after having been submerged for some months, was raised for examination. The plate was found covered with barnacles, and the most ridiculous part of the affair was that the biggest barnacle of the lot, "the great grandfather of all barnacles," had stuck himself in the very centre of the plate, right on the point where all the four compo's joined, as if to show his utter contempt for and ridicule of the useless and worthless plan of "poisoning" them.
The royal mail-steamer "Atrato" had one side coated with a preparation of copper, its use being propounded in accordance with the "poisoning" theory, and when docked for examination the green copper composition was found to be covered with a coralline incrustation and patches of rust or oxide.
The "Valiant," in 1865, had one side coated with a preparation of copper, and when examined, in about five months afterwards, was found to have this "poisonous" composition thickly coated with barnacles, sea-weed, &c.
The "Orontes," iron troop-ship, was coated with a poisonous anti-fouling composition containing copper, and when examined some time afterwards was found to be, under her counter and in the run of her after portion of the hull, thickly encrusted with barnacles; and the bottom was dotted all over with patches of rust, the rivet-heads in many places showing evident signs of being affected by the copper contained in the anti-fouling composition.
In the 'Times' of January 1 7th, 1865, it was stated that the "Royal Oak" iron-clad, which is sheathed with Muntz's metal, was docked, after six months' service, in the Mediterranean, and "her bottom was found to be foul beyond conception; masses of animals, zoophytes, corallines, &c., all so encrusted with weeds in one mass that sharp scrapers will alone detach them."
It is stated that one of H. M. ships, which had been lying quiet at Bermuda for some time, had layers of oysters, &c., upwards of a foot thick, on her copper sheathing, the copper being actually taken up by the animal in the formation of its shell as a carbonate of copper, the shells of the inner layer of oysters being all of this beautiful green colour throughout. Some of these shells were a short time since in the possession of the storekeeper of the Royal William Victualling Yard at Plymouth.
In another case the interior of one of the large globes of Griffith's screw propellers, which in the navy are made of gunmetal, was found on examination to be completely filled up with full-grown mussels and barnacles, although the aperture through which the spawn had entered was not more than half an inch in area. Where, then, is the "poisoning" theory in all these instances?
The French Government seems to maintain a perfect indifference to the fatal injury resulting to the iron hulls and armour plates of the iron-clads from the use of copper or yellow metal sheathing, in spite of the remarks of M. Becquerel, their eminent chemist, whose researches have shown that, by the employment of zinc for sheathing iron vessels in place of copper or yellow metal, the iron may be kept free from fouling, and also preserved instead of injured, which is of the greatest importance.
It is curious to see the constant and persevering attempts which are made, both in England and France, to use copper or yellow metal for sheathing iron ships, and the schemes which are tried to prevent its certain and fatal action, whilst any endeavour to give zinc an equal trial is most studiously avoided. It would seem as though there were some fascination, or important advantage to be gained by trying the former, which does not exist, or has not been discovered in the case of the latter. But it remains to be seen whether the tax-paying public will much longer permit these useless and dangerous experiments to be tried on the costly iron-clads.
M. Roux, a captain in the French Imperial Navy, seems to have succeeded in convincing the naval authorities of that country that copper can be readily applied to iron hulls without causing any damage! It is stated in the 'Engineer' of December 21st, 1866, that "It was M. Dupuy de Lôme who first suggested to Captain Roux the idea of applying copper directly on the iron shell of the vessel, observing that the effects of any galvanic current were not to be feared, 'as long as the plan employed absolutely prevented the presence of sea-water at the points of contact of the two metals.'"
The same journal goes on to say that "The next steps were, therefore, to find a mode of isolating the copper from the iron, and some mechanical plan for securely fixing the copper sheets." In order to obtain the former, it is said that he coats the iron with red lead, over which he places a composition, and on this composition he places the copper. For the latter, viz. "a mechanical plan for securely fixing the copper sheets," it is stated that the inventor "professed to drill into the iron a small conical hole five millimetres deep and six millimètres (about ¼ inch) in diameter, and then to spread out a suitable rivet in this hole. By this means any defects resulting from the drilling of the hole practically disappeared, the soft rivets completely filled up any irregularities, and were firmly clenched in."
Of this plan the `Engineer' remarks, "It is certain that the process has a simple and rational look, whatever may be the ultimate results."
Now, there are generally about 120 holes in a sheet of copper as used for sheathing wooden ships, and a ship of 400 tons generally requires 1140 such sheets. If, therefore, the same proportion holds good for iron ships, it follows that the amount of holes drilled into the hull for the reception of the "soft rivets" will amount to something considerable (in the case of a 4000 ton ship, on one plan of sheathing, there are 45,663 holes at 3d. each = £570 15s. 9d.); but as it is only "drilling holes," there can be no doubt of the "simplicity" of this part of the process.
It will be interesting to examine the mode in which the experiments with Captain Roux's plan were carried out, from which sufficient results were obtained to satisfy those in authority of its feasibility and advantages, and also to prove to them that the destructive action of copper on iron does not present any real difficulty in actual use.
We are told that the "first trial was made with a large flatbottomed iron boat, the plates of which were very much corroded. After a service of nine months at sea, seven of which were passed in active service at the arsenal of Toulon, the boat was taken on land and examined by a commission and M. Dupuy de Lôme. No vegetation was found on the outside, and only one copper sheet above the water-line was found injured, probably by scraping against another vessel; on stripping more of the copper sheets the iron was found in a perfect state of preservation, without oxidation, and all the rivets in a good state."
We are further told that, "in consequence of this success, the iron-plated corvetice 'La Belliqueuse' was placed in M. Roux's hands to be sheathed by his process before beginning a long cruise in the Pacific. He expects that the copper sheathing will last twelve years, as his plan is based upon the principle that the copper protects the composition, the composition the red lead, and that, lastly, the red lead protects the iron." Since the sheathing of "La Belliqueuse," M. Roux has been ordered a few weeks ago to apply his sheathing to the iron-plated frigates "La Savoie" and "La Revanche."
A few moments' reflection will show how insufficient such a plan of trial is, and how well calculated to cause error. The boat, we are told, was "seven months in active service at the arsenal at Toulon;" when she was hauled up and examined the iron was found "in a perfect state of preservation, without oxidation."
Now, here were conclusions drawn from the results of circumstances which never exist in the case of large ships in active service, and it does not seem that it ever occurred to any one that this was the case. This flat-bottomed boat, we are told, was coppered "above the water-line; she was employed at the arsenal at Toulon," and consequently in smooth water, not being subjected to the constant washing of the water over the copper and the iron hull, as would be the case of a large ship at sea in active service, and which it is found wholly impossible to prevent.
It is this contact of the water with the copper or yellow metal and the iron hull which causes the destructive galvanic action to be set up. Keep the three from contact and no result follows, but it matters not how perfectly or completely insulation may be secured between the iron hull of the ship and the copper sheathing by the interposition of non-conductors, if when the ship is afloat the water is allowed to produce contact between them by washing indifferently over both.
It has actually been proposed to drill the skin of an iron ship full of holes, and tap copper bolts or studs into them with the view of riveting on copper or yellow-metal sheets, interposing a sheet of iron and some insulating material between; and it is gravely asserted that this will prevent the water following or obtaining access to the skin of the ship, and thus prevent the corrosion and galvanic action between the different metals and the water which would otherwise take place!
This ingenious, cheap, and thoroughly practical arrangement, which is perfectly in accordance with the knowledge required to devise an arrangement to set up galvanic action to destroy the positive or weaker metal, namely, the iron, has actually been approved of and pronounced extremely simple, in the following words:— "Altogether, this is the simplest and apparently the most efficient form of sheathing for iron ships that we have seen"!
It has been well and truly remarked that "It should be the function of engineering papers to explode all palpable bubbles, and to guide public opinion aright in matters beyond popular analysis and appreciation;" otherwise "will the public lose confidence in those blind guides by whom they have been so much misled."
The "Caledonia," iron-cased ship, has been sheathed with teak three inches thick, and this covered with a new description of metal sheathing, being copper on one side and pewter on the other, the idea being that no galvanic action prejudicial to the iron can be excited by this arrangement.
The "Zealous" has been sheathed with teak planks three inches thick above the water-line and four inches thick below it. In carrying out this plan it has been determined in future to bolt the planking directly on the plates, to avoid weakening the planks by the grooves they formerly cut in them.
Ever since the fouling and corrosion of the hulls of iron ships showed the necessity of preventing them by sheathing, it has been a desideratum to obtain a simple, practical, and efficient mode of attaching the plates of metal or sheathing to the iron hulls; and though many plans have been patented and proposed, all more or less ingenious or objectionable, none can at present be said to be in use or capable of fulfilling the requirements of the case in a satisfactory or efficient manner.
In 1862 Mr. Mallet, who is considered by some people as no mean authority on such matters, said that "any attempts at coating an iron ship directly with any metal sheathing is quite out of the question; the mechanical difficulties are insuperable. You cannot attach sheathing firmly to the skin of an iron ship in any way, but you injure the strength and diminish the safety of the ship enormously. If it were possible to get the hull of an iron ship into a condition that it would not corrode at all, there would no longer be any difficulty about preventing it from fouling at all."
It may be that, on examining Mr. Daft's plan of constructing iron ships and vessels and sheathing the same, Mr. Mallet will be disposed to alter his extremely decided opinion, and, as a mechanic, recognise the truth of the saying that "there is no finality in engineering," before he again ventures to pronounce so decided and dogmatic an opinion on a matter which in a twelvemonth afterwards is fully and completely solved in the two points, one of which was "quite out of the question," and the "mechanical difficulties" of the other were "insuperable."
Numerous attempts have been made to attach the metal used in sheathing to the bottoms of iron ships, and "sticking" them on by means of some adhesive material has been a tolerable favorite; next has been that of drilling through the hull or skin of the ship a quantity of holes, through which the bolts holding on the wood sheathing passed, on which wood the sheathing metal was nailed; next, ribs or ridges of iron were attached to the hull, vertically or horizontally, and the wood sheathing wedged or jammed in between them, and the metal sheets put on this; in fact, several modes have been proposed or patented for this purpose, but, so far as experience shows, have met with but a very limited amount of patronage. All the plans for building a wooden ship on an iron hull, and then coppering, yellow-metaling, or sheathing it, are but very unsatisfactory and objectionable plans, increasing the midship section of the ship without adding to the strength of the vessel, and bringing a metal of a superior galvanic power into close connection, by means of damp wood and water, with a weaker one.
We often hear it dogmatically asserted that zinc is of no use for sheathing iron vessels, because where it has been used on wooden ones it soon fails, and this from the formation of an oxide or carbonate which is so hard as to turn it into a permanent surface. That this is true there is not the slightest doubt, and the author has seen wooden ships sheathed with zinc in a most surprisingly foul state. A little consideration of the subject, however, would have shown that this failing arises from the lack of the very circumstances required to prevent it, viz. exfoliation, which, it may be observed, is most readily and surely obtained, and to any required amount, when the zinc is placed on the hull of an iron ship.
Prior to 1833 the copper used on the bottoms of the ships of the Royal Navy did not waste at a greater rate than one ounce per square foot per annum, whilst subsequent to this the average loss per sheet was four ounces per square foot per annum. There can be little reason to doubt that this was owing to the employment of iron fastenings, and that galvanic action took place between the iron bolts and the copper sheathing, thus preventing the exfoliation of the copper and destroying the iron, causing the ship to become "nail-sick."
When, however, copper and yellow-metal fastenings were introduced and iron given up, the action of the sea-water on the copper sheathing had uninterrupted sway, and the copper exfoliated at the increased rate mentioned, causing great excitement amongst the Government authorities at this increased waste, and no small amount of inquiries and investigations were made to find out the "reason why;" but it was finally concluded that it was the fault of the copper, which proved itself not to be so good as that formerly used!
Mr. Scott Russell remarked at the Institution of Naval Architects, in 1866, "The great merit of copper is that it decays. You all know how rapidly it wears out. And what do we pay the price for it for? We pay the price of copper in order that by its rapid decay, and its passing off and taking the barnacles with it, we may keep our ships pure and clean."
The general idea in regard to the sheathing of ships seems to have been that it ought not to waste away, and that any tendency to this was an evil that ought to be checked. This wish to "eat the cake and have it too" is very bad policy, and shows a complete ignorance of the mode in which the sheathing acts; for the fact has been patent to any one that took the least trouble to know the "reason why," that the sheathing must "perish," in order to keep clean;" and that if it does not perish the sheathing is preserved, but at the expense of a constantly dirty bottom to the ship. It is now known to all who have studied the subject that the cause of copper, yellow metal, zinc, and other metallic alloys placed on a ship's bottom, keeping clean and free from fouling, is the exfoliation of the metal and the constant renewal of the surface caused thereby, through which the adherent matter is, as it were, sent adrift, by the friction of the water against the metal sheathing washing off the exfoliated parts or films. From this it will be evident that there is just such a rate of exfoliation as will secure this great and important advantage without causing too rapid and unnecessary a destruction of the metal, which it is most important should be made to last as long as possible, provided it does not introduce any other disadvantage, or interfere with the proper carrying out of the end for which it is applied.
A vessel with an iron hull, cased with wood and sheathed with copper or yellow metal, is in a state of perpetual risk and danger, as a blow, grounding, galvanic contact of the two metals, or the detachment of the sheathing, must render her docking an immediate necessity, unless it be preferred to run the risk of allowing galvanic action and corrosion to take place. In fact, a ship so circumstanced can only be looked on as a huge galvanic battery, always ready to do mischief, and rapidly destroy the positive or weaker metal, viz. the iron of the hull of the ship, when sufficient metallic contact shall be produced, and always in operation through the contact afforded by the water or dampness in a less rapid degree.
Rear-Admiral Sir F. B. Nicholson, C.B., remarked, at the Royal United Service Institution, on the 20th March, 1865, that in the "Caledonia" "a belt of wood was originally placed between the Muntz's metal on her bottom and her iron plates. It was well known that damp wood is a partial conductor; still it was supposed that this would be a better plan than bringing the Muntz's metal right under and in contact with the armour plates. If that had been done there is no doubt that the armour plates would have been ruined."
Charles F.T. Young: The Fouling and Corrosion of Iron Ships: Their Causes and Means of Prevention, with Mode of Application to the Existing Iron-Clads.
The London Drawing Association, London, 1867. pp 36-49.
Transcribed by Lars Bruzelius.
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The Passover Seder is one of the mostly widely celebrated of all Jewish customs, and the plate containing symbolic foods lies at the center of every Seder. Each of the six elements on the Seder plate, or Kearah, has special meaning relating to the story of the Jews’ exodus from Egypt, where they had lived as slaves. The Seder is special, not only because of its religious significance, but also because everyone at the table plays a part in the retelling of the Passover story. A special book called the Haggadah is used that has instructions for each step of the Seder along with the story of the exodus. Preparing the food for the Seder plate can be a family affair and is a great way for young children to learn the traditions of Passover.
Items on The Seder Plate
All Seder plates contain the following, and they must be placed on the plate in a specific order (although that order may differ according to family tradition):
- Maror, or bitter herbs.
- Charoset, a mixture of apples, nuts, wine, and spices.
- Karpas, a vegetable such as parsley, celery, or potato.
- Z’roa, a roasted shankbone or neck of poultry.
- Beitzah, a roasted egg.
- Chazeres, the same mixture as the Maror.
There are also three matzahs, the unleavened, cracker-like bread served throughout Passover, on the table to symbolized the three groups of Jews: the priests, the Levites, and the Israelites.
Maror represents the bitterness the Jews experienced as slaves in Egypt. Most people use romaine lettuce or prepared horseradish.
Charoset is sweet and has a paste-like consistency that symbolizes the mortar the Hebrews used during their slavery. A quick and easy way to make Charoset is to take one cup of walnuts, one red or green apple, two teaspoons of cinnamon, two teaspoons of sugar, and some red wine to moisten. Chop the nuts and apple, either manually or in a food processor, and add the spice, sugar, and wine until the mixture resembles mortar.
The vegetable, or Karpas, represents the onset of spring. The Karpas is dipped in saltwater to represent the tears shed by the Jews during Egyptian rule.
For the Z’roa or shank bone that symbolizes the Passover sacrifice that was made every year at the Temple in Jerusalem, you can roast a chicken drumstick or a meat shank bone in the oven for approximately 30 minutes.
The roasted egg, or Beitah, is simply a hard-boiled egg and represents the festival sacrifice made at the Temple. The egg later came to represent spring and rebirth.
Since each item must be placed on the Seder plate in a specific order, you can make a cardboard or paper Seder plate for your child to fill in with pictures of the special foods, or they can color the items in.
- First take a sturdy paper plate and with a marker draw smaller circles within it, dividing it into six sections.
- Clip photos from magazines or find pictures online of each of the Seder plate items. You can also use clip art illustrations from the Internet. Or ask older children to draw pictures of each item on paper with crayons or markers and cut them out.
- Give your kids the plate and the cutout items, and ask them to place them on the plate in the correct order. If they’re unsure, give them hints that relate back to the symbolism behind each item.
- The Beitzah is on the top left corner of the plate.
- On the top right is the Z’roa.
- In the middle, is the Maror.
- The Karpas is on the lower left.
- The Charoset is on the lower right.
- The Chazeres is at the bottom of the plate. | <urn:uuid:ab76a28b-133a-4308-b834-984db4242c1c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.education.com/magazine/article/Guide_Making_the_Seder_Plate/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922788 | 838 | 3.453125 | 3 |
What is Steampunk Literature?
Steampunk has always been first and foremost a literary genre, or least a subgenre of science fiction and fantasy that includes social or technological aspects of the 19th century (the steam) usually with some reimagining of, or rebellion against parts of it (the punk). Unfortunately, it is a poorly defined subgenre, with plenty of disagreement about what is and is not included. For example, steampunk stories may:
- Take place in the Victorian era but include advanced machines based on 19th century technology (e.g. The Difference Engine by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling);
- Include the supernatural as well (e.g. The Parasol Protectorate by Gail Carriger);
- Include the supernatural and forego the technology (e.g. The Anubis Gates by Tim Powers, one of the works that inspired the term ‘steampunk’);
- Include the advanced machines, but take place later than the Victorian period, thereby assuming that the predomination by electricity and petroleum never happens (e.g. The Peshawar Lancers by S. M. Stirling); or
- Take place in an another world altogether, but featuring Victorian-like technology (e.g. Mainspring by Jay Lake).
“It’s sort of Victorian-industrial, but with more whimsy and fewer orphans.”
- Caitlin Kittredge
But steampunk has become a lot more. What with all the cool contraptions in the stories, it was only natural that some people would decide to make some of them (or at least things like them). Thus, steampunk gadgets came into the real world. People has “steampunk’d” everything from computers, desks, telephone, watches and guitars to cars, motorcycles, and whole houses. So, steampunk is also a design aesthetic.
This aesthetic carries over into personal style with both clothing and jewelry being made in a “steampunk” style. The clothes are not exactly Victorian, adding in technological bits or hints of a more adventurous life than a typical Victorian citizen likely enjoyed.
So, steampunk is a genre and a design aesthetic.
But wait, there’s more! Steampunk has a philosophical angle as well, which is somewhat of a combination between the maker ideals of creativity and self-reliance and the Victorian optimistic view of the future. This last bit has led to accusations that steampunk includes a fair amount of empire worship, which is a reasonable concern. Another criticism has been that steampunk focuses on the best of the past and quietly sweeps under the bad (i.e. slavery, child labor, widespread disease, etc.) | <urn:uuid:69d528b9-ec7f-456f-b9dd-204e11cd5e91> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.montroselibrary.org/steampunk-literature | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00121-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956888 | 555 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Do you know what your nursing pillows, stroller cushions, and other foam baby products are made of? Did you know many contain flame retardants?
Clearly it’s important to prevent fires, but some of the methods we use to do so are much more effective than others. Recent declines in fire injuries and deaths can be attributed to decreased smoking, adoption of fire-safe cigarettes, and improved fire safety measures like smoke alarms and sprinkler systems.
One of the more ineffective approaches taken is loading products with chemical flame retardants. In fact, foam treated with these chemicals ignites and burns after seconds, giving off high levels of toxic gases and smoke, which are the leading cause of fire injury and death.
Even without burning, products that contain these chemicals release them and cause harm. According to Dr. Harpreet Malhi, a California physician and mother, “peer-reviewed animal and human studies find associations between flame retardants and decreased IQ in children, learning disabilities such as attention deficit disorder and hyperactivity, cancer, cryptorchidism (undescended testicles), decreased sperm quality, increased time to pregnancy, and endocrine and thyroid disruption.”
And she’s not the only concerned expert. A landmark scientific consensus on the health and environmental hazards of brominated and chlorinated flame retardants, called the San Antonio Statement, was published in the December 2010 journal Environmental Health Perspectives (EHP). To date, more than 200 scientists and physicians from 30 countries have signed to show their concern about the persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic properties of these chemicals.
So, why in the world are we putting these chemicals in foam baby products (among many other foam products)?
Because of an outdated and ineffective regulation in California, called TB 117, which has become a de facto requirement for flame retardant chemicals. “Right now, California is the only jurisdiction in the world that requires bare foam to withstand a 12-second open flame before being sold,” says Malhi. “Yet, according to the U.S. National Fire Protection Association, California’s decline in fire injuries and deaths is similar to other states. TB 117 has not been proven to increase fire safety since its adoption more than three decades ago.”
Even if you don’t live in California, this law impacts you because manufacturers don’t make different products for different states. Check the tags on any foam products you have. If the product is labeled as meeting California TB 117, it likely contains toxic fire retardants.
“We are exposed to flame retardant chemicals on a constant basis,” says Malhi. “It exists in our couches and office chairs, at our dining tables and in our bedrooms, and it lives and stays inside all of us after we breathe in contaminated dust particles. In the last forty years alone, levels of these chemicals have increased forty-fold in human breast milk.”
What should you do?
- Avoid products labeled as meeting California TB 117.
- For products you own, call the manufacturer and ask if any flame retardants were used (and if so, what kind).
- Wash hands regularly. Flame retardants typically end up in our household dust, which ends up on our hands. So you don’t dry out skin, save soap for the post-bathroom and pre-eating washings. Simply rinse with water on a more occasional basis (especially with babies and toddlers that are in mouthing and chewing phases).
- Capture dust. Wipe surfaces with a damp cloth. Wipe hard floors with a damp mop. (You only need to use water for these tasks – save cleansers for deeper cleaning). And vacuum with a HEPA filter regularly. Some experts call for twice weekly eradication of dust, but don’t get neurotic.
- Swipe your screens. Some of the most contaminated dust is that found on TV and computer screens. Wipe them regularly and dispose of old electronics responsibly (check out earth911.org).
- Make some noise! If you live in California, you are definitely going to want to read this. Now. | <urn:uuid:cbb8cd11-080f-49c1-9a44-50c22c5dedfb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ecochildsplay.com/2011/04/22/do-you-know-if-your-baby-products-contain-flame-retardants/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940367 | 862 | 3.453125 | 3 |
|Bledsoe County, Tennessee|
Bledsoe County Courthouse in Pikeville
Location in the U.S. state of Tennessee
Tennessee's location in the U.S.
|Named for||Anthony Bledsoe|
|• Total||407 sq mi (1,054 km2)|
|• Land||406 sq mi (1,052 km2)|
|• Water||0.3 sq mi (1 km2), 0.08%|
|• Density||32/sq mi (12/km²)|
|Time zone||Central: UTC-6/-5|
Bledsoe County was formed in 1807 from land that was formerly Indian Land as well as land carved from Roane County. The county was named for Anthony Bledsoe (1739–1788), a soldier in the Revolutionary War and was an early settler of Sumner County. He was killed in an Indian attack at Bledsoe's Station.
Like many East Tennessee counties, Bledsoe County opposed secession on the eve of the Civil War. In Tennessee's Ordinance of Secession on June 8, 1861, the county's residents voted against secession by a margin of 500 to 197. General James G. Spears, a resident of Bledsoe, served as a vice president at the pro-Union East Tennessee Convention in May and June 1861, and fought for the Union Army in the war.
|U.S. Decennial Census
As of the census of 2000, there were 12,367 people, 4,430 households, and 3,313 families residing in the county. The population density was 30 people per square mile (12/km²). There were 5,142 housing units at an average density of 13 per square mile (5/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 94.44% White, 3.70% Black or African American, 0.38% Native American, 0.11% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.19% from other races, and 1.15% from two or more races. 1.12% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 4,430 households out of which 31.30% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.50% were married couples living together, 9.10% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.20% were non-families. 22.10% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.20% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.53 and the average family size was 2.94.
In the county, the population was spread out with 23.10% under the age of 18, 8.40% from 18 to 24, 31.30% from 25 to 44, 25.80% from 45 to 64, and 11.40% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 121.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 121.30 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $28,982, and the median income for a family was $34,593. Males had a median income of $26,648 versus $20,639 for females. The per capita income for the county was $13,889. About 14.90% of families and 18.10% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21.00% of those under age 18 and 23.20% of those age 65 or over.
Bledsoe County is home to a portion of Fall Creek Falls State Resort Park.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bledsoe County, Tennessee.|
|Van Buren County||Rhea County|
|Sequatchie County||Hamilton County| | <urn:uuid:96c2d7e3-4d16-4adf-bf01-1565b8e003e8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mashpedia.com/Bledsoe_County,_Tennessee | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00168-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947754 | 825 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Visual Graphics & Web Design
Students will learn to design, develop and produce interactive media projects, websites and social media contexts. Students will demonstrate methods of creating professional quality media using commercial and open source software.
Students will learn techniques for transforming photographic images, through the use of digital cameras, computers and mobile devices. To accomplish this, they will learn software photo editing techniques including layering, color correction, masking and special effects.
Students will also learn the dynamics of the Web environment while pursuing an in-depth study of both Hybertext Markup Language (HTML) and Cascading Style Sheets (CSS). Web based protocols such as FTP, TCP/IP and HTTP will be addressed. Students will create a website with tag text elements, special characters, lines, graphics, hypertext links and graphical tables.
Students will use animation and storyboarding techniques to plan the production of an animation project. Students will design from script and storyboard actions in the preproduction planning process. Students will use commercial and open source digital animation software to create finished animations, cartoons and other short movies. They will accomplish this using animated text, character movements, voice, background sound, sound effects, camera movements and multiple scenes. | <urn:uuid:05287510-f1a9-4aeb-8010-538557b6accc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bhccenters.com/?nav=program_detail&record=3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.871354 | 246 | 2.9375 | 3 |
All too often, the rules of pesticide regulation are cumbersome and make for slow change. But EPA had an opportunity to take swift, decisive action to protect bees — and they let it pass.
Today, the agency announced it is denying the request by beekeepers to declare Bayer's pesticide, clothianidin, an "imminent hazard" to bees and will not be suspending the chemical's use.
The decision comes in response to a legal petition filed earlier this year by twenty-five beekeepers and environmental organizations, citing acute and chronic bee kills across the country linked to neonicotinoid pesticides like clothianidin.
Steve Ellis, one of the petitioners and owner of Old Mill Honey Co, with operations in California and Minnesota, says the beekeepers are disappointed.
EPA has signaled a willingness to favor pesticide corporations over bees and beekeepers. This decision puts beekeepers, rural economies and our food system at risk. And the injury we are sustaining this year will be unnecessarily repeated.
Bees are running out of time
This spring and summer, beekeepers from New York to Ohio and Minnesota are reporting extraordinarily large bee die-offs due, in part, to pesticides exposure. The die-offs are similar to what beekeepers have reported in the past few weeks in Canada (where EPA has admitted there are 120 bee kill reports, a huge number).
According to USDA, beekeepers have been losing an average 30% of their honey bee colonies each year since 2006 – but some are losing many more.
New scientific studies continue to emerge that clearly point to pesticides, along with pathogens and nutrition, as a key catalyst of these alarming bee die-offs. And recent studies in both the U.S. and in Europe show that small amounts of neonicotinoids — both alone and in combination with other pesticides — can cause impaired communication, disorientation, decreased longevity, suppressed immunity and disruption of brood cycles in honey bees.
Neonicotinoid treatment of corn seeds is thought to be one of the leading pathways for exposure.
What are they waiting for?
Last month, over 250,000 people from across the country urged EPA to follow the science and move swiftly to suspend the use of clothianidin. At the same time, pesticide manufacturer Bayer CropScience has attempted to refute (and discredit) new key scientific information showing the hazard clothianidin poses to bees. According to Paul Towers, media director for PAN, EPA is failing to follow the science.
This is a stark reminder of the power and influence of pesticide corporations, when the agency fails to act despite significant impacts to the livelihood of beekeepers and rural economies.
While refusing to issue an immediate suspension, the agency has agreed to open a 60-day public comment docket to review additional points raised in the legal petition. The comment period starts next week. Officials expect to complete the evaluation in 2018, and any implementation plans could take years beyond that to put into place.
Beekeepers and environmental groups cite EPA’s current timeline for making a decision on the safety of neonicotinoids for honey bees as too slow, and filed the “imminent hazard” legal claim in hopes of more immediate action. With today's announcement, that hope is waning. | <urn:uuid:f6670636-f9de-4039-957f-404e5ada1ac6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.panna.org/blog/epa-sidesteps-chance-protect-bees?quicktabs_1=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935175 | 664 | 2.546875 | 3 |
More Research Showing Small Schools Work, Gates Remains Silent
With the support of the Gates Foundation, New York City created 150 small schools of choice between 2002 and 2008. Five previous rigorous studies of this program and other small school initiatives have demonstrated significant benefits for students. Now we have a sixth study from the School Effectiveness and Inequality Initiative at MIT.
The authors, Atila Abdulkadiroglu, Weiwei Hu, and Parag Pathak, are economists at Duke and MIT. They take advantage of lotteries to gain admission to these non-selective small schools of choice to conduct a random assignment experiment. The full study can be read here, but it does not allow me to cut and paste text to summarize the results. According to the press release:
According to the press release:
The study follows cohorts of rising 9th graders for five application years from 2003-04 through 2007-08. For these students, small schools boost performance across all five major Regents exams: Math, English, Living Environment, Global History, and US History. Students randomly offered a seat at a small school accumulate 1.4 more credits per year, attend school for 4 more days each year, and are 9% more likely to receive a high school diploma.
As the cohorts have aged, it is now possible to measure the effects of small schools on college enrollment and choice, outcomes that have never been examined before. Compared to the college enrollment rate of 37% for those not offered, students at small schools are 7% more likely to attend college and 6% more likely to attend a four-year college. Most of these gains come at four-year public institutions. There is a marked 7% increase in the fraction of students who enroll in the CUNY system. Small schools cause students to clear CUNY remediation requirements in writing or reading. The early evidence suggests that students are more likely to persist in college, as measured by attempting at least two academic semesters. Students in the lottery study are too young to say anything definitive about college graduation.
A major innovation in the study is its use of information contained in NYC’s Learning Environment Surveys to characterize the small school environment for those in the experiment. Small schools are rated higher than fallback schools by student survey respondents on the overwhelming majority of questions on engagement, safety and respect, academic expectations, and communication. Surveys indicate that students feel safer and have closer interactions with their peers and teachers, despite reporting a smaller variety of course offerings and activities. Teachers indicate greater feedback, increased safety, and improved collaboration.
This research was supported by the National Science Foundation. The research team includes Atila Abdulkadiroglu, Professor of Economics, Weiwei Hu, PhD Candidate at Duke University and Parag Pathak, Associate Professor of Economics at MIT and SEII Director. The study uses data provided by the New York City Department of Education. The findings are being released in the National Bureau of Economic Research working paper series this week.
The study uses an innovative research design based on admissions lotteries contained in the high school match. The lottery-based research design relies on apples-to-apples comparisons: among those who apply to a given set of small schools, applicants who were randomly offered are compared with otherwise similar students who were not offered a seat. The study covers more than 108 oversubscribed high school programs with 9th grade entry, which represent 70% of unselective small high schools opened between 2002-2008.
“These results indicate important possibilities for urban small schools reform,” said Pathak. “The collaboration partnership between key stakeholders in New York City shows that within-district reform strategies can substantially improve student achievement.”
Despite more proof that the small schools of choice reform strategy pursued by the Gates Foundation before 2006 has been a clear success, the Gates Foundation has nothing to say about these positive results. I can find nothing from their massive press machine touting the results — nothing on their web site, nothing on their twitter feed, no well-placed stories in the NY Times or LA Times. Those efforts are reserved for their new, unproven and misguided strategy of top-down reform through Common Core and measuring and incentivizing teacher performance.
Let’s hope that the Gates Foundation and its followers are not impervious to evidence and reconsider their abandonment of the small schools of choice reform strategy.
-Jay P. Greene | <urn:uuid:9ff7d497-e50c-43b0-b725-f88e8aa337e0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://educationnext.org/more-research-showing-small-schools-work-gates-remains-silent/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959472 | 904 | 2.671875 | 3 |
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Construction Technology Update No. 17, July 1998
by M.Z. Rousseau, G.F. Poirier and W.C. Brown
A pressure-equalized rainscreen (PER) wallis a multiple-line-of-defence approach to rain penetration control. This Update defines pressure equalization and discusses the various elements that must be incorporated in a PER wall to minimize rain penetration due to air pressure differentials.
Rain can enter only if a combination of the following three conditions are present: rain water deposited on the wall, holes and cracks offering water leakage paths inwards and a force or a combination of forces to drive water inwards. Strategies for rain penetration control must entail the control of one or more of these contributing factors.
Various approaches to rain penetration control are currently used in the building industry. These range from single-line-of-defence assemblies (commonly called faceseal walls) to multiple-defence assemblies such as those that incorporate a rainscreen, a drained air space and a water-resistant membrane.1 The pressure-equalized rainscreen (PER) wall design is one of these multi-defence approaches. It is based on the open rainscreen principle,2 which aims to control all forces that can drive water into the wall assembly, i.e., air pressure difference, gravity, surface tension, capillary action, and rain drop momentum. Of these forces, air pressure difference is often a dominant one with the potential to drive a considerable amount of rainwater into the wall assembly. This Update therefore focuses on the control of air pressure difference across the rainscreen, and the particular elements of wall assemblies instrumental in obtaining such control.
Defining Pressure Equalization
The pressure equalization concept is simple: when the outside air pressure is transferred to an air space behind the exterior cladding, the cladding is exposed to a near-zero pressure differential. In practice, the wall assembly must comprise three components (Figure 1): a rainscreen (i.e., vented cladding), a compartmented air chamber and an air barrier system. The air chamber compartments must be small enough, the air barrier system must be airtight enough, and the area of the venting through the rainscreen must be large enough to allow sufficient air to move in and out of the compartments under the applied air pressure. In a nutshell, the strategy lies in the control of airflow within and through the wall assembly.
In theory, pressure equalization means a zero air pressure differential at all times across the rainscreen, i.e., a complete elimination of the driving force for pressure-induced water penetration. In practice, however, perfect pressure equalization across the rainscreen at all times is neither achievable nor necessary for adequate rain penetration control (the wall assembly must be designed to tolerate the entry of a small amount of water without damage). Preliminary studies indicate that for practical purposes, "adequate pressure equalization" for rain penetration control may be defined as not more than 25 Pa pressure differential across the rainscreen.
Figure 1. Components of a PER wall assembly
Figure 2. Example of wind-induced pressure differential measured across an exterior wall system ( Brown et al. Field Testing of pressure-equalized rainscreen walls. ASTM. STP 1034, 1991.)
Dynamic and static air pressures on the rainscreen
Static (steady over time) air pressures on wall assemblies are generated by mechanical systems and stack effect while dynamic pressures (fluctuating quickly with time and location) are caused by wind (Figure 2). Recent IRC research indicates that dynamic as well as static air pressures must be considered when addressing wind-driven rain and the pressure-equalization performance of a wall assembly for rain penetration control.3 Under dynamic pressures, the ability of the assembly to respond quickly to the outside fluctuating pressure load is critical for adequate pressure equalization; this time constraint is not an issue under static loading. The IRC research showed that wall assemblies respond differently to dynamic and static loading, resulting in different design requirements for the wall components, particularly for the venting of the rainscreen and the compartmentalization of the air chamber.
Wall Components for Pressure Equalization
The following three basic components must be present in a wall assembly to minimize rain penetration due to air pressure differentials (Figure 1):
an effective air barrier system,
an air chamber and
These components must have properly designed features such as vent holes in the rainscreen and delimiters to divide the air chamber into a series of compartments.
Recently, IRC performed some experimental laboratory studies to characterize these features for various generic wall systems. In a project jointly sponsored by Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC) and several wall system manufacturers, IRC used its unique dynamic walltesting facility to study the relationship between the three components (listed above) as a function of the physical characteristics of different wall assemblies subjected to static and dynamic air pressures. Specimens of precast concrete panels, brick veneer/stud wall assemblies and exterior insulation and finish systems (EIFS) were examined for their pressure-equalization performance. Some were also subjected to rain penetration tests.
An air barrier system
The performance of the air barrier system affects the ability of the wall assembly to achieve pressure equalization across the rainscreen. The air barrier system in place within the wall significantly reduces the flow of air through the wall assembly, and therefore greatly contributes toward reducing the air pressure differential across the rainscreen. Under dynamic-pressure conditions, recent IRC studies indicate that excessive flexibility of the air barrier system will result in fluctuations in the volume of the air chamber compartment. These fluctuations adversely affect the potential for rapid pressure equalization across the rainscreen. Under static-pressure conditions, the leakage of the air barrier system is the determining factor for sizing the venting requirements. These findings emphasize the need for an air barrier system within the building envelope, as called for in the 1995 edition of the National Building Code of Canada.4
An effective air barrier system has low air permeance, structural strength, and continuity over gaps, joints and interfaces.5
The air barrier system must be designed to resist air pressure induced by mechanical ventilation, stack effect and wind while still limiting air leakage. The system must also be rigid enough to sustain these air pressures with a resulting deflection that can be accommodated within the wall assembly. These air pressures must be transferred to the structure of the building.
IRC's Canadian Construction Materials Centre (CCMC) developed an evaluation protocol to assess the "effectiveness" of air barrier systems.6 It covers requirements for maximum allowable air leakage rates for air barrier systems for walls of low-rise buildings, structural air pressures (static and dynamic) and material durability. CCMC's allowable air leakage requirements for air barrier systems are a function of the water vapour permeance of the outermost non-vented layer of the wall assembly. In any case, the maximum air leakage rate allowable by CCMC for the air barrier system in exterior walls of low-rise buildings is 0.20 L/(s•m2) at 75 Pa pressure differential.
An air chamber
The air chamber is located between the rainscreen and the air barrier system. Wind pressures induced on the rainscreen are transferred to this space as air is displaced between the outside and the chamber through the vent holes located in the rainscreen. The air chamber can consist of a clear air space or other adequate options. As an example, in a recent IRC experimental study, one wall assembly with an air chamber made with a geosynthetic dimpled plastic sheet with a geotextile bonded to the dimples provided similar pressure equalization performance to that of the assembly with a clear air space. In some wall systems, specially designed insulation materials are intended to provide the required air chamber for pressure equalization purposes: the air chamber may be formed as a grid of narrow channels within the insulation material, or the air chamber can be housed within the insulation material itself when its physical properties provide the required "air permeability." In general, for dynamic pressure equalization, the volume of the air compartments and the rigidity of their boundaries (i.e., air barrier system, rainscreen and lateral delimiters) are the determining factors for estimating the venting requirement of the rainscreen. However, in wall systems without a clear air space, preliminary experimental work at IRC suggests that their pressure-equalization performance is very specific to their particular design, and that the data available cannot be extrapolated to generate guidelines.
The air chamber needs to be divided into smaller, separate compartments.2 Remember that since wind pressure is dynamic, the pressure induced on the building façade varies not only with time, but also with its location on the façade. For example, the air pressure induced by wind can be fairly uniform near the centre of the walls, but steep gradients (variations) can develop towards the building edges and the roof line.7
This spatial variation in pressure can induce lateral airflow within the chamber unless it is divided at suitable intervals. The compartmentation of the air chamber into smaller air compartments reduces the range of wind-induced pressures sustained by each of these compartments, resulting in a better potential for pressure equalization across the rainscreen.
In the 1960s, Garden2 suggested that compartments be smaller at locations of large pressure variations (such as building edges and parapets) and larger in locations of smaller pressure gradients, such as in the central portion of the façade . Based on these premises, Garden suggested that compartment height should not exceed 6 m (about two stories) while compartment width could be up to 6 m in the central portion of the façade and about 1.2 m at building edges and parapets. Recently, Canadian research involving wind tunnel studies8 has been initiated for the development of more definitive guidelines on compartment sizes over the building façade for PER wall systems. These studies confirm that Garden's rule-of-thumb about the locations on a façade that are most in need of of compartmentation is valid; the need for small compartments at parapet level is also stressed (Figure 3).9,10
The compartment delimiters close in the top, bottom and sides of the compartment. These delimiters need to be somewhat impervious to air and properly connected to the rainscreen and to the plane of airtightness of the air barrier system in order to create the required lateral boundary. Information on the performance of any material and assembly for that purpose is scarce at the moment. In principle, wall components in place for other purposes, such as metal shelf angles, can act as delimiters. Rigid sheet metal and foam plastic insulation strips could likely be used as delimiters, as long as they can be made relatively airtight and can be installed to sustain the lateral air pressure loads.
Figure 3. General pattern for façade
Any effective rain penetration control strategy should assume that some rain will enter the wall at some time during the service life of the wall assembly; that water must be disposed of quickly. The inner surface of the compartments must be water-resistant, and the compartment must be drained at the bottom with the use of a flashing.
A rainscreen is the first line of defence against wind-driven rain, and as such is subjected to all forces leading to rain penetration through its openings and imperfections. Pressure equalization across the rainscreen minimizes water entry into the wall due to one force, air pressure differential. For pressure equalization to take place, the rainscreen must be vented; that is, holes must be present in the rainscreen so that enough air can be exchanged between the outside and each compartment of the air chamber. Two major issues arise concerning the venting requirements: the amount of venting needed for adequate pressure equalization under static and dynamic pressures, and the placement of the venting for each compartment.
How much venting
Under dynamic-pressure conditions, the rainscreen venting requirements are mainly driven by the volume of air in the chamber compartment, the resistance to airflow at the vent holes, within the chamber as well as between the compartments, and the rigidity of the wall assembly. Indeed, the larger the volume of air in the compartment, the larger the volume of air that has to be displaced in and out of the compartment to obtain adequate pressure equalization across the rainscreen; hence, the larger the total area of venting. The more rigid the assembly, the smaller the venting area required. The volume/venting ratio of the wall assembly, i.e., the volume of the compartment divided by the effective cross-sectional area of the vent holes, is a critical characteristic of the assembly for achieving dynamic-pressure equalization. Again, IRC's limited experimental work suggests that chamber compartments of small volume and high rigidity (such as the specimen illustrated in Figure 4) should have a volume/venting ratio of 50 m or less (i.e., venting RS ≥ volume COMPARTMENT /50 m). Chamber compartments larger in volume and less rigid (see specimen in Figure 5) should have a volume/venting ratio of 25 m or less (i.e., venting RS ≥ volume COMPARTMENT /25 m). In other words, the smaller the volume of the compartment and the more rigid it is, the less venting required.
For static-pressure equalization across the rainscreen, the effective venting needed depends on the leakage characteristics of the air barrier system and, to a lesser extent, of the compartment delimiters: the larger the total leakage openings of the air barrier system, the larger the venting area has to be. This pressure equalization design characteristic is generally referred to as the venting/leakage ratio of the wall assembly, i.e., the effective total cross-sectional area of the vent holes divided by the equivalent leakage area (ELA) of the air barrier system. Limited laboratory experimentation at IRC suggests that, for static loading, the effective total cross-sectional area of openings in the rainscreen should be at least 20 times that of the air leakage area of the air barrier system (i.e., venting RS ≥ 20 x ELAABS).
The vent holes must be designed to let in air, not water; i.e., the openings must be shielded from direct rain entry. This shielding reduces the free area of the venting openings and needs to be accounted for in the estimation of the effectiveness of the venting provided.
In general, for a wall with a properly functioning air barrier system, the venting required for dynamic pressure equalization across the rainscreen will likely be larger than that for static pressure loading. In any event, after estimating both venting requirements, the larger of them should be selected for the design of the vent holes(see box "Estimating required venting"). These guidelines do not provide an absolute figure for the venting requirements for all situations but rather an order of magnitude to aim for during the design of prototype wall assemblies.
Figure 4. Example of a rigid assembly with a chamber of small volume
Figure 5. Example of a flexible assembly
Estimating required venting
Here is a simplified example to illustrate the steps for estimating the effective venting required for static and dynamic pressure equalization across the rainscreen:
Let us assume a rigid assembly (such as the wall assembly of Figure 4), with an air leakage rate of 0.1 L/s/m2 at 75 Pa corresponding to an Equivalent Leakage Area (ELA) of 28 mm2. The compartment volume is estimated to be 0.04 m3.
For static loads:
Venting RS (m2) ≥ 20 x ELAABS (m2)
Venting RS (mm2) ≥ 20 x 28 mm2, that is, 560 mm2
For dynamic loads:
Venting RS (m2) ≥ volume COMPARTMENT (m3)/50 m
Venting RS (m2) ≥ 0.04 m3/50 m, that is, 800 mm2
Compare the static and dynamic requirements, and select the larger value; in this particular example, that is the dynamic venting requirement of 800 mm2 for that compartment.
Where to vent
Within a compartment, all the vent holes should be at the same height. The common approach has been to distribute the openings uniformly across the bottom of the compartment in order to obtain a mean pressure in the compartment close enough to the outside pressure anywhere on the outside face of the corresponding rainscreen. Placing the vent holes at the bottom of the compartment provides the added benefit that the vent holes can also provide uniform drainage of the compartment.
Wind tunnel studies at the Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Laboratory at the University of Western Ontario have shown that gathering all the openings horizontally on the corner of the compartment furthest from the edge of the building tends to pressurize the compartment. This approach may offer an extra margin of safety with respect to rain penetration control, particularly at building edges and parapets exposed to steep pressure gradients. Further investigation of this new development and its practical applications is warranted.11
In PER walls, vent holes are installed in the rainscreen to allow air to move in and out of the air chamber under the applied air pressure load so that the air pressure differential across the rainscreen is minimized. These openings are not intended to induce the " ventilation" of the chamber, that is, to get a flow of air coming in at the bottom of the compartment and coming out at the top, or vice versa. In fact, it is quite the opposite: in order to control rain penetration due to pressure differential across the rainscreen, there must be little airflow through the chamber. For this reason, all vent holes should be located at the same height level of the compartment.
Control the airflow.
An effective PER wall minimizes the amount of water that can enter the wall assembly, limits how far water can get into the assembly and provides a drainage route back outside to reduce the length of time the water remains in building materials. A PER wall design aims to control all forces acting on a wetted cladding surface. Air pressure difference across the exterior cladding is considered a significant force in driving rain into the wall. To control this force, the air barrier system, the air chamber and the rainscreen must be designed and built to work together to control airflow.
Achieve dynamic and static pressure equalization.
Dynamic pressure equalization across the rainscreen requires different wall characteristics than static pressure equalization. For dynamic pressure equalization, the rigidity of the compartment boundaries, the volume of the compartment and the area of rainscreen venting are the determining factors. For static pressure equalization, the airtightness of the air barrier system and the area of rainscreen venting are important.
Build an effective air barrier system.
A good air barrier system is a key component of a durable, functioning wall system in more than one way. The tighter and the more rigid the air barrier system, the less venting required to obtain dynamic and static pressure equalization across the rainscreen.
Compartmentalize the air chamber.
The locations on a building façade exposed to winddriven rain that require pressure equalization to achieve rain penetration control include building edges, parapets and architectural projections. Consequently the air chamber needs to be divided into smaller compartments at these locations while larger compartments are usually sufficient in the centre of the façade.
Introduce sufficient venting in the rainscreen at the bottom of the compartment.
Traditional drainage openings in current wall systems may not be sufficient to provide the necessary venting for pressure equalization. Dynamic pressure equalization likely requires more venting of the rainscreen than static pressure equalization. The vent holes must be designed to let in only air, not water, so they must be shielded from direct water entry.
|At this stage of knowledge advancement, the comprehensive design of specific pressure-equalized rainscreen wall systems for a given building configuration and climatic exposure should be supported by additional research and testing. At the design stage, a prototype wall assembly can be tested under environmental conditions representative of those that the building envelope is expected to experience. Laboratory studies under controlled static and dynamic pressures and wind tunnel studies can be performed to evaluate the pressure equalization response of compartments, and assist in finalizing the design in that respect.|
Remember: PER walls ≠ pressure equalization.
PER walls are not only about pressure equalization across the rainscreen. Other forces are at work as well, not the least of which is gravity; their control is part of the PER wall strategy for rain penetration control in exterior walls. One should assume that some rain will enter at some time during the service life of any wall assembly; that water must be disposed of quickly. Drainage of the air compartment is an important feature; properly detailed and sloped flashings and drainage channels are necessary for that reason.
M.Z. Rousseau is a research officer and W.C. Brown is a senior research officer in the Building Envelope and Structure Program of the National Research Council's Institute for Research in Construction.
G.F. Poirier is an evaluation officer with IRC's Canadian Construction Materials Centre.
1. Chown, G.A., Poirier, G.F. and W.C. Brown. Evolution of Wall Design for Controlling Rain Penetration. Construction Technology Update No. 9, Institute for Research in Construction, National Research Council of Canada, 1997, 6 p.
3. Poirier, G.F. and W.C. Brown. Pressure Equalization and the Control of Rainwater Penetration under Dynamic Wind Loading, Construction Canada, March/April 1994, p. 45-47.
4 National Building Code of Canada 1995. Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, 1995. NRCC 38726.
6. Air Barrier Systems for Walls of Low-rise Buildings: Performance and Assessment. Institute for Research in Construction, National Research Council of Canada, March 1997, 40 p. NRCC 40635.
8. Inculet, D. and D. Surry. The Influence of Unsteady Pressure Gradients on Compartmentalization Requirements for Pressure-Equalized Rainscreens. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, June 1996.
9. Skerlj, P.F. and D. Surry. A Study of Mean Pressure Gradients, Mean Cavity Pressures, and Resulting Residual Mean Pressures across a Rainscreen for a Representative Building. CMHC Report, September 1994. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, Ottawa.
10. A Study of Mean Pressure Gradients, Mean Cavity Pressures, and Resulting Residual Mean Pressures across a Rainscreen for a Representative Building. CMHC Research & Development Highlights Technical Series 96-207, Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, Ottawa.
11. Inculet, D. and D. Surry. Optimum Vent Locations for Partially-Pressurized Rainscreens. CMHC report BLWTSS30-1997, September 1997, 183 p.
National Research Council of Canada | <urn:uuid:effb4e97-022a-4e49-a36a-52810e9315ed> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/ctu-sc/ctu_sc_n17 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.91624 | 4,806 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Drugs That Effect
Cholinergic Mechanisms (Part 1).
A. Background Information
1. Medicinal Chemistry
2. Medicinal Uses
4. Nicotine Addiction
A. Background Information
Nicotinic and Muscarinic Receptors
Neurotransmitters released from nerve terminals bind to specific receptors, which are specialized macromolecules embedded in the cell membrane. The binding action initiates a series of specific biochemical reactions in the target cell that produce a physiological response. These effects can be modified by various drugs that act as agonists or antagonists.
The autonomic system consists of two major divisions: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. These often function in antagonistic ways. A signal is transmitted from the spinal cord to peripheral areas through two successive neurons. The first neuron (preganglionic), which originates in the spinal cord, will synapse with the second neuron (postganglionic) in a ganglion. Parasympathetic ganglia tend to lie close to or within the organs or tissues that their neurons innervate, whereas sympathetic ganglia lie at a more distant site from their target organs. Both systems have associated sensory fibers that send feedback information into the central nervous system regarding the functional condition of target tissues.
The significant difference between the two systems is that their postganglionic fibers secrete different neurotransmitters. Those of the parasympathetic system secrete acetylcholine (ACh), hence the name cholinergic, whereas the postganglionic fibers secrete norepinephrine (NE), hence the name adrenergic. The preganglionic fibers of both systems secrete ACh; therefore, both preganglionic fibers are cholinergic. Motor neurons which are not part of the autonomic nervous system also release acetylcholine (see Figure 1).
S.K.Anderson Figure 1. (a) Preganglionic neurons (solid line) of the sympathitic division of the autonomic nervous system release acetycholine at their synapses with postganglionic neurons (dashed line). Although exceptions occur, the postganglionic neurons release mainly norepinephrine at their function with effectors. (b) Pregangionic neurons (solid line) of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system release acetycholine at their synapses with postganglionic neurons (dashed line), and the postgangionic neurons also release acetycholine at their effectors. (c) Somatic efferent neurons release acetylcholine at their junctions with skeletal muscles.
Acetylcholine acts on more than one type of receptor. Henry Dale, a British physiologist working in London in 1914, found that two foreign substances, nicotine and muscarine, could each mimic some, but not all, of the parasympathetic effects of acetylcholine. It was found that Nicotine stimulates receptors on skeletal muscle and sympathetic and parasympathetic postganglionic neurons, however, muscarine stimulates receptor sites located only at the junction between postganglionic parasympathetic neurons and the target organ. Dale therefore classified the many actions of acetylcholine into nicotinic effects and muscarinic effects. It has subsequently become clear that there are two distinct types of acetylcholine receptors affected by either muscarine or nicotine. To restate this again, nicotinic receptors cause sympathetic postganglionic neurons and parasympathetic postganglionic neurons to fire and release their chemicals and skeletal muscle to contract. Muscarinic receptors are associated mainly with parasympathetic functions and stimulates receptors located in peripheral tissues (e.g., glands, smooth muscle). Acetylcholine activates all of these sites.
Advanced biochemical techniques have now shown a more fundamental difference in the two types of cholinergic receptors. The nicotinic receptor is a channel protein that, upon binding by acetylcholine, opens to allow diffusion of cations. The muscarinic receptor, on the other hand, is a membrane protein; upon stimulation by neurotransmitter, it causes the opening of ion channels indirectly, through a second messenger. For this reason, the action of a muscarinic synapse is relatively slow. Muscarinic receptors predominate at higher levels of the central nervous system, while nicotinic receptors, which are much faster acting, are more prevalent at neurons of the spinal cord and at neuromuscular junctions in skeletal muscle.
A cholinergic drug is any of various drugs that inhibit, enhance, or mimic the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine within the body. Acetylcholine stimulation of the parasympathetic nervous system helps contract smooth muscles, dilate blood vessels, increase secretions, and slow the heart rate. Some cholinergic drugs, such as muscarine, pilocarpine, and arecoline, mimic the activity of acetylcholine in stimulating the parasympathetic nervous system. These drugs, however, have few therapeutic uses. Other cholinergic drugs, such as atropine and scopolamine, inhibit the action of acetylcholine and thus suppress all the actions of the parasympathetic nervous system. These drugs help dry up such bodily secretions as saliva and mucus and relax smooth-muscle walls. They are used therapeutically to relieve spasms of the smooth-muscle walls of the intestines, to relieve bronchial spasms, to diminish salivation and bronchial secretions during anesthesia, and to dilate the pupil during ophthalmological procedures.
More Info on Acetycholine Receptors
Nicotine is an organic compound that is the principal alkaloid of tobacco. Nicotine occurs throughout the tobacco plant and especially in the leaves. The compound constitutes about 5 percent of the plant by weight. Both the tobacco plant (Nicotiana tabacum) and the compound are named for Jean Nicot, a French ambassador to Portugal, who sent tobacco seeds to Paris in 1550.
Crude nicotine was known by 1571, and the compound was obtained in purified form in 1828; the correct molecular formula was established in 1843, and the first laboratory synthesis was reported in 1904. Nicotine is one of the few liquid alkaloids. In its pure state it is a colorless, volatile base (pKa -8.5) with an oily consistency, but when exposed to light or air, it acquires a brown color and gives off a strong odor of tobacco.
The complex and often unpredictable changes that occur in the body after administration of nicotine are due not only to its actions on a variety of neuroeffector and chemosensitive sites but also to the fact that the alkaloid has both stimulant and depressant phases of action. The ultimate response of any one system represents the summation of the several different and opposing effects of nicotine. For example, the drug can increase the heart rate by excitation of sympathetic cardiac ganglia, and it can slow down the heart rate by stimulation of parasympathetic cardiac ganglia. In addition, the effects of the drug on the chemoreceptors of the carotid and aortic bodies and on medullary centers influence heart rate, as do also the cardiovascular compensatory reflexes resulting from changes in blood pressure caused by nicotine. Finally, nicotine causes a discharge of epinephrine from the adrenal medulla, and this hormone accelerates cardiac rate and raises blood pressure.
Nicotine is unique in its biphasic effects. In the medulla, small doses of nicotine evoke the discharge of catacholamines, and in larger doses prevent their release in response to splanic nerve stimulation. Its biphasic effect causes a stimulant effect when inhaled in short puffs, but when smoked in deep drags it can have a tranquilizing effect. This is why smoking can feel invigorating at some times and can seem to block stressful stimuli at others.
Nicotine markedly stimulates the central nervous system (CNS). Appropriate doses produce tremors in both man and laboratory animals; with somewhat larger dose, the tremor is followed by convulsions. The excitation of respiration is a prominent action of nicotine; although large doses act directly on the medulla oblongata, smaller doses augment respiration reflexly by excitation of the chemoreceptors of the carotid and aortic bodies. Stimulation of the CNA is followed by depression, and death usually results from failure of respiration due to both central analysis and peripheral blockade of muscles of respiration. Nicotine also causes vomiting by central and peripheral actions. The central component of the vomiting response is due to stimulation of the chemoreceptor trigger zone is in the medulla.oblongata. In addition, nicotine activates vagal and spinal afferent nerves that from the sensory input of the reflex pathways involved in the act of vomiting.
Although acetylcholine causes vasodilation and a decrease in heart rate, when administered intravenously to the dog, nicotine characteristically produces an increase in heart rate and blood pressure. This is because in general, the cardiovascular responses to nicotine are due to stimulation of the sympathetic ganglia and the adrenal medulla, together with the discharge of catacholamines from sympathetic nerve endings.
Nicotine is commercially obtained from tobacco scraps and is used as an insecticide and as a veterinary vermifuge (wormer). Nitric acid or other oxidizing agents convert nicotine to nicotinic acid, or niacin, which is used as a food supplement.
General Uses Schizophrenia Good For Brain?
Tabacco Info Tabacco Death Cigarettes - Tar, Nicotine, and Carbon Monoxide Content
Link 1 Link 2*
How deadly is nicotine? (don't take this site too seriously) Nicotine Dosages
Muscarine, and alkaloid obtained from the poisonous mushroom Amanita Muscaria, produces the effects predictable from stimulation of postgangiolinc parasympathetic fibers. The symptoms usually occur within 15-30 minutes of ingestion or injection, and are focused on the involuntary nervous system. The muscarinic alkaloids stimulate the smooth muscle and therby increase motility; large doses cause spasm and severe diarrhea. The bronchial musculature is also stimulated, causing asmatic-like attacks. Excessive salivation, sweating, tears, lactation (in pregnant women), plus severe vomiting also occur. The most prominent cardiovascular effects are the a marked fall in the blood pressure and a slowing or temporarily cessation of the heart. Victims normally recover within 24 hours, but severe cases may result in death due to respiratory failure. All effects of muscarine-like drugs are prevented by the alkaloid atropine. Furthermore, neither atropine-like nor muscarine-like drugs show effects at the neuromuscular junction.
Although muscarine and muscarine like alkaloids are of great value as pharmacological tools, present clinical use is largely restricted. Since evidence is beginning to accumulate that there are distinct subtypes of muscarinic receptors, there has been a renewed interest in synthetic analogs that may enhance the tissue selectivity of muscarinic agonists. | <urn:uuid:fed3730b-bfc4-464b-a7c5-8e552f7571fe> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://faculty.weber.edu/ewalker/Medicinal_Chemistry/topics/Cholinergic1/Cholinergic1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.908676 | 2,324 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Contaminated Vehicles from the Chernobyl nuclear plant disaster at Rassorva.
Twenty years after the nuclear accident at Chernobyl, many of the contaminated vehicles used in the clean-up operation remain in graveyards in the vast exclusion zone around the reactor.
For 20 years, rows of vehicles have sat awaiting a final solution, the largest graveyard being at Rassokha, 25km south-west of the power plant. The fire engines that went to the power station on the night of the explosion have long since been buried in huge trenches. But others can still be found rotting into the ground.
Many of the trucks have had their engines and wiring removed, despite the fact that they are contaminated. Most vehicles' bonnets stand open.The relics serve as a silent reminder of the world’s worst nuclear accident.
coordinates : 51°09'16.16"N 29°58'57.41"E
pictures sources : 1 2 3
text source : 1
Artificial Owl recommends: | <urn:uuid:c10c2618-0588-48d9-b3d1-c7975de219b8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.artificialowl.net/2008/10/radiation-contaminated-vehicles_07.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00069-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935453 | 211 | 2.90625 | 3 |
The latest news about biotechnologies, biomechanics
synthetic biology, genomics, biomediacl engineering...
Posted: Nov 04, 2013
Will the Nagoya Protocol impact your synthetic biology research?
(Nanowerk News) The United Nations (UN) is working to ensure that the benefits of genetic resources are shared in a fair and equitable way via the Nagoya Protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity.
The Nagoya Protocol was adopted in 2010 to provide a transparent legal framework for sharing genetic resources. “Its objective is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity,” according to the UN.
A new report from the Synthetic Biology Project at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars looks at how the protocol may affect U.S. researchers working in the field of synthetic biology.
The report finds significant uncertainty surrounding what sorts of genetic material is covered and when the protocol would go into effect. For example:
Would parts or “biobricks” be covered? Would genetic samples collected prior to the ratification of the treaty be covered? Would digital sequences shared over the web be covered?
Despite this uncertainty and despite the fact the United States is not a signatory to the Nagoya Protocol or the Convention on Biological Diversity, the report suggests that U.S. researchers engage in these discussions as they develop, verify the origin of the genetic material that they use, and ensure that such material was taken in compliance with the domestic law of a provider country.
Copies of the report will be available at the event and online on Nov. 8. | <urn:uuid:d3ad3dd0-8e6d-4a79-b890-9256385dbd31> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nanowerk.com/news2/biotech/newsid=33064.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396875.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.90167 | 344 | 2.96875 | 3 |
In 1999 researchers in Sweden were testing the effect of acupuncture on pain relief during the egg collection procedure, and noticed that the group that received acupuncture had higher pregnancy rates and “take-home baby rates”. This finding sparked significant interest in the area of acupuncture to support IVF. A recent Cochrane review analysed results from thirteen clinical trials and concluded that acupuncture performed on the day of embryo transfer results in a higher birth rate.
How acupuncture might work in supporting IVFResearchers believe that acupuncture may work in several ways to increase the pregnancy and “take-home baby” rate. Firstly,acupuncture can affect hormonal systems in the body, including the systems that govern reproduction. Secondly, acupuncture can increase the blood flow to the uterus, which may assist with implantation. Thirdly, acupuncture may reduce stress, which increases the chance of conception.
What the research showsThe Cochrane review authors divided the clinical trials into three groups, depending on when acupuncture was given. In the first group, acupuncture was given on the day of embryo transfer. In the second, acupuncture was given on the day of embryo transfer as well as two or three days later. In the third group, acupuncture was given during the egg collection procedure.
In the first group, there was a higher live birth rate in the acupuncture group compared with women receiving no acupuncture or sham acupuncture. On average, 35% of women in the acupuncture group gave birth to live babies compared with 22% in the control group. Clinical pregnancy rate in the acupuncture group was also higher at 39%, compared with 30% in the control group.
In the second group, there was a higher clinical pregnancy rate in the acupuncture group (35%) compared with the control group (19%) but no difference in the live birth rate. In the third group, who received acupuncture during egg collection, there was no difference in either the clinical pregnancy rate or live birth rate between the acupuncture and control groups.
ConclusionThe authors concluded that acupuncture given on the day of embryo transfer shows evidence of benefit. They cautioned that this may be due to the placebo effect and called for more research into the area. They also cautioned against the use of acupuncture in early pregnancy when IVF is not used to conceive, because of the findings that acupuncture given repeatedly in early pregnancy resulted in a higher pregnancy rate but not a higher live birth rate.
Cheong YC, Hung Yu Ng E, Ledger WL. Acupuncture and assisted conception. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 4. Art. No.: CD006920. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006920.pub2. | <urn:uuid:a64e288d-f8a8-4d97-91d3-42a66d605a32> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.naturaltherapypages.com.au/article/acupuncture_increasing_the_live_birth_rate_ivf | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946544 | 540 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Sir Frederic Kenyon summed up his vision for the Commission
cemeteries in February 1918 thus:
'the general appearance of a British cemetery will be that
of an enclosure with plots of grass or flowers (or both) separated
by paths of varying size, and set with orderly rows of headstones,
uniform in height and width. Shrubs and trees will be
arranged in various places, sometimes as clumps at the junctions of
ways, sometimes as avenues along the sides of the principal paths,
sometimes around the borders of the cemetery. The graves
will, wherever possible, face towards the east, and at the eastern
end of the cemetery will be a great altar stone, raised upon broad
steps, and bearing some brief and appropriate phrase or text.
Either over the stone, or elsewhere in the cemetery, will be a
small building, where visitors may gather for shelter or for
worship, and where the register of the graves will be kept.
And at some prominent spot will rise the Cross, as the symbol of
the Christian faith and of the self-sacrifice of the men who now
lie beneath its shadow.'
The Commission has always believed in honouring all casualties
equally, without distinction on account of rank, race or creed.
Within the framework set down by Sir Frederic Kenyon, who described
his vision for the cemeteries in a report in 1918, the architects
were free to interpret their own ideas. Thus individual
cemeteries, while conforming to the guidelines, often have great
character and beauty, responding to the local environment or the
surrounding architecture. No two cemeteries are the same but
they all more or less conform to the same pattern.
Common features of our cemeteries are the surrounding stone
walls and wrought-iron gates. At larger sites, you will also find a
shelter building where the cemetery register is stored behind a
bronze door. This will give you information about conflicts
fought in the area and a history of the cemetery. In all but the
smallest cemeteries, there is a register box containing an
inventory of the burials and a plan of the plots and rows.
In any cemetery with over 40 graves, you can find the Cross of
Sacrifice, designed by the architect Sir Reginald Blomfield to
represent the faith of the majority. By using a simple cross
embedded with a bronze sword and mounted on an octagonal base,
Blomfield hoped, in his words, 'to keep clear of any of the
sentimentalities of Gothic'.
Cemeteries with over 1,000 burials have a Stone of Remembrance,
designed by Lutyens to commemorate those of all faiths and none.
The geometry of the structure was based on studies of the Parthenon
and steers purposefully clear of shapes associated with particular
Individual graves are marked by uniform headstones,
differentiated only by their inscriptions: the national emblem or
regimental badge, rank, name, unit, date of death and age of each
casualty is inscribed above an appropriate religious symbol and a
more personal dedication chosen by relatives. Where there is risk
of earth movement, graves are marked instead by bronze plaques on | <urn:uuid:f9b35c4d-ea49-4323-a4ff-fbb154dbc5c5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cwgc.org/about-us/what-we-do/architecture/our-cemetery-design-and-features.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00196-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936401 | 694 | 3.546875 | 4 |
leaching, method of extraction in which a solvent is passed through a mixture to remove some desired substance from it. A simple example is the passage of boiling water through ground coffee to dissolve and carry out the chemicals necessary for producing the beverage. Another example is the removal of sugar from sugar beets using water as the solvent. Leaching is also used to remove metals from their ores. In one procedure certain crushed ores of copper are placed into a series of tanks. As a solvent, such as sulfuric acid, is pumped into the first tank, it dissolves the copper from the ore. Eventually overflowing the first tank, the solution passes into the second, where more copper is dissolved. When this tank overflows, the process is repeated in the third tank and so on. The copper is ultimately removed from the solution by chemical or other treatment.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:007de515-6e2e-468a-aefb-5cb9ead20a59> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/science/leaching.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00068-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955063 | 194 | 3.734375 | 4 |
COURSE DESCRIPTION: The course is designed to convey genetic concepts and their application in a diverse set of model systems. It will allow students to understand and critically evaluate the literature. The course is divided in to three sections. In the first section, students will briefly review basic genetic concepts. This part is followed by a discussion of yeast and bacteria as genetic models and their use in high throughput and classical biochemical approaches. In the second section, students will learn about the major vertebrate systems, including human genetics, mouse genetics, and zebra fish genetics. The third section is dedicated to invertebrate genetics (including worms and flies) as well as to a discussion of special aspects of cancer genetics. Overall, this course should convey graduate level genetics in all its modern facets and constitute the foundation for more advanced studies.
REQUIRED MATERIALS: Computer
PREREQUISITES: Undergraduate genetics is required
STUDENT PREPARATION: Basic concepts should be known, including but not limited to DNA as the basis for heredity, Mendelian concepts of inheritance, structure of DNA and genes as well as basic genetic methods.
SUITABLE FOR 1ST YEAR STUDENTS: Yes
UNIQUE TRAINING OFFERED IN THIS COURSE: Unique to this course is a comprehensive syllabus that includes a brief introduction and an overview of all major model organisms currently in use for research. Using both classic and modern examples, the possibilities and contributions of the field of Genetics to the understanding of biological processes will be discussed.
STUDENT ASSESSMENTS: 3 exams.
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The Islamic Golden Age is traditionally dated from the mid-7th century to the mid-13th century at which Muslim rulers established one of the largest empires in history.
During this period, artists, engineers, scholars, poets, philosophers, geographers and traders in the Islamic world contributed to agriculture, the arts, economics, industry, law, literature,navigation, philosophy, sciences, sociology, and technology, both by preserving earlier traditions and by adding inventions and innovations of their own. Also at that time the Muslim world became a major intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education. In Baghdad they established the “House of Wisdom“, where scholars, both Muslim and non-Muslim, sought to gather and translate the world’s knowledge into Arabic in the Translation Movement. Many classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been forgotten were translated into Arabic and later in turn translated into Turkish, Sindhi, Persian, Hebrew and Latin. Knowledge was synthesized from works originating in ancientMesopotamia, Ancient Rome, China, India, Persia, Ancient Egypt, North Africa, Ancient Greece and Byzantine civilizations. Rival Muslim dynasties such as the Fatimids of Egypt and the Umayyads of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such as Cairo and Córdoba rivaling Baghdad. The Islamic empire was the first “truly universal civilization,” which brought together for the first time “peoples as diverse as the Chinese, the Indians, the people of the Middle East and North Africa, black Africans, and white Europeans.”A major innovation of this period was paper – originally a secret tightly guarded by the Chinese. The art of papermaking was obtained from prisoners taken at the Battle of Talas (751), spreading to the Islamic cities of Samarkand and Baghdad. The Arabs improved upon the Chinese techniques of using mulberry bark by using starch to account for the Muslim preference for pens vs. the Chinese for brushes. By AD 900 there were hundreds of shops employing scribes and binders for books in Baghdad and public libraries began to become established. From here paper-making spread west to Morocco and then to Spain and from there to Europe in the 13th century.
Much of this learning and development can be linked to topography. Even prior to Islam’s presence, the city of Mecca served as a center of trade in Arabia. The tradition of the pilgrimage to Mecca became a center for exchanging ideas and goods. The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to their Christian, Indian and Chinese peers who built societies from an agricultural landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their faith to China, India, South-east Asia, and the kingdoms of Western Africa and returned with new inventions. Merchants used their wealth to invest in textiles and plantations.
Aside from traders, Sufi missionaries also played a large role in the spread of Islam, by bringing their message to various regions around the world. The principal locations included:Persia, Ancient Mesopotamia, Central Asia and North Africa. Although, the mystics also had a significant influence in parts of Eastern Africa, Ancient Anatolia (Turkey), South Asia,East Asia and South-east Asia.
Many medieval Muslim thinkers pursued humanistic, rational and scientific discourses in their search for knowledge, meaning and values. A wide range of Islamic writings on love, poetry, history and philosophical theology show that medieval Islamic thought was open to the humanistic ideas of individualism, occasional secularism, skepticism and liberalism.
Religious freedom, though society was still controlled under Islamic values, helped create cross-cultural networks by attracting Muslim, Christian and Jewish intellectuals and thereby helped spawn the greatest period of philosophical creativity in the Middle Ages from the 8th to 13th centuries. Another reason the Islamic world flourished during this period was an early emphasis on freedom of speech, as summarized by al-Hashimi (a cousin of Caliph al-Ma’mun) in the following letter to one of the religious opponents he was attempting toconvert through reason:
“Bring forward all the arguments you wish and say whatever you please and speak your mind freely. Now that you are safe and free to say whatever you please appoint some arbitrator who will impartially judge between us and lean only towards the truth and be free from the empary of passion, and that arbitrator shall be Reason, whereby God makes us responsible for our own rewards and punishments. Herein I have dealt justly with you and have given you full security and am ready to accept whatever decision Reason may give for me or against me. For “There is no compulsion in religion” (Qur’an 2:256) and I have only invited you to accept our faith willingly and of your own accord and have pointed out the hideousness of your present belief. Peace be upon you and the blessings of God!”
Early proto-environmentalist treatises were written in Arabic by al-Kindi, al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan, Abd-el-latif, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, and municipal solid waste mishandling. Cordoba, al-Andalus also had the first waste containers and waste disposal facilities for litter collection.
A number of important educational and scientific institutions previously unknown in the ancient world have their origins in the early Islamic world, with the most notable examples being: the public hospital (which replaced healing temples and sleep temples) and psychiatric hospital, the public library and lending library, the academic degree-granting university, and the astronomical observatory as a research institute as opposed to a private observation post as was the case in ancient times).
The first universities which issued diplomas were the Bimaristan medical university-hospitals of the medieval Islamic world, where medical diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be practicing doctors of medicine from the 9th century. The Guinness Book of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 CE. Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in the 975 CE, offered a variety of academic degrees, including postgraduate degrees, and is often considered the first full-fledged university. The origins of the doctorate also dates back to the ijazat attadris wa ‘l-ifttd (“license to teach and issue legal opinions”) in the medieval Madrasahs which taught Islamic law.
The library of Tripoli is said to have had as many as three million books before it was destroyed by Crusaders. The number of important and original medieval Arabic works on the mathematical sciences far exceeds the combined total of medieval Latin and Greek works of comparable significance, although only a small fraction of the surviving Arabic scientific works have been studied in modern times.
“The results of the Arab scholars’ literary activities are reflected in the enormous amount of works (about some hundred thousand) and manuscripts (not less than 5 million) which were current… These figures are so imposing that only the printed epoch presents comparable materials”
A number of distinct features of the modern library were introduced in the Islamic world, where libraries not only served as a collection of manuscripts as was the case in ancient libraries, but also as a public library and lending library, a centre for the instruction and spread of sciences and ideas, a place for meetings and discussions, and sometimes as a lodging for scholars or boarding school for pupils. The concept of the library catalogue was also introduced in medieval Islamic libraries, where books were organized into specific genres and categories.
Legal institutions introduced in Islamic law include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf), the agency and aval (Hawala), and the lawsuit and medical peer review.
Another common feature during the Islamic Golden Age was the large number of Muslim polymath scholars, who were known as “Hakeems”, each of whom contributed to a variety of different fields of both religious and secular learning, comparable to the later “Renaissance Men” (such as Leonardo da Vinci) of the European Renaissance period. During the Islamic Golden Age, polymath scholars with a wide breadth of knowledge in different fields were more common than scholars who specialized in any single field of learning.
Notable medieval Muslim polymaths included al-Biruni, al-Jahiz, al-Kindi, Ibn Sina (Latinized: Avicenna), al-Idrisi, Ibn Bajjah, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Tufail, Ibn Rushd (Latinized: Averroes), al-Suyuti, Jābir ibn Hayyān, Abbas Ibn Firnas, Ibn al-Haytham (Latinized: Alhazen or Alhacen), Ibn al-Nafis, Ibn Khaldun, al-Khwarizmi, al-Masudi, al-Muqaddasi, and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī.
The Islamic Empire significantly contributed to globalization during the Islamic Golden Age, when the knowledge, trade and economies from many previously isolated regions and civilizations began integrating through contacts with Muslim (and Jewish Radhanite) explorers and traders. Their trade networks extended from the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Indian Ocean and China Sea in the east. These trade networks helped establish the Islamic Empire as the world’s leading extensive economic power throughout the 7th–13th centuries.
The Islamic Golden Age witnessed a fundamental transformation in agriculture known as the “Arab Agricultural Revolution”. Muslim traders enabled the diffusion of many crops andfarming techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world. Crops from Africa such as sorghum, crops from China such as citrus fruits, and numerous crops from India such as rice, cotton, and sugar cane, were distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally would not be able to grow these crops. Newly adopted crops combined with an increased mechanization of agriculture which led to major changes in economy, population distribution, vegetationcover, agricultural production and income, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, cooking and diet, clothing, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world.
During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, sugar production was refined and transformed into a large-scale industry, as Arabs and Berbers built the first sugar refineries and established sugar plantations. Sugar production diffused throughout the Islamic Empire from the 8th century.
Muslims introduced cash cropping and a crop rotation system in which land was cropped four or more times in a two-year period. Winter crops were followed by summer ones. In areas where plants of shorter growing season were used, such as spinach and eggplants, the land could be cropped three or more times a year. In parts of Yemen, wheat yielded two harvests a year on the same land, as did rice in Iraq. Muslims developed a scientific approach to agriculture based on three major elements; sophisticated systems of crop rotation, highly developed irrigation techniques, and the introduction of a large variety of crops which were studied and catalogued according to the season, type of land and amount of water they require.
Early forms of proto-capitalism and free markets were present in the empire time where an early market economy and early form of merchant capitalism was developed between the 8th–12th centuries, which some refer to as “Islamic capitalism”. A vigorous monetary economy was created on the basis of a widely circulated common currency (the dinar) and the integration of monetary areas that were previously independent. Business techniques and forms of business organisation employed during this time included early contracts, bills of exchange, long-distance international trade, early forms of partnership (mufawada) such as limited partnerships (mudaraba), and early forms of credit, debt, profit, loss, capital (al-mal), capital accumulation (nama al-mal), circulating capital, capital expenditure, revenue, cheques, promissory notes, trusts (waqf), savings accounts, transactional accounts, pawning, loaning, exchange rates, bankers, money changers, ledgers, deposits, assignments, the double-entry bookkeeping system, and lawsuits. Organizational enterprises independent from the state also existed in the medieval Islamic world. Many of these early proto-capitalist concepts were further advanced in medieval Europe from the 13th century onwards.
Hydropower, tidal power, and wind power were used to power mills and factories. Limited use was also made of fossil fuels such as petroleum. The industrial use of watermills in the Islamic world dates back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including early fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, sawmills, shipmills, stamp mills, steel mills sugar mills, tide mills and windmills.
By the 11th century, mills operated throughout the Islamic world, from Spain (al-Andalus) and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia. Muslim engineers also inventedcrankshafts and water turbines, employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as sources of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines. Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the Industrial Revolution.
Established industries active during this period included astronomical instruments, ceramics, chemicals, distillation technologies, clocks, glass, mechanical hydropowered and wind powered machinery, matting, mosaics, pulp and paper, perfumery, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, rope-making, shipping, shipbuilding, silk, sugar, textiles, water, weapons, and the miningof minerals such as sulphur, ammonia, lead and iron. Knowledge of these industries were later transmitted to medieval Europe, especially during the Latin translations of the 12th century. For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century by Egyptian craftsmen in Greece. The agricultural and handicraft industries also grew during this period.
The labour force in the Islamic empire were employed from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse occupations and economic activities. Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse occupations in the primary sector (as farmers for example), secondary sector (as construction workers, dyers, spinners, etc.) and tertiary sector (as investors, doctors, nurses, presidents of guilds, brokers, peddlers, lenders, scholars, etc.). Muslim women also had a monopolyover certain branches of the textile industry.
Slaves occupied an important place in the economic life of Islamic world. Large numbers of slaves were exported from eastern Africa to work in salt mines and labour-intensiveplantations; the best evidence for this is the magnitude of the Zanj revolt in Iraq in the 9th century. Slaves were also used for domestic work, military service, and civil administration.Central and Eastern European slaves were generally known as Saqaliba (i.e. Slavs), while slaves from Central Asia and the Caucasus were often known as Mamluk.
A significant number of inventions were produced by medieval Muslim engineers and inventors, such as Abbas Ibn Firnas, the Banū Mūsā, Taqi al-Din, and most notably al-Jazari.
Some of the inventions journalist Paul Vallely has stated to have come from the Islamic Golden Age include the camera obscura, coffee, soap bar, tooth paste, shampoo, distilledalcohol, uric acid, nitric acid, alembic, valve, reciprocating suction piston pump, mechanized waterclocks, quilting, surgical catgut, vertical-axle windmill, inoculation, cryptanalysis,frequency analysis, three-course meal, stained glass and quartz glass, Persian carpet, and celestial globe.
The city of Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Leaders and a major center of learning and trade in the world.
As urbanization increased, Muslim cities grew unregulated, resulting in narrow winding city streets and neighbourhoods separated by different ethnic backgrounds and religious affiliations. Suburbs lay just outside the walled city, from wealthy residential communities, to working class semi-slums. City garbage dumps were located far from the city, as were clearly defined cemeteries which were often homes for criminals. A place of prayer was found just near one of the main gates, for religious festivals and public executions. Similarly, military training grounds were found near a main gate.
Muslim cities also had advanced domestic water systems with sewers, public baths, drinking fountains, piped drinking water supplies, and widespread private and public toilet andbathing facilities.
The demographics of medieval Islamic society varied in some significant aspects from other agricultural societies, including a decline in birth rates as well as a change in life expectancy. Other traditional agrarian societies are estimated to have had an average life expectancy of 20 to 25 years, while ancient Rome and medieval Europe are estimated at 20 to 30 years. Conrad I. Lawrence estimates the average lifespan in the early Islamic Caliphate to be above 35 years for the general population, and several studies on the life spans of Islamic scholars concluded that members of this occupational group had a life expectancy between 69 and 75 years, though this longevity was not representative of the general population.
The early Islamic Empire also had the highest literacy rates among pre-modern societies, alongside the city of classical Athens in the 4th century BC, and later, China after the introduction of printing from the 10th century. One factor for the relatively high literacy rates in the early Islamic Empire was its parent-driven educational marketplace, as the state did not systematically subsidize educational services until the introduction of state funding under Nizam al-Mulk in the 11th century. Another factor was the diffusion of paper from China, which led to an efflorescence of books and written culture in Islamic society, thus papermaking technology transformed Islamic society (and later, the rest of Afro-Eurasia) from an oralto scribal culture, comparable to the later shifts from scribal to typographic culture, and from typographic culture to the Internet. Other factors include the widespread use of paperbooks in Islamic society (more so than any other previously existing society), the study and memorization of the Qur’an, flourishing commercial activity, and the emergence of theMaktab and Madrasah educational institutions.
Early scientific methods were developed in the Islamic world, where significant progress in methodology was made, especially in the works of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century, who is considered a pioneer of experimental physics, which some place in the experimental tradition of Ptolemy. Others see his use of experimentation and quantification to distinguish between competing scientific theories as an innovation in scientific method. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) wrote the Book of Optics, in which he significantly reformed the field of optics, empirically proved that vision occurred because of light rays entering the eye, and invented the camera obscura to demonstrate the physical nature of light rays.
Ibn al-Haytham has also been described as the “first scientist” for his development of the scientific method, and his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception is considered a precursor to psychophysics and experimental psychology although this is still the matter of debate.
The earliest medical peer review, a process by which a committee of physicians investigate the medical care rendered in order to determine whether accepted standards of care have been met, is found in the Ethics of the Physician written by Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi (854–931) of al-Raha in Syria. His work, as well as later Arabic medical manuals, state that a visiting physician must always make duplicate notes of a patient’s condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would review the practising physician’s notes to decide whether his/her performance have met the required standards of medical care. If their reviews were negative, the practicing physician could face a lawsuit from a maltreated patient.
The first scientific peer review, the evaluation of research findings for competence, significance and originality by qualified experts, was described later in the Medical Essays and Observations published by the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1731. The present-day scientific peer review system evolved from this 18th century process.
Ibn al-Shatir’s model for the appearances of Mercury, showing the multiplication of epicycles using the Tusi-couple, thus eliminating the Ptolemaic eccentrics and equant.
Some have referred to the achievements of the Maragha school and their predecessors and successors in astronomy as a “Maragha Revolution”, “Maragha School Revolution” or “Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance”. Advances in astronomy by the Maragha school and their predecessors and successors include the construction of the firstobservatory in Baghdad during the reign of Caliph al-Ma’mun, the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the Ptolemaic model, the development of universal astrolabes, the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, the beginning of astrophysics and celestial mechanics after Ja’far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir discovered that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same physical laws as Earth, the first elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena, the use of exacting empirical observations and experimental techniques, the discovery that the celestial spheres are not solid and that the heavens are less dense than the air by Ibn al-Haytham, the separation of natural philosophy from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham and Ibn al-Shatir, the first non-Ptolemaic models by Ibn al-Haytham andMo’ayyeduddin Urdi, the rejection of the Ptolemaic model on empirical rather than philosophical grounds by Ibn al-Shatir, the first empirical observational evidence of the Earth’s rotation by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali Qushji, and al-Birjandi’s early hypothesis on “circular inertia.”
Several Muslim astronomers also considered the possibility of the Earth’s rotation on its axis and perhaps a heliocentric solar system. It is known that the Copernican heliocentric model in Nicolaus Copernicus’ De revolutionibus employed geometrical constructions that had been developed previously by the Maragheh school, and that his arguments for the Earth’s rotation were similar to those of Nasīr al-Dīn Tūsī and Ali Qushji.
Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber) is considered a pioneer of chemistry, as he was responsible for introducing an early experimental scientific method within the field, as well as the alembic, still,retort, and the chemical processes of pure distillation, filtration, sublimation, liquefaction, crystallisation, purification, oxidisation and evaporation.
The alchemists’ claims about the transmutation of metals were rejected by al-Kindi, followed by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, Avicenna, and Ibn Khaldun. Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī stated a version of the law of conservation of mass, noting that a body of matter is able to change, but is not able to disappear. Alexander von Humboldt and Will Durant consider medieval Muslim chemists to be founders of chemistry.
An illustration of patterned Girih tiles, found in Islamic architecture dating back over five centuries ago. These featured the first quasicrystal patterns and self-similar fractal quasicrystalline tilings.
Among the achievements of Muslim mathematicians during this period include the development of algebra and algorithms by the Persian and Islamic mathematician Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, the invention of spherical trigonometry, the addition of the decimal point notation to the Arabic numerals introduced by Sind ibn Ali, the invention of all thetrigonometric functions besides sine, al-Kindi’s introduction of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis, al-Karaji’s introduction of algebraic calculus and proof by mathematical induction, the development of analytic geometry and the earliest general formula for infinitesimal and integral calculus by Ibn al-Haytham, the beginning of algebraic geometry by Omar Khayyam, the first refutations of Euclidean geometry and the parallel postulate by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, the first attempt at a non-Euclidean geometry by Sadr al-Din, the development ofsymbolic algebra by Abū al-Hasan ibn Alī al-Qalasādī, and numerous other advances in algebra, arithmetic, calculus, cryptography, geometry, number theory and trigonometry.
Islamic medicine was a genre of medical writing that was influenced by several different medical systems. The works of ancient Greek and Roman physicians Hippocrates, Dioscorides,Soranus, Celsus and Galen had a lasting impact on Islamic medicine.
Muslim physicians made many significant contributions to medicine in the fields of anatomy, experimental medicine, ophthalmology, pathology, the pharmaceutical sciences,physiology, surgery, etc. They also set up some of the earliest dedicated hospitals, including the first medical schools and psychiatric hospitals. Al-Kindi wrote the De Gradibus, in which he first demonstrated the application of quantification and mathematics to medicine and pharmacology, such as a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs and the determination in advance of the most critical days of a patient’s illness. Al-Razi (Rhazes) discovered measles and smallpox, and in his Doubts about Galen, proved Galen’s humorismfalse.
Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis) helped lay the foudations for modern surgery, with his Kitab al-Tasrif, in which he invented numerous surgical instruments, including the surgical uses ofcatgut, the ligature, surgical needle, retractor, and surgical rod.
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) helped lay the foundations for modern medicine, with The Canon of Medicine, which was responsible for the discovery of contagious disease, introduction ofquarantine to limit their spread, introduction of experimental medicine, evidence-based medicine, clinical trials, randomized controlled trials, efficacy tests, and clinical pharmacology, the first descriptions on bacteria and viral organisms, distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, contagious nature of tuberculosis, distribution of diseases by water and soil, skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, nervous ailments, use of ice to treat fevers, and separation of medicine from pharmacology.
Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) was the earliest known experimental surgeon. In the 12th century, he was responsible for introducing the experimental method into surgery, as he was the first to employ animal testing in order to experiment with surgical procedures before applying them to human patients. He also performed the first dissections and postmortem autopsies on humans as well as animals.
Ibn al-Nafis laid the foundations for circulatory physiology, as he was the first to describe the pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation, which form the basis of the circulatory system, for which he is considered “the greatest physiologist of the Middle Ages.” He also described the earliest concept of metabolism, and developed new systems of physiology and psychology to replace the Avicennian and Galenic systems, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on humorism, pulsation, bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals, esophagus, stomach, etc.
Ibn al-Lubudi rejected the theory of humorism, and discovered that the body and its preservation depend exclusively upon blood, women cannot produce sperm, the movement ofarteries are not dependent upon the movement of the heart, the heart is the first organ to form in a fetus’ body, and the bones forming the skull can grow into tumors. Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib discovered that infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms which enter the human body. Mansur ibn Ilyas drew comprehensive diagrams of the body’s structural, nervous and circulatory systems.
A page of Ibn Sahl’s manuscript showing his discovery of the law of refraction (Snell’s law).
The study of experimental physics began with Ibn al-Haytham, a pioneer of modern optics, who introduced the experimental scientific method and used it to drastically transform the understanding of light and vision in his Book of Optics, which has been ranked alongside Isaac Newton’s Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica as one of the most influential books in the history of physics, for initiating a scientific revolution in optics and visual perception.
The experimental scientific method was soon introduced into mechanics by Biruni, and early precursors to Newton’s laws of motion were discovered by several Muslim scientists. The law of inertia, known as Newton’s first law of motion, and the concept of momentum were discovered by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) and Avicenna. The proportionality between forceand acceleration, considered “the fundamental law of classical mechanics” and foreshadowing Newton’s second law of motion, was discovered by Hibat Allah Abu’l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi, while the concept of reaction, foreshadowing Newton’s third law of motion, was discovered by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace).
Theories foreshadowing Newton’s law of universal gravitation were developed by Ja’far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir, Ibn al-Haytham, and al-Khazini. Galileo Galilei’s mathematical treatment of acceleration and his concept ofimpetus was enriched by the commentaries of Avicenna and Ibn Bajjah to Aristotle’s Physics as well as the Neoplatonic tradition of Alexandria, represented by John Philoponus.
Many other advances were made by Muslim scientists in biology (anatomy, botany, evolution, physiology and zoology), the earth sciences (anthropology, cartography, geodesy,geography and geology), psychology (experimental psychology, psychiatry, psychophysics and psychotherapy), and the social sciences (demography, economics, sociology, history and historiography).
Other famous Muslim scientists during the Islamic Golden Age include al-Farabi (a polymath), Biruni (a polymath who was one of the earliest anthropologists and a pioneer of geodesy), Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (a polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (considered to be a pioneer of several social sciences such as demography, economics, cultural history, historiography and sociology), among others.
The Great Mosque of Xi’an in China was completed circa 740, and the Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq was completed in 847. The Great Mosque of Samarra combined the hypostylearchitecture of rows of columns supporting a flat base above which a huge spiraling minaret was constructed.
The Spanish Muslims began construction of the Great Mosque at Cordoba in 785 marking the beginning of Islamic architecture in Spain and Northern Africa (see Moors). The mosque is noted for its striking interior arches. Moorish architecture reached its peak with the construction of the Alhambra, the magnificent palace/fortress of Granada, with its open and breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue, and gold. The walls are decorated with stylized foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions, and arabesque design work, with walls covered in glazed tiles.
In the Sunni Muslim Ottoman Empire massive mosques with ornate tiles and calligraphy were constructed by a series of sultans including the Süleymaniye Mosque , Sultanahmet Mosque, Selimiye Mosque, and Bayezid II Mosque.
An Arabic manuscript from the 13th century depicting Socrates (Soqrāt) in discussion with his pupils.
The golden age of Islamic (and/or Muslim) art lasted from 750 to the 16th century, when ceramics, glass, metalwork, textiles, illuminated manuscripts, and woodwork flourished. Lustrous glazing was an Islamic contribution to ceramics. Islamic luster-painted ceramics were imitated by Italian potters during the Renaissance. Manuscript illumination developed into an important and greatly respected art, and portrait miniature painting flourished in Persia. Calligraphy, an essential aspect of written Arabic, developed in manuscripts and architectural decoration.
Main articles: Islamic literature, Arabic literature, Arabic epic literature, and Persian literature
The most well known work of fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales told by the Persian Queen Scheherazade. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another. All Arabian fantasy tales were often called “Arabian Nights” when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, in any version, and a number of tales are known in Europe as “Arabian Nights” despite existing in no Arabic manuscript.
This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland. Many imitations were written, especially in France. Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba. However, no medieval Arabic source has been traced for Aladdin, which was incorporated into The Book of One Thousand and One Nights by its French translator, Antoine Galland, who heard it from an Arab Syrian Christian storyteller from Aleppo. Part of its popularity may have sprung from the increasing historical and geographical knowledge, so that places of which little was known and so marvels were plausible had to be set further “long ago” or farther “far away”; this is a process that continues, and finally culminate in the fantasy world having little connection, if any, to actual times and places. A number of elements from Arabian mythology and Persian mythology are now common in modern fantasy, such as genies, bahamuts, magic carpets, magic lamps, etc. When L. Frank Baum proposed writing a modern fairy tale that banished stereotypical elements, he included the genie as well as the dwarf and the fairy as stereotypes to go.
Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran, is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history. Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as The Heroic Legend of Arslan.
A famous example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on romance (love) is Layla and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a tragic story of undying lovemuch like the later Romeo and Juliet, which was itself said to have been inspired by a Latin version of Layli and Majnun to an extent.
Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis were pioneers of the philosophical novel. Ibn Tufail wrote the first fictional Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to al-Ghazali’s The Incoherence of the Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a novel Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail’s Philosophus Autodidactus. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic feral children living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story inPhilosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming an early example of proto-science fiction.
Theologus Autodidactus, written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288), is an early example of proto-science fiction. It deals with various science fiction elements such asspontaneous generation, futurology, and the end of the world and doomsday. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and geology known in his time. His main purpose behind this science fiction work was to explain Islamic religious teachings in terms of science and philosophy through the use of fiction.
A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail’s work, Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well as German and Dutch translations. These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, regarded as the first novel in English. Philosophus Autodidactus also inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist. The story also anticipated Rousseau’s Emile: or, On Education in some ways, and is also similar to Mowgli’s story in Rudyard Kipling’s The Jungle Book as well as Tarzan’s story, in that a baby is abandoned but taken care of and fed by a mother wolf.
Dante Alighieri’s Divine Comedy, considered the greatest epic of Italian literature, derived many features of and episodes about the hereafter directly or indirectly from Arabic works on Islamic eschatology: the Hadith and the Kitab al-Miraj (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before as Liber Scale Machometi, “The Book of Muhammad’s Ladder”) concerningMuhammad’s ascension to Heaven, and the spiritual writings of Ibn Arabi. The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele’s The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a MoorishOthello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century.
A number of musical instruments used in classical music are believed to have been derived from Arabic musical instruments: the lute was derived from the al’ud, the rebec (ancestor ofviolin) from the rebab, the guitar from qitara, naker from naqareh, adufe from al-duff, alboka from al-buq, anafil from al-nafir, exabeba from al-shabbaba (flute), atabal (bass drum) from al-tabl, atambal from al-tinbal, the balaban, the castanet from kasatan, sonajas de azófar from sunuj al-sufr, the conical bore wind instruments, the xelami from the sulami orfistula (flute or musical pipe), the shawm and dulzaina from the reed instruments zamr and al-zurna, the gaita from the ghaita, rackett from iraqya or iraqiyya, tambura, sitar, the harpand zither from the qanun, geige (violin) from ghichak, and the theorbo from the tarab.
A theory on the origins of the Western Solfège musical notation suggests that it may have also had Arabic origins. It has been argued that the Solfège syllables (do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti) may have been derived from the syllables of the Arabic solmization system Durr-i-Mufassal (“Separated Pearls”) (dal, ra, mim, fa, sad, lam). This origin theory was first proposed by Meninski in his Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum (1680) and then by Laborde in his Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne (1780). See as well the gifted Ziryab (Abu l-Hasan ‘Ali Ibn Nafi‘).
Ottoman military bands are thought to be the oldest variety of military marching band in the world. Though they are often known by the Persian-derived word Mehter. The standard instruments employed by a Mehter are: Bass drum (timpani), the kettledrum (nakare), Frame drum (davul), the Cymbals (zil), Oboes and Flutes, Zurna, the “Boru” (a kind of trumpet),Triangle (instrument), and the Cevgen (a kind of stick bearing small concealed bells). These military bands inspired many Western nations and especially the Orchestra inspiring the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven.
Ibn Rushd, founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries had an impact on the rise of secular thought in Western Europe.
Arab philosophers like al-Kindi (Alkindus) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Persian philosophers like Ibn Sina (Avicenna) played a major role in preserving the works of Aristotle, whose ideas came to dominate the non-religious thought of the Christian and Muslim worlds. They would also absorb ideas from China, and India, adding to them tremendous knowledge from their own studies. Three speculative thinkers, al-Kindi, al-Farabi, and Avicenna (Ibn Sina), fused Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam, such as Kalam and Qiyas. This led to Avicenna founding his own Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands. Avicenna was also a critic of Aristotelian logic and founder of Avicennian logic, and he developed the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa, and distinguished between essence and existence.
From Spain the Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Ladino, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. The Jewish philosopherMoses Maimonides, Muslim sociologist-historian Ibn Khaldun, Carthage citizen Constantine the African who translated ancient Greek medical texts, and the PersianAl-Khwarzimi’s collation of mathematical techniques were important figures of the Golden Age.
One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was Averroes (Ibn Rushd), founder of the Averroism school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries had an impact on the rise of secular thought in Western Europe. He also developed the concept of “existence precedes essence”.
Another influential philosopher who had a significant influence on modern philosophy was Ibn Tufail. His philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, translated into Latin asPhilosophus Autodidactus in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus nurture, condition of possibility, materialism, and Molyneux’s Problem. European scholars and writers influenced by this novel include John Locke, Gottfried Leibniz, Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens, George Keith, Robert Barclay, theQuakers, and Samuel Hartlib.
Al-Ghazali also had an important influence on Jewish thinkers like Maimonidesand Christian medieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas. However, al-Ghazali also wrote a devastating critique in his The Incoherence of the Philosophers on the speculative theological works of Kindi, Farabi and Ibn Sina. The study of metaphysics declined in the Muslim world due to this critique, though Ibn Rushd (Averroes) responded strongly in his The Incoherence of the Incoherence to many of the points Ghazali raised. Nevertheless, Avicennism continued to flourish long after and Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when Mulla Sadra founded his school ofTranscendent Theosophy and developed the concept of existentialism.
Other influential Muslim philosophers include al-Jahiz, a pioneer of evolutionary thought and natural selection; Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), a pioneer of phenomenology and thephilosophy of science and a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle’s concept of place (topos); Biruni, a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn Tufail and Ibn al-Nafis, pioneers of the philosophical novel; Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi, founder of Illuminationist philosophy; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic; and Ibn Khaldun, a pioneer in the philosophy of history and social philosophy.
End of the Golden Age
After the Crusades from the West that resulted in the instability of the Islamic world during the 11th century, a new threat came from the East during the 13th century: the Mongol invasions. In 1206, Genghis Khan from Central Asia established a powerful Mongol Empire. A Mongolian ambassador to the Abbasid Leader in Baghdad is said to have been murdered, which may have been one of the reasons behind Hulagu Khan’s sack of Baghdad in 1258.
The Mongols and Turks from Central Asia conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including both China in the east and parts of the old Islamic empire and Persian IslamicKhwarezm, as well as Russia and Eastern Europe in the west, and subsequent invasions of the Levant. Later Turkic leaders, such as Timur, though he himself became a Muslim, destroyed many cities, slaughtered thousands of people and did irreparable damage to the ancient irrigation systems of Mesopotamia. On the other hand, due to the lack of a powerful leader after the Mongolian invasion and Turkish settlement, some local Turkish kingdoms appeared in the Islamic world and they were in war and fighting against each other for centuries. The most powerful kingdoms among them were the empire of Ottoman Turks, who became Sunni Muslims and the empire of Safavi Turks, who became Shia Muslims. Eventually, they invaded very wide parts of the Islamic world and entered in a competition and a series of bloody wars until the middle of 17th century.
Traditionalist Muslims at the time, including the polymath Ibn al-Nafis, believed that the Crusades and Mongol invasions were a divine punishment from God against Muslims deviating from the Sunnah. As a result, the falsafa, some of whom held ideas incompatible with the Sunnah, became targets of criticism from many traditionalist Muslims, though other traditionalists such as Ibn al-Nafis made attempts at reconciling reason with revelation and blur the line between the two. However Saladin rejected the widespread belief of divine punishment and instead blamed Muslims for committing a series of errors in their policies (regarding social stability) and on the battlefield.
Eventually, the Mongols and Turks that settled in parts of Persia, Central Asia, Russia and Anatolia converted to Islam, and as a result, the Ilkhanate, Golden Horde and Chagatai Khanates became Islamic states. In many instances, Mongols assimilated into various Muslim Iranian or Turkic peoples (for instance, one of the greatest Muslim astronomers of the 15th century, Ulugh Beg, was a grandson of Timur). By the time the Ottoman Empire rose from the ashes, the Golden Age is considered to have come to an end.
According to the traditional view of Islamic civilization, which had at the outset been creative and dynamic in dealing with issues, it began to struggle to respond to the challenges and rapid changes it faced from the 12th century onwards, towards the end of the Abbassid rule; despite a brief respite with the new Ottoman rule, the decline apparently continued until its eventual collapse and subsequent stagnation in the 20th century. Some scholars such as M. I. Sanduk believe that the declination began from around the 11th century and still continued after this. Some other scholars have come to question the traditional picture of decline, pointing to a continuing and creative scientific tradition through to the 15th and 16th centuries, with the works of Ibn al-Shatir, Ulugh Beg, Ali Kuşçu, al-Birjandi and Taqi al-Din considered noteworthy examples. This was also the case for other fields, such as medicine, notably the works of Ibn al-Nafis, Mansur ibn Ilyas and Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu; mathematics, notably the works of al-Kashi and al-Qalasadi; philosophy, notably Mulla Sadra’stranscendent theosophy; and the social sciences, notably Ibn Khaldun’s Muqaddimah (1370), which itself points out that though science was declining in Iraq, Al-Andalus andMaghreb, it continued to flourish in Persia, Syria and Egypt during his time. Nevertheless, many agree that there was still a decline in scientific activity after the 16th
Despite a number of attempts by many writers, historical and modern, none seem to agree on the causes of decline. The main views on the causes of decline comprise the following: political mismanagement after the early Caliphs (10th century onwards), foreign involvement by invading forces and colonial powers (11th century Crusades, 13th century Mongol Empire, 15th century Reconquista, 19th century European colonial empires), and the disruption to the cycle of equity based on Ibn Khaldun’s famous model of Asabiyyah (the rise and fall of civilizations) which points to the decline being mainly due to political and economic factors.
North Africa’s Islamic civilization collapsed after exhausting its resources in internal fighting and suffering devastation from the invasion of the Arab Bedouin tribes of Banu Sulaymand Banu Hilal. The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century. Plague epidemics kept returning to the Islamic world up to the 19th century. There was apparently an increasing lack of tolerance of intellectual debate and freedom of thought, with some seminaries systematically forbidding speculative metaphysics, while polemicdebates in this field appear to have been abandoned after the 14th century. A significant intellectual shift in Islamic philosophy is perhaps demonstrated by al-Ghazali’s late 11th century polemic work The Incoherence of the Philosophers, which lambasted metaphysical philosophy in favor of the primacy of Revelation, and was later criticized in The Incoherence of the Incoherence by Averroes. Institutions of science comprising Islamic universities, libraries (including the House of Wisdom), observatories, and hospitals, were later destroyed by foreign invaders like the Crusaders and particularly the Mongols, and were rarely promoted again in the devastated regions. Not only was not new publishing equipment accepted but also wide illiteracy overwhelmed the devastated lands, especially in Mesopotamia. Meanwhile in Persia, due to the Mongol invasions and the plague, the average life expectancy of the scholarly class in Persia had declined from 72 years in 1209 to 57 years by 1242. American economist Timur Kuran has argued that economic development in the Middle East lagged behind that of the West in modern times due to the limitations of Islamic partnership law and inheritance law. These laws restricted the growth of Middle Eastern enterprises, and prevented the development of corporate forms. | <urn:uuid:8721444c-880b-4bcd-9ced-ad8addac962f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://islamichistoryonline.com/islamic-golden-age/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00079-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954938 | 11,143 | 3.703125 | 4 |
27 November 1997
El Niño predicted to cause more frequent tropical cyclones in South Pacific
Tropical cyclones are predicted to be more frequent in the South Pacific islands this summer, especially in the Cook Islands and French Polynesia, according to New Zealand climate scientists Reid Basher and Xiaogu Zheng at the Wellington-based National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA). "This is another result of the strong El Niño that is currently affecting the globe's climate" says Dr. Basher.
Cyclone Martin's devastating impacts on Manihiki in the northern Cook Islands at the end of October is an early sample of what might be expected over the coming cyclone season. "This cyclone was earlier than normal and further east than normal, which fits the classic El Niño behaviour."
During the last big El Niño, in 1982-83, a record 16 cyclones occurred. "Many of these struck in the Cook Islands and French Polynesia where ordinarily none occur. The number that reached "major hurricane" strength was also higher than usual that season." In a quiet season there may be only 5 cyclones in total across the whole of the South Pacific.
"Tropical cyclones only occur in specific tropical regions, where conditions are right for their initiation and development. By altering the normal patterns of climate, the El Niño phenomenon shifts the location of these favourable conditions. In the South Pacific, the warm tropical seas and areas of cloud and rain that nurture tropical cyclones expand eastward into those areas of Polynesia that normally do not experience cyclones."
In a recent research study of twenty years of past data, Dr. Basher and Dr. Zheng calculated the average chance of a cyclone affecting each place in the region (see table below for different island groups). This showed that there were systematic shifts in the regional pattern of risk for El Niño years. "During strong El Niño events, there were markedly greater chances of cyclones affecting Tuvalu, Samoa, Tonga, Cook Islands and French Polynesia. In addition, the overall risk for the whole region was higher by 28 %."
The tropical cyclone season typically lasts about five months, starting in November and finishing in April. The worst months are January, February and March. Cyclones tend to be more frequent around Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga, but most South Pacific islands are exposed to some degree of risk and must be prepared for them.
"However, the risks while very real should not be exaggerated - the chances of any particular Pacific island town or resort being seriously affected is very small. For much of the time the damaging core of the cyclone will be over the ocean, and some cyclones will be relatively weak. For example, Fiji's Suva has remained unscathed for many years, despite numbers of cyclones affecting other parts of the country."
There is a plus side to the El Niño effect on cyclones-Melanesian countries in the far western part of the South Pacific region are likely to see fewer cyclones this season. The Solomon Islands are unlikely to have any cyclones, and Vanuatu and New Caledonia are likely to experience fewer than average. Fiji's chances remain about average (see table).
Based on 20 years of cyclone data, the annual chance of a cyclone occurring in any 100 kilometer square for the main island groups are as follows: Average for Average for years Area all years of strong El Niño Comment Solomon Islands 10 % - Reduced risk, cyclones unlikely Vanuatu & New Caledonia 60 % 40 % Reduced risk Fiji 50 % 50 % Normal risk Samoa 20 % 40 % Increased risk Southern Tonga 40 % 70 % Increased risk Southern Cook Islands 30 % 75 % Increased risk Tuvalu 5 % 25 % Greatly increased risk Tahiti, French Polynesia 15 % 50 % Greatly increased riskThe original research may be found in the paper: Basher, R E and X Zheng, 1995. Tropical cyclones in the Southwest Pacific: spatial patterns and relationships to Southern Oscillation and sea surface temperature. J. Climate, 8, 1249-1260.
For more information contact Dr. Reid Basher or Dr. Brett Mullan at NIWA, the National Institute for Water and Atmospheric Research, P.O. Box 14 901, Wellington, New Zealand. Tel: +64 4 386 0300 Fax: +64 4 386 0341
BACK to home page for Pacific ENSO Update - 4th Quarter 1997 - Vol.3 No.4 | <urn:uuid:3d6ab49a-41ef-41be-920b-e781ab685f9b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/MET/Enso/peu/update.dir/NIWA-TCPR.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00161-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919129 | 928 | 3.140625 | 3 |
15-312 Foundations of Programming Languages
Lecture 12: Data Abstraction
In this lecture we discuss data abstraction and how it must be
supported in a type system. The appropriate type-theoretic notion is
that of an existential types. Existential types are dual to universal
polymorphic types, but at the core they both incorporate parametricity.
It is parametricity that guarantees that data abstraction, the hiding
of the implementation of data types, cannot be violated.
Existential types are not directly supported in ML, but folded into
the module system. We talk about the relation between modules and
existential types and consider some examples. | <urn:uuid:eb4601b6-c84e-4b6e-8aa1-2739dd37668d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~fp/courses/15312-f02/lectures/12-abstraction.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00121-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.815818 | 142 | 2.640625 | 3 |
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Bailey, Ethel Anne. Newport during anti-slavery times. 1908.
Ind. 977.201 W359bf
Breyfogle, William. Make free: The story of the Underground Railroad. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1958.
Ind. 326 B848m
Butler, Marvin Benjamin. My story of the Civil War and the Underground Railroad. Huntington, Ind.: United Brethren Publishing Establishment, 1914. z
Ind. 973.781 B986m
Cockrum, William Monroe. History of the Underground Railroad as it was conducted by the Anti-Slavery League.
Ind. 326 C666h
Coffin, Levi. Reminiscences of an abolitionist. London: Dyer.
Ind. 923 C675r
Danforth, Mildred E. A Quaker pioneer: Laura Haviland, superintendent of the Underground. New York: Exposition Press, 1961.
Ind. 923 H388 d
Gara, Larry. The liberty line: The legend of the Underground Railroad. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1961.
Ind. 326 G212
Runyon, Paul Randolph. Delia Webster and the Underground Railroad. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1996.
Ind. 920.7 R943d
Smith, Henry Lester. The Underground Railroad in Monroe County. Bloomington, Ind.: Monroe County Historical Society, 1961.
Ind. 326 S649u
Windle, Helen Hibberd. The Underground Railroad in northern Indiana.
Ind. 326 W765u
S144 Bounell, Mrs. Emery G.
Article by Mrs. Bounell includes mentions of Underground Railroad stations in Fountain County, Montgomery County, and Warren County.
S190 Bundy, Alice Ann
Mentions routes and activity in Jennings County.
S831 Lewis, Joseph Wood
Typewritten account by Albert E. Andrews of Joseph Wood Lewis and the Underground Railroad.
S1075 Pratt, Mary
Story of the Underground Railroad in Delphi, Indiana, written by Sarah Smith Pratt.
S1134 Sabin, Marden
Dr. Marden Sabin memoirs include descriptions of the Underground Railroad in Steuben County.
S2121 Underground Railroad
Letter from William J. Hamilton mentions houses used as stations in the Gary area.
L229 Ripley County History
Information on the Underground Railroad is included in a Stephen Harding account, in an article by Mrs. Noah T. Rogers, and in an article by Rudolph Hertenstein.
L354 Beeson, Isaac W.
Reminiscences by Nathan Coggshall includes information on the Underground Railroad. Located in Box 5, Folder 8.
Indianapolis Newspapers Index, 1898-1991
Compiled by Andrea Bean Hough, August 1999
IN MH 5-6-2009 | <urn:uuid:0fce70bb-05fb-4bf7-944e-e9d834f46955> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://in.gov/library/2830.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00069-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.788837 | 626 | 2.9375 | 3 |
“If we consider ourselves, or wish to be considered by others as a United people why not adopt the measures which are characteristic of it—Act as a Nation—and support the honor & dignity of one?” —excerpt from Washington letter
Act as a Nation
On December 23, 1783, George Washington resigned his commission as commander in chief of the Continental army and returned to his home at Mount Vernon, Virginia. While intending to remain a private citizen, Washington continued to use his considerable prestige to influence the political debates of the day.
In the letter on display, written in 1785, Washington addressed important issues pending before the Virginia legislature: interstate trade, westward expansion and the establishment of Kentucky, and the Potomac River canal. He expressed his belief that the new republic needed greater unity and a stronger central government.
In 1787 Washington and others who shared these views would meet in Philadelphia for the Constitutional Convention. They would frame a more powerful federal government under which Washington became the first president. | <urn:uuid:0df14b53-69d1-4768-b0c0-c5c4ba04ef61> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://americanhistory.si.edu/documentsgallery/exhibitions/gwletter_2.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00042-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967072 | 207 | 3.859375 | 4 |
Liver Disease Information
In Your Area
1. Liver cancer is the growth and spread of unhealthy cells in the liver. Cancer that starts in the liver is primary liver cancer. Cancer that spreads to the liver from another organ is metastatic liver cancer.
2. Risk factors for primary liver cancer: About 21,000 Americans are diagnosed with primary liver cancer each year. One of the few cancers on the rise in the United States, it’s about twice as common in men than in women. Risk factors include other liver diseases, mainly cirrhosis, chronic hepatitis B, chronic hepatitis C , and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.
3. Often there are no symptoms of liver cancer. When they do occur, they may include fatigue, bloating, pain on the right side of the upper abdomen or back or shoulder, nausea, loss of appetite, weight loss, weakness, fever and jaundice.
4. Doctors often recommend regular liver cancer screenings for those at increased risk. Liver cancer may be diagnosed by a physical examination, imaging tests, blood tests or a biopsy.
5. How is liver cancer treated? It depends on the condition of the liver; size, location, and number of tumors; if the cancer has spread outside the liver, and the person’s age and overall health. Treatment options include a liver transplant, the removal of the tumor from the liver, cryosurgery (freezing and destroying cancer cells), radio frequency ablation (destroying cancer cells with heat), chemotherapy or radiation, or the use of Sorafenib (Nexavar), an oral medication for advanced cases of primary liver cancer.
6. If you think you’re at risk for liver cancer, regularly see a doctor who specializes in liver disease. Take steps to avoid other types of liver disease. And do whatever you can to avoid obesity, diabetes and alcohol consumption. | <urn:uuid:b5782d83-9f49-4379-b0e9-52e6d1d5b033> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.liverfoundation.org/education/liverlowdown/ll1113/6things/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.910798 | 389 | 3.484375 | 3 |
Republicans have proposals in both the House and the Senate to ban the Environmental Protection Agency from using the Clean Air Act to curb greenhouse gas emissions.
U.S. Rep. Fred Upton (R-Michigan) has proposed the House Energy Tax Prevention Act. His logic centers around the costs of EPA’s greenhouse gas regulations on American businesses, workers and energy consumers: “To protect jobs and fortify our energy security, we should be working to bring more power online, not shutting plants down,” he said in a statement. “We are woefully unprepared to meet our nation’s growing energy demands, yet this administration’s ‘none of the above’ energy policy will do nothing but cost jobs, make energy more expensive, and increase our dependence on foreign sources of energy.”
Today, Jackson responded to Upton’s bill in testimony before the House Energy and Commerce Committee’s Subcommittee on Energy and Power, saying: “The bill appears to be part of a broader effort in this Congress to delay, weaken, or eliminate Clean Air Act protections of the American public. I respectfully ask the members of this Committee to keep in mind that EPA’s implementation of the Clean Air Act saves millions of American children and adults from the debilitating and expensive illnesses that occur when smokestacks and tailpipes release unrestricted amounts of harmful pollution into the air we breathe.”
Jackson argues the Clean Air Act provides society with some quantifiable benefits (Note: she may not be responding directly to Upton’s bill with all of these perks. In fact, Republicans at the hearing pressed her to admit the bill in question wouldn’t affect other regulated air pollutants.). Here’s a list of 10 reasons she says Congress should keep the Clean Air Act (and the EPA’s enforcement of it) intact:
- Saving lives: Last year, air pollution restrictions authorized by the Act saved 160,000 American lives.
- Cutting health care costs: Pollution regulation prevented 100,000 hospital visits last year.
- Preventing illness: Regulations also prevented millions of cases of respiratory illness, including bronchitis and asthma.
- Enhancing productivity: Preventing illness means preventing millions of lost work days and keeping kids healthy and in school.
- Creating a clean-air industry: In 2008, environmental technologies generated $300 billion in revenue and $44 billion in exports.
- Creating regulator jobs: An analysis released yesterday by the University of Massachusetts and Ceres found updated Clean Air Act standards will create 1.5 million jobs over the next five years.
- Protecting human health: In 2007, the Supreme Court ruled that greenhouse gases count as air pollutants that pose a threat to human health and welfare, thus qualifying them to be regulated under the Clean Air Act.
- Heeding science: “The National Academy of Sciences has stated that there is a strong, credible body of evidence, based on multiple lines of research, documenting that the climate is changing and that the changes are caused in large part by human activities. Eighteen of America’s leading scientific societies have written that multiple lines of evidence show humans are changing the climate, that contrary assertions are inconsistent with an objective assessment of the vast body of peer-reviewed science, and that ongoing climate change will have broad impacts on society, including the global economy and the environment. Chairman Upton’s bill would, in its own words, repeal that scientific finding. Politicians overruling scientists on a scientific question— that would become part of this Committee’s legacy. “
- Promoting a clean-energy sector: “EPA and many of its state partners have now begun implementing safeguards under the Clean Air Act to address carbon pollution from the largest facilities when they are built or expanded. A collection of eleven electric power companies called EPA’s action a reasonable approach focusing on improving the energy efficiency of new power plants and large industrial facilities. And EPA has announced a schedule to establish uniform Clean Air Act performance standards for limiting carbon pollution at America’s power plants and oil refineries. Those standards will be developed with extensive stakeholder input, including from industry. They will reflect careful consideration of costs and will incorporate compliance flexibility. Chairman Upton’s bill would block that reasonable approach. The Small Business Majority and the Main Street Alliance have pointed out that such blocking action would have negative implications for many businesses, large and small, that have enacted new practices to reduce their carbon footprint as part of their business models. They also write that it would hamper the growth of the clean energy sector of the U.S. economy, a sector that a majority of small business owners view as essential to their ability to compete.”
- Reducing dependence on foreign oil: “Last April, EPA and the Department of Transportation completed harmonized standards under the Clean Air Act and the Energy Independence and Security Act to decrease the oil consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of Model Year 2012 through 2016 cars and light trucks sold in the U.S. Chairman Upton’s bill would block President Obama’s plan to follow up with Clean Air Act standards for cars and light trucks of Model Years 2017 through 2025. Removing the Clean Air Act from the equation would forfeit pollution reductions and oil savings on a massive scale, increasing America’s debilitating oil dependence.”
I find it interesting that her testimony increasingly hints that building an alternative clean-energy industry could offset the losses in traditional industries. After all, there are jobs and economic development in pollution controls … but can clean energy pick up where traditional energy production leaves off without driving energy costs sky high? And, moreover, are high energy costs really a deal-breaker for the U.S. economy? Moreso than climate change? | <urn:uuid:9c0d73bb-6eb6-445c-b77b-d21721827181> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.opb.org/news/blog/ecotrope/lisa-jackson-10-reasons-not-to-gut-the-clean-air-act/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00092-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94299 | 1,178 | 2.75 | 3 |
The grant supporting these Eco-Art Adventures is from the Texas General Land Office Coastal Impact Assistance Program and includes the conservation of 160 acres of Galveston's coastal barrier island habitat on West Bay.
West Bay is part of the Galveston Bay system, an estuary of national significance. The Coastal Heritage Preserve project area is one of the largest unfragmented, single-owner, undeveloped properties of its kind on Galveston Island. Located roughly midway along the length of Galveston Island, the Coastal Heritage Preserve project is a critical piece in the West Bay Corridor Initiative, a multi-agency program to protect and restore critical habitats around West Bay. These efforts have included land acquisition projects and restoration projects on the bay side of Galveston Island, stretching from Sweetwater Lake to near San Luis Pass, on the mainland from Virginia Point to Chocolate Bay, and including islands in West Bay. In addition, the project area was identified as a high priority for conservation in the West Galveston Island Greenprint.
The Coastal Heritage Preserve represents the essence of bay coastal margin on Galveston Bay, with a full suite of habitats, from open bay water to salt, brackish, intermediate and fresh marsh, tidal flats, and upland prairie. It also exhibits a mix of ecologic, conservation, recreation, historic, and aesthetic values. Its habitat value to wildlife is demonstrated by the more than 30 avian species of conservation concern have been observed at the site and the value of its estuarine marshes to aquatic species.
Biologists from the National Marine Fisheries Service, Texas Parks & Wildlife Department, and U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service have noted that the site of the proposed Coastal Heritage Preserve would protect diverse barrier habitats for plant and animal species of concern, as well as provide a unique opportunity to extend the protected status of the "emerald necklace" of these vanishing habitats on Galveston Island and around West Bay.
Furthermore, the project site was identified by the Technical Advisory Committee of the greenprinting process for West Galveston Island as among those having highest habitat protection priority because of its value for habitat, unfragmented area of undeveloped land, wetland buffers, habitat diversity, and as a salt marsh migration zone. The team that documented these values also had representation from state and federal agencies.
The project would allow for public access to view and appreciate these habitats, including educational programs that foster use of NOAA data tools and follow ocean literacy standards. The scale of the ultimate project would serve as a regional amenity, bringing a much-needed opportunity for the public to connect with Galveston Bay and the barrier island systems. This part of the barrier island offers rich biodiversity and is a great place to witness the affect of elevation changes on plant communities. These plant communities then dictate the animal community. The Coastal Heritage Preserve location is one of the most pristine places on Galveston Island to witness the changes in the flora and fauna community associated with different elevations on a barrier island. The careful management of public access opportunities will serve to increase awareness, and the stewardship it inspires, for greater conservation of these coastal and estuarine resources.
Preservation of the lands for the Coastal Heritage Preserve is envisioned as a multi-phased project, with the first phase encompassing completion of the acquisition and protection of the property. Once secured, project implementation would initially involve a combination of habitat preservation and a launching platform for public involvement kayak adventures, walking tours, and volunteer conservation initiatives. An intermediary phase could involve restoration, plus development of trails, boardwalks, viewing platforms, improved kayak access, parking, and interpretative signage. Eventually, the preserve would provide a site for a building that could house facilities for Artist Boat and the community, including laboratories, classrooms, meeting space, environmental arts gallery, dormitories for overnight stays, administrative offices. Additionally, the facility could demonstrate green building techniques that would be a model for coastal development.
The project involves multiple partners for both funding and implementation. As of 2012, Artist Boat has been approved for three grants for the project through the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, two from the Coastal Impact Assistance Program (CIAP) and one from the National Coastal Wetlands Program (also known as CWPPRA). Application for a fourth grant through the Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA) program has been submitted for the balance of the acreage. The Texas Parks & Wildlife Department submitted the CWPPRA grant application on behalf of Artist Boat. The previous landowner, Marquette Galveston Investment, Ltd., has assisted with all planning. The current landowner, the State of Texas for the Permanent School Fund, has offered to make the entire 364 acres on the bayside of Stewart Road available for conservation, and the General Land Office is a partner throughout. The Galveston Bay Foundation and Cabeza de Vaca Center, Inc. have agreed to a donation of $350,000 in value of an easement on Moore Island across Eckerts Bayou from the proposed preserve, as match for the CWPPRA grant.
Each of the grants has separate documentation and contracting steps before the grant funds become available. Grant requirements will dictate acquiring separate parcels for each of the funding sources. Surveys, appraisals, and environmental assessments will be needed for each piece of the acquisition, some with very specific requirements to protect the public interest in the use of the funds.
For more information about Artist Boat's Eco-Art Adventures at the Coastal Heritage Preserve on Settegast Road, contact Nathan Johnson at firstname.lastname@example.org or (409)770-0722. | <urn:uuid:a3a3e75d-db43-458e-9906-c081a7458319> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.artistboat.org/coastal-heritage-preserve.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00097-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928694 | 1,162 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Welcome to Lab Check©, a comprehensive introduction to scientific measurement in the high school chemistry classroom.
What is Lab Check©?
Lab Check© is a series of drill and practice activities, bell ringers, and high school laboratory experiments designed to bolster a student’s understanding of scientific measurement, including the concept of significant figures.
Do I need Lab Check©?
You will appreciate Lab Check© if…
Lab Check© is organized into a series of concept-oriented “modules.” Each module includes teacher notes, reproducible black line masters (in Microsoft Word© and Adobe PDF© format) of the student handouts, and the Lab Check© computer program.
Students type in data they’ve collected and/or calculated in the included laboratory experiments. Lab Check© then grades this data in two distinct ways. It checks data the student collected for the correct number of decimal places (i.e., did the student use the instrument correctly?). It also checks student calculations for accuracy, correct rounding, and correct number of significant figures.
Lab Check© includes a teacher menu where you can define the accuracy of certain laboratory instruments, set the points deducted for each mistake, and the total value of the experiment.
Lab Check© provides two basic types of instructor feedback. First of all, a student data table can be printed. These data tables include the student's name, period, teacher, entered data, errors and grade. Secondly, Lab Check© logs the total time it has run on each terminal and the names of the students using the program, both of which can be printed and reset at any time.
The Lab Check© program including two introductory modules with accompanying teacher notes and reproducible black line masters of the student handouts is FREE. Simply click on the download link below.
PC Version (for IBM compatible machines)
Additional modules are $20 each per stand alone computer, or, $45 each with an unlimited site license. You can buy all five (5) additional modules with an unlimited site license for a total cost of $200, a savings of $25. To purchase additional modules, contact one of the authors at the links listed below.
To order additional modules, send questions, or offer suggestions, e-mail the authors at:
Jerry Wisley (email@example.com)
Kenn Coy (firstname.lastname@example.org) | <urn:uuid:9b7dc81d-4579-47f5-913e-91c7b3aaf095> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://labcheck.tripod.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.883252 | 499 | 2.890625 | 3 |
From the lingual aspect, the gross outline of the maxillary first molar is the reverse of that from the buccal aspect (see Figures 11-5, 11-6, 11-13, and 11-14). Photographs or drawings show this only approximately, because all teeth have breadth and thickness; consequently, the perspective of two dimensions plus the human element, which enters into the technique of posing specimens and making drawings and photographs, are bound to result in some error in graphic interpretation.
The variation between the outline of the mesial surface and that of the distal surface is apparent. Because of the roundness of the distolingual cusp, the smooth curvature of the distal outline of the crown becoming confluent with the curvature of the cusp creates an arc that is almost a semicircle. The line that describes the lingual developmental groove is also confluent with the outline of the distolingual cusp, progressing mesially and cervically and ending at a point at the approximate center of the lingual surface of the crown. A shallow depression in the surface extends from the terminus of the lingual groove to the center of the lingual surface of the lingual root at the cervical line and then continues in an apical direction on the lingual root, fading out at the middle third of the root.
Figure 11-10 Maxillary right first molar, distal aspect. (Grid = 1 sq mm.)
Figure 11-11 Maxillary molar primary cusp triangle. The distolingual lobe, represented by shaded areas, becomes progressively smaller on maxillary molars, starting with the first molar, which presents the greatest development of the lobe. The plain areas, roughly triangular in outline, represent the max’llary molar primary cusp triangles.
FIGURE 11-12 Maxillary right first molar, occlusal aspect. (Grid = 1 sq mm.)
The lingual cusps are the only ones to be seen from the lingual aspect. The mesiolingual cusp is much larger, and before occlusal wear, it is always the longest cusp the tooth possesses. Its mesiodistal width is about three fifths of the mesiodistal crown diameter, with the distolingual cusp making up the remaining two fifths. The angle formed by the mesial outline of the crown and the mesial slope of the mesiolingual cusp is almost 90 degrees. An obtuse angle describes the junction of the mesial and distal slopes of this cusp.
The distolingual cusp is so spheroidal and smooth that it is difficult to describe any angulation on the mesial and distal slopes.
The lingual developmental groove starts approximately in the center of the lingual surface mesiodistally, curves sharply to the distal as it crosses between the cusps, and continues on to the occlusal surface.
The fifth cusp appears attached to the mesiolingual surface of the mesiolingual cusp. It is outlined occlusally by an irregular developmental groove, which may be described as starting in a depression of the mesiolingual line angle of the crown, extending occlusally toward the point of the mesiolingual cusp, then making an obtuse-angle turn toward the terminus of the lingual groove and fading out near the lingual groove terminus. If the fifth cusp is well developed, its cusp angle will be sharper and less obtuse than that of the mesiolingual cusp. The cusp ridge of the fifth cusp is approximately 2 mm cervical to the cusp ridge of the mesiolingual cusp (see Figure 11-5).
All three of the roots are visible from the lingual aspect, with the large lingual root making up most of the foreground. The lingual portion of the root trunk is continuous with the entire cervical portion of the crown lingually. The lingual root is conical, terminating in a bluntly rounded apex.
All of the mesial outline of the mesiobuccal root and part of its apex may be seen from this angle.
The distal outline of the distobuccal root is seen above its middle third, including all of its apical outline.
From the mesial aspect, the increased buccolingual dimensions may be observed, as well as the outlines of the cervical curvatures of the crown at the cervical third buccally and lingually, the difference in dimensions between the crown at its greatest measurement, and the distance between the cusp tips in a buccolingual direction (see Figures 11-7, 11-8, 11-13, 11-14, and 11-16).
Starting at the cervical line buccally, the outline of the crown makes a short arc buccally to its crest of curvature within the cervical third of the crown. The extent of this curvature is about 0.5 mm (see Figure 11-13). The line of the buccal surface then describes a shallow concavity immediately occlusal to the crest of curvature.The outline then becomes slightly convex as it progresses downward and inward to circumscribe the mesiobuccal cusp, ending at the tip of the cusp well within projected outlines of the root base.
If the tooth is posed so that the line of vision is at right angles to the mesial contact area, the only cusps in sight are the mesiobuccal, the mesiolingual, and the fifth cusps. The mesiobuccal root hides the distobuccal root.
The lingual outline of the crown curves outward and lingually approximately to the same extent as on the buccal side. The level of the crest of curvature is near the middle third of the crown rather than a point within the cervical third, as it is buccally.
If the fifth cusp is well developed, the lingual outline dips inward to reveal it. If it is undeveloped, the lingual outline continues from the crest of curvature as a smoothly curved arc to the tip of the mesiolingual cusp. The point of the cusp is more clearly centered within projected outlines of the root base than the tip of the mesiobuccal cusp. The mesiolingual cusp is on a line with the long axis of the lingual root.
The mesial marginal ridge, which is confluent with the mesiobuccal and mesiolingual cusp ridges, is irregular, the outline curving cervically about one fifth the crown length and centering its curvature below the center of the crown buccolingually.
Figure 11-13 Maxillary right first molar. Graph outlines of five aspects are shown. (Grid = 1 sq mm.)
The cervical line of the crown is irregular, curving occlu-sally, but as a rule not more than 1 mm at any one point. If a definite curvature is present, it reaches its maximum immediately above the contact area.
The mesial contact area is apical to the marginal ridge but closer to it than the cervical line, approximately at the junction of the middle and occlusal thirds of the crown (see Figure 11-8). It is also somewhat buccal to the center of the crown buccolingually. A shallow concavity is usually found just above the contact area on the mesial surface of the maxillary first molar. This concavity may be continued to the mesial surface of the root trunk at its cervical third.
The mesiobuccal root is broad and flattened on its mesial surface; this flattened surface often exhibits smooth flutings for part of its length. The width of this root near the crown from the buccal surface to the point of bifurcation on the root trunk is approximately two thirds of the crown measurement buccolingually at the cervical line. The buccal outline of the root extends upward and outward from the crown, ending at the blunt apex. The greatest projection on this root is usually buccal to the greatest projection of the crown. The lingual outline of the root is relatively straight from the bluntly rounded apex down to the bifurcation with the lingual root.
The level of the bifurcation is a little closer to the cervical line than is found between the roots buccally. A smooth depression congruent with the bifurcation extends occlusally and lingually almost to the cervical line directly above the mesiolingual line angle of the crown.
Figure 11-14 Maxillary right first molar.
Figure 11-15 Maxillary first molar, buccal aspect. Ten typical specimens are shown.
Figure 11-16 Maxillary first molar, mesial aspect. Ten typical specimens are shown.
The lingual root is longer than the mesial root but is narrower from this aspect. It is banana-shaped, extending lingually with its convex outline to the lingual and its concave outline to the buccal. At its middle and apical thirds, it is outside of the confines of the greatest crown projection. Although its apex is rounded, the root appears more pointed toward the end than the mesiobuccal root. | <urn:uuid:b1cd4c7c-8a32-4411-b03e-22ed59e480e4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://what-when-how.com/dental-anatomy-physiology-and-occlusion/the-permanent-maxillary-molars-dental-anatomy-physiology-and-occlusion-part-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00070-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.918491 | 1,940 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Astronomers are using NASA's Hubble Space Telescope to study auroras stunning light shows in a planet's atmosphere on the poles of the largest planet in the solar system, Jupiter. The auroras were photographed during a series of Hubble Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph far-ultraviolet-light observations taking place as NASA's Juno spacecraft approaches and enters into orbit around Jupiter. The aim of the program is to determine how Jupiter's auroras respond to changing conditions in the solar wind, a stream of charged particles emitted from the sun. Auroras are formed when charged particles in the space surrounding the planet are accelerated to high energies along the planet's magnetic field. When the particles hit the atmosphere near the magnetic poles, they cause it to glow like gases in a fluorescent light fixture. Jupiter's magnetosphere is 20,000 times stronger than Earth's. These observations will reveal how the solar system's largest and most powerful magnetosphere behaves.
Researchers have developed a new method for detecting and measuring one of the most powerful, and most mysterious, events in the Universe – a black hole being kicked out of its host galaxy and into intergalactic space at speeds as high as 5000 kilometres per second.
The method, developed by researchers from the University of Cambridge, could be used to detect and measure so-called black hole superkicks, which occur when two spinning supermassive black holes collide into each other, and the recoil of the collision is so strong that the remnant of the black hole merger is bounced out of its host galaxy entirely. Their results are reported in the journal Physical Review Letters.
Earlier this year, the LIGO Collaboration announced the first detection of gravitational waves – ripples in the fabric of spacetime – coming from the collision of two black holes, confirming a major prediction of Einstein’s general theory of relativity and marking the beginning of a new era in astronomy. As the sensitivity of the LIGO detectors is improved, even more gravitational waves are expected to be detected – the second successful detection was announced in June.
As two black holes circle each other, they emit gravitational waves in a highly asymmetric way, which leads to a net emission of momentum in some preferential direction. When the black holes finally do collide, conservation of momentum imparts a recoil, or kick, much like when a gun is fired. When the two black holes are not spinning, the speed of the recoil is around 170 kilometres per second. But when the black holes are rapidly spinning in certain orientations, the speed of the recoil can be as high as 5000 kilometres per second, easily exceeding the escape velocity of even the most massive galaxies, sending the black hole remnant resulting from the merger into intergalactic space.
The Cambridge researchers have developed a new method for detecting these kicks based on the gravitational wave signal alone, by using the Doppler Effect. The Doppler Effect is the reason that the sound of a passing car seems to lower in pitch as it gets further away. It is also widely used in astronomy: electromagnetic radiation coming from objects which are moving away from the Earth is shifted towards the red end of the spectrum, while radiation coming from objects moving closer to the Earth is shifted towards the blue end of the spectrum. Similarly, when a black hole kick has sufficient momentum, the gravitational waves it emits will be red-shifted if it is directed away from the Earth, while they will be blue-shifted if it’s directed towards the Earth.
“If we can detect a Doppler shift in a gravitational wave from the merger of two black holes, what we’re detecting is a black hole kick,” said study co-author Davide Gerosa, a PhD student from Cambridge’s Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics. “And detecting a black hole kick would mean a direct observation that gravitational waves are carrying not just energy, but linear momentum as well.”
Detecting this elusive effect requires gravitational-wave experiments capable of observing black hole mergers with very high precision. A black hole kick cannot be directly detected using current land-based gravitational wave detectors, such as those at LIGO. However, according to the researchers, the new space-based gravitational wave detector known as eLISA, funded by the European Space Agency (ESA) and due for launch in 2034, will be powerful enough to detect several of these runaway black holes. In 2015, ESA launched the LISA Pathfinder, which is successfully testing several technologies which could be used to measure gravitational waves from space.
The researchers found that the eLISA detector will be particularly well-suited to detecting black hole kicks: it will be capable of measuring kicks as small as 500 kilometres per second, as well as the much faster superkicks. Kick measurements will tell us more about the properties of black hole spins, and also provide a direct way of measuring the momentum carried by gravitational waves, which may lead to new opportunities for testing general relativity.
“When the detection of gravitational waves was announced, a new era in astronomy began, since we can now actually observe two merging black holes,” said study co-author Christopher Moore, a Cambridge PhD student who was also a member of the team which announced the detection of gravitational waves earlier this year. “We now have two ways of detecting black holes, instead of just one – it’s amazing that just a few months ago, we couldn’t say that. And with the future launch of new space-based gravitational wave detectors, we’ll be able to look at gravitational waves on a galactic, rather than a stellar, scale.”
Davide Gerosa and Christopher J. Moore. ‘Black-hole kicks as new gravitational-wave observables.’ Physical Review Letters (2016). DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.117.011101
Black holes are the most powerful gravitational force in the Universe. So what could cause them to be kicked out of their host galaxies? Cambridge researchers have developed a method for detecting elusive ‘black hole kicks.’We now have two ways of detecting black holes, instead of just one – it’s amazing that just a few months ago, we couldn’t say that.Christopher MooreSXS LensingComputer simulations motivated by GW150914
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A Neptune-sized transiting planet closely orbiting a 5–10-million-year-old star
Nature 534, 7609 (2016). doi:10.1038/nature18293
Authors: Trevor J. David, Lynne A. Hillenbrand, Erik A. Petigura, John M. Carpenter, Ian J. M. Crossfield, Sasha Hinkley, David R. Ciardi, Andrew W. Howard, Howard T. Isaacson, Ann Marie Cody, Joshua E. Schlieder, Charles A. Beichman & Scott A. Barenfeld
Theories of the formation and early evolution of planetary systems postulate that planets are born in circumstellar disks, and undergo radial migration during and after dissipation of the dust and gas disk from which they formed. The precise ages of meteorites indicate that planetesimals—the building blocks of planets—are produced within the first million years of a star’s life. Fully formed planets are frequently detected on short orbital periods around mature stars. Some theories suggest that the in situ formation of planets close to their host stars is unlikely and that the existence of such planets is therefore evidence of large-scale migration. Other theories posit that planet assembly at small orbital separations may be common. Here we report a newly born, transiting planet orbiting its star with a period of 5.4 days. The planet is 50 per cent larger than Neptune, and its mass is less than 3.6 times that of Jupiter (at 99.7 per cent confidence), with a true mass likely to be similar to that of Neptune. The star is 5–10 million years old and has a tenuous dust disk extending outward from about twice the Earth–Sun separation, in addition to the fully formed planet located at less than one-twentieth of the Earth–Sun separation.
A hot Jupiter orbiting a 2-million-year-old solar-mass T Tauri star
Nature 534, 7609 (2016). doi:10.1038/nature18305
Authors: J. F. Donati, C. Moutou, L. Malo, C. Baruteau, L. Yu, E. Hébrard, G. Hussain, S. Alencar, F. Ménard, J. Bouvier, P. Petit, M. Takami, R. Doyon & A. Collier Cameron
Hot Jupiters are giant Jupiter-like exoplanets that orbit their host stars 100 times more closely than Jupiter orbits the Sun. These planets presumably form in the outer part of the primordial disk from which both the central star and surrounding planets are born, then migrate inwards and yet avoid falling into their host star. It is, however, unclear whether this occurs early in the lives of hot Jupiters, when they are still embedded within protoplanetary disks, or later, once multiple planets are formed and interact. Although numerous hot Jupiters have been detected around mature Sun-like stars, their existence has not yet been firmly demonstrated for young stars, whose magnetic activity is so intense that it overshadows the radial velocity signal that close-in giant planets can induce. Here we report that the radial velocities of the young star V830 Tau exhibit a sine wave of period 4.93 days and semi-amplitude 75 metres per second, detected with a false-alarm probability of less than 0.03 per cent, after filtering out the magnetic activity plaguing the spectra. We find that this signal is unrelated to the 2.741-day rotation period of V830 Tau and we attribute it to the presence of a planet of mass 0.77 times that of Jupiter, orbiting at a distance of 0.057 astronomical units from the host star. Our result demonstrates that hot Jupiters can migrate inwards in less than two million years, probably as a result of planet–disk interactions.
Why ultra-powerful radio bursts are the most perplexing mystery in astronomy
Nature 534, 7609 (2016). http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/534610a
Author: Elizabeth Gibney
Strange signals are bombarding Earth. But where are they coming from?
NASA’s Juno spacecraft prepares to probe Jupiter’s mysteries
Nature 534, 7609 (2016). http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/534599a
Author: Alexandra Witze
The mission will peek through the gas giant’s swirling clouds in search of a planetary core.
As we celebrate the Fourth of July by watching dazzling fireworks shows, another kind of fireworks display is taking place in a small, nearby galaxy.
Pancake-shaped clouds not only appear in the children's book "Cloudy With a Chance of Meatballs," but also 3 billion miles away on the gaseous planet Neptune. When they appeared in July 2015, witnessed by amateur astronomers and the largest telescopes, scientists suspected that these clouds were bright companions to an unseen, dark vortex. The dark vortex is a high-pressure system where the flow of ambient air is perturbed and diverted upward over the vortex. This forms huge, lens-shaped clouds, that resemble clouds that sometimes form over mountains on Earth. | <urn:uuid:35572d52-fe4d-4abe-a229-660ebf9f3ed1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/aggregator/sources/1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00170-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.91969 | 2,431 | 4.1875 | 4 |
The engines of today are both powerful and efficient, but the engines of tomorrow need not only to be powerful and efficient but significantly greener. Our mechanical engineers are working with some of the biggest names in industry to develop future fuels (including biofuels) and new combustion system/after treatment to reduce the environmental impact of transport.
We work closely with UK industry in engine design and advanced engine technologies, helping to design the engines and fuels of the future.
Our exceptional engine research and development labs are second-to-none: Our Future Engines and Fuels Laboratory houses ten engine test bed facilities for engines, fuels and catalysts and it is here that we carry out extensive collaborative work with the likes of Jaguar Land Rover, Ford, Johnson Matthey and Shell.
The main challenge in engine development is to enhance fuel efficiency and the reduction of emissions such as nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide. Changing the way fuel is injected into the cylinder can improve both combustion and performance. Our facilities for new combustion mode (e.g. homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI)) include a glass cylinder in which it is possible to perform world-leading measurements of fuel injection and combustion.
Biodiesel can be manufactured from, for example, vegetable oil. This is used in blended fuels, the global consumption of which is about 30 billion gallons per year. Our research has helped manufacturers to understand the possible proportion of biodiesel in order to both optimise performance and reduce carbon dioxide and other regulated emissions.
- We are working with Jaguar Land Rover (JLR) to improve current and future generation engine technology, as well as on next generation gasoline direct injection (GDI) combustion technology.
- Using Birmingham research, JLR has been able to improve the flexibility of its engine technology to accept a wide range of environmentally-friendly fuels.
- With the results of our research, Johnson Matthey has been able to optimise its environmental catalyst technology. This is helping to reduce regulated and unregulated pollutant emissions, thus lessening the environmental impact.
- Shell is one of the largest purchasers and distributors of biofuels in the world. Through Raízen, a joint venture between Shell and Brazilian firm Cosan to produce ethanol from Brazilian sugar cane, it produces more than two billion litres of biofuel annually. We have helped the company to design fuels that are compatible with current engine technologies. | <urn:uuid:782cad9a-64ee-4bc0-883f-a1fc506f3007> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.birmingham.ac.uk/university/colleges/eps/research/advanced-manufacturing/future-engines.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00159-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943816 | 485 | 3.359375 | 3 |
Scientists have found a new way to date Antarctic ice that may give a clearer history behind climate change on Earth.
A 120,000 year-old piece of Antarctic ice was dated using krypton rather than carbon dating. Krypton, a noble-gas element, was found to be more reliable when it came to finding how old the ice is, although the process is extremely difficult. The findings, published this week in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, may be able to provide a more accurate picture of ancient ice ages.
"The oldest ice found in drilled cores is around 800,000 years old and with this new technique we think we can look in other regions and successfully date polar ice back as far as 1.5 million years," Christo Buizert, a researcher at Oregon State University, who is the study's lead author, said in a statement.
Reconstructing the world’s climate to 1.5 million years ago will help scientists understand how many ice ages there were and how long they lasted. The Earth is believed to have shifted in and out of ice ages every 100,000 years for the past 800,000 years. There's speculation that before that time, ice ages took place every 40,000 years. The new study may be able to confirm this theory.
"Why was there a transition from a 40,000-year cycle to a 100,000-year cycle?" Buizert said. "Some people believe a change in the level of atmospheric carbon dioxide may have played a role. That is one reason we are so anxious to find ice that will take us back further in time so we can further extend data on past carbon dioxide levels and test this hypothesis."
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Krypton dating resembles carbon dating since it measures the decay of a radioactive isotope. But unlike carbon-14 dating, krypton is a noble gas that is stable and has a half-life of about 230,000 years. Carbon dating is less reliable when it comes to ice since the isotope is produced in the ice itself by cosmic rays.
While krypton dating has been used for more than 40 years, it was difficult since Krypton-81 atoms are so few and difficult to count. It was only in 2011 when a new detector technology was developed did Kyrpton-81 dating become accessible to the larger scientific community.
The latest study used the detector along with a new Blue Ice Drill that allowed scientists to collect ice samples. Scientists used several 660-pound chunks of ice, melted them, and collected their air bubbles to krypton date them.
"The only problem is that there isn't a lot of Krypton in the air, and thus there isn't much in the ice, either. That's why we need such large samples to melt down," Buizert said. | <urn:uuid:f798c469-32c9-4933-9f72-812d096fea68> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ibtimes.com/krypton-used-date-120000-year-old-antarctic-ice-new-technique-takes-us-further-back-time-1574728 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00095-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975503 | 580 | 4.15625 | 4 |
Finding Nemo—too violent for children under age 4?
We’ve heard of the studies—the research that shows that even some G-rated movies are inappropriate and potentially harmful to young children’s health. The research is out there, but largely ignored by parents.
Victor Strasburger, MD, noted pediatrician and author of many American Academy of Pediatrics position statements regarding children, adolescents, and the media, explains that over 2,000 studies have shown that viewing media violence is a risk factor for aggressive behavior in children. “Of all the aspects of media, parents seem most concerned about sex and drugs and least concerned about violence, and yet that’s what we know the most about,” Strasburger says. “That’s what the research has been about in the past 50 years.”
What exactly have the studies shown? Michael Rich, MD, a pediatrician and director of the Center on Media and Child Health at Children’s Hospital Boston, says media violence affects people in three basic ways. First, media desensitizes people to violence, Rich says, “and the way this plays out in kids’ lives is that they’re less likely to stick up for the kid getting picked on on the playground.” Second, media violence causes an increase in general fear and anxiety. And third, it can lead to an increase in aggressive thoughts and behaviors. “This is, in fact, the smallest effect in terms of numbers,” Rich says, “but it’s relevant even if just one kid picks up a gun and goes to school with it.”
Rich, also on the faculty at the Harvard School of Health, explains that what concerns doctors and researchers is that nobody knows who is predisposed to picking up the gun—who is most vulnerable. And this is why, Rich says, all parents should be selective in what their children watch.
“It’s always been amusing to me that we want kids to ‘just say no,’” Strasburger says, “but parents need to learn to ‘just say no,’ and they don’t know how.”
Strasburger says parents should be familiar with the concept of “ratings creep”: what used to be R-rated is now PG-13; what used to be PG-13 is now PG. The ratings have crept up over time, and parents are more and more frequently exposing their children to films that are inappropriate for their age.
Kimberly Thompson, Sc.D.,Harvard professor and director of the Kids Risk Project, explains that film producers provide information about their movies to the Rating Board, and parents have to trust that the producers have done the right thing. “The government doesn’t have any regulatory authority,” Thompson says. “It’s a really different situation than it is with food, for example.”
Rich says that censorship is not the answer, however. “What I think won’t work is legislation to restrict or censor this stuff out. The first amendment is far too important to use the blunt instrument of the law,” he says. “I think what we need to do is start to respect the media we use and understand how we are changed by them. We need to embrace that and say, ‘Let’s be changed in ways we want to be changed.’”
It’s up to parents to be informed and to make appropriate decisions for their children when it comes to media, Rich says. Yet, in homes and theaters across the country, parents are consistently allowing their children to watch films and television programs with far too much violence.
Why is this happening? Rich thinks parents are overwhelmed by the task of trying to protect their kids from the media. It’s impossible to completely shelter them, and many parents, Rich speculates, simply give up altogether.
But research shows that it’s important parents don’t give up. And one manageable way to be proactive is to accept the media for what it is and help kids become critical users of media. “You can model critical viewing,” Rich says. “At the beginning, you teach them to use media in the same ways you teach them to feed themselves and brush their teeth.”
Modeling critical viewing might mean thinking aloud as you make decisions about what to watch and what not to watch, or thinking aloud after viewing a film or TV program and processing what you saw.
Strasburger agrees that critical viewing is a necessary component to navigating media successfully, but he says parents need to recognize that there are significant differences between adults and children and their ability to view media critically. A lack of understanding on parents’ part could be one reason, Strasburger says, that parents continue to expose children to media that is harmful.
“The problem is parents look at media and view it the way adults do, and they don’t understand that children are more vulnerable and don’t have the critical viewing skills that adults have,” Strasburger says. “What may seem fine for a 30-year-old is completely inappropriate for a 5-year-old.”
Web sites such as Common Sense Media can be a helpful resource to parents who want to understand what is and isn’t appropriate for their children, and why. Common Sense Media, which has an advisory board consisting of medical professionals, media professionals, and educators, enables parents to rate media in different categories and give an overall age recommendation. For instance, Finding Nemo is recommended for children ages 4 and up. Categories such as “sexy stuff,” “language,” “consumerism,” and “drinking, drugs, and smoking,” are all rated as “not an issue” for Finding Nemo, but the category of “violence and scariness” is given a rating of 3 out of 5.
Here’s what Common Sense Media has to say about Finding Nemo and “what parents need to know”:
“Parents need to know that even though there are no traditional bad guys in this movie, there are still some very scary moments, including creatures with zillions of sharp teeth, an apparent death of a major character, and many tense scenes with characters in peril. At the beginning of the movie, Marlin’s wife and all but one of their eggs are eaten by a predator. There is a little potty humor. The issue of Nemo’s stunted fin is handled exceptionally well—matter-of-factly but frankly.”
Here’s what Common Sense Media says families can talk about after viewing Finding Nemo, prompts for critical viewing discussions:
“Families can talk about how parents have to balance their wish to protect their children from being hurt (physically or emotionally) with the need to let them grow up and learn how to take care of themselves. They could talk about Nemo’s disability and about how everyone has different abilities that make some things easier for each of us to do than for most people, and some things harder. How do you know what your abilities are, and what do you do to make the most of them?”
The overall recommendation? Don’t let your past media choices for your kids influence your future choices. It’s not too late to get started using some parent-tested common sense! Visit Common Sense Media for more information. Also visit the Kids Risk Project and Rich’s recently launched Ask the Mediatrician, where you can post questions related to media and your child’s health. | <urn:uuid:735819d8-d317-4586-9572-ec55ab5cf0ce> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.education.com/magazine/article/violence-media/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00033-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966045 | 1,625 | 2.875 | 3 |
Orange traditionally is the symbolic color of fall — especially as we near Halloween.
Maple leaves turn brilliant shades of orange, traffic construction barrels glisten in the sun, and orange-clad hunters take to the woods.
Pumpkins are the orange standard-bearer of autumn, especially for Halloween displays. Those that aren’t smashed or pitched from balconies last into late November.
Smashing pumpkins (the activity — not the alternative rock band from Chicago) is associated with Hooliganism. The link is fitting, seeing as how jack-o’-lanterns originate from Irish lore.
A turnip was used for the original jack-o’-lantern, but pumpkins make a fine substitute. And they’re more colorful — even without a candle. This wonderfully vibrant, energizing color needn’t be restricted to October and November. Myriad plants sporting orange flowers, foliage and bark keep orange lovers sated throughout the year.
Although Michigan isn’t suited for orange groves like in Florida, the Calamondin orange makes a fine house plant. It grows 1 to 3 feet tall and produces flowers and little orange fruit. Calamondin orange plants happily spend summer months outdoors but need to come inside before temperatures dip into the low 40s.
Orange edibles suited for Michigan gardens include carrots, sweet potatoes, Valencia tomatoes and some peppers.
Northern gardeners with a crush on orange rely on flowers and shrubs for a permanent color fix. Most common are orange day lilies; you see them growing in gardens and in roadside ditches.
Marigolds, zinnias, specialty sunflowers, pansies, impatiens and begonias are common bedding plants available in many colors, including orange. Some hybrid quince shrubs have prolific orange blooms.
You can find a good selection of hardy fall-blooming chrysanthemums in shades of orange. They’ll return next year if properly mulched. Make sure to take them out of the pot and plant in the ground, however.
For vertical interest, black-eyed Susan vine is a great choice — specifically “Orange Wonder” and “Orange-A-Peel.” In Michigan, they’re grown as an annual vine.
Several members of the Dahlia family come in spectacular shades of orange but are not winter-hardy. They can be started indoors and planted outside in late spring but die after a killing freeze. Unless you want to dig up tubers and store over winter, treat dahlias as an annual and buy new tubers next spring.
For shady spots, orange impatiens abound.
Tuberous begonias also thrive in shade, but are under-used. They come in many colors, including orange. Flowers stand out in shady borders and in flower pots. Like dahlias, they are not cold-hardy and should be lifted in fall and stored over winter. To get a jump on the summer season, start tuberous begonias indoors in peat pots.
Other than leaves that didn’t get raked or mulched, it’s difficult to find orange in the winter landscape. Difficult, but not impossible. Several varieties of dogwood shrubs have glimpses of orange in dormant stems, including Tatarian, blood twig and red osier. Bark also might appear bright red and yellow. It’s striking against a backdrop of snow.
Dogwood bark starts to brighten as temperatures drop. As plants get older, bright colors become more drab. This is why pruning every few years is a good idea; it generates new growth for vibrant winter color.
There is a long-term, four-season alternative to Florida oranges suitable for Michigan, although the fruit isn’t nearly as appealing. The small, native tree called osage orange is a member of the mulberry family. It also is called hedge apple.
Native Americans used the tough, dense wood for bows, clubs and tool handles. Because of its density, osage orange makes lousy firewood and burns more like coal.
It produces round, yellow-green fruit a little larger than a baseball. Osage orange fruit starts to fall in September and can be thrown great distances with a good wind up.
They’re easier to throw than pumpkins and make a fine alternative to coal for Christmas stockings. | <urn:uuid:cb8cc00c-9cb3-4bdd-a18f-fe15f42b7743> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mlive.com/homeandgarden/index.ssf/2012/10/orange_is_the_color_of_the_sea.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396959.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923285 | 924 | 2.875 | 3 |
Eye Herpes (cont.)
Exams and Tests
Medical evaluation of patients with eye pain or other symptoms begins with a thorough history and physical examination. The history consists of questions documenting the symptoms in detail.
- Important questions to be asked and answered include when the pain or other symptoms started, the location of pain, the duration of pain, the characteristics of pain, anything that makes the pain better or worse, what you were doing when the symptoms began, history of contact lens use, and previous eye injuries, infections, or surgeries.
- Other important questions are whether you have allergies to medications, your current medications, past medical history, past surgeries, family history, and social history.
- The physical examination pertaining to the eyes may consist of checking your vision, visual inspection of the eye and its surrounding tissue, eye movements, visual fields (peripheral vision), and the pupil's reaction to light.
- The doctor may use instruments to get a better look at the eye.
- An ophthalmoscope, which is a special tool for visualizing the eye, is used to examine the back of the eye and to view the optic nerve and blood vessels.
- A slit lamp is a microscope with excellent illumination and magnification to view the surface of the eye in detail. This instrument allows the evaluation for possible corneal abrasions and ulcerations. It is also used to look into the anterior chamber, which is the area between the surface of the eye and the pupil.
- Eye pressure can be checked using a tonometer on the slit lamp or a device known as a Tono-Pen. These two instruments are used if glaucoma is suspected.
- The ophthalmologist may also put an anesthetic drop into your eye for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. This test helps to determine if the eye pain comes from the surface of the eye or from deeper structures in the eye. In most cases, pain can be relieved by the topical anesthetic if it originates from the surface of the eye.
- A dye called fluorescein may be put into the eye to detect abrasions, ulcerations, or any corneal defect. A special blue light will be used in conjunction with the fluorescein to check for these problems.
- Sometimes, the doctor may take a sample from the infected area to identify the virus (viral culture).
Medically Reviewed by a Doctor on 12/15/2015
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Patient Comments & Reviews
The eMedicineHealth doctors ask about Eye Herpes: | <urn:uuid:e04b7c6a-1a35-40b1-8a0a-4df31c2b1360> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.emedicinehealth.com/eye_herpes/page4_em.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915926 | 647 | 3.46875 | 3 |
for National Geographic News
They might not win many presidential elections, but mavericks are often leaders among flocks of birds, herds of beasts, and other creatures, a new swarm theory says. (See locust swarm pictures.)
A new computer model suggests animals don't need to be fast or strong to lead their swarms, only willing—or desperate enough—to break from their neighbors and go their own way.
Swarm "leaders are not necessarily the weakest and most vulnerable, but they can be," said study team member Larissa Conradt of University of Sussex in the United Kingdom.
The model suggests that a few very hungry birds in a well-fed flock of thousands can alter the flight path of their entire group simply by veering off to search for food.
Creatures that fly, swim, and run together are hardwired to stay together, Conradt explained.
Swarm living provides protection against predators and a convenient supply of potential mates, so members rarely perform actions that could tear the group apart.
"If some group members are desperate to reach their optimal destination, while others care relatively less whether they reach theirs or not, the desperate ones will lead," said Conradt, whose new research will be detailed in an upcoming issue of the journal American Naturalist.
Biologist David Sumpter studies collective animal behavior at Uppsala University in Sweden and did not participate in the research.
The new study is interesting, Sumpter said, because it shows how "a small number of highly motivated leaders can manipulate the group dynamics significantly for their own purposes but without destroying the cohesive motion of the flock."
SOURCES AND RELATED WEB SITES | <urn:uuid:a0d84875-963c-4fd7-a45b-573b967b315b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/02/090211-swarm-theory-leaders.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00082-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949517 | 345 | 3.1875 | 3 |
When word circulates that a runner has died of a heart attack, as the inexhaustible ultramarathoner Micah True did last month during a solo wilderness trail run, many people begin to wonder about the healthiness of prolonged strenuous activity.
Could marathon training and racing have damaged the heart muscle of True, 58, a lead character in the book "Born to Run"? And, conversely, shouldn't marathon training have made him — and, by extension, all runners — immune to heart disease?
Those questions, familiar to any scientist or physician who works with endurance athletes, inspired several recently published studies of the relative risks of marathon running. The science suggests that, overall, distance running and racing are extremely unlikely to kill you — except when, in rare instances, they do.
The newest of the studies, published in The American Journal of Sports Medicine, gathered publicly available data on participation in and deaths during or immediately after every known marathon race in the United States from 2000 to 2009.
The totals were, of necessity, approximate.
"Marathon-related deaths are not reportable," said Dr. Julius Cuong Pham, an associate professor of emergency medicine at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and lead author of the study.
Doctors aren't required by law to report information about deaths during marathons to the local health authorities.
So the Johns Hopkins researchers turned to news reports, which are actually a very reliable guide to such fatalities.
"It's sensational news when someone dies during a marathon," Pham said. "It makes headlines," and the coverage skews public opinions about the safety of the event. "Tens of thousands of people finish a marathon, but people hear mostly about the one who dies," he said.
"We did not set out to in any way minimize the tragedy of a single death," he said. "But we did want to determine what the record really shows."
What the researchers found was that, even as participation in marathon racing almost doubled during the past decade, to more than 473,000 finishers in 2009 from about 299,000 in 2000, the death rate remained unchanged, and vanishingly small. A total of 28 people died during or in the 24 hours immediately after a marathon, most of them men, and primarily from heart problems. (A few of the deaths were due to hyponatremia, or low blood sodium, in those who drank excessive amounts of fluid.) Those numbers translate into less than one death per 100,000 racers.
"Our data shows, quite strongly, that marathon running is safe for the vast majority of runners," Pham said, "and I suspect that, for many of the runners," the activity saved them from suffering a heart attack that might otherwise have been brought on by a sedentary, unhealthy lifestyle.
A similar epidemiological study, published in January in The New England Journal of Medicine, reached the same conclusion as Pham's report, even as its authors looked more widely at data involving fatal and nonfatal cardiac arrests in half and full marathons over the past decade. The researchers found 59 cases of cardiac arrest during a half or full marathon, 51 of them in men, and 42 of them fatal. The average age of the affected racers was 42, and an overwhelming majority of them were approaching the finish line — within the last six miles for the marathon and the final three for the half — when they fell.
"The findings reinforce what we really already knew," said Dr. Paul Thompson, the chief of cardiology at Hartford Hospital in Connecticut, an author of the study and a longtime marathon runner, "which is that you are at slightly higher risk of suffering a heart attack during a marathon" than if you were merely sitting or walking sedately during those same hours.
"But overall, running decreases the risk of heart disease" and therefore the likelihood of your suffering cardiac arrest at all.
But, Thompson continued, running does not absolutely inoculate anyone against heart disease.
"Genetics, viruses, bad habits from the past, bad diet or plain bad luck" can contribute to the development of plaques within the arteries or of heart damage like cardiomyopathy, an unnatural enlargement of the heart muscle, which running simply cannot prevent.
True was found during an autopsy to have suffered from cardiomyopathy, the origins of which are unknown, according to a medical examiner in New Mexico, where True died.
If you have any symptoms of heart problems, like chest pain, dizziness or unusual fatigue, you should, obviously, see a doctor, no matter how fit you believe yourself to be, Pham said. | <urn:uuid:8a19c2bd-4024-492a-a958-1dfd8563ca74> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://health.heraldtribune.com/2012/06/05/deaths-of-marathoners-are-extremely-rare/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970691 | 955 | 2.796875 | 3 |
For a change of pace today, we took a breather in all our activities and I decided that I would show students the video that the Discovery Channel made about the mastodons. I'm not much for using lots of longer videos...but this is a good exception. Mastodons in your Backyard explains how a family found mastodon bones which led to a local scientist along with many, many volunteers uncovered one of the most intact mastodon skeleton ever discovered. And this video helps students to see what part they are playing as Citizen Scientsts.
What was so much fun was that students began to recognize the large Ziploc bags.....
"Hey those are like the bags we had our marl in".....
"Hey are they talking about a place like where our mastodon came from?"
"Hey wait a minute,"......and they'd sort of re-group...."that IS our mastodon!!"
"No way....that's our project!!"
They were so excited. As they watched the video, they recognized many of the details and ideas they had gathered in their own research.
Here students are creating a comparison between mastodons & mammoths
Most wished they had the chance to talk to the scientists that ran the project because now they really have questions. This group wants to discuss how they compared the mastodons and the mammoths. And students appreciated how the scientists wanted to share the discovery of this mastodon with others....and in particular with classroom like ours.
One student asked me...."does that make us mini-scientists?" I think it does!!!
Once again I learn that asking students to do real work affirms them and gives them loads of motivation. Watching their faces as they saw the mastodon skeleton rise up out of the muddy dig site showed me they were 100% involved. And they could imagine doing that kind of work when they grow up. Now I just have to wait about 15 years to see if any become paleontologists. | <urn:uuid:f9c429ed-e5ab-4c75-868d-ba052ea51570> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://teachingtechie.typepad.com/learning/2011/09/mini-scientistuncovering-the-mastodon-dig.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00091-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.980049 | 406 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Artist Karen Jacobsen interprets her scientific illustrations in the Beyond the Edge of the Sea exhibit, on display at the University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Beyond the Edge of the Sea is a breath-taking exhibit consisting of hand-drawn scientific illustrations from hydrothermal vents experienced first hand by scientist Cindy Van Dover and artist Karen Jacobsen. Making its debut in Madison, WI recently, the exhibit was joined by these two collaborators and local residents reaped the benefits. After the opening reception, Van Dover and Jacobsen joined 350 middle school girls at the Expanding Your Horizons conference, an experience designed to give young women the chance to meet professional women in science. The girls used microscopes to explore and sketch microorganisms found in local lake water. Jacobsen went on to meet with art classes at the University of Wisconsin, Madison and the Madison Area Technical College where she spoke about and demonstrated science illustration techniques.
Please follow Astrobiology on Twitter. | <urn:uuid:07aa564c-f7a9-4787-ade2-32fe44d6b80e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://astrobiology.com/2012/01/beyond-the-edge-of-the-sea-in-wisconsin.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.918329 | 189 | 2.546875 | 3 |
1. A table fork.
2. (Science: anatomy, ornithology) a small fold of membrane, connecting the labia in the posterior part of the vulva. The wishbone or furculum of birds.
The frog of the hoof of the horse and allied animals.
3. (Science: surgery) An instrument used to raise and support the tongue during the cutting of the fraenum.
4. The forked piece between two adjacent fingers, to which the front and back portions are sewed.
Origin: f, dim. Of fourche. See fork. | <urn:uuid:0afd7417-dc0a-4b4d-9501-e8a137d05bc4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.biology-online.org/bodict/index.php?title=Fourchette&oldid=60532 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00168-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.835381 | 123 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Every choice we make has meaning. But sometimes we don't see it right away.
Rosh Hashanah is called the "Day of Judgment." It's a day when God looks at each of us and at the choices we made during the previous year. How did we choose to treat other people? To treat ourselves? To relate to God?
During the rest of the year we may have convinced ourselves that our choices didn't matter, but on Rosh Hashanah it becomes clear that these choices determined the kind of people we have become, and what kind of a year our next one will be.
Rosh Hashanah is a day to think about who we are now. Who we would like to become and what kind of choices we should make in the future in order to get there.
"A Tale of Two Fishes"
Dave and Ari loved it when their Bubbie would come and visit. It was fun spending time with their grandmother and listening to the interesting stories she would tell about when their dad was a boy. Every Friday morning she would bake delicious oatmeal cookies just in time to tuck them, still hot, into their lunch boxes before they went off to school.
But now after two weeks it was time for Bubbie to leave, and the brothers felt sad.
They said their good-byes, Bubbie gave them each a kiss and told them to go look in the den where they would find a surprise. They dashed off and their eyes popped when they saw two fish tanks, one with each of their names on it. Inside each tank were two sparkling orange goldfish.
"Thanks Bubbie!" they chimed out at the same time.
"Take good care of them," said Bubbie. "When I come back in the winter, I look forward to seeing how they've grown," she added with a smile.
Each tank came with an instruction booklet explaining how to take care of the fish.
Dave followed the instructions to the letter. Each day he would measure out just the right amount of fish food, and make sure the water temperature was just right.
Ari, on the other hand, didn't pay much attention to the instructions. "So what if they eat a little more," he would say as he threw a handful of food into the tank. "It'll only make 'em bigger, right?"
When the boys went away for the weekend with their parents, Dave made sure to change the water of the fish tank first so it would be fresh. Ari shrugged his shoulders and said, "Water's water. Why should I bother?"
Meanwhile, Dave's fish grew and grew. They even had baby fishes. Some were gold like the parents and some were silvery gray.
The day before Bubbie was due for her yearly Rosh Hashanah visit, Dave noticed that Ari's fish didn't look so good. There were swimming slow and kind of funny. "Hey Ari," he said to his brother "Your fish look kind of sick. Maybe you should call the man at the pet store and ask him what to do."
But Ari just said, "Oh they're probably just tired. I forgot to turn off the light in the tank last night."
By the next morning, Ari's fishes were dead.
Later that day, their Bubbie arrived. When she saw the boys she gave them a big hug. "Wow you two have gotten so big since I last saw you," she exclaimed. The boys grinned, then noticed their Bubbie taking out a package for each of them. "If your fish grew as much as you did, you'll be needing these" she added with a smile.
They hurried to open the shiny gift wrapping. The boxes inside were full of plants and decorations for the fish tanks.
"Just what I needed!" burst out Dave. "The baby fish needed some things to play with."
"And what about you Ari?" asked Bubbie.
Ari looked down, shuffled his feet, and said, "I'm sorry Bubbie, my fish died."
"Oh my, what happened?" asked their grandmother with concern.
Ari thought a minute and said," I guess I didn't take such good care of them. I thought they would be okay anyway, but I guess it wasn't enough.
"Ari," said Bubbie, "I know you feel bad about your fish. One of the reasons I gave them to you was to learn about taking care of things. Sometimes even if we choose not to, things can seem okay for a while. But sooner or later we have to face up to our choices. Just like on Rosh Hashanah, when we face the choices we made the year before. If the choices were good ones we can look forward to a sweet new year. It looks to me like you understand that now."
Ari nodded sadly.
"These gifts might not be so useful to you now, but ... " Bubbie added with a smile, "this honey cake I brought with me should taste good anyway."
Ari munched on the cake and chewed over Bubbie's words too. He realized she was right, and thought, "From now on I'm really going to try to make the right choices so my new year will be as sweet as this cake."
Q. How did Dave feel when his Bubbie brought him the toys for his fish tank?
A. He was happy that he had chosen to take care of his fish, and now could enjoy the new present.
Q. How about Ari?
A. He felt bad because he didn't have fish anymore. He wished he had taken better care of them.
Q. Do you think it's right not to take care of our things and just hope they'll be okay anyway?
A. No. We are responsible to do our best to take care of what we have. Whether our things stay nice or get ruined has a lot to do with how we choose to take care of them.
Q. Why do you think Ari didn’t take care of his fish -– a choice he later wished he hadn't made?
A. When he made his choice he didn't think about how he would feel afterwards. Instead he focused on the effort involved in taking care of the fish, and decided to go with the more comfortable option. On Rosh Hashanah we take the time to look at the choices we made in the past year, and try to learn from them.
Q. What does it mean to look at the "big picture" and plan for the "long term" instead of the "short term?"
A. It means to get an overall view of a situation and consider what is likely to give us greater meaning and pleasure. Sometimes planning for the long term means postponing instant gratification in order to reap greater rewards later.
Q. Will looking at the big picture motivate us to make better choices? Why?
A. Yes, because we will realize that sometimes the choice that feels harder right now will really make us feel happier in the end. This might be enough to make us choose what's really best for us.
Age 10 and up
Q. It has been said that "one good deed leads to another." Why do you think that is?
A. Every time we do a good deed, we accustom ourselves to doing good. So the next time a similar choice comes up, we are more likely to choose to do that good.
Q. Is there such a thing as an insignificant choice?
A. If it's just a simple matter of taste, such as choosing chocolate or vanilla ice cream, it's really not a choice but a preference, and therefore not so significant. But as for a moral choice -- i.e. how to behave or treat others -- each choice, no matter how small, is helping to form our character. This will, in turn, affect the very big choices we will make in the future. On Rosh Hashanah, God gives us a chance for a "yearly review" to see which direction our choices have been taking us, and think about whether we are "on the right track" or not. | <urn:uuid:a3339850-0997-4855-868a-ff6c2b02f015> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.aish.com/h/hh/f/The_Family_Parsha_on_Rosh_Hashanah.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00081-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.989057 | 1,687 | 2.6875 | 3 |
April 23, 2014
Humans are animals, and we live among other species of animals. From the beginning, we have always been and remain profoundly intertwined.
Over the past three decades, human-animal studies have begun to take shape through the efforts of people working in a wide range of fields from anthropology to biology, from history to fine art, from psychology to media studies.
The Routledge Handbook of Human-Animal Studies, co-edited by Susan McHugh, Ph.D., University of New England professor of English, and Garry Marvin, Ph.D., professor of human-animal studies at the University of Roehampton, presents a collection of original essays from artists and scholars who have established themselves internationally on the basis of their contributions to human-animal studies.
Humans over time have hunted wild animals; domesticated animals for food, clothing, transportation, and industry; brought them into our homes as pets; used them for scientific research; and more.
“All these are material uses of animals, but animals figure into human culture in more ways that are less tangible but no less profound,” the authors write. “In religious and other cosmological systems, animals are revered and sometimes feared, worshipped and sacrificed. Animals are to be found in virtually all traditions of art and literature … where they are used to express complex ideas about being human and being animal, and the relationships negotiated around these conditions.”
McHugh and Marvin’s new book offers a broad interpretive account of the development and configurations of the field of human-animal studies across cultures, continents, and times through 21 essays and an introduction.
In a review of the book, Philip Howell of Cambridge University writes: “A new and necessary survey of a rapidly evolving field, this marvelous collection succeeds in being inviting as well as authoritative; taking on the challenge of reconceptualising the wild, the domesticated and the feral, these exceptional essays amply demonstrate Marvin and McHugh’s conviction that the question of how we live with animals is fundamental to how we live with ourselves.”
Donna Haraway, author of When Species Meet, describes the book as “both a great read and a provocation to rendering each other capable of knowing entangled human and animal worldings better. The diverse essays are unsettling and enticing. … The Handbook layers the kind of compost that can remix the wastes and resources of post-humanism into something more nourishing for these times of excess death and still possible resilience."
Professor McHugh, who is also chair of UNE’s Department of English, has focused her research and teaching on literary, visual, and scientific stories of cross-species life.
McHugh explains that her work on the Routledge Handbook of Human-Animal Studies “is incredibly meaningful to me, and not just because it gathers together excellent original work by scholars and artists in the field that I have been committed to growing ever since graduate school. The same month that we signed the contract for the book, I was diagnosed with Hodgkin lymphoma. For me, working on this project initially provided a much-needed diversion in the chemo chair, radiation therapy, then the anxious wait for a clean bill of health. It is positively thrilling to see it in print ― and on schedule!―and I'm deeply grateful to my co-editor and our contributors for accompanying me on this incredible journey back to ordinary life. “
McHugh is also the author of Animal Stories: Narrating across Species Lines(Minnesota, 2011), as well as Dog (Reaktion, 2004), along with dozens of essays and reviews.
She serves as managing editor of the Humanities for Society & Animals, and she is a board member of the Animals & Society Institute, Animal Studies Journal, Antennae, H-Animal Discussion Network, Environment and History, and Humanimalia: A Journal of Human-Animal Interface Studies.
Also a cover model for the Routledge Handbook of Human-Animal Studies, McHugh loves life on the edge of the Great North Woods in Maine with canine companion Sabine (with McHugh on the cover) and artist Mik Morrisey (who is the cover image’s photographer). | <urn:uuid:9a6dc358-be05-4a9b-9a98-2c16236f2d99> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.une.edu/news/2014/cultural-scholar-susan-mchugh-co-edits-new-collection-human-animal-studies-essays | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938577 | 866 | 2.546875 | 3 |
It’s true; about 50 percent of the fish we eat are farmed. There is good reason for this as, one by one, the world’s commercial fisheries collapse through overfishing. According to FAO (2010), 70% of the world’s large commercial fisheries have either failed or are not far from it.
When things started to go wrong with world fisheries, fish farming was hailed as the ultimate solution. Fish could be produced cheaply and pressure removed from wild stocks. It seemed like the perfect solution to a very big problem.
Salmon are one of the world’s most desirable fishes and incredibly predictable in their behaviour. Eggs are laid at high altitude in clear freshwater mountain streams. After a stay of up to three years the young salmon move out to the sea to mature. Most are caught when they return to the same river they hatched in, which they find by following a remarkable olfactory memory.
Early versions of fish farming followed an oceanic ranching model. Hatcheries produced salmon fry for release into rivers and allowed them to mature at sea. When the hatchery-produced salmon returned to spawn after 1-5 years at sea, they literally swam back into the factory that produced them, to become tomorrow’s fresh fish. Ocean ranching still goes on but has declined or in some cases been halted due to low return rates and, more recently, regulation.
Farmed salmon differ from ocean ranched salmon in that they are not allowed to mature at sea. Instead they are kept and fed in offshore cages guaranteeing a better return rate and rapid growth.
Official FAO statistics report that commercial wild salmon catches have remained fairly steady since 1990 at about one million tonnes per year. This is in contrast to farmed salmon which has increased in the same period from about 0.6 million tonnes to well over two million tonnes.
This farm production of salmon is incredibly efficient and incredibly profitable. However, as lead researcher Prof Matt Gage from the University of East Anglia’s School of Biological Sciences has said, “Around 95% of all salmon in existence are farmed, and domestication has made them very different to wild populations” (Yeates et al. 2014). Which means that farmed salmon have the potential to genetically swamp the wild stocks.
On the face of it this didn’t seem like a problem. Because salmon return to their original stream, each stream has its own genetic type or stock that has evolved to meet the specific conditions of that river system. Norway is home to the world’s most varied wild salmon stocks, with genetically distinct groups found in the country’s 452 different wild salmon rivers. But since 1971, Norwegian wild salmon stocks have diminished by roughly 80 per cent. Ten percent of that country’s salmon rivers have lost their populations entirely.
Explaining the crash of wild salmon populations
Back in 1971, aquaculture scientists started scouting 40 of Norway’s best wild salmon rivers to find the ultimate genetic combination for farming. These “designer” fish, selected for their ability to grow rapidly and use food efficiently, formed the breeding lines that by 2007 would, some 10 salmon generations later, support a US$3 billion Norwegian industry. Salmon farming had become a machine for printing money.
The future seemed to be bright. Salmon stocks were flourishing and hatcheries were producing well over 170 million “designer” salmon per year. But not all followed the rules. In 2007 alone, 450,000 Norwegian salmon escaped their destiny with the processing machines and this leakage of hatchery fish into wild stocks has been going on for 40 years. At the same time an estimated 470,000 wild Atlantic salmon were using the same rivers and breeding freely with the farmed strains.
In 2006, researchers Christian Roberge and Louis Bernatchez found evidence that farmed salmon had been evolving differently to wild stocks. These findings finally provided the necessary support for the suspicion that farm escapees could hybridize with wild fish and speed their decline (Roberge et al. 2006).
Many Norwegian rivers nowadays have as much as 50% hatchery salmon mixed into the returning catch. Because these hatchery fish are selected to grow faster, are aggressive, and are not as clever at avoiding predators as wild stocks, there is grave concern that interbreeding is reducing the fitness of wild salmon.
Jennifer Ford and Ransom Myers followed the survival of wild salmon in five regions around the world (Ford and Myers 2008). They found that exposure to hatchery-bred populations greatly reduced their success. Wild populations experienced a reduction in abundance of more than 50%, seriously compromising their stocks.
In 2008 US Secretary of Commerce Carlos M. Gutierrez declared a commercial fishery failure for the west coast salmon due to historically low numbers triggered by environmental conditions (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2008). Hundreds of thousands of Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) typically return to the Sacramento River every year to spawn. At the time of the collapse, scientists estimate that fewer than 60,000 adult Chinook made it back to the Sacramento River. The fishery was closed until it could recover.
By 2012 and following the fishery failure, scientists had found that only about 10 percent of Chinook salmon spawning in California’s Mokelumne River were wild stock. The wild fish had been ‘over-run’ by hungrier and faster growing hatchery fish and were now heading for extinction. Published in the journal, PLoS ONE (Johnson, et al. 2012), the study said that there were no longer enough wild fish to maintain the population.
A 2009 report from Oregon State University researchers found that steelhead trout (a close relative of salmon) were now so genetically impaired that they were unable to reproduce enough to survive (see Araki et al 2007). It was only the huge hatchery output of young fish that kept ‘topping-up’ the stocks and giving the impression that all was well .
We have been flooding the rivers and oceans with voracious, fast growing fish that rob wild stocks of food and deplete their numbers. But the hatchery fish depend on us to make up for their weaknesses and inability to maintain their own abundance.
This is fine for making money. But the day we close down a hatchery the salmon in that river may be lost forever. They aren’t natural; like chickens, we have “designed” them and they can no longer exist without our continuing involvement.
There may one day be a solution. A project carried out at the Norwegian School of Veterinary Science and the Institute of Marine Research looked at the use of sterile salmon in aquaculture to prevent the disastrous interbreeding of hatchery salmon and wild salmon. By producing triploid fish for the farms, escapees are thought to be rendered sterile. But disappointingly for the project, researchers found deformities and reduced temperature tolerance made the fish less suitable for farming. This solution is not just around the corner.
And now what’s next for salmon?
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is reviewing the first genetically engineered (GE) animal for human consumption. And it’s a salmon. Produced by AquaBounty, this transgenic fish adds genetic material from a pacific Chinook salmon and an eelpout (Zoarces americanus) to cause Atlantic salmon to greatly overproduce its own growth hormones. The new fish will grow two to six times faster during winter than wild stock and be ready to harvest at an earlier age.
By November 2013, Canada had announced that it would support the export of AquaBounty’s GE eggs to Panama. The decision marked the first time any government had given the go-ahead to commercial scale production involving a GE food animal. The FDA has yet to rule on the GE fish.
To date AquaBounty has spent about $60 million trying to coax the FDA and public into accepting their product. Within the last year, supermarket chains including Whole Foods, Kroger, Safeway, Aldi, and Trader Joe’s have said they will not stock the GE salmon.
What we must keep in mind is that this animal has never existed before; it is new to the planet; we made it. We really have no idea of what it will do when we lift it off the ‘operating table’.
The FDA states that highly secure facilities will prevent GE salmon from escaping and affecting natural ecosystems. We are told that they won’t be able to breed because they are all going to be females; each and every one of them. The GE salmon will also be made infertile to prevent breeding with natural stock should some fish escape. (Actually it’s reportedly 99.7% infertile which means thousands of breeding fish out of the millions produced).
The future of the wild salmon stocks couldn’t be bleaker. Norway is losing half a million “designer” salmon a year from ‘secure’ farms, wild stocks in Europe and the US are collapsing, yet this new fish supposedly can’t escape and even if it does, none of the millions of fish AquaBounty produces will interbreed with wild fish.
Craig Altier, a member of the FDA’s Veterinary Medicine Advisory Committee and an associate professor at the College of Veterinary Medicine at Cornell University said, “We need to treat these (GE) fish as we would a potentially dangerous medicine or pharmaceutical, and apply all of the same security measures to its production and transport.” (1)
Fredrik Sundström (1 September, 2009) at the Department of Zoology, University of Gothenburg, Sweden says, “If transgenic fish become established in natural stocks they would be able to out-compete the natural breeds”. His work shows that AquaBounty fish would have a considerably greater impact on the natural environment than the hatchery-reared non-GE fish that are already wrecking havoc on wild stocks.
In itself, increasing the production of salmon is good for people and the economy. But it hasn’t so far been good for the environment. Because we have decided not to let nature do the ‘selecting’, the salmon we have been breeding are weak and dependent. They pose a real threat to the existence of some of the world’s most valuable fish. With the new AquaBounty GE salmon we will move further into uncharted waters; waters that soon may be filled only with salmon unable to exist without us.
Gerry Goeden is a Malaysian based marine ecologist, Research Fellow and Advisor to the National University of Malaysia, and marine consultant to the Andaman Resort, Langkawi.
(1) There are a number of other transgenic fish awaiting approval for commercial use including trout (Devlin RF et al. (2001)), tilapia (Rahman MA et al. (2001)), and zebrafish (Nebert DW et al. (2002)).
Araki H, Cooper B, Blouin MS (2007) Genetic effects of captive breeding cause a rapid, cumulative fitness decline in the wild. Science 318:100–103.
Devlin RF et al. (2001) “Growth of domesticated transgenic fish”. Nature 409, 781–782
FAO (2010) State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA) – SOFIA 2010. FAO Fisheries Department
Ford JS and Myers RA (2008) A global assessment of salmon aquaculture impacts on wild salmonids. PLoS Biol 6(2):e33.DOI:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060033
Johnson RC, et al. (2012). Managed Metapopulations: Do Salmon Hatchery ‘Sources’ Lead to In-River ‘Sinks’ in Conservation? PLoS ONE, 2012; 7 (2): e28880 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0028880 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2 May, 2008).
“Fishery failure declared for west coast salmon fishery.” Science Daily Nebert DW et al. (2002)
“Use of Reporter Genes and Vertebrate DNA Motifs in Transgenic Zebrafish as Sentinels for Assessing Aquatic Pollution”. Environmental Health Perspectives 110(1): A15 | January 2002
Norwegian School of Veterinary Science (12 December, 2013). “Sterile salmon-reducing environmental impact of farm escapees.” Science Daily Oregon State University (13 June 2009). “Hatchery Fish May Hurt Efforts To Sustain Wild Salmon Runs.” Science Daily.
Rahman MA et al. (2001) “Growth and nutritional trials on transgenic Nile tilapia containing an exogenous fish growth hormone gene”. Journal of Fish Biology 59(1):62–78
Roberge, C. Einum, H. Guderley, L. Bernatchez (2006) Rapid parallel evolutionary changes of gene transcription profiles in farmed Atlantic salmon. Molecular Ecology 15: 9–20
Yeates SE et al. (2014) Assessing risks of invasion through gamete performance: farm Atlantic salmon sperm and eggs show equivalence in function, fertility, compatibility and competitiveness to wild Atlantic salmon. Evolutionary Applications, DOI:10.1111/eva. 12148 University of Gothenburg (1 September 2009). “Risks Involved With Transgenic Fish.” ScienceDaily.
This article originally appeared on Independent Science News. | <urn:uuid:78904cf9-2f97-4b3f-ba0a-bc15e94d38c3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.counterpunch.org/2014/05/13/what-will-the-world-inherit-from-ge-salmon/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00166-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933838 | 2,834 | 3.390625 | 3 |
Comment: 05:15 - 06:03 (00:48)
Source: Annenberg/CPB Resources - Earth Revealed - 17. Sedimentary Rocks: The Key to Past Environments
Keywords: "Dee Trent", "sedimentary rock", "clastic sediment", deposition, water, river, mountain, canyon, valley, "coarse grained sediment", "fine grained sediment", sandstone, siltstone, ocean, sand, shoreline, mud, clay
Our transcription: Deposition typically occurs wherever there's a slowing of the running water.
A good example would be at the base of a steep mountain range, where the rivers are coming out of a deep canyon into a flat valley.
Now, the kinds of materials that would be formed there would be very coarse grained.
The further away you get from the front of the mountain range, the finer the grained is the sediment being carried.
Like consequently you would get finer grained sandstones or siltstones further away.
The same thing happens in an ocean.
Where a river enters the ocean, the first things that drop out are the course grained materials, generally sand size material.
Further out to sea there will be fine grained material.
Well, the sands are usually found on the coast shoreline areas, where the muds and the clays would be further offshore.
Geology School Keywords | <urn:uuid:d1662057-fabe-41f8-aadf-f7ad8782fa4b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/infobank/programs/html/school/moviepage/16.01.07.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.898117 | 293 | 3.890625 | 4 |
Why is having a Holocaust Education & Resource Center important?
Click here to hear what people have to say..
The Sandra Bornstein Holocaust Education Center serves to bear witness to the Holocaust and to honor those who perished. We strive to reduce prejudice against all minorities by teaching our community, especially its youth, about the experience of the Jews, and of the suffering of other peoples because of bigotry.
Our facility houses a library, artifacts from the era, an audio-visual collection, and a memorial garden. Materials are available for check-out by teachers, students and group leaders, and our facility is open to the public. Our speakers present to area schools, and survivors of the Holocaust share their personal experiences with students. We also offer workshops for educators.
We are pleased to offer you these lovely notecards (blank inside) with envelopes in packages of 10 for $10 plus $2 for shipping.
Please contact May-Ronny Zeidman, May@BornsteinHolocaustCenter.org
or Paula Olivieri, Paula@BornsteinHolocaustCenter.org
For additional information, or to schedule an event, please call us at 401.453.7860. | <urn:uuid:a948d55e-6699-4df3-bbc0-1ffe1334f045> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hercri.org/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00004-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930454 | 241 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Quan"ti*ty (?), n.; pl. Quantities (#). [F. quantite, L. quantitas, fr. quantus bow great, how much, akin to quam bow, E. how, who. See Who.]
The attribute of being so much, and not more or less; the property of being measurable, or capable of increase and decrease, multiplication and division; greatness; and more concretely, that which answers the question "How much?"; measure in regard to bulk or amount; determinate or comparative dimensions; measure; amount; bulk; extent; size. Hence, in specific uses:
The extent or extension of a general conception, that is, the number of species or individuals to which it may be applied; also, its content or comprehension, that is, the number of its constituent qualities, attributes, or relations.
The measure of a syllable; that which determines the time in which it is pronounced; as, the long or short quantity of a vowel or syllable.
The relative duration of a tone.
That which can be increased, diminished, or measured; especially (Math.), anything to which mathematical processes are applicable.
⇒ Quantity is discrete when it is applied to separate objects, as in number; continuous, when the parts are connected, either in succession, as in time, motion, etc., or in extension, as by the dimensions of space, viz., length, breadth, and thickness.
A determinate or estimated amount; a sum or bulk; a certain portion or part; sometimes, a considerable amount; a large portion, bulk, or sum; as, a medicine taken in quantities, that is, in large quantities.
The quantity of extensive and curious information which he had picked up during many months of desultory, but not unprofitable, study.
Quantity of estate (Law), its time of continuance, or degree of interest, as in fee, for life, or for years. Wharton (Law Dict. ) --
Quantity of matter, in a body, its mass, as determined by its weight, or by its momentum under a given velocity. --
Quantity of motion (Mech.), in a body, the relative amount of its motion, as measured by its momentum, varying as the product of mass and velocity. --
Known quantities (Math.), quantities whose values are given. --
Unknown quantities (Math.), quantities whose values are sought.
© Webster 1913 | <urn:uuid:630792e9-413c-4daa-a54a-8615ecc63f01> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://everything2.com/title/quantity | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00040-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930583 | 509 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Physics - Professor
(Background: Historic Dyer Observatory at Vanderbilt University)
- Iranian & Hispanic heritage
- Attended US Naval Academy for a year
- Active in science outreach
- Tried Theatre while at UC Berkeley
Advice for Students
- Discover your passion!
- Use your ideas to innovate science!
- Challenge yourself!
Keivan in front of the Gemini South Observatory in the Chilean Andes.
Keivan at the Blanco telescope at the Cerro Toloto InterAmerican Observatory in Chile.
The End of Astronaut Dreams
Keivan was always fascinated with outer space and he even wanted to become an astronaut so he could study space by traveling into it. By the end of high school, he decided that his chances of becoming an astronaut and actually going up into space were slim.
“I thought if I couldn’t go up into space, I would choose a profession that allows me to look up at the stars and ask the same kind of questions,” says Keivan.
Using PhysicsLight: Solving the Mysteries of Space
As a researcher, Keivan uses what he has learned about the physics of light to try to answer some of the many unanswered questions about the Universe.
“All the information we have about the Universe, with the exception of the moon and Mars – which people have actually visited or sent probes to – comes to us in the form of light that we receive from different parts of the Universe,” says Keivan.
More specifically, he’s studying thousands of stars like our own Sun to find planets – called exoplanets – that might be orbiting them. To look for these exoplanets, “we use sensitive and precise detectors on medium-sized telescopes to measure the tiny shift in a star’s light spectrum caused by the gravitational tug of a planet orbiting it,” Keivan explains.
The goal of this study is to understand how common these other worlds are and how they form and evolve. The fact that hundreds of exoplanets have been discovered over the past fifteen years has huge implications on humanity’s perspective on our place in the Universe.
Keivan’s research has taken him across the globe from Hawaii to South Africa. In South Africa, Keivan and his research team built their own telescope that could survey the stars visible only from the southern hemisphere. “Having the opportunity to visit far-off places is one of the really exciting and fun aspects of being an astronomer, and South Africa is such a beautiful and special place to visit and work,” says Keivan.
Diversifying Physics and Creating Opportunities
Not only is Keivan committed to teaching and doing research, but he is also involved in numerous programs to encourage minorities to become scientists. One such program is a program where he helps middle and high school students build their own telescopes. In addition, he is co-director of the Fisk-Vanderbilt Masters-to-PhD Bridge Program, a program designed to prepare undergraduate students for doctorate degrees in the physical or biomedical sciences.
“I believe that we will only achieve our full measure of potential and promise when we include as much of humanity as possible, and when the face of science resembles the face of humanity,” says Keivan.
Advice for StudentsThink Creatively and Try New Things
It might be surprising to find that physicists can be very creative. “We often think of creativity as being something that artists or musicians do. But the best scientists are really wonderfully creative people – thinking up big new ideas, inventing new techniques, tying together experimental evidence and theories in new ways – and it is one of the most fulfilling parts of the job to dream big and constantly try out new ideas,” says Keivan.
Chase After What You Love
Sometimes it can be difficult to do what you love, especially when your family doesn’t understand much about it or it diverges from the traditional career paths in the family. Keivan’s family couldn’t always relate to his work because it was so different from their own. Regardless, they always supported him.
“My parents really just wanted to know that I was passionate about what I was doing and I felt I was making a real contribution to the world, and so that helped me feel like I was truly pursuing my calling,” says Keivan.
Anything Worthwhile Takes Hard Work
Pursuing your dreams and finding what you’re passionate about takes time. Studying physics takes a lot of dedication and commitment. “Becoming a physicist isn’t easy, but nothing worthwhile is easy. If this is your calling, you have a responsibility to answer the call,” says Keivan. | <urn:uuid:2e3b4945-c64b-4e6c-98da-2c34365dbee8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.aps.org/careers/physicists/profiles/stassun.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00185-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961983 | 982 | 2.71875 | 3 |
LOS ANGELES− Building on previous evidence supporting the theory that the pathophysiology of Crohn's Disease is altered by genetic variation, recent studies have found that the combination of immune signals given by three variants of a single candidate gene affects the severity of the disease, particularly among Ashkenazi Jews. The findings, presented at the annual meeting of the American Gastroenterological Association, were reported by researchers from Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, the University of Washington and Mount Sinai School of Medicine.
Crohn's Disease is an inflammatory bowel disease that causes inflammation or ulceration of the gastrointestinal tract and can sometimes run in families. While the cause is unknown, many professionals believe that the body's immune system may overreact to normal intestinal bacteria or that disease-causing bacteria and viruses may play a role in triggering the condition.
The recent study, funded by the National Institutes of Health, shows the effect of one particular gene − a Crohn's Disease candidate gene named TLR 5 − on both Jews and non-Jews with the disease.
It is estimated that American Jews are three times more likely to develop Crohn's Disease than the population as a whole. Approximately 80 percent of the six million Jews in the United States are Ashkenazi Jews, an ethnic group whose ancestors are from eastern and central Europe,
As Jerome I. Rotter, M.D., first author of the study, director of research and co-director of the Medical Genetics Institute at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center explained, the innate immune system senses micro-organisms and pathogens using a family of proteins known as the Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs). This recognition activates both the innate and adaptive immune system, with each TLR recognizing a specific pattern of microbial components.
The aim of the study was to investigate three TLR5 gene variants and their relationship to CrPage: 1 2 Related medicine news :1
Contact: Sandy Van
Cedars-Sinai Medical Center
. Immune responses in trachoma, and more2
. Immune system police learn early and sometimes badly3
. Immune culprit in malaria-associated anemia4
. Immune system response to viral DNA is unique5
. Immune therapy could treat leukemias, autoimmune diseases, transplant rejection6
. Immune factor GM-CSF significantly improves Crohns disease symptoms7
. Immune system lab model overcomes ethical limits on human hematopoietic stem cells studies8
. Study says normal but out-of-control enzyme may be culprit that signals some cells to become cancer9
. Targeted cancer drugs may work by disrupting balance of cellular signals10
. Newly discovered behavior in cancer cells signals dangerous metastasis11
. Nanowire arrays can detect signals along individual neurons | <urn:uuid:d4e09b3b-a526-4833-a4af-e9cfdfa9fba3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://news.bio-medicine.org/medicine-news-3/Immune-signals-of-variations-of-a-single-gene-linked-to-more-severe-Crohns-disease-4625-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.914639 | 575 | 3.25 | 3 |
HUET DE LA VALINIÈRE, PIERRE, Roman Catholic priest and Sulpician; baptized 10 Jan. 1732 in Varades, France, son of Charles Huet de La Valinière and Olive Arnaud; d. 29 June 1806 in L’Assomption, Lower Canada.
Pierre Huet de La Valinière entered the Grand Séminaire de Nantes in November 1752. Once he had become a subdeacon and therefore attached to his diocese, he received permission from his bishop to join the Sulpicians, a step he took after staying for a time at the Séminaire de Saint-Sulpice in Paris. At the request of his superior general, Jean Couturier, La Valinière sailed for New France, where he arrived on 9 Sept. 1754. He completed his training for the priesthood with the Sulpicians in Montreal. Upon his ordination by Bishop Henri-Marie Dubreil* de Pontbriand on 15 June 1755, he was initiated into ministry in Notre-Dame parish in Montreal, among the Iroquois at the Sulpician mission of Lac-des-Deux-Montagnes (Oka), and at the Hôpital Général of Montreal, working in all three places with other Sulpicians. He was named parish priest of Saint-Joseph, at Rivières-des-Prairies (Montreal), in 1759, and of Saint-Henri-de-Mascouche (Mascouche) in 1766. Three years later he was transferred to the parish of Saint-Sulpice, near Montreal, where he had responsibility also for Saint-Antoine at Lavaltrie. La Valinière next served as parish priest of Saint-Enfant-Jésus, at Pointe-aux-Trembles (Montreal), in 1773; the following year he replaced his colleague Jacques Degeay* at L’Assomption.
Meanwhile New France had been conquered by the British. The gradual extinction of the religious communities had been the subject of a royal instruction, and the Jesuits, Recollets, and even the Sulpicians found this policy hard to accept. It is therefore scarcely surprising that some priests among them were strongly opposed to the new political régime: the Jesuits Joseph Huguet*, Bernard Well, and Pierre-René Floquet*, the Recollet Claude Carpentier, and the ex-Recollet Eustache Chartier* de Lotbinière. La Valinière is believed to have had similar leanings, for in 1771, not long after his arrival in the parish of Saint-Sulpice, he was accused of disloyalty to the British authorities. Although Étienne Montgolfier*, who was both his superior and vicar general of the District of Montreal, had in 1768 already lamented his colleague’s “immoderate conduct” and “fierce frame of mind” even towards Bishop Briand*, he had said that La Valinière had convinced him of the falsity of such allegations and he was pleased that the priest “said the prayers . . . usual for the king.” Montgolfier succeeded in stopping the legal action launched against La Valinière by justice of the peace Gordon of Saint-Sulpice, who had the support of the seigneur of Berthier, James Cuthbert*.
The American invasion of 1775 and the occupation of Montreal that November caused a variety of reactions with respect to the British government [see Benedict Arnold; Richard Montgomery*]. A large part of the Canadian nobility and bourgeoisie, as well as most of the Catholic clergy, came down in favour of defending Canada; however, on the whole the people remained neutral, and a majority of the English-speaking merchants of Montreal and Quebec heartily welcomed the revolutionaries. As for La Valinière, those who doubted his loyalty had reason to be suspicious. Writing from L’Assomption to his superior, Montgolfier, he wanted to know why, since God had declared for the invaders, “at least for a while,” the clergy should not themselves follow suit. For one thing, many of his parishioners were joining the rebels, having been persuaded to do so by Thomas Walker*, a Montreal merchant and justice of the peace who owned a local farm and who ardently supported the Americans. Worse still, when La Valinière learned that Jean-de-Dieu-François Robert and Charles-François Lemaire de Saint-Germain, the parish priests of Saint-Sulpice and Saint-Antoine at Lavaltrie, had been arrested by the invaders, taken to Sorel, and threatened with deportation for having declared too openly their loyalty to King George III, he went to see the prisoners and in some obscure way obtained Robert’s release. To his detractors this action was proof that he maintained good relations with the revolutionaries and their supporters.
In September 1776, when the Americans had gone home and Governor Sir Guy Carleton was restoring order in the province, La Valinière was severely reprimanded by Montgolfier. The superior reproached him with having compromised the Sulpicians’ honour, insisting that he deserved to be laid under an interdict and indeed sent back to France. La Valinière was not impressed: to be called a Bostonnais did not distress him in the least. First he declared to Bishop Briand that he had “done as much for the king’s service as any priest in the province.” He had often preached obedience to the king, although each time there had been disapproving murmurs from his congregation; he had warned the governor of the movements of Walker and his supporters; he had urged his own servant to enlist in the royal garrison; he had refused the sacraments to those supporting the rebels. On the other hand he had restrained royalist passions when hostilities had ended, in order to avert pillage and acts of vengeance. Hence his nickname Bostonnais. To his colleague Gabriel-Jean Brassier*, the bursar of the Sulpician seminary in Montreal, he specifically stated that his contact with pro-American parishioners had come in the course of his pastoral duties. It was part of a priest’s calling, he added, “to love the sheep of his flock, no matter how errant they may be, as long as he sees a prospect of retrieving them.” Montgolfier, Briand, and Carleton did not believe in his innocence, however. La Valinière went to Quebec to see Briand and tried in vain to refute the slanders that were being spread about him. The bishop offered him the choice of returning to France, retiring to the Sulpician seminary in Montreal, or becoming a parish priest in the Quebec district. La Valinière chose the last option. When he delayed going to his new charge of Saint-Roch-des-Aulnaies, Briand warned him that he would lose all his powers as a priest if he were not there by the end of January 1777 and told him “not to seek to justify himself or cause any scandal.”
However, a petition was already being circulated at L’Assomption. It soon reached Bishop Briand, bearing the signatures of 575 men who claimed they were joined by their wives, their children, and people from the neighbouring parishes. They had constantly witnessed La Valinière’s devotion to the king and to his ministry, and they considered it harmful that the bishop and the governor had been deceived “by two or three black sheep who never listened to their pastor’s voice.” They recalled his patience in instructing all his parishioners, although in so doing he acquired as many enemies as he won over people led astray by the rebels. La Valinière had merely preached charity to all and so had led some people to heap countless insults upon him. They were sorry to see these people succeed in their plan to oust the parish priest. Bishop Briand admitted that the content of the petition had greatly reduced the impact of the false statements about the priest’s loyalty to the king that had been circulating. Addressing the parishioners of L’Assomption, the bishop declared: “What causes me to remove him from your parish is not what you allege; M. de La Valinière knows that. The reason informing my action is simply his own good, his interest, and the affection I have for him.” The bishop had, moreover, conveyed the tenor of the petition to the governor in order to clear the patriotic priest in his eyes, and the two men were happy to have the proof of his innocence. Nevertheless, La Valinière changed parishes in January 1777, although in the mean time he had considered joining his Sulpician colleagues at the seminary in Montreal instead; Bishop Briand adhered to his priest’s first choice and proceeded with the appointment already made. The real reason for his departure remained unstated, but it may have been simply to separate him from pro-American Canadians. Three months after arriving in the parish of Saint-Roch-des-Aulnaies the priest apologized to his bishop for still not having preached in favour of obeying the king. He thought the parishioners had already adopted that disposition towards the sovereign. Bishop Briand assured him that he should not be distressed at not having insisted on that point since his arrival. “I do not think anyone is malicious enough to blame you for that.”
But the Franco-American alliance of February 1778 kindled patriotic sentiments in many Canadians of French birth, and this reaction heightened the distrust of the French felt by the new governor, Frederick Haldimand. La Valinière became parish priest of Sainte-Anne (at La Pocatière) in September 1778. His recent past, possibly new verbal outbursts on his part, and the need for a scapegoat seem to have prompted the governor’s decision to deport him to England in 1779. He had ten days to get ready. Haldimand urged the bishop to advise La Valinière “not to indulge in his usual petulance, to be careful about the manner in which he conducts himself and speaks until he leaves.” He described the priest to the secretary of state for the American Colonies, Lord George Germain, as “a rebel in his heart, . . . fiery, factious and turbulent”; this punishment, he said, would serve as a lesson to his fellow religious, who would consequently become “more careful and circumspect.” In 1780 La Valinière left England for France where, the following year, he presented the Comte de Vergennes, minister of Foreign Affairs, with a plan for insurrection in the province of Quebec, or at least for its recapture by France. The signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1783 destroyed all this inveterate patriot’s hopes.
Although he had left the Society of Saint-Sulpice in 1779 upon being expelled from the British colonies and had been refused hospitality by the Sulpicians in Paris when he came from England in 1780, La Valinière managed to stay for five years with the Sulpicians in Nantes, part of the diocese from which he had come. The contacts thus renewed with his deepest roots were not, however, enough to hold him. At the age of 53 he again left for the province of Quebec. But Lieutenant Governor Henry Hamilton*, with the assent of Bishop Louis-Philippe Mariauchau* d’Esgly of Quebec, forbad him to reside there, and the great traveller went to the United States. He first carried on his ministry among the Canadians, French, and Acadians in New York City. In June 1786 he became a missionary at Kaskaskia (Ill.), in the Mississippi valley. During his three years’ apostolate in that region La Valinière quarrelled with his parishioners and with the priests in the neighbouring parishes, Paul de Saint-Pierre and Pierre Gibault. In 1790 he was named parish priest at Split Rock, N.Y.
That year La Valinière published in New York a controversial catechism, Curious and interesting dialogue between Mr. Goodwish and Dr. Breviloq . . . , in both French and English. Two years later he brought out at Albany a 50-page fascicle entitled Vraie histoire, ou simple précis des infortunes, pour ne pas dire, des persécutions qu’a souffert & souffre encore le révérend Pierre Huet de La Valinière. . . . In this publication, as indeed in the first one, the author portrays himself as a martyr to the American cause at the time of the invasion of Canada in 1775–76.
On the pastoral side there was again dissension between La Valinière and his parishioners; his church and presbytery were even burned down. He had to leave New York in 1792. He was able, however, to return to Lower Canada; Lieutenant Governor Alured Clarke* did not object to his return, the international situation having changed greatly in view of the French revolution. La Valinière’s rights as a British subject were finally restored in 1798. But on the ecclesiastical side he was denied any clerical office. He lived in poverty first at Saint-Sulpice, then at Repentigny. Having succeeded in borrowing money from a member of the parish of Saint-Sulpice, he bought a piece of land at L’Assomption. In 1802 he even took steps through solicitor general Louis-Charles Foucher* to have his innocence at the time of the American invasion publicly acknowledged. Having finally retired to Saint-Sulpice, the wandering priest was buried there; he had died after falling from a carriage on a return journey from L’Assomption. He was 74.
Pierre Huet de La Valinière no doubt gives the impression of having been “a restless spirit . . . capable of causing his colleagues a great deal of trouble,” as Bishop Hubert* of Quebec had described him in 1788 to Bishop John Carroll, the official responsible for missions in the United States. Bishop d’Esgly called him the “wandering Jew of Canada” and thought him discontented and turbulent. Perhaps less a man of ideas and principles than an unstable and difficult person, he seems to have been incapable of hiding his political preferences, even in public. As a result, during the war between the British and the Americans, when Governor Haldimand was bent on exercising his authority to the full, La Valinière suffered the painful consequences of his patriotic leanings and rash temperament. For this reason, his pastoral work has been left in obscurity, even though it may have been as valuable as that of many other priests. By failing to develop to a larger extent close ties with his parishioners or with fellow Sulpicians – indeed by provoking conflicts without truly realizing what he was doing – Huet de La Valinière isolated himself and lived as an outsider all his life.
Pierre Huet de La Valinière is the author of Curious and interesting dialogue between Mr. Goodwish and Dr. Breviloq, French and English, where every body may find easily the arms for defending his religion and may clear it of all false assertions made against it (New York, 1790), which was also published in French, and of Vraie histoire, ou simple précis des infortunes, pour ne pas dire, des persécutions qu’a souffert & souffre encore le révérend Pierre Huet de La Valinière . . . (Albany, N.Y., 1792). The archives of the Mass. Hist. Soc. holds La Valinière’s “Simple et vrai récit de la conduite du rév.d P. de La Valinière depuis son arrivée aux Illinois le 20 juin 1786,” a copy of which is at the PAC.
AAQ, 60 CN, I: 26. AD, Loire-Atlantique (Nantes), État civil, Varades, 10 janv. 1732. Arch. de la chancellerie de l’archevêché de Montréal, 355.114, 776-1, -2, 777-1, -3, -4; 901.005, 777-1; 901.115, 776-1. Arch. de la chancellerie de l’évêché de La Pocatière (La Pocatière, Qué.), Saint-Roch-des-Aulnaies, I, 12: 9, 18 mai 1777. Arch. du ministère des Affaires étrangères (Paris), Mémoires et doc., Angleterre, 47: 203–86 (copies at PAC). ASQ, Fonds Viger-Verreau, Sér.O, 0144: 31–38. ASSM, 14, Dossier 18. AUM, P 58, U, La Valinière à Foucher, 2 mai, 17, 27 juin, 7 nov. 1802. Bibliothèque nationale (Paris), 2008 (copies at PAC). PAC, MG 11, [CO 42] Q, 16–2: 689–91. PRO, CO 42/24. Allaire, Dictionnaire, 1: 316. Caron, “Inv. de la corr. de Mgr Briand,” ANQ Rapport, 1929–30: 121; “Inv. de la corr. de Mgr Hubert et de Mgr Bailly de Messein,” 1930–31: 205, 265–66, 279, 314; “Inv. de la corr. de Mgr Mariaucheau d’Esgly,” 1930–31: 189. Desrosiers, “Corr. de cinq vicaires généraux,” ANQ Rapport, 1947–48: 85–86, 91, 97–98, 119. Gauthier, Sulpitiana, 218. Louis Bertrand, Bibliothèque sulpicienne, ou histoire littéraire de la Compagnie de Saint-Sulpice (3v., Paris, 1900), 2. Lanctot, Le Canada et la Révolution américaine, 138. Laval Laurent, Québec et l’Église aux États-Unis sous Mgr Briand et Mgr Plessis (Montréal, 1945), 51–53. Christian Roy, Histoire de L’Assomption (L’Assomption, Qué., 1967). T. F. Cleary, “Huet de La Valinière,” Mid-America (Chicago), 15 (1932–33): 213–28. Gustave Lanctot, “Un sulpicien récalcitrant: l’abbé Huet de La Valinière,” SCHÉC Rapport, no. 3 (1935–36): 25–39. Henri Têtu, “L’abbé Pierre Huet de La Valinière, 1732–1794,” BRH, 10 (1904): 129–44, 161–75. | <urn:uuid:ed5122d5-2dd4-4e3d-9470-54817396772e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://biographi.ca/en/bio/huet_de_la_valiniere_pierre_5E.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963451 | 4,161 | 2.734375 | 3 |
The telephone was one of the first devices to be developed in our modern telecommunications system. In this laboratory project, working telephones are dismantled and reassembled. The telephones must continue to work properly after being assembled. In the second part of the project, broken telephones into which known problems have been introduced will be repaired. The project shows applications of electromagnetism in the telephone microphone and speaker, and develops skills in diagnosing and repairing problems with technological devices. | <urn:uuid:4084a56a-7ca6-4fc8-8d73-d97b0267fc1a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.hope.edu/academic/engineering/labs/Telephone_Lab/index.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00170-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951801 | 94 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Wildlife Watch was disappointed to read recently in a local newspaper
that a New York county health commissioner encourages the killing of any
bat who gets into a house. The commissioner recommended using a tennis
racket to kill bats, saying it was a “pretty cool tool.”
She claimed that people may not know when they are bitten, and cited
examples of sleeping infants and those who are intoxicated.
She suggested that even if the bat merely touched a person, the bat
should be captured and killed.
The county health commissioner’s recommendation was actually a
dangerous exaggeration based on unfounded fears and ignorance.
On the Center for Disease Control and Prevention website they say it’s
unlikely that one wouldn’t know he or she was bitten by a bat, and only in
a very rare case would a bat bite unless provoked.
In fact, chasing after a bat could frighten the bat, and provoke it to
bite the tennis racket wielding pursuer.
Bat Conservation International, a well-respected organization, clearly
advises not to kill with a tennis racket as it may render the bat’s brain
tissue unsuitable for rabies testing.
Thus, the person would have to be given rabies shots unnecessarily.
The CDC website also states,
“When people think about bats, they often imagine things that are not
true. Bats are not blind. They are neither rodents nor birds. They will
not suck your blood — and most do not have rabies. Bats play key roles
in ecosystems around the globe, from rain forests to deserts, especially
by eating insects, including agricultural pests. The best protection we
can offer these unique mammals is to learn more about their habits and
recognize the value of living safely with them.”
The best solution? Prevention.
Plug holes and use well fitting screens to keep bats and other critters
from entering your home.
Bat Conservation International blames habitat loss for bats roosting in
buildings, and they claim it is becoming more common. If there’s no chance
that the bat has bitten anyone, they suggest releasing the bat outside
using the following method: first, place a box or can over the bat where
he or she is roosting on a ceiling or wall.
Then, gently scoot a piece of cardboard between the box and wall so the
bat is trapped.
Then, release the winged friend back to the outdoors. | <urn:uuid:4a2dfe1b-7e52-472a-b12e-5dd8d793cd73> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.all-creatures.org/cash/cc2005-w-who.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00022-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943923 | 519 | 3.125 | 3 |
The possible usefulness of MK-801 in controlling brain damage was described at a recent meeting of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology in Washington. Leslie Iversen of Merck Sharp & Dohme's neuroscience research center in Terlings Park, England, said the substance was found to reduce damage to brain cells in gerbils and rats when injected before or after the interruption of oxygen.
Iversen and other investigators suspect that such damage may be caused by two amino acids, glutamate and aspartate, that are released within the brain when it becomes excited by a decrease in the supply of oxygen. Iversen said that MK-801 blocks the toxic effect of the amino acids.
The Food and Drug Administration has given Merck permission to begin testing the substance with human volunteers in the United States.
DU PONT IS OFFERING CABLES TO BOOST APPLE COMPUTERS
But for one problem, officials at Du Pont Co.'s connector-systems division loved the Apple computers purchased by the company. Du Pont bought the Macintosh Plus units two years ago for engineers and researchers at the division headquarters in Camp Hill.
Though the Macintosh system worked well for engineering applications, the usefulness of the terminals was limited by difficulties in connecting individual units into an single network.
The cables that allowed Macintosh users to communicate with one another could only be strung about 1,000 feet before encountering unacceptable levels of electrical interference. This constraint caused difficulties in hooking up users scattered among several buildings.
To overcome the obstacle, Du Pont turned to its own specialists in computer connections. The result is a new product for Du Pont - a modular fiber-optic system for connecting Macintosh terminals and related Apple equipment into a local area network, or "LAN."
Apple Computer Inc. and Du Pont announced recently that components of the fiber-optic LAN are being offered through selected Apple retail outlets. Apple is recommending the Du Pont system to augment or replace its existing AppleTalk LAN.
The new system allows users to connect stations as much as 4,900 feet apart. The fiber-optic network also can accommodate 100 terminals or more, compared with a maximum of 32 that could be handled by the AppleTalk network.
Because the system is based on fiber-optic technology, it offers substantial savings in installation costs. Optical fibers transmit computer data as pulses of light, not as electrical currents. As a result, the system does not fall under building-code provisions that apply to electrical wiring.
By offering a fiber-optic LAN, Du Pont is moving into a crowded field. IBM, Xerox, AT&T, Siemens, Westinghouse and a pack of smaller companies offer similar systems.
A spokesman for Du Pont said that its new LAN differed from those of competitors by being designed specifically for use with Macintosh computers. Du Pont also said its LAN is so simple that users can install it themselves and avoid the expense of outside technicians.
Though primarily a chemical and energy company, Du Pont has become a large supplier of electronics equipment and materials. Last year, sales for its electronics business totaled $1.3 billion.
Within the broad field of electronics, Du Pont has identified optoelectronics as one of three fast-growing areas in which to concentrate its resources.
STANFORD MEDICINE CENTER RECEIVES SMITHKLINE PLEDGE
SmithKline Beckman Corp. has pledged $5 million for the construction of a center for molecular and genetic medicine at Stanford University and $2.8 for support of research at the new facility. In return, the company will have the right to license any patented processes or products that result from projects financed by its research support.
A SmithKline spokesman said the company hopes to get rights to several potential drugs as result of the arrangement.
Paul Berg, the biochemist who directs the center, headed a group at Stanford that created the first molecules of recombinant DNA in 1972. Berg shared a Nobel Prize in 1980 for the achievement, which constitutes a fundamental technique in genetic engineering. As a result of his work, Stanford owns important patents on basic procedures in biotechnology.
Cooperative research with private industry, such as that being financed by SmithKline, "is crucial for reaching the next generation of medical advances," Berg said.
The Stanford center previously received a $12 million grant from the Arnold and Mabel Beckman Foundation. Arnold O. Beckman founded Beckman Instruments, which was acquired by SmithKline in 1982. He joined the board of SmithKline after the $1 billion merger and serves as vice chairman of the company.
Construction of the center began last summer and will be completed in late 1988. | <urn:uuid:11302f54-eaf9-4959-894d-9569fac0c377> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://articles.philly.com/1987-02-23/business/26179035_1_brain-damage-macintosh-system-brain-cells | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942161 | 960 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Appointment of Charles Dullea, by Mayor Rossi, as chief in February 1940 seemed unusually farsighted. When World War II broke out in December 1941, Dullea, a former Marine, ran the department with military efficiency during one of its most difficult periods.
More than half of the city's regular police officers went into the service with the outbreak of the war. They were followed by the married officers and, finally, the fathers of young families.
The city was forced to make do with a reduced force to protect the population enlarged because of wartime activity along the Pacific Coast. Chief Dullea quickly organized an auxiliary police force and used these men, mostly 4-F's and grandfathers, on traffic details, freeing what was left of the regular force for more urgent work.
For nearly one year after Pearl Harbor, San Franciscans feared invasion by the Japanese. The U.S. Mint and other important buildings were either sandbagged or painted black. Air raid drills were frequent, and when the air raid sirens sounded, each policeman hurried to his pre-
Both regular and auxiliary policemen had been trained in Civilian Defense techniques, and even as late as June 1942, department purchase orders bought gas masks, hard hats, shovels and other items that might be needed during a long seige.
When news from the Pacific Theater improved in 1943, San Francisco's police department returned to a semblance of normalcy. However the wartime spirit of volunteerism remained and a group of officers led by Patrolman Emile Dutil built a modern pistol range.
The Fort Funston range was to have been abandoned when the Depression-
Now, the group of officers led by Officer Dutil threw itself into the completion of the range, and in the three-and-
San Francisco's population exploded during the war years with the steady influx of servicemen and workers in war-related industries. The city's crime rate climbed as well. While violent crime rose slightly, the Robbery Detail reported increases in the number of incidents, and blamed the rise on the increased number of servicemen in San Francisco. The number of arrests for "drunk-
However, the greatest damage done when President Truman announced on nationwide radio that the war had ended. As drunken soldiers and seamen poured out of the city's saloons to celebrate in the street, several fights broke out.
The city's decimated police force attempted to restore order, but a three-
Chief Dullea public expressed his disgust with what he termed, "the unbridled and unrestrained acts of a lot of undisciplined men in uniform."
The servicemen's lack of discipline brought another headache to the police department. Before the war, Chief Dullea had ordered the department to close every known brothel in the city to help reduce the incidence of venereal disase.
But, as in the days of the Barbary Coast, enforcement proved to be no easy matter. When the war hit, prostitutes moved their activities into the bars to accomodate the servicemen. The result, Chief Dullea reported in the May 1946 issue of "Police and Peace Officer's Journal," was a skyrocketing rate of new infections, up from 148 in December 1941 to 754 in January 1946.
The problem was, said Chief Dullea, not just prostitutes, but "Teenage girls [who] soon came into the picture as well as the class of women who follow servicemen around the country." Chief Dullea sadly concluded that "we cannot substitute hygiene for morality, and any attempt to evade the moral issue, or pass over it lightly, is bound to end in tragedy."
Fortunately for the city, the venereal disease outbreak abated somewhat when servicemen began to return home with the end of the war. | <urn:uuid:998e5360-726e-43b4-89cc-cfbad66b46e1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sfmuseum.net/sfpd/sfpd6.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00021-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975564 | 781 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Proposal Writing: The Art of Persuasion
At various times in your life you will need to write a proposal, a statement or statements relating to a project you would like to accomplish. Such a proposal is an example of persuasive writing. It is addressed to the individual or agency or scholarship selection committee whose resources can allow you to carry out your project. Your task is to convince them that you and your project deserve their support. Proposal formats vary, but they all need to be highly specific about your goals, methods, preparation for the project, significance of the project, and fit with the funding organization.
Major Questions to Answer in a Scholarship or Grant Proposal
- What do you want to do?
- Why does it need to be done?
- Why should we think you are the person to do it?
- How are you going to do it?
- Where or to whom have you gone for additional information about (a) researching and developing your project and (b) exploring your fit with the university or other institution where the project will take place?
- Why is this organization the right one to fund you and your project?
Building the Case for your Research or Other Project
- What issue will your research/project address?
- Why is this issue important?
- What is already known about the issue?
- How is your approach innovative?
- How will it advance knowledge in the field?
- How would this award help you achieve your long-term goals?
- Why are you qualified to carry out the research/project?
- Follow the rules exactly! Read the application form carefully and take it seriously.
- Pay attention to the award program’s mission, objectives, and criteria and integrate them with your goals.
- Write clearly. Be highly specific and succinct. Make the writing flawless.
- Avoid vague and abstract sentences, ambiguities, jargon, and technical language. Be sure to define any acronyms or abbreviations the first time they are used.
- Ask your mentors and peers to critically review your proposal.
- Spend time on the application.
- Make sure it is complete.
- Make the strongest case you possibly can.
- Do not be reluctant to toot your own horn! | <urn:uuid:e8c04539-3bb9-4bd7-94c5-da45a8eca85d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nau.edu/National-International-Scholarships-Fellowships/Tips-for-Applications/Proposals/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00051-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938241 | 467 | 2.515625 | 3 |
‘Most sedentary generation of kids’
DALLAS — Today’s kids can’t keep up with their parents. An analysis of studies on millions of children around the world finds they don’t run as fast or as far as their parents did when they were young.
On average, it takes children 90 seconds longer to run a mile than their counterparts did 30 years ago. Heart-related fitness has declined 5 percent per decade since 1975 for children ages 9 to 17.
The American Heart Association says it’s the first to show that children’s fitness has declined worldwide over the past three decades.
“It makes sense. We have kids that are less active than before,” said Dr. Stephen Daniels, a University of Colorado pediatrician and spokesman for the heart association.
Health experts recommend that children 6-and-older get 60 minutes of moderately vigorous activity accumulated over a day. Only one-third of American kids do now.
“Kids aren’t getting enough opportunities to build up that activity over the course of the day,” Daniels said. “Many schools, for economic reasons, don’t have any physical education at all. Some rely on recess” to provide exercise.
The new study was led by Grant Tomkinson, an exercise physiologist at the University of South Australia. Researchers analyzed 50 studies on running fitness — a key measure of cardiovascular health and endurance — involving 25 million children ages 9 to 17 in 28 countries from 1964 to 2010.
The studies measured how far children could run in 5 to 15 minutes and how quickly they ran a certain distance, ranging from half a mile to 2 miles. Today’s kids are about 15 percent less fit than their parents were, researchers concluded.
“The changes are very similar for boys and girls and also for various ages,” but differed by geographic region, Tomkinson said.
The decline in fitness seems to be leveling off in Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and perhaps in the last few years in North America. About 20 million of the 25 million children in the studies were from Asia. | <urn:uuid:6bfedfb8-3a79-4a59-a438-ebf5a11d3b3e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chieftain.com/life/family/2028843-120/fitness-kids-studies-ages | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967673 | 441 | 2.5625 | 3 |
People who suffer from IBS or other underlying gastrointestinal conditions will know that fructose can make things worse. However, new research has revealed that up to a third of people can experience symptoms of IBS when they eat it.
Considering IBS affects between 10 – 20% of the population and fructose is ubiquitous in so many of the things we eat, it’s worth finding out more.
HuffPost UK Lifestyle spoke to United European Gastroenterology (UEG) spokesperson and practicing UK gastroenterology consultant Dr Charles Murray who said: “It’s not a new finding that fructose can cause problems to people with underlying IBS symptoms, but it demonstrates that up to a third of people can develop symptoms. What’s interesting is the role diet intervention has to play. The reason fructose is a problem is because we are all eating foods with more fructose.”
Fructose, he says, is a naturally-occurring simple sugar found in fruit, vegetables and honey. When used commercially, fructose is usually derived from sugar cane, sugar beets and maize. Most people appear to be able to tolerate fructose reasonably well, however, the sugar is not always completely absorbed from the digestive tract, and when this happens, it tends to ferment and produce gases such as hydrogen.”
Dr Murray adds: "People with IBS are particularly sensitive to alterations in the gut, and while a high intake of fructose can cause abdominal symptoms in anyone, people with IBS are especially prone to developing typical symptoms such as bloating, pain, diarrhoea and constipation."
However the most insidious form of fructose is corn syrup, which is pretty much found in everything from junk food to fizzy drinks. Sauces, especially are the worst.
How can you figure out how much fructose you're getting?
"A food diary is good," says Dr Murray, "but people shouldn’t restrict too much without the aid of a professional. You can regulate your diet so there are some fruits are high in fructose – e.g, apples and mangoes - but bananas and blueberries are relatively low. And definitely watch out for smoothies - especially any loaded with orange juice." | <urn:uuid:d6c2f4fa-c7e1-49f1-8211-aa99892efb53> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2014/05/13/ibs-symptoms-fructose-_n_5316912.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00010-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956152 | 450 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Ample shade, blowing snow, and steady cold temperatures are creating a "perfect situation" for four small park glaciers in Rocky Mountain National Park.
Independent researcher and geologist Jon Achuff says the glaciers haven't dramatically changed since the 1930s based on photo comparisons.
The glaciers provide late-season runoff to park streams after snow has melted.
Even while the climate gets warmer, the glaciers aren't being affected by it because they get little direct sunlight.
Nel Caine, a geography professor at the University of Colorado, says the glaciers are so small that they respond more to extremely localized climate patterns than they will to global trends.
Achuff estimates the glaciers at about 20 acres each. | <urn:uuid:2f7081f4-215a-4b0c-9f64-8cc245712cb5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.kktv.com/home/headlines/2594811.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940338 | 143 | 3.546875 | 4 |
Date Added to website 16th May 2014
This is a scary paper, which is based on experiments with GM (RR) cotton in Arkansas, USA. It shows that Palmer amaranth, a weed that infests cotton plantations, can very quickly develop glyphosate resistance, and from that point onwards, there is no stopping it. Even with 4 glyphosate applications per year on the cotton crop, from the date of original infestation with glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth, it only took 3 harvesting seasons for the whole cotton crop to be so heavily infested that it could not be harvested. The only way that GM cotton can continue to be grown in certain areas is to employ "multiple means of weed control." Er, wasn't the whole idea of GM cotton that "multiple means of weed control" could be avoided...........?
"..........In only 2 yr after introduction, GR Palmer amaranth had colonized each field, spreading from field edge to field edge. Although yields were not affected as a direct result of Palmer amaranth the first year after introduction, the implications of resistance evolution going ''unnoticed'' in the first year can have a devastating impact in the subsequent years. The amount of seed produced by GR Palmer amaranth allows it to rapidly spread throughout a field or entire farm. By the third cropping season after introduction (Year 2010), complete crop failure had occurred. The competition from high densities of Palmer amaranth resulted in little to no cotton at harvest. Moreover, the high densities in 2010 made harvest impossible due to potential equipment failure."
"............multiple means of control will be needed over an extended growing season due to the season-long emergence of Palmer amaranth..."
".........the spatial approach we implemented in this study was extremely valuable in understanding the pattern of withinfield dispersal of Palmer amaranth and demonstrating that a single escape is way too many to allow for this species, justifying the need for a zero-tolerance approach in managing this weed."
Jason K. Norsworthy, Griff Griffith, Terry Griffin, Muthukumar Bagavathiannan, and Edward E. Gbur (2014)
Weed Science: April-June 2014, Vol. 62, No. 2, pp. 237-249.
Abstract This research was aimed at understanding how far and how fast glyphosate-resistant (GR) Palmer amaranth will spread in cotton and the consequences associated with allowing a single plant to escape control. Specifically, research was conducted to determine the collective impact of seed dispersal agents on the in-field expansion of GR Palmer amaranth, and any resulting yield reductions in an enhanced GR cotton system where glyphosate was solely used for weed control. Introduction of 20,000 GR Palmer amaranth seed into a 1-m2 circle in February 2008 was used to represent survival through maturity of a single GR female Palmer amaranth escape from the 2007 growing season. The experiment was conducted in four different cotton fields (0.53 to 0.77 ha in size) with no history of Palmer amaranth infestation. In the subsequent year, Palmer amaranth was located as far as 114 m downslope, creating a separate patch. It is believed that rainwater dispersed the seeds from the original area of introduction. In less than 2 yr after introduction, GR Palmer amaranth expanded to the boundaries of all fields, infesting over 20% of the total field area. Spatial regression estimates indicated that no yield penalty was associated with Palmer amaranth density the first year after introduction, which is not surprising since only 0.56% of the field area was infested with GR Palmer amaranth in 2008. Lint yield reductions as high as 17 kg ha−1 were observed 2 yr after the introduction (in 2009). Three years after the introduction (2010), Palmer amaranth infested 95 to 100% of the area in all fields, resulting in complete crop loss since it was impossible to harvest the crop. These results indicate that resistance management options such as a "zero-tolerance threshold" should be used in managing or mitigating the spread of GR Palmer amaranth. This research demonstrates the need for proactive resistance management. | <urn:uuid:9b03f5aa-519c-4da5-9573-856fc8351443> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gmfreecymru.org/documents/glyphosate-resistant-weeds.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944409 | 853 | 3.015625 | 3 |
In advertising and public communications, the law of primacy in persuasion as postulated by Frederick Hansen Lund in 1925 holds that the side of an issue presented first will have greater effectiveness than the side presented subsequently. Lund gave college students document in support of one side of a controversial issue and then presented a second taking the opposite position. He found the document read first had greater influence, regardless of which position it expressed. This empirical evidence was generally accepted until 1950, when Cromwell published findings of a recency effect in persuasive arguments that were considered statistically reliable.
See also
Further reading
- Lund, Frederick Hansen. "The Psychology of Belief IV: The Law of Primacy in Persuasion," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology 20 (1925): 183-91.Template:Ad-stub | <urn:uuid:3fb3a038-cffe-4f01-ad27-d236c5b6fdb2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://smallbusiness.com/wiki/Law_of_primacy_in_persuasion | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00161-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942178 | 161 | 2.90625 | 3 |
- Mouth is white with a white gum line
- Almost toothless
- No spots on tail or back
- Large, bright gold, glassy eye
The mouth is white and the gum line is white. The lips are fleshy. The teeth are small and well developed in both jaws. There are no teeth on the base of the tongue.
There are no spots on the tail.
Other names: red salmon, blueback (Columbia and Quinault Rivers),
kokanee or "silver trout" (landlocked form)
Average size: 5-8 lbs, up to 15 lbs
Sockeye are the most flavorful Pacific salmon. In Washington, sockeye are found in Lake Washington, Baker Lake, Ozette Lake, Quinault Lake, and Lake Wenatchee.
Sockeye are unique in that they require a lake to rear in as fry, so the river they choose to spawn in must have a lake in the system. This seems to be the most important criteria for choosing a spawning ground, as sockeye adapt to a range of water velocities and substrates.
Large rivers that supplied sufficient room for spawning and rearing historically supported huge runs of sockeye, numbering into the millions. One such run still exists today on the Adams River in British Columbia, a tributary to the Fraser River. The Canadian government has built viewing platforms for visitors, and annual runs of over a million sockeye are common.
Juvenile sockeye rear for one or two years in a lake, although they are also found in the inlet and outlet streams of the lake. Sockeye fry are often preyed on by resident lake fish, and because they use freshwater year-round, they are susceptible to low water quality.
Alevin - The lifestage of a salmonid between egg and fry. An alevin looks like a fish with a huge pot belly, which is the remaining egg sac. Alevin remain protected in the gravel riverbed, obtaining nutrition from the egg sac until they are large enough to fend for themselves in the stream.
Anadromous - Fish that live part or the majority of their lives in saltwater, but return to freshwater to spawn.
Emergence - The act of salmon fry leaving the gravel nest.
Fry - A juvenile salmonid that has absorbed its egg sac and is rearing in the stream; the stage of development between an alevin and a parr.
Kype - The hooked jaw many male salmon develop during spawning.
Parr - Also known as fingerling. A large juvenile salmonid, one between a fry and a smolt.
Smolt - A juvenile salmonid which has reared in-stream and is preparing to enter the ocean. Smolts exchange the spotted camouflage of the stream for the chrome of the ocean.
Substrate - The material which comprises a stream bottom. | <urn:uuid:821dc9d0-a212-4ff7-89e2-666df081bb3f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wdfw.wa.gov/fishing/salmon/sockeye.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00056-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9483 | 599 | 3.34375 | 3 |
NCA was established in 1959 by the NCA Ordinance No 413 of 1959 as a multiple land use area, designated to promote the conservation of natural resources, safeguard the interests of NCA indigenous residents and promote tourism. NCA is a unique protected area in the whole of Africa where conservation of natural resources in integrated with human development.
The main feature of the NCA include the Ngorongoro Crater, The Serengeti Plains that support about 2.0 millions migratory wildlife species of the Serengeti Mara-ecosystem (TAWIRI, 2003) and the catchment forest; the Northern Highland Forest Reserve (NHFR) known as 'Entim Olturot' in Maa language. Other important features found in the NCA are the archaeological and palaeontological site located at Oldupai Gorge and the early human foot-prints that were discovered at Alaitole in Ngarusi area. Because of these particular features and the harmonious co-existence between wildlife and people that has existed for many years, NCA was accorded the status of a World Heritage Site and listed as one of the International Biosphere Reserve by the UNESCO's Man and Biosphere Reserve Programme.
The vision of NCAA is self-financed World Heritage Site that provides sustainable benefits for NCA indigenous residents, Tanzanians and guarantees protection of natural, cultural and archaeological resources for global community.
The NCAA will cooperate with NCA indigenous residents to professionally conserve the natural and historical resources, while providing optimal social services to residents, staff and visitors. The mission of NCAA is to strive to maintain the status of NCA as a World Heritage Site as well as an eighth wonder of the world through:
The NCAA shall strive to achieve its vision and implement its mission while observing the following core values:
The objectives / functions of the NCAA as stated in the Ordinance are:
The multiple land use philosophy in the area is to maintain the peaceful co-existence of human and wildlife in a natural and traditional setting. Pastoralism, conservation of natural resources and tourism are the three, main components that are given equal consideration in policy shaping decisions. The NCA aims for the historic balance of people and nature in a way which has not been possible in many parts of the world. At stake are the rich bio diversity and ecology of the Serengeti Plains and The Ngorongoro Highlands, the major palaeontological and archaeological sites and important water catchment areas. Tourism is a vital element in raising revenue and has been encouraged and developed with a respect for culture and without damaging the environment. Man and his ancestors have lived in the Ngorongoro eco-system for more than three million years. By careful research and continuing management, the fragile balance between man and nature will be successfully maintained.
The main feature of the
NCA include the Ngorongoro Crater, The Serengeti Plains that support about 2.0 millions migratory wildlife species of the Serengeti Mara-ecosystem
The NCAA's objective is to conserve and develop the natural resources of the Conservation Area
The multiple land use philosophy in the area is to maintain the peaceful co-existence of human and wildlife in a natural and traditional setting. | <urn:uuid:977ebb80-9e75-4a24-a95f-e7689a171836> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ngorongorocrater.org/welcome.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939427 | 665 | 2.59375 | 3 |
In early spring red-bellied woodpeckers in forests, woodlands and wooded suburbs tap on trees, gutters, roofs and siding to claim territory and to attract a mate. When a mate is found, tapping is shared by both sexes at a desirable nesting site. In seven to 10 days the breeding pair excavates a cavity in a dead tree or pole. Occasionally pairs will take over the nests of other birds. Once the cavity is made or chosen, courtship continues with one red-bellied woodpecker entering the cavity and listening to the other red-bellied woodpecker tapping outside. Each woodpecker takes turns tapping to the other.
Red-bellied woodpeckers are thought to be monogamous. Some pairs may stay together for several breeding seasons. They raise one to two broods – group of young birds – each season. Females lay four to five smooth glossy white eggs on a bed of wood chips remaining from excavating the cavity. Both sexes incubate their eggs for 12-13 days. Young birds are tended to by both parents and leave the nest at around 26 days.
After leaving the nest, red-bellied woodpeckers use their long barbed, split tongue to forage on prey in crevices on limbs and trunks of trees. Males have longer, wider tipped tongues than females. This difference may allow pairs to forage in slightly different areas within their territory. Red-bellied woodpeckers may store food in crevices of tree bark to hold for later in the year. Spring through summer red-bellied woodpeckers prefer eating insects, spiders, nuts and fruits. During winter, their diet can consist of seeds, including seeds from bird feeders.
Red-bellied woodpeckers are protected birds that are not listed as a threatened or endangered species. They have extended their breeding range north over the past 100 years. Populations have increased throughout most of their range. Dead or decaying trees are essential for red-bellied woodpeckers’ and other cavity nesting species survival. Retention of logs and decaying trees are a necessary component of any yard wishing to attract wildlife. “If we recognize and understand the natural value of snags, dead limbs and logs, they become more appealing to the human eye,” according to Melissa J. Santiago and Amanda D. Rodewald, PhD, School of Natural Resources, Ohio State University | <urn:uuid:4d056ecc-6f24-45da-af45-987b362ea1a6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.holdenarb.org/resources/Red-belliedWoodpecker.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951872 | 502 | 3.921875 | 4 |
Posted: July 9, 2012, 4:15 p.m. EDT
Ferret Abbaddon/Courtesy Stacy Rogers
A ferret with health skin has a healthy coat of hair.
Disorders of the skin and fur are very common in pet ferrets. Adrenal gland disease is the most common cause of skin and hair problems in ferrets.
Ferrets And Adrenal Gland Disease
In adrenal gland disease, the adrenal glands oversecrete hormones such as estrogen, progesterone and androgens. These hormones commonly cause hair loss (alopecia) and itchy skin (pruritus). If not treated, the hair loss can progress and turn the ferret into an almost completely bald ferret. The itchy skin can lead to self trauma from scratching at the skin and cause the skin to become reddish in color (erythema). The itchy skin can also cause the ferret to chew on its hair and skin. This can increase the risk of a hairball forming in the stomach from the ingested fur.
© Jerry Murray, DVM
Adrenal gland disease can cause a ferret to lose all of its fur.
© Jerry Murray, DVM
Odd-looking skin problems, such as this erythema annulare centrifugum are thought to be caused by high progesterone levels .
A high estrogen level can cause a suppression of the bone marrow. This can result in a serious anemia and a problem forming blood clots. Small hemorrhages (petechiae) can be seen on the skin as small red spots. It is thought that a high progesterone level is responsible for some rare and truly odd-looking skin problems, such as erythema multiforme and erythema annulare centrifugum. Progesterone can also cause the skin to bruise easily after blood collection and surgery, and circular bruises that disappear after a few days are occasionally seen with adrenal gland disease. In addition, the sex hormones and androgens can stimulate the sebaceous glands in the skin to produce oily secretions. This leads to a musky odor and an oily fur. In white ferrets, it changes the color of the fur to a yellowish tint.
Most veterinarians who are familiar with ferrets can diagnose adrenal gland disease based on a ferret’s history, age and clinical signs. Treatment can be either surgery to remove the adrenal gland and/or medications to decrease the hormone production. With successful treatment the ferret will grow new fur. One peculiar thing happens right before the new hair starts to come in. The skin frequently develops a blue tint (blue ferret syndrome) for a few days to a week. This is likely due to the hair follicles producing melanin for the new fur. No treatment is needed for this normal process.
Ferret Skin Parasites
Ferrets can have problems with parasites of the skin. Fleas are common in ferrets that are kept outdoors or are allowed to play outside. Occasionally, indoor ferrets can be infested with fleas from dogs and cats in the household. Fleas typically produce only a mildly itchy skin and mild hair loss from scratching. Fleas can also cause tapeworms, and in some Western states fleas can carry the bacterium (Yersinia pestis) that causes plague. It is usually easy to diagnose a flea problem by simply seeing the fleas or flea dirt on the ferret. Under veterinary supervision, Advantage for cats or Frontline Plus for cats can be used to treat flea problems in ferrets; however, it is necessary to treat all of the animals in the house. In severe infestations the house and yard may need to be treated also.
Likewise ferrets kept outdoors are prone to ticks. Ticks can also carry a lot of diseases, including Lyme disease, Babesiosis, Ehrlichiosis and Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever. In some Western states ticks can carry the bacterium (Francisella tularensis) that causes Tularemia. Due to the ferret and human health concerns, it is important to treat and prevent tick infestations. Frontline Plus for cats can be used for tick control in ferrets, under veterinary supervision.
Outdoor ferrets are also at risk for fly problems. Botfly (Cuterebra) problems are sometimes seen during the summer and fall months. The larvae can produce a small hole in the skin with a swollen area around the opening. The lesion is typically painful and infected. This disorder can look like an abscess or a reaction to a foreign body, but the moving larvae can typically be seen in the opening. Treatment is for a veterinarian to remove the entire larvae, debride the infected skin and treat the skin infection with an antibiotic.
Ferrets commonly have ear mites. Ear mites typically cause a mild increase in earwax and an itchy ear, but sometimes ear mites can actually rupture the eardrum. This will cause a severe head tilt and an inner ear infection. Diagnosis of ear mites is relatively simple. Some of the earwax is examined under a microscope to look for ear mites. Under veterinary supervision, ear mites can be treated with several different medications, such as Revolution for cats, Advantage Multi for cats, Acarexx otic, Milbemite otic or ivermectin injections. It is important to treat all the ferrets in the house and to clean the ferret’s cage and wash all of the bedding. Inner ear infections will need additional treatment with antibiotics and an antibiotic eardrop.
Ferrets are also susceptible to skin mites (mange). Sarcoptic mange is common in working ferrets in England and Australia, but it is uncommon in pet ferrets in North America. Sarcoptic mange causes an itchy skin with hair loss, crusty lesions and skin infections. Sarcoptic mange can be diagnosed by scraping the skin and looking at the material under a microscope for sarcoptic mites. Sarcoptic mites can also spread to people and other pets. Under veterinary care, sarcoptic mange can be treated with Revolution for cats, Advantage Multi for cats or with ivermectin injections.
Demodectic mange is usually a result of immune suppression from prednisolone use, lymphoma or adrenal gland disease. Signs of demodectic mange include itchy skin, red skin, hair loss and skin infections. Demodectic mange is diagnosed by skin scraping and finding demodex mites with the microscope. Under veterinary care, demodectic mange can be treated with daily ivermectin, weekly dips with Mitaban, or weekly Advantage Multi for cats. Fortunately demodex mites are not contagious to other ferrets or people.
Ferrets And Fungal Infections Or Distemper
Ferrets are susceptible to fungal skin infections; however, fungal infections are uncommon. The most common of the fungal infections is ringworm. Most cases of ringworm are associated with recent exposure to either kittens or cats. Skin lesions from ringworm are typically circular with a red tint and crusty skin. It is usually not itchy to the ferret. Diagnosis is based on the signs and by fungal culture of the hair. Treatment may require both topical anti-fungal creams such as miconazole and oral anti-fungals like itraconazole or griseofulvin. It is important to treat all the animals in the house and to clean the cage and everything in it with a dilute bleach solution.
© Jerry Murray, DVM
During its first stages, distemper causes a rash on the chin, lips, groin and rectal areas.
One virus can cause skin problems in ferrets. Distemper normally begins as a respiratory infection, but soon afterward a skin rash develops on the chin, lips, groin and rectal area. Then the pads on the paws become thick, crusty and hard. Next the ferret shows neurologic signs like muscle twitching and seizures. Sadly, a ferret eventually passes away from distemper; therefore, the recommendation is to vaccinate all ferrets to prevent this fatal disease.
Most of the ferret skin disorders can be treated and usually cured; however, a few of the skin problems are a result of a more serious and sometimes even fatal underlying problem. Whenever your ferret has a skin or fur problem, have a veterinarian familiar with treating ferrets do a physical exam to determine the root of the problem and formulate a treatment plan.
Like this article? Then check out the following.
Lumps And Bumps Under Ferret Skin, click here>>
Skin Tumors In Ferrets, click here>>
See Jerry Murray's author bio, click here>> | <urn:uuid:91807a39-af84-41a6-97ad-1949a14518d5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.smallanimalchannel.com/ferrets/ferret-health/ferret-dermatology-101.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911952 | 1,848 | 2.953125 | 3 |
My colleague, Kaysie Brown, is the interim deputy director of the International Institutions and Global Governance program at the Council on Foreign Relations. She holds a master’s degree from the University of Oxford and has written extensively on natural resources and conflict. Here, she offers her assessment of the recent challenges to ensuring the sale of diamonds do not fuel armed conflict.
Amid the headlines of perennial eurozone crises and Middle East instability, another newsworthy event flew under the radar this week. Global Witness, the human rights watchdog providing whistle-blowing analysis and campaigns against natural resource-related conflict and corruption, withdrew as an official observer from the Kimberley Process. Citing an outdated, ineffective, and politically decrepit system, the withdrawal by Global Witness is a major blow to the credibility of the diamond monitoring group.
Diamonds, a $30 billion dollar industry, have traditionally represented love and permanence. However, the role that diamonds play in causing and financing conflict throughout the developing world, particularly in African countries such as Liberia, Sierra Leone, Angola, and the Democratic Republic of Congo, became increasingly publicized in recent years. The issue of “conflict diamonds” also moved into popular culture, from Kanye West’s Grammy winning song “Diamonds from Sierra Leone” to the Hollywood movie Blood Diamond, starring Leonardo Dicaprio. The issue also resulted in a Nobel Peace Prize nomination for Global Witness for its international work calling attention to the connection between diamonds and conflict, including its leadership in establishing the very system it just left.
Created in 2003 as a government-led rough diamond certification scheme, the Kimberley Process aims to sever the links between diamonds, violence, and tyranny. With over seventy-five participating countries, including the world’s major producing, manufacturing, and trading countries, the goals of the scheme include preventing and ending the trade of conflict diamonds through the passage of national legislation and the establishment of proper import-export control systems. The general idea behind the Kimberly Process is to provide a system that would guarantee consumers that by purchasing jewelry for their loved ones they are not inadvertently fuelling war and human rights abuses.
The straw that broke the camel’s back for Global Witness was the Kimberley Process’ recent authorization of exports from companies operating in the corrupt and controversial diamond fields in Zimbabwe. In a vote of no confidence for the scheme, the founding director of Global Witness issued a statement declaring that, “nearly nine years after the Kimberley Process was launched, the sad truth is that most consumers still cannot be sure where their diamonds come from, nor whether they are financing armed violence or abusive regimes…It has become an accomplice to diamond laundering—whereby dirty diamonds are mixed in with clean gems.”
Despite initial optimism over its creation, and much blood (no pun intended), sweat and tears by a coalition of NGOs, activists, and governments to strengthen the Kimberley Process, it has failed to correct for its debilitating weaknesses. These include the lack of an independent body to administer the process, an overreliance on participating governments, the insistence on decision making by consensus, and the failure to develop an effective policy for the most problematic diamond-producing states, including Zimbabwe and Cote d’Ivoire. Unfortunately, most of the participating governments overseeing the process show little to no interest in reform.
While Global Witness’ departure is unlikely to result in a domino effect of mass defections from the scheme, it should serve as an immediate wake up call. Clearly, the Kimberly Process as currently constituted is flawed and needs reform.
This presents an opportunity for the United States, which takes over the rotating chairmanship of the Kimberly Process in 2012, to show leadership and press for reform to the process. The Obama administration has generally shown a preference to push for change within existing institutional frameworks, rather than taking a more unilateral approach as the administration’s critics would often prefer. Reform of the Kimberly Process – which is likely to require a long process of diplomacy and consensus building – will present another test for this institutionalist approach. The Obama administration itself appears to acknowledge the need for reform. In the words of State Department spokesman Mark Toner, the departure of Global Witness represents “another in a series of challenges to the Kimberley Process to demonstrate the capacity to implement reforms and restore its credibility.” It remains to be seen, however, whether the United States will be able to restore the sparkle to what was once regarded as a major success in the field of human rights. | <urn:uuid:1db5f9b1-10c4-4216-b921-4becd2a8ff7f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.cfr.org/patrick/2011/12/07/guest-post-has-the-kimberly-process-lost-its-sparkle/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949533 | 923 | 2.828125 | 3 |
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Absolute frequency / Absolute color
Martin Braun wrote:
> ...this is not possible. There are millions of colors. Most of us,
> however, would have an absolute memory of 12 colors. Color circles
> of 12 colors are quite common and can be learned in a few minutes.
> The 12 tones of our octave can not be learned in years (with
> extremely rare exceptions), once you are older than 5-7 years
An absolute memory of 12 colors corresponds to an absolute memory of
pitch for 12 categories spanning the entire range of audible frequencies
from 20-16.000 Hz (at my age). I suppose this can be learned in a few
minutes. A hemitonic absolute pitch memory covering a musical relevant
range of frequencies would correspond to an absolute memory of roughly
90 color shades (only hue, same saturation and brightness). | <urn:uuid:588662a5-bf6b-4e6b-b0f3-62ae5b5f4b3f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.auditory.org/mhonarc/2001/msg00372.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00183-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.893641 | 201 | 2.8125 | 3 |
please see this post in Mid-Atlantic forum, 2/2/13.
"Heuchera eaten 2012; usual suspects don't seem culprits"
what time of year is this occuring? Is this happening now? Do you have pictures?
Thanks for your response. The damage occurred July-Sept., 2012 and previously July-Sept., 2011. I'd like to prevent it from happening again in the 2013 growing season, if possible. We have had drought conditions the past two years, which may be significant...bugs, beetles?
No, I don't have pictures but am learning to appreciate their value in cases like this.
Not sure what is causing the damage, but it sounds like caterpillars or the like to me. Heuchera don't have a lot of problems with predators. When I was doing a search, the black vine weevil kept coming up and although they make little half moon shaped cuts in the leaves, their primary source of damage is to the root systems. | <urn:uuid:3d778cad-576b-4ff4-ac04-514edf18b085> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://davesgarden.com/community/forums/t/1296795/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971324 | 207 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Barbara Charline Jordan Facts
Attorney Barbara Charline Jordan (1936-1996), who served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1972 to 1976, was a prominent member of the House Judiciary Committee when it held President Richard M. Nixon's impeachment hearings.
Barbara Jordan was born in Houston, Texas, to parents with strong convictions about the behavior of their three daughters. Jordan's father, a Baptist preacher, was probably the most important influence in her life. He valued God, the Bible, his family, good music, and the spoken and written word. Although the Jordans were poor, their lot was not very different from that of other African Americans in the Houston area. Jordan's parents made every effort to provide adequately for her and her sisters and to shield them from the detrimental effects of the racially segregated society in which they lived by regularly exposing them to the most positive aspects of their own African American community. They attended schools and churches led by prominent members of the African American community and conducted their business with African American-owned establishments. It was Jordan's parents who made contact with the white world when it was necessary.
All of the Jordan girls played musical instruments, and two of them decided that they wanted to become music teachers. Barbara, however, was more ambitious. She was not sure what she wanted to do, but she knew she wanted to achieve something great. Her father had taught her that race and poverty had nothing to do with her brain power or her ability to achieve lofty goals if she had the drive to work for them.
Young Jordan Decides To Become a Lawyer
At first Jordan thought about being a pharmacist, but as she researched that profession, she noted that she had never heard of a famous pharmacist and, consequently, she decided to abandon that field. When a African American female lawyer from Chicago, Edith Sampson (who later became a judge), visited Jordan's high school on "career day," Jordan was so impressed with her that she made a definite decision about her life work. That evening she announced to her parents that she wanted to be a lawyer. Jordan's mother was reluctant about her daughter's choice—after all, African American women lawyers were a rarity in the South—but her father supported her, reassuring her that she could excel in any endeavor.
Money was certainly an important consideration when Jordan was choosing a college. After many family conferences, she decided to enroll at Texas Southern University (TSU), an inexpensive school for African American students, in order to save money for law school. At TSU Jordan, already a skilled orator, joined the debating team. In a bout with Harvard University debators, the TSU team, with Jordan at the helm, was jubilant when the match ended in a tie. After Jordan graduated magna cum laude from TSU in 1956 she went to Boston University Law School. She was an excellent and extremely disciplined student who often worked long into the night. Because her family made tremendous financial sacrifices to pay for her education, Jordan did not want to disappoint them in any way. She graduated in 1959 and in the same year passed both the Massachusetts and Texas bar examinations.
Early Practice and Senate Years
After she returned to Houston in 1959 Jordan began her law practice on her parents' dining room table. When she was finally able to convince friends and neighbors that she was indeed a competent attorney her clientele grew, enabling her to open an office downtown. Since the civil rights movement was in full swing by the time Jordan had established herself, she decided that she might be able to do her part in the unweaving of the web of segregation laws by becoming a member of the Texas State House of Representatives. She waged two unsuccessful campaigns, one in 1962 and another in 1964, on a shoestring budget. Although she lost both elections, she was gaining popularity. When the lines of Houston's voting districts were redrawn, Jordan found that most of those who had voted for her were united in a single district. She decided to run for the Texas Senate in 1966 and won. She was the first African American woman ever to be elected to the Texas Senate and the first African American person to serve since the Reconstruction period. In 1972, after six years in the Texas Senate, where she sponsored important labor legislation, Jordan decided to run for the U.S. House of Representatives. She was not the first African American woman to be seated in the U.S. Congress; that honor went to Shirley Chisholm of New York, who had been elected in 1968. She was, however, the first African American woman from the South.
Service as Member of House Judiciary Committee
Jordan was particularly interested in becoming a member of the House Judiciary Committee. A word from a man she admired—former President Lyndon B. Johnson— helped to bring that desire to fruition. Thus, when the difficult question of President Richard M. Nixon's collusion in the Watergate Hotel burglary in an effort to secure his 1972 election victory was brought before the Judiciary Committee, Jordan was among its members.
The committee, seeking evidence to determine whether Nixon had committed an impeachable offense, commanded so much public attention that its hearings were televised. The viewing audience was interested in the questions raised by all of the committee members, but it was Barbara Jordan, who riveted the attention of the viewers with her oratorical ability, clarity of presentation, and thorough knowledge of constitutional issues. As more and more damaging information was uncovered, it seemed that President Nixon's impeachment was inevitable. Before the committee made its final decision, Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974, the first president in U. S. history to do so. The televised impeachment hearings catapulted Jordan to national fame.
Jordan As Teacher and Orator
Jordan did not seek reelection after her second term. Part of her reason for leaving politics was that she was suffering poor health due to leukemia and multiple sclerosis, which eventually caused her to rely on a wheelchair or a walker. Her ill health did not keep her from many honorable accomplishments in her later years, however. She held several teaching positions, including professor at the Lyndon Baines Johnson School of Public Affairs in Houston, Texas, where her ethics course was so popular that students entered a lottery to enroll. In 1976, she became the first African American selected to deliver the keynote address at a national convention of the Democratic Party. She was the keynote speaker again in 1992 for the Democratic Convention which nominated Bill Clinton. Jordan was such a skilled and respected lecturer and speaker that in 1985 she was named Best Living Orator.
President Clinton appointed her to the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform in 1994. Here Jordan denounced hostility toward immigrants, and opposed a plan which would deny automatic citizenship to children of immigrants born in this country. That same year she received the Medal of Freedom from President Clinton. Jordan died on January 17, 1996 in Austin, Texas from viral pnemonia caused by complications from leukemia. President Johnson's widow, Lady Bird Johnson was quoted in Jet in February 1996, saying, "I feel a stabbing sense of loss at the passing of a good friend."
Further Reading on Barbara Charline Jordan
There are several biographies of Jordan available, including her own Barbara Jordan, A Self Portrait (1979); James Haskins, Barbara Jordan (1977); Ira Bryant, Barbara Charline Jordan (1977); Linda Jacobs, Barbara Jordan (1978); and Naurice Roberts, Barbara Jordan, the Great Lady from Texas (1984); also, "Barbara Jordan, former congresswoman and educator dies at 59 in Austin, Texas," Jet, February 5, 1996; and "Jordan's rules," from The New Republic, February 12, 1996, vol. 214, no. 7. | <urn:uuid:83448d8e-eccc-4fd0-84bf-aa58d5b91b97> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://biography.yourdictionary.com/barbara-charline-jordan | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.987231 | 1,575 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Ozone high in the atmosphere protects us from the sun’s UV rays. Ozone at ground level is pollution that’s harmful to people, pets and plants. Learn the difference!
More than half of ground-level ozone comes from common daily activities, especially driving. Here are some little steps you can take to make a big impact on the air you breathe.
When we voluntarily reduce the emissions that pollute our air, we prevent the need for more expensive measures and government oversight. Find out what you can do now!
Bicycle to and from work all summer long for a chance to enjoy some friendly competition, see your city in a new way and win some great prizes. Compete as part of a team or on your own when you track your progress from May 1 – September 30, 2015.
Find out more about Little Steps. Big Impact. in the community. See what your neighbors are doing to be part of the clean air solution, download logos and graphics, and access resources. | <urn:uuid:4804a6fb-0959-4130-ac5f-2fc857cb3245> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://littlestepsbigimpact.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00014-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949552 | 206 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Fighting Depression and Improving Cognition with Omega-3 Fatty AcidsOctober 2007
By Laurie Barclay, MD
Antidepressant drugs continue to raise concerns about their side effects, which include suicide, clinical worsening of depression, and unusual changes in behavior in adolescents and children.
Recently, the FDA instructed all drug manufacturers to add black box warnings (the most serious warning label for a prescription medicine) to their antidepressant drugs.
In light of these findings, doctors and patients are seeking safer alternative therapies. New research reveals that omega-3 fatty acids may effectively alleviate depression without dangerous side effects.
In this article, we unveil the growing evidence base for omega-3s in improving mood and restoring structural integrity to brain cells that are critical in performing cognitive functions.
Already well known for their ability to protect against heart disease, cancer, and diabetes,1 the omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) may be highly effective in preventing and managing depression and cognitive decline, according to a growing body of evidence.2-4
The American Psychiatric Association’s treatment recommendations for the use of omega-3 fatty acids bears testament to this strategy. Joseph R. Hibbeln, MD, from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) tells Life Extension magazine, “The strongest evidence was found for managing major depressive symptoms, with the effect of omega-3s being at least as great, if not greater than, antidepressant medications.” Regarding these powerful fatty acids, Dr. Hibbeln further notes, “… deficient intakes may increase risk for mental distress.”
Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Depression
Consuming plenty of omega-3 fatty acids may offer powerful protection against depression. A large Norwegian study of nearly 22,000 participants revealed that those who regularly took cod liver oil, which is rich in omega-3 fatty acids, were about 30% less likely to have symptoms of depression than those who did not. The longer the participants took cod liver oil, the less likely they were to have high levels of depression.2
Omega-3 fatty acids may also help improve mood in those who already suffer from depression. In a recent study at the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, the effect of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation was studied in 49 patients with repeated episodes of harming themselves. In addition to standard psychiatric care, study subjects were randomly assigned to receive 1200 mg EPA plus 900 mg DHA, or placebo, for 12 weeks. At the end of the treatment period, the group receiving omega-3 fatty acids had significantly greater improvements compared with the placebo group in scores for depression, suicidality and daily stresses.5
Furthermore, other studies suggest that people who are still depressed despite use of antidepressant medications may have reduced intensity of depression, anxiety, sleep disturbances, and sexual dysfunction when supplementing with omega-3 fatty acids.3,4
How Omega-3s Fight Depression
Scientists are intensely examining how omega-3 fatty acids work to promote a healthy mood.
A new study sought to shed some light on how omega-3 fatty acid deficiency may aggravate depressed mood. Researchers looked at plasma levels of essential fatty acids and neurosteroids, which are neuroactive chemicals implicated in several neurophysical and disease processes. Study subjects included 18 healthy men and 34 men with alcoholism, depression, or both. In the group of all 52 subjects, lower level of omega-3 essential fatty acids was associated with higher levels of neuroactive steroids.6
It appears that a lack of DHA has far-reaching hormonal effects, increasing corticotropin-releasing hormone, a hormone that moderates emotionality. This may in turn contribute to hyperactivity within the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis, an important neuroendocrine system that regulates mood, aggression and “fight-or-flight” responses associated with anxiety.
“The [evidence] is becoming quite compelling that increasing omega-3 fatty intake enhances many aspects of brain function, including the control of mood and aspects of personality,” Brian M. Ross, MD, Associate Professor of Medicine, Chemistry and Public Health at the Northern Ontario School of Medicine of Lakehead University, tells Life Extension. “For example, combining the results of a series of clinical trials clearly shows that supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids, in particular the long- chain varieties EPA and DHA, helps reduce the symptoms associated with clinical depression. Other provocative data suggest that boosting omega-3 fatty acid intake increases attention and reduces aggression, probably by enhancing cognitive processes.”
According to a hypothesis recently presented by Dr. Ross, deficiency of omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder may reflect the interaction between a diet lacking these essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and a genetically determined abnormality in their metabolism, such that cellular uptake of omega-3 PUFAs is decreased. Low level of omega-3 fatty acids could thus be is a risk factor for depression, while dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids might be a useful and well-tolerated treatment for major depressive disorder.7
Given that brain tissue is rich in omega-3 fatty acids, particularly in the membranes of three different types of brain cells, this link between omega-3 fatty acids and brain health is hardly surprising. These essential fatty acids are required for proper growth, development, and function of brain tissue.8
“The human brain is 60% fat, and omega-3 fatty acids are the fatty acid of choice for the structure of certain parts of brain cell membranes and brain intercellular nerve connections,” Douglas London, MD, Research Associate in Psychiatry at the Psychopharmacological Research Laboratory of McLean Hospital and medical faculty at Harvard Medical School, tells Life Extension.
“Lack of dietary omega-3 forces the brain cells to utilize other fatty acids on hand, resulting in cells constructed with inferior building material,” Dr. London says. “Lack of available omega-3s affects brain function and is associated with cognitive and emotional disorders. There is growing evidence that a significant proportion of the US population is at risk for omega-3 fatty acid deficiency.”
Omega-3 Levels Affect Mood and Brain Function
Further evidence to strengthen the link between dietary lack of omega-3 fatty acids and depressed mood was presented in March 2007 at the American Psychosomatic Society’s annual meeting held in Budapest, Hungary.
One of the studies presented in Budapest by Sarah M. Conklin, PhD, a postdoctoral scholar in Cardiovascular Behavioral Medicine, Department of Psychiatry at the University of Pittsburgh, showed that in healthy adults of average age 45 years, low levels of EPA were associated with high levels of impulsive behavior, hostility, and cynical ideas. Low levels of either EPA or DHA predicted high degrees of angry feelings and outbursts.9,10
“The omega-3 fatty acids have widespread biological functions in the body including the brain,” Dr. Conklin tells Life Extension. “Our research has shown that individuals who have higher levels of these fats in their blood are less likely to report symptoms of depression. Similarly, those who have lower levels of these fats in their blood score higher on measures of impulsiveness.”
Even more exciting, Dr. Conklin presented a second study in Budapest showing that the amount of omega-3 fatty acid consumed in the diet may actually cause beneficial anatomical changes in areas of the brain that regulate emotion. Fifty-five healthy adults provided information about their typical daily consumption of omega-3 fatty acids and had MRI scans to determine the volume of gray matter in specific brain regions. The higher the intake of omega-3, the larger was the volume of gray matter in the anterior cingulate cortex, a brain area controlling emotion and mood and implicated in depression.11
After making adjustments for age, sex, race, total gray matter volume, smoking status, alcohol use, and IQ, gray matter volume in a specific region of the anterior cingulate cortex decreased as scores on a depression scale increased. This observation supports the role of this brain region in depression, and uncovers a possible mechanism by which omega-3-fatty acids act as antidepressants.
“We were able to show that individuals who consumed more omega-3 fatty acids in their diets had more gray matter volume in areas of the brain important for regulating mood,” Dr. Conklin explains. “These results suggest that these specific fats, certainly not fat in general, may confer a protective effect against depression and other mood-related problems.”
Interestingly, autopsy studies of brains from patients with major depressive disorder show selective deficits in DHA in the orbitofrontal cortex, another brain region implicated in depression and mood disorders.12
Cognitive Benefits of Omega-3s
A third study presented in Budapest by Dr. Conklin’s group revealed that low levels of DHA and high levels of the detrimental arachidonic acid were associated with poor cognitive performance on tests of delayed memory, logical memory, and ability to draw designs from memory.13
Earlier work by Dr. Conklin and colleagues showed that relative deficiency of omega-3 fatty acids was associated with depression and antisocial behavior. In adults with high cholesterol, depressed mood, neurotic tendencies and impulsivity were linked to low levels of omega-3 fatty acids and high levels of the omega-6 fatty acids.
Dr. Conklin adds, “[Omega-3] fatty acids are abundant in only a handful of very specific marine foods such as salmon, some other fish and mollusks, and increasing evidence is suggesting that it is important to ensure that we consume adequate amount of these omega-3 fatty acids.”
There is further promising evidence that putting omega-3 into our diets is associated with improved outcomes for other mental health disorders, such as impaired cognition and perhaps even Alzheimer’s disease.
Research findings from the Netherlands suggest that consuming more fish and omega-3 fatty acids protects against cognitive decline. The Zutphen Elderly Study followed a group of 210 men 70 years and older, examining them in 1985 and testing their cognitive ability in 1990 and 1995.14
Men who did not eat fish experienced measurable cognitive decline from 1990 to 1995 that was four times greater than that of men who ate fish regularly. Strikingly, there was a dose-response relationship between intake of EPA and DHA and loss of cognitive ability. The investigators concluded that “a moderate intake of EPA plus DHA may postpone cognitive decline in elderly men.”14
Mood and mental function are inextricably linked, with depression impairing cognitive ability. In fact, Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias often first appear as changes in outlook and personality. Not surprisingly, deficiency of omega-3 fatty acids has also been implicated in cognitive impairment, whereas diets supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids appear to benefit cognitive function.15
Animal studies further suggest that dietary supplementation with DHA may protect against the type of brain damage seen with Alzheimer’s disease.16 Some scientists also believe that a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids may help prevent Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias,17 and that they may be of modest benefit in some patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease.18 | <urn:uuid:d63dec34-4009-468b-9638-39a6c7fd386f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lifeextension.com/magazine/2007/10/report_depression/Page-01 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00091-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93522 | 2,350 | 2.625 | 3 |
|SITE MAP||SEARCH!||E & B GEOG||RESOURCES||A-Z INDEX|
Selected Geographic Resources in
Supporting & Related Pages:
Posterior Probability =
P (E1|F) =
P(E1) P(F|E1) + P(E2) P(F|E2)
P (E1|F) =
Posterior probability (The revised values of prior
probabilities after receiving additional information)
P (E1) =
Prior probability (The probability which describes
decision maker's judgement about the states of the environment, future
events, or hypotheses, before obtaining additional information)
P (F|E1) =
Likelihood or "conditional probability" (the
probability of a
given sample result, observation or new item of information, under the
assumption that some particular hypothesis of state of the environment
Joint Probability (of prior and conditional probabilities)
-------------------------------------------------------- Marginal Probability (= Sum of all Joint Probabilities)
assigned to the joint
each survey result F (=new information) and each of the
Marginal (or unconditional) Probability
Probability that a
survey result occurs (are found by summing over the joint probabilities
for each of the survey results (F)
Curry, Leslie, Seasonal Programming and Bayesian Assessment of Atmospheric Resources, in: W.R.Derrick Sewell, ed., Human Dimensions of Weather Modification. Research Paper No. 105, Chicago: Department of Geography, University of Chicago, 1966, pp.127-38.
Earman, John. Bayes or Bust: A critical Examination of Bayesian Confirmation Theory. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992. [Review in JEL Sept.1993, pp.1441-2.]
Gregori, Tullio, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy A Bayesian approach to analyze regional elasticities [Abstract]
Grether, David M., "Testing Bayes Rule and the Representativeness Heuristic: Some Experimental Evidence," Journ.Econ.Behav.Organ. 17(1), Jan 1992, 31-57.
Hayter, Roger, Farmers' Crop Decisions and the Frost Hazard in East- Central Alberta: A Bayesian Approach, Tijdschrift voor Econ. en Sociale Geografie 66(2), 1975, 93-102.
Kahneman, Daniel, Paul Slovic and Amos Tversky, eds., Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. Cambridge University Press, 1982.
King, L.J. and R.G.Golledge, "Bayesian Analysis and Models in Geographic Research," in Univ. of Iowa Geography Dept. Discussion Papers No.12, 1969, pp.15-45 [Geographical Essays Commemorating the Retirement of Harold H. McCarty]
Krumme, Gunter (1977)
Puri, Anil, Gökçe Soydemir:
Forecasting industrial employment figures in Southern California: A Bayesian vector autoregressive model
Ann Reg Sci 34 (2000) 4, 503-514
Article in PDF format (125 KB)
Withers, Suzanne D. "Quantitative Methods: Bayesian Inference, Bayesian
Thinking," Progress in Human Geography, 26(4), 2002, 553-66.
Return to Econ & Bus Geog | <urn:uuid:ee9a9b67-b683-44d3-a2f7-d73fc6239010> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://faculty.washington.edu/krumme/450/bayes.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00029-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.713543 | 741 | 3.109375 | 3 |
When the ball is hit from the side with a hammer, it hardly moves. In this case, we have to understand that the motion of the ball depends only on the hammer and the mass of the ball. A lighter ball moves more than the heavier ball. There is no role played by the earth. Since the ball depends only on the mass of the ball and the hammer, if this identical experiment were carried out on the moon, the result would still be the same. | <urn:uuid:5a74d941-be17-483d-bdb9-c17488775e32> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/homework-help/chemistry-for-today-8th-edition-solutions-9781133602279 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00041-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966539 | 95 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Simple Definition of delimit
: to officially set or state the limits of (something)
Full Definition of delimit
: to fix or define the limits of
delimitationplay \di-ˌli-mə-ˈtā-shən, ˌdē-\ noun
Examples of delimit in a sentence
Strict guidelines delimit his responsibilities.
<the highway delimits the eastern edge of the downtown area>
Origin and Etymology of delimit
French délimiter, from Latin delimitare, from de- + limitare to limit, from limit-, limes boundary, limit
First Known Use: 1852
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up delimit? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible). | <urn:uuid:8f84359d-4c69-42bd-892d-548a0a6b57f2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/delimit | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00001-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.798572 | 174 | 3.390625 | 3 |
Here’s a video about threads in Ruby – how do you code them? What are the problems with them? I’m planning a few more short videos about Ruby concurrency. I don’t think enough people have a good grasp of the tradeoffs and problems of running more than one chunk of code at once, in Ruby or in general.
I’m also still learning Camtasia and the rest of the video toolchain. So I hope I’ll look back in a few months and think, “wow, this looks really bad now!”
In the mean time, enjoy! Here’s a transcript:
Ruby supports threads, of course. Modern Ruby, anything 1.9 and higher, uses the normal kind of threads for your operating system, or JVM threads if you’re using JRuby. [next slide] Here’s the code to make that happen. The code inside the Thread.new block runs in the thread, while your main program skips the block and runs the join. “Join” means to wait for the thread to finish - in this case, it waits up to 30 seconds since that’s what we told it. With no argument, join will wait forever. You’ll probably want a begin/rescue/end inside your thread to print a message if an uncaught exception happens. By default, Ruby just lets the thread die silently. Or you can set an option to have Ruby kill your whole program, but I prefer to print a message. In “normal” Ruby, Matz’s Ruby, there’s a Global Interpreter Lock. Two threads can’t run Ruby code at the same time in the same process. So most Ruby threads are waiting for something to complete, like an HTTP request or a database query. [next slide] What are Ruby threads good for if there’s a global lock? In Matz’s Ruby, you’ll mostly want to use them for occasional events. RabbitMQ messages, timeouts, and Cron-style timed jobs are all good. Since you can only have one thread doing real work in Ruby at once, threads are best when your process is mostly idle. JRuby and Rubinius users can chuckle here. Their Ruby handles multiple Ruby threads working at the same time without a hiccup. So what problems do you sometimes see with Ruby threads? [next slide] With the Global Interpreter Lock, threads can switch back and forth between CPUs, sometimes very often. If you see Ruby threads performing horribly in production with Matz’s Ruby or using way too much CPU, try locking the thread down to a single CPU. Your operating system has commands for that — Google them. Next, if the main thread dies or finishes, your program ends. That’s a feature, but sometimes it’s surprising. To have your main thread of execution stick around, use join on the other threads to let them finish. And of course an unhandled exception in a child thread kills only the child thread, and it does it completely silently. Use a begin/rescue/end to print errors to console or set the Ruby option to kill the main program when a child thread dies from an unhandled exception. | <urn:uuid:1d601c0b-8c6e-403d-9a4b-1d8ec20c0c16> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://codefol.io/posts/threads-in-ruby | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.912905 | 684 | 2.84375 | 3 |
The Douglas Block takes its name from the Douglas Building which is prominently located at the corner of NE Main Street and East Thomas Street. It is the anchor building for the Douglas Block and was the catalyst for the emergence of the Douglas Block as the African American business district during the segregation period. The building was constructed around 1916 and expanded between 1917 and 1922 when two additional bays were added on the north side to the original four bay building. For many years, Dr. Junious Douglas, a pharmacist, operated the Douglas-Armstrong Drug Company in the first bay of the Douglas Building. There were many other businesses and professional services that occupied the first and second floors of the Douglas Building throughout the decades, contributing to the vitality of the Douglas Block commercial district.
Other historically significant buildings figured prominently in the history of the site. These include the Manhattan Theater (c. 1940; 122 E Thomas St.), the Booker T. Theater (c. 1910; 130 E Thomas St.), the Burnette Building (c. 1924; 138-40 E Thomas St.), the Stokes Building (c. 1924; 200-10 E Thomas St.), and the Thorpe Building (c. 1905; 201 E Thomas St.).
During its golden age, the Douglas Block was brimming with economic activities and entrepreneurial spirit. It was the heart of the community. On Saturday afternoon you could find everything from clothes to doctors, food to entertainment, dancing and plenty of jazz, and see all your friends along the way. It was a community full of spirit, diversity, and an incredible hub of commerce, culture and entertainment.
200 BLOCK EAST THOMAS STREET - ROCKY MOUNT, NC - 252.442.5178
A Joint Venture of the Rocky Mount-Edgecombe Community Development Corporation and the City of Rocky Mount, North Carolina | <urn:uuid:8844c566-922e-4dcb-ab08-2d47f2bf6770> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.douglasblock.org/history.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959168 | 371 | 2.640625 | 3 |
By HENRY FOUNTAIN
Published: January 26, 1999
Scouring Space for Dust
Space may look pristine, but the part of it near Earth, at least, is really quite trashy. In orbit is the weightless flotsam of human exploration -- a used package of Tang here, a spent rocket stage there -- as well as enough dust to make a housekeeper weep.
The larger debris is generally accounted for and tracked, for even a lost spacesuit glove whizzing along at an orbital speed of 17,000 miles an hour can damage a satellite or other object in its path. But dust bombardment can cause damage as well, and less is known about the scope of the dust problem.
An instrument being carried aboard an unclassified Air Force satellite is designed to get some answers. The experiment, kind of a white-glove test in space, will measure the mass and speed of individual dust particles, as well as their trajectory, in order to determine their origin and distribution.
Some dust particles are left behind by comets; others are the result of human activity. And by continually colliding with and abrading larger orbiting objects, dust begets more dust.
Speed is an indicator of origin, as cometary dust travels faster than the human variety -- about 25,000 miles an hour. But the experiment, designed and monitored by scientists at the University of Chicago, should also be able to determine whether the dust is uniformly distributed, or concentrated in clouds. It may even discover that the Earth has a dust ring, like a junior version of Saturn.
Looking for E.T.
The search for extraterrestrial intelligence, or SETI, has usually involved the ears, not the eyes. Most such projects collect and analyze radio emissions from the heavens for patterns or other signs that may indicate an alien origin.
There have always been a few diehards, however, who have argued that an otherworldly civilization may be just as likely to use light waves as a means of signaling their existence to the rest of the universe. In fact, some of these proponents argue, given Earth's technological history, an advanced civilization may be more likely to use a laser, say, than a more-primitive radio transmitter.
Now, the Planetary Society, a nonprofit group that has long backed the hunt for alien life, is sponsoring three new optical SETI programs. Two projects -- one at the University of California at Berkeley, the other at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics -- are looking for very brief light pulses from nearby Sun-like stars. The third project, also at Berkeley, is examining data from several observatories' searches for planets outside the solar system in the hope of finding a steady, extremely narrow-frequency beam of light.
Bird Metabolism Studied
Yet another animal has been trained to run on a treadmill in the name of science. A few months ago it was a wallaby, bouncing around with an ersatz baby in its pouch. This time it is the rhea, a flightless bird, which suffered the further indignity of wearing a clear plastic hood while it ran.
But it was all for a good cause: determining the maximum metabolic rate for a bird, which until now had not been done. The results, according to the Swiss and American researchers who conducted the study, are astounding. The rhea, pretty much an avian couch potato, has a maximum metabolic rate that is 36 times its resting rate, an increase that exceeds that for most mammals.
The researchers, who discussed their results in the journal Nature, suggest that the scope of the rhea's metabolic increase is representative of birds in general. (The minimum increase required for flight, they note, is 15 times the resting rate.)
The rhea's performance is all the more amazing given the size of its lungs, about half that of a mammal of the same weight. This supports the belief that bird lungs are far more efficient than those of mammals.
Drawing (Nurit Karlin) | <urn:uuid:6896a79f-a834-4409-9450-30ee9619899a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/26/science/observatory.html?src=pm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957608 | 824 | 3.71875 | 4 |
What do Dawn's color ratio images of Vesta mean?
Posted by Emily Lakdawalla
01-11-2011 19:58 CDT
The Dawn mission to Vesta continues to release an image every day, and recently they have been releasing lots of color images. I like color pictures for aesthetic reasons, but color is actually a very important property of planetary surfaces. Color, and how it varies across a planetary surface, provides many pieces to the puzzle of that planet's history, and learning how to read those clues from those colors is one of the things they teach wannabe planetary scientists.
Here's one recent example. If the caption doesn't make much sense to you, don't worry -- that's why I'm writing this blog entry. Grab a snack. It takes me a while to explain.
Many of you may be wondering what they mean by "ratio" and probably also what the heck a "ferrous absorption band" is. I'm going to try to explain!
First things first. Space cameras are not like the one in your phone or point-n-shoot pocket camera. Space cameras usually have detectors that can detect light across slightly more of the electromagnetic spectrum than human eyes can see, from near-ultraviolet to near-infrared wavelengths. More importantly, while the pictures that they take are often pretty, they are not intended to be for snapshots; they are sophisticated, precise scientific measuring devices. Each tiny pixel in a space image is a carefully calibrated measurement of how many photons reached the camera, and for Dawn's Framing Camera, there are a million pixels in each image, a million careful measurements of how much light different spots on Vesta's surface reflect.
To get information on the color of a planetary surface, Dawn's camera team -- like those on Voyager, Opportunity, and Cassini, among many others -- added a filter wheel to the front of their camera. A filter is like a gel on a theater light. It turns white light into colored light. It does this by limiting the wavelengths that can pass through the filter. So a "red" filter typically permits only red wavelengths to pass through, but not blue or green or ultraviolet or infrared, and an "ultraviolet" filter permits only the shortest wavelengths of light to pass through, but not yellow or red or infrared. When you put a filter in front of the camera, the picture you get is a measurement that corresponds to how many photons from a limited range of wavelengths hit the camera's detector. Each pixel is recorded as a number; pixels with higher numbers received more photons. Here's a photo of one of the Mars Exploration Rover Pancams, taken apart so that you can see the filter wheel. It's a wheel because it can rotate to different positions to place different filters in front of the camera lens.
Dawn's Framing Camera has eight different filters fairly evenly spaced across the part of the spectrum that its CCD is capable of detecting. This graph shows what happens when white light (light with a broad mix of wavelengths) is shone through Dawn's different filters. The "F1" filter, or clear filter, lets the white light pass directly through. The left image in the pair I posted above was taken using this filter. All the other filters let only narrow slices of wavelengths of light through.
Filters are usually referred to by their center wavelengths in nanometers. Here is a list of the center wavelengths of each of Dawn's filters:
- F1: (clear)
- F2: 548 nm ("green")
- F3: 749 nm
- F4: 918 nm
- F5: 978 nm
- F6: 829 nm
- F7: 650 nm ("red")
- F8: 428 nm ("blue")
For short, rounder numbers are used to refer to these filters. For example, they call it "750" instead of "749." Among the filters, there are three that roughly correspond to wavelengths detectable by the color-sensitive cone cells in human eyes. These are referred to as red, green, and blue. But there are four filters in longer, near-infrared wavelengths. Why?
To answer that question, we have to look at a different kind of graph, a spectrum. Or, as most people in planetary science refer to them, "squiggly lines." ("Squiggly lines" is one of those terms that was derogatory when initially coined but has been incorporated into the vocabulary of the scientists who study squiggly lines.) Here's a set of spectra that Ryan Anderson put together for me for a post I wrote a while back about an area of the surface of Mars called "White Rock," along with an explanation of how a spectroscopist can read compositional information from the wiggles in the spectrum. Mars' surface has rocks with compositions somewhat similar to what you'd find on Vesta. If you don't follow the caption, don't worry; keep on reading. (Note that a different unit is used here, microns instead of nanometers; 0.4 microns = 400 nanometers.)
All the spectra bear similarities. They all have a strongly upward slope from 0.4 to 0.7 microns, the visible range, which gives all of them the overall red color that is common to Mars. All have a dip near 1 micron, indicating the presence of iron; the White Rock, crater floor, and mafic spectra also contain a much smaller dip near 2 microns, indicating that the iron and magnesium is found in a mineral called pyroxene. The clay spectrum has noticeable dips at 1.9 microns (indicating that water is bound in the chemical structure) and 2.3 microns (indicating the presence of hydroxyl, OH- groups, another signature of the presence of water). Although White Rock bears some similarity to the clay spectrum, it does not contain those two dips, so there is no clear evidence for the presence of water.
Spectra are very meaningful to spectroscopists, but for the rest of us, they're just squiggly lines; looking at them, I might as well be trying to read Japanese.
Color ratio images are a way of taking the most important information from the spectral data and putting them into a format that even geologists can understand. I'll repeat that first image that I showed and explain what the different colors have to do with those spectra:
The red channel of the image is made by taking the image captured through the 749-nanometer near-infrared filter and dividing it by the image captured through the blue filter. "Dividing" two images means they take the value of each pixel in the near-infrared filter and divide that by the value of the corresponding pixel in the blue filter. To understand why they'd want to do that, here's the spectra again, but now I've highlighted the points on each spectrum corresponding to the 440-, 750-, and 920-nanometer filters:
Nearly every rocky body in the solar system has a "red slope," meaning that it's brighter in red wavelengths than it is in blue wavelengths, and true color pictures look reddish-brownish. But some things are redder than others. In the spectra above, you can see that the red squiggle, representing clay minerals, is MUCH more reflective at 750 nanometers than it is at 440, giving that line a steep slope, while the blue squiggle has a lower slope. So if you divide the 750-nanometer image by the 440-nanometer image, your resulting image is brighter where stuff is relatively redder, and darker where stuff is bluer. The image has become a map containing spectral information, so you can read a million spectra at once. Furthermore, all of the confounding changes of brightness and darkness due to shadowing have been eliminated, because shadowing darkens all wavelengths equally, so the ratio remains constant.
Now look at the difference between the values at 750 and the values at 920. If you go back to the spectra again, you'll see that they're all brighter at 750 than they are at 920. But the blue, green, and black squiggles have a deeper valley at 920 nanometers than the red squiggle does. This "valley" appears in a spectrum when the minerals in the surface contain iron. More precisely, the valley appears when the iron atoms have two electrons stripped away. This is called "ferrous" iron, as opposed to "ferric" iron, which has three electrons stripped away. Ferrous iron appears in the very common rock-forming minerals olivine and pyroxene, so wherever you see that valley, you can guess that those minerals are present. It could also mean that the surface there is younger; being exposed to space tends to flatten spectra over time, shallowing those valleys that are used to diagnose the presence of minerals. (All of this is a gross oversimplification of the science of spectroscopy, of course, and my apologies to those of you whose science I'm mangling.)
So if you take the 750-nanometer image and divide it by the 920-nanometer image, you get a map that shows you where olivine is more abundant (it's brighter) and where it's less obvious (it's darker). In fact, you can just hand this image to a geologist and say that it's probably brighter where there's more olivine or where the surface is fresher and darker where there's less or it's older, and the geologist doesn't have to know a thing about spectroscopy to be able to read some information from the map.
To get trickier, you can take advantage of human color vision ability and combine your how-red-is-it map with your how-much-olivine-is-there map in a color picture. The false color combination has the how-red-is-it map in the red channel; the how-much-olivine-is-there map in the green channel; and the how-red-is-it map, inverted (making a how-blue-is-it map) in the blue channel. Thus: stuff that looks red really is redder than other stuff; stuff that looks blue really is bluer than other stuff; and stuff that looks green has more olivine. The CRISM team has been making maps something like these to help non-spectroscopist geologists understand compositional information on the surface of Mars for several years. (CRISM is a spectrometer on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.)
Usually, for planets and moons and asteroids that have no atmospheres, it is observed that redder surfaces have been exposed to space longer than bluer surfaces. Old cratered plains are often redder; fresh crater rays are often bluer. So redness is often used as a proxy for age. So it's really weird to me that half of the spray of ejecta from the crater Numisia in Dawn's image is showing up as appearing red in this false color image. Maybe that's not actually ejecta? And those blobby orange deposits above Numisia are interesting, too; they're spectrally different somehow (that they are orange suggests that they are both red and relatively olivine-rich or relatively fresh; "red" and "fresh" don't usually go hand-in-hand).
All of this will help Dawn's science team map out the composition of Vesta, and tell a story about its history -- a story that looks like it will be quite different from, say, the Moon's. I'm looking forward to reading that story! | <urn:uuid:6252fae6-c972-4fbc-ac0a-b24355016d49> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.planetary.org/blogs/emily-lakdawalla/2011/3239.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00012-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954715 | 2,416 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Data Analysis, Statistics and Probability Summary
Friday, July 5, 2002
Today the FATHOM group worked on exercises from Chapter One of Gail Burrill's rough draft, creating the missing "Figures" in the document with FATHOM representations. We investigated "Collecting Measures" and "Filtering Data," "Plot Value" and "Editing Formulas". Problems surfaced (which were later solved) with creating conditional statements, and the difference between inspecting the sample of rectangles and inspecting the measures from the sample of rectangles.
We then met to discuss overall goals for our group, debrief on where we are, and report back on the PCMI Problem submissions.
Getting graphics into our "Problem," "Connect" software works on the PC's, and FATHOM works on the MAC. We are still investigating the other possibilities.
PCMI@MathForum Home || IAS/PCMI Home
With program support provided by Math for America
This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under DMS-0940733 and DMS-1441467. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. | <urn:uuid:3ea8d797-b769-4378-be4a-259025163c53> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mathforum.org/pcmi/hstp/sum2002/wg/data/journal/data5.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00069-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928512 | 261 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Skills I’ve Learned for Reduction of
Trauma Based Maladaptive Behaviors
Bradshaw, John. (1988). Healing the Shame that Binds You. Health Communications,
Inc.: Deerfield Beach, Florida
Linehan, Marsha. (1993). Skills Training Manual for Treating Borderline Personality
Disorder. Guiford Press.
National Center for Trauma Based Disorders. (2007) Patient Handbook and Workbook. Two Rivers Psychiatric Hospital: Kansas City, Missouri
* This article contains information adapted from the above listed resources.
As survivors of either childhood or adult sexual trauma we many times develop coping skills that are maladaptive. They are maladaptive in that they do not result in one’s becoming better and closer to healing but rather they result in not being able to adjust to life as it comes our way. If one’s trauma occurred during childhood or adolescence, then the coping skills used to survive are congruent with that person’s developmental age. This means that the skills utilized are carried over from earlier stages of development. The same skills that kept us alive as a child or adolescent become ineffective as adults. They become coping mechanisms that are not useful or advantageous to adult life but rather stifle a person’s personal growth and adjustment to ongoing life.
Examples of these maladaptive coping mechanisms are as follows:
• Dissociation: spacing out, zoning off, going out of body, or becoming someone entirely different
• Self Harm: any form of hurting one’s own body or even one’s own mind. Cutting, burning, negative self talk…
• Addictions: alcohol, drugs, gambling, sexual, self harm…
• Poor Interpersonal Boundaries: staying with someone who abuses you, never being able to say no, mind reading…
These maladaptive coping mechanisms are also a great source of one’s retraumatization. They often cause out of control emotional responses such as deep shame, distorted thought processes, and behaviors that result in negative life consequences.
If this information sounds discouraging, don’t worry, it’s not the whole story of our lives. The fact that we are survivors tells the story of our strengths and our courage despite the negative coping behaviors we may struggle with. However, it is my goal to share with other survivors things that are helping me to become a thriving survivor rather than just a surviving survivor.
In 1998 I graduated with a bachelors of science in psychology. I thought I had really achieved something, and in fact it was a good achievement. However, of all the psychological theory and statistics I learned, I knew very little about how to care for my own needs. Growing up in my family of origin with the sexual and physical abuse, neglect, and domestic violence, I learned very poor ways of coping with daily life. Then as if by some heinous twist of fate I married my first husband who was very abusive both physically and emotionally. Finally, at age 40 I am beginning to learn and utilize healthy and adaptive coping skills. It took me really examining my own life and my own behaviors to realize I was not content with how things were going. Often I have felt as though there were a huge gaping hole in my heart all open and raw. I have felt out of control with my emotions or have felt dead as though I have no emotions at all.
Listed below are some of the cognitive and behavioral methods I have learned. If utilized, these skills along with some trained professional help and a good social support network, are tools for healing and personal growth.
1) Grounding - This is a skill that utilizes the five senses to assist a person in staying present in the now. You do this by thinking of as many ways as possible to use sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell to place yourself in the now. This can be utilized daily as needed for help with dissociation, self harm urges, flashbacks, and body memories.
2) Containment - This is a storage box that can be either literal or imagined. Negative or unwanted thoughts that result in negative uncontrollable emotions are stored in the containment box until you are able to acquire help to better process them. This can be done by decorating a pencil box and writing down flashbacks and negative thoughts and placing them in the box for work at a later time. This helps as often as needed for unwanted thoughts, cognitive distortions, strong uncontrollable emotions, memories, and/or urges.
3) Safe Place - This is a place you create in your mind. It has to be a safe, comfortable place where you go by yourself, unless you choose to go there with your higher power. It can be a beautiful beach, a bubbling brook, a forest, or it can be a recliner in front of a fire place. It is a place you go to in your mind when the stress of flash backs, triggers, body memories, or emotional turmoil occur.
4) Affirmations - These are positive words of encouragement, insight, and/or wisdom that are self affirming. You can make up your own or you can read them from books of positive affirmations. They are best if used as often as possible to replace negative thoughts.
5) Changing Cognitive Distortions - This means to change the negative irrational thought processes we have with more rational positive thoughts. Included in this article is a list of common cognitive distortions.
The following is a list of methods of grounding. There are two basic types of grounding, mental and physical.
• Describe your environment in detail using all of your senses.
• Think of your favorites, such as favorite ice cream, color, animal, place…
• Remember a safe place, describing it in detail.
• Remember the words to a favorite song.
• Repeat a favorite saying over and over again such as, “the serenity prayer” or “the 23rd Psalm”.
• Run cool or warm water over your hands
• Grip something tightly
• Touch various objects around you
• Carry a grounding object in your pocket such as a small stone or a piece of jewelry.
The following is a small list of affirmations:
• I love the child I was and the child I am.
• I love myself.
• I trust I am capable.
• I deserve self respect.
• I am free to be me; this too shall pass.
• I am resourceful.
• I have the courage to explore my shadow side.
• I can do whatever I set my mind to.
• I fill my mind with peaceful thoughts.
• I take time to open my heart to rainbows.
• I have courage to focus on beauty even in the midst of pain.
The following is a list of common cognitive distortions:
1. All or nothing thinking – The tendency to categorize things into black and white, absolute extremes, such as good or bad, success or failure.
2. Overgeneralization - Making an overall conclusion based on only one piece of evidence.
3. Mental Filter – The tendency to pick out selective details of a situation and focus on them to the exclusion of other relevant aspects of the situation. Example: several people give you positive feedback but you dwell only on the one negative comment.
4. Rose colored glasses – A type of mental filter where you delete any negative aspects of your reality leading to suppressed sadness.
5. Magnification – The tendency top exaggerate things way out of proportion
6. Catastrophizing – An extreme form of magnification where one sees the worse possible outcome of any situation.
7. Minimization – The tendency to shrink things or downplay their importance. Example: I only have a couple of drinks when I go out.
8. Discounting the positive – A form of minimization where you believe your own good qualities or accomplishments don’t count.
9. Mind reading – assuming what others are thinking or feeling without checking it out first
10. Fortune telling – is when you predict the future will turn out negative, based on your own fears or negative thoughts
11. Emotional reasoning – Using emotion feelings to prove a certain irrational thought. Example: I feel terrible and nothing will ever get better.
12. Bodily reasoning – A bodily feeling proves an irrational belief. Example: The arousal means I’m dirty and shameful.
13. Should statements – unrealistic and perfectionist rules you set that make it difficult to live in the real world. “must, have to, ought, and need to” can be distorted too. Example: I should have stopped the abuse.
14. Labeling – Using emotionally charged words to describe yourself or someone else.
15. Personalizing – The tendency to bale yourself unnecessarily for something you are not totally responsible for
16. Blaming – Making someone else or certain circumstances responsible for choices or decisions that are actually your own responsibility.
This article is copyrighted and unauthorized reproduction is prohibited.
If you wish to use this article online or in print, please contact us to request permission. | <urn:uuid:2142dc4d-80ed-42c6-98d2-50b29b82d02e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://pandys.org/articles/reductionoftrauma.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00060-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.939759 | 1,884 | 2.6875 | 3 |
kids onomatopoeia poems
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Enter your Docstoc account email and we'll send you your login information. 1. 6 Million Research and Education Documents © Docstoc® 2011. All rights reserved. | "Disclaimer: Legal information is not legal advice. Kids. Net. Au - Encyclopedia > Onomatopoeia Search the Internet with Kids. Net. Au Search over one million articles, find something about almost anything!
to shout out abuse. Later in the concert, during a performance of some songs by Berg, fighting broke out, and the police had to be called in.
Schoenberg's music h ... © 2012 Onomatopoeia - kids safe portal for children, parents, schools and teachers. "What are some examples of Onomatopoeia poetry? " is one of the most common questions that is asked to me. As a poet, I see it as vital to give a clear and as comprehensive answer as possible so the one making the query is left in no doubt.
Many great poets throughout the ages have successfully incorporated onomatopoeia into their work with great effect. In this study, I shall name those poets and give excellent examples of onomatopoeia poetry to help you gauge exactly what it is and how you can try it in your own poems.
Examples include: zoom, zap, clang, buzz, clink, whoosh, whaam. The combination sl-, often occurring in words with unpleasant or negative connotations, is sometimes cited as an example of 'secondary onomatopoeia'. | <urn:uuid:776bf95b-dc6a-48cf-9e01-bf6ccb8cd8aa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://fifusibehu.comeze.com/kids-onomatopoeia-poems.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952758 | 370 | 2.578125 | 3 |
CHAMPAIGN, Ill. -- University of Illinois chemistry professor Alexander Scheeline wants to see high school students using their cell phones in class. Not for texting or surfing the Web, but as an analytical chemistry instrument.
Scheeline developed a method using a few basic, inexpensive supplies and a digital camera to build a spectrometer, an important basic chemistry instrument. Spectrophotometry is one of the most widely used means for identifying and quantifying materials in both physical and biological sciences.
"If we want to measure the amount of protein in meat, or water in grain, or iron in blood, it's done by spectrophotometry," Scheeline said.
Many schools have a very limited budget for instruments and supplies, making spectrometers cost-prohibitive for science classrooms. Even when a device is available, students fail to learn the analytical chemistry principles inherent in the instrument because most commercially available devices are enclosed boxes. Students simply insert samples and record the numbers the box outputs without learning the context or thinking critically about the process.
"Science is basically about using your senses to see things - it's just that we've got so much technology that now it's all hidden," Scheeline said.
"The student gets the impression that a measurement is something that goes on inside a box and it's completely inaccessible, not understandable - the purview of expert engineers," he said. "That's not what you want them to learn. In order to get across the idea, 'I can do it, and I can see it, and I can understand it,' they've go to build the instrument themselves. "
So Scheeline set out to build a basic spectrometer that was not only simple and inexpensive but also open so that students could see its workings and play with its components, encouraging critical-thinking and problem-solving skills. It wouldn't have to be the most sensitive or accurate instrument - in fact, he hoped that obvious shortcomings of the device would reinforce students' understanding of its workings.
"If you're trying to teach someone an instrument's limitations, it's a lot easier to teach them when they're blatant than when they're subtle. Everything goes wrong out in the open," he said.
In a spectrometer, white light shines through a sample solution. The solution absorbs certain wavelengths of light. A diffraction grating then spreads the light into its color spectrum like a prism. Analyzing that spectrum can tell chemists about the properties of the sample.
For a light source, Scheeline used a single light-emitting diode (LED) powered by a 3-volt battery, the kind used in key fobs to remotely unlock a car. Diffraction gratings and cuvettes, the small, clear repositories to hold sample solutions, are readily available from scientific supply companies for a few cents each. The entire setup cost less than $3. The limiting factor seemed to be in the light sensor, or photodetector, to capture the spectrum for analysis.
"All of a sudden this light bulb went off in my head: a photodetector that everybody already has! Almost everybody has a cell phone, and almost all phones have a camera," Scheeline said. "I realized, if you can get the picture into the computer, it's only software that keeps you from building a cheap spectrophotometer."
To remove that obstacle, he wrote a software program to analyze spectra captured in JPEG photo files and made it freely accessible online, along with its source code and instructions to students and teachers for assembling and using the cell-phone spectrometer. It can be accessed through the Analytical Sciences Digital Library.
Scheeline has used his cell-phone spectrometers in several classroom settings. His first classroom trial was with students in Hanoi, Vietnam, as part of a 2009 exchange teaching program Scheeline and several other U. of I. chemistry professors participated in. Although the students had no prior instrumentation experience, they greeted the cell-phone spectrometers with enthusiasm.
In the United States, Scheeline used cell-phone spectrometers in an Atlanta high school science program in the summers of 2009 and 2010. By the end of the 45-minute class, Scheeline was delighted to find students grasping chemistry concepts that seemed to elude students in similar programs using only textbooks. For example, one student inquired about the camera's sensitivity to light in the room and how that might affect its ability to read the spectrum.
"And I said, 'You've discovered a problem inherent in all spectrometers: stray light.' I have been struggling ever since I started teaching to get across to university students the concept of stray light and what a problem it is, and here was a high school kid who picked it right up because it was in front of her face!" Scheeline said.
Scheeline has also shared his low-cost instrument with those most likely to benefit: high school teachers. Teachers participating in the U. of I. EnLiST program, a two-week summer workshop for high school chemistry and physics teachers in Illinois, built and played with cell-phone spectrometers during the 2009 and 2010 sessions. Those teachers now bring their experience - and assembly instructions - to their classrooms.
Scheeline wrote a detailed account of the cell-phone spectrometer and its potential for chemistry education in an article published in the journal Applied Spectroscopy. He hopes that the free availability of the educational modules and software source code will inspire programmers to develop smart-phone applications so that the analyses can be performed in-phone, eliminating the need to transfer photo files to a computer and turning cell phones into invaluable classroom tools.
"The potential is here to make analytical chemistry a subject for the masses rather than something that is only done by specialists," Scheeline said. "There's no doubt that getting the cost of equipment down to the point where more people can afford them in the education system is a boon for everybody."
Editor's note: To contact Alexander Scheeline, call 217-333-2999; e-mail firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:5786a0a9-dd04-45aa-9009-60eff7cdbfaa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010-10/uoia-cya100710.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00155-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957944 | 1,251 | 3.546875 | 4 |
Region 15 kids putting math to practical uses
Region 15 students have moved away from the traditional open-your-textbook, sit-up-straight and watch-the-teacher-at-the-chalkboard model.
On Friday, students taking math classes at three schools engaged in animated conversations on topics ranging from garden pens and beaded bracelets to a banquet in Georgia.
"There's change, but the change hasn't been as rapid as people think," said Assistant Superintendent Kelly Lyman.
In the past, more material was thrown students' way, leading to more memorization of formulas. Now the Common Core allows teachers to focus on smaller amounts of material for more lasting learning.
Lyman said, "Now we're saying to teachers, 'What is the math understanding you want students to achieve? Let's stay here a while and take it deeper.'"
ON FRIDAY MORNING, GAINFIELD ELEMENTARY School fifth-graders' desks were grouped in clusters in teacher Peter McGee's classroom. He asked how many pens they could build with 80 meters of fencing and what the perimeter would be if they used all the material on one pen.
"You have three or four minutes to independently dig into this," McGee said. "Then I'll give you time to work with a classmate."
Lyman said explaining solutions to classmates solidifies learning.
Once in groups, McGee's room grew louder.
A boy held up a piece of grid paper to his friends and drew lines with his pencil, "See?" he asked. "It can't just be a line and a line. It has to have width."
Two girls coloring in grids sat on the floor together and other students chose to continue to work quietly on their own. McGee walked around the room, often stopping to ask questions.
"THERE'S THAT ENTHUSIASM of trying to share their ideas," Principal Matthew Salvestrini said. "You try a strategy. If you don't like your model, adjust and find another strategy. There's no one set way to get to the solution."
He said the process is just as important as finding the right answer.
Lyman said, "If you don't understand the math by struggling with it first, it's likely you won't remember the formula."
At Rochambeau Middle School, Susan Waschak's eighth-grade class pretended to be planners for a banquet hosted by the governor of Georgia. Each of the 179 people on the guest list had to have a minimum of 16 ounces of iced tea, with the fewest number of servings.
Waschak's students used formulas to decide to go with cylindrical, conic or sphere-shaped glasses. Similar to McGee's class, students first worked independently, then in groups.
AT POMPERAUG ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, Joan Kloss's first-grade classroom resembled a story hour. She sat in a rocking chair and children sat on a carpet in front of her. Kloss held up an orange bracelet with 10 white beads and asked how it could be used as a tool for teaching math.
Children turned to their friends and engaged in lively discussions.
"You guys are having conversations," Kloss said with a smile. "That tells me you're mathematicians."
At their desks afterward, children used their own bracelets, jotting down as many addition and subtraction equations into their notebooks as they could. The exercise taught them the relationship of adding and subtracting. For instance, 6 + 4 = 10 and 10 - 6 = 4.
Aside from learning, students are also having fun. Lyman recalls helping Long Meadow Elementary School fourth-graders with a math exercise in which they used cutouts of their own feet to measure a bed — learning the need for the universal measure of a foot.
"The kids were so engaged," Lyman said. "I knew it was close to lunchtime, so I asked, 'What time is lunch?' One boy said, 'Lunch isn't for a while, but we were supposed to have our snack 30 minutes ago and we just kept working.'"
Contact Bill Bittar at email@example.com.
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- Southbury boy, 10, wins contest with 'Mess' of poetry | <urn:uuid:d867581f-3200-4a55-b4a2-b11e570cc49e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.rep-am.com/articles/2014/04/14/news/local/791215.txt | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00060-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965203 | 1,152 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Wired For Sound: The Great PCB Debate
If you use a valve amp, you’ll know how much importance is attached to hardwiring. Hi-tech manufacturing is a must when it comes to keeping costs down… but why is it that our ears can hear the difference? Dave Petersen investigates.
During the 1950s and ’60s, when valve technology was standard in consumer goods, the cost of making a hand-wired amplifier was kept affordable by the low prices of valves and other components needed for the large-volume production of radios and televisions. Since then valves have disappeared from consumer goods, leaving music products particularly guitar amps as the main market.
Suddenly, good valves are expensive. In recent years prices have risen to several times their former level, and although this can be said of many other kinds of product, few can match the steep upward price curve of valves and their supporting components. The truth is this: with labour-intensive assembly procedures factored in, valve amp manufacturers are having difficulty keeping their products within reach of guitarists. There are solutions, and in this article we’re going to examine them while keeping an eye on the most important thing of all the way amps sound.
PCBs: The answer?
One way makers keep costs down is by using the assembly speed advantages of printed circuit boards (PCBs). PCBs are essential to all modern consumer electronics, and a valve amp made with them is significantly lower in price than an equivalent hardwired one (Pic 1). This is because it takes about a quarter of the time to build, and there’s another bonus you get a more consistent product that’s not likely to need much postassembly quality control. For every 10 handwired wiring workers, there’s a skilled technician whose job is to check wiring and correct errors, and this adds further to the cost of hardwired products.
Why then do hardwired amps still have a market, rather than simply leaving it to their more reasonably-priced PCB counterparts? Is there a discernible difference in sound quality? Many guitarists say there is, and this may account for the survival and the recent growth in sales of old-fashioned hardwired amps.
Taste The Difference
From an engineer’s viewpoint, using conventional test methods, there’s no measurable change between PCB and hardwired versions of the same model of amp in standard parameters like output, frequency response, noise and distortion. Induced hum the bugbear of hardwired assemblies is often lower in the PCB version, although this can vary with the PCB layout (indeed, some respected old valve amps used PCBs very early on without noticeable ill-effects). In others that transferred later to this technology the difference is apparent to the player, and that’s useful in helping to determine what causes this impression.
The words ‘to the player’ are significant, because it’s doubtful if it would be noticeable to the average listener. But ask a guitarist to comment on a hardwired amplifier and a later version of it made with PCBs and the answer will probably be that the amplifier ‘feels’ different.
Touch response or how a guitar’s strings respond to the player through an amp is a difficult aspect of an amp to assess technically. It’s governed by more than one factor, an important one being the amp’s input impedance, which determines how much it loads the guitar’s pickup. Equally important is group delay, the time taken for the magnified incoming signal to appear at the amp’s output. Group delay is the sum of the transient responses (also called rise time or slew rate) of all the stages in the amp’s signal chain. A difference of more than 10 microseconds is perceptible as a change in the touch response. A frequent comment of players checking out early digital modelling amps, whose group delay is inherently big because of the time needed to encode and decode the signal, was that their strings felt a gauge heavier. This is a worst-case example, and this type of amp has greatly improved recently, but it identifies the area we should search to find the causes. | <urn:uuid:bd91e8bd-3bc1-4b2f-bdbc-ca1a2d4d5d3c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.guitar-bass.net/news/wired-for-sound-the-great-pcb-debate/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95487 | 858 | 2.765625 | 3 |
For the last hundred years, scientists have been wondering why the dinosaurs disappeared so quickly. Was there one key reason, or several?
Volcanologists pointed to volcanoes. Climatologists suggested global warming, or possibly, global cooling. Ocean experts thought the oceans receded. Some biologists blamed egg snatching mammals. Some botanists suggested toxic plants. In his new book on everything dinosaurish, My Beloved Brontosaurus, Brian Switek lists a "slew of weird ideas" proposed by various scientists 50, 60 years ago, before our current favorite, the asteroid theory, gained favor.
Some supported the dinosaurs-developed-cataracts theory, some the "slipped disc" theory. Others thought dinosaurs got zapped by cosmic radiation. Still others felt as dinosaurs got bigger (while their brains stayed small), they became too stupid to compete with smaller animals. Nobody knew so everybody guessed.
"There had to be some reason the dinosaurs disappeared, and the floor was open to just about anyone who had even the slightly inkling on the subject," writes Brian.
The Caterpillar Theory
Of all the theories he looked at, Brian's favorite is so wonderful to think about, so deeply odd (even if it's almost certainly wrong), I want to retell it. It comes from a California scientist, Stanley Flanders, who made his living as an entomologist, an insect man, which is perhaps why, in 1962, he wrote a paper called, "Did the Caterpillar Exterminate the Giant Reptile?" Dr. Flanders proposed that the great dinosaurs were eliminated by a giant influx of moths and butterflies.
I'm not making this up.
Here's his argument. Flanders reasoned that "the inherent weakness of the reptile was an extraordinary need for an abundance of plant material."
Can't argue with that. Big vegetable eaters — the hadrosaurs and sauropods — needed to eat leaves by the bushel. Bushels upon bushels. So if anybody else got to those leaves ahead of them, that was dangerous.
Caterpillars, of course, eat leaves too. They are much, much, much smaller than dinosaurs, so you wouldn't think of them being a threat, unless ... and here's where Dr. Flanders imagined his catastrophic possibility.
Suppose, he said, that somewhere around the time the dinosaurs disappeared, a new insect happened on the scene. These little guys were the first representatives of the Lepidoptera, animals that today we call moths and butterflies. When they lay eggs, their babies, the caterpillars, eat prodigious amounts of leaf. If there were birds around, or caterpillar loving parasites, lots of those caterpillars would have been eaten or destroyed, killed by their natural enemies.
But what if, asked Dr. Flanders, the first baby moths and butterflies were so new, they didn't yet have enemies?
Then, because they could have had so many babies much more quickly than giant dinosaurs, they could not only multiply enormously, they might have achieved a population large enough to out-eat the dinosaurs. He'd seen such a thing happen in Australia when a new caterpillar, "imported from Argentina in 1925, destroyed within 6 years approximately 50 million acres of the prickly pear." It had no Australian enemies.
Sixty-five million years ago, those moths and butterflies would eventually become dinner for even newer animals, but for a little while, wrote Dr. Flanders, he could imagine the dinosaurs getting hungrier and hungrier as caterpillars made off with their food until, eventually, a great die-off began.
"Thus," Flanders concluded, "the giant reptiles which had survived during eons characterized by great changes in climate, continental uplifts, and different diets, may have been exterminated by the lowly caterpillar."
Thinking about this, Brian Switek imagines the final scene: On the forest floor you see the dead hulks of hadrosaurii, sauropods, the horned dinosaurs wasting away while all about them in growing profusion is a cloud of moths and butterflies getting thicker and thicker, a haze of tiny wings, as billions of moths maybe showing first traces of blues, greens, pinks, flutter about. ... Kind of beautiful, no?
Alas, Dr. Flanders' theory never attracted much scientific support. There is no evidence in the fossil record of any epidemic of caterpillars. Instead, we now think the main reason for the dinosaur's going is an asteroid, about the size of Manhattan that crashed to earth — an asteroid Dr. Flanders knew nothing about at the time.
It was discovered by a father and son team named Alvarez. Walter, the son, is a geologist (a rock guy). His dad Luis was a physicist (knows about objects in motion). Scientists, like the rest of us, seem to go where their enthusiasms take them. But this time, the evidence, in the mineral earth, the fossil record, confirmed their story. Not everybody agrees it was just that big rock that did it, but when the data says "yes," biologists, botanists, zoologists, paleontologists have no choice but to accept the evidence.
That's how science works. Sometimes even the most beautiful stories, the ones you'd love to believe in, end up, alas, in the garbage can. | <urn:uuid:268c2466-7c16-423a-aef7-3ad401a21584> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wnyc.org/story/304361-a-beautiful-notion-that-caterpillars-killed-off-the-dinosaurs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00154-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975415 | 1,126 | 3.453125 | 3 |
The Star of the West was a side-wheel merchant steamer, which ordinarily made runs between New York and New Orleans. Initially, the formidable sloop of war, Brooklyn, was to carry the troops and supplies to reinforce Fort Sumter. But the Buchanan administration determined against sending a warship as too provocative, too public, and possibly too heavy to make its way into Charleston Harbor. Instead, they chartered the Star of the West for $1250 a day, and, to maintain secrecy, cleared the vessel as usual for New Orleans. Once out of port, the vessel was anchored in darkness and the troops boarded. Both the troops and supplies were to hide below decks as the steamer made its way into the harbor.
The mission proved a military fiasco. No sooner had the Star of the West departed than the president received a message from Major Robert Anderson indicating that he could hold out at Fort Sumter for the foreseeable future. Orders were promptly dispatched to detain the Star of the West, but it had already left. Orders were sent to the Brooklyn to intercept the vessel at Charleston, or to render assistance if needed, but the Star of the West arrived first. Furthermore, the attempt to maintain secrecy failed. Newspapers published stories that the ship was headed for Charleston, and Carolina officials received confirmation from Louis Wigfall, still a United States senator from Texas, as well as from Buchanan's secretary of the interior, Jacob Thompson of Mississippi. At the same time, the official notification of the mission to Anderson at Sumter was trusted to the regular mails and had not arrived when, in the early morning of January 9, 1861, Carolina's batteries opened on the Star of the West. The unarmed ship was caught in a cross-fire. Receiving no assistance from Fort Sumter, it turned back to New York after suffering minor damage.
Although it failed to reinforce Sumter, the Star of the West operation resulted in the resignation of Thompson from the cabinet. It also reflected a stiffening of the Buchanan administration's resolve to uphold the Union against secession. | <urn:uuid:d65e679f-65db-4482-8111-e80ad3f3dfc4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.tulane.edu/~sumter/StarOfTheWest.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97302 | 417 | 3.4375 | 3 |
Out in the far reaches of the solar system, things are mostly cold, dull, and dead. That’s why scientists sat up at their computers last year when pictures returning from the Cassini spacecraft showed enormous geysers of water erupting from the warm south pole of Saturn’s moon Enceladus. What’s more, Cassini’s instruments detected organic compunds like methane in the spray. Water plus warmth plus organics equals the possibility of life, and Enceladus immediately shot to the top of the list of most intriguing places in the solar system.
From This Story
James Wray followed the news with more than usual interest. Having majored in astrophysics at Princeton, he hopes to make a career in the space program. So when he arrived at Maryland’s Goddard Space Flight Center in June for this year’s NASA Academy—a summer study program for top college graduate students and undergrads—he was already toying with an idea: a spacecraft mission to explore Enceladus.
Last week Wray and his fellow Academy students delivered the final presentation for their eight-week group project based on Wray’s suggestion: the NASA currently has no plans for another Saturn probe, the EAGLE proposal gives hope that someone, someday, may launch something very much like it.
The Academy students—20 of them, all engineering and science majors—picked June 2023 as the date of departure from Earth. Seven years later, after swings past Venus and Earth to gain speed, the combination orbiter-lander would arrive at Enceladus. (The team considered just an orbiter, says Wray, “but we decided that was too boring.”) To ground their design in reality, the students outfitted EAGLE with instruments used on actual missions, including cameras from NASA’s Spirit and Opportunity Mars rovers, an amino acid analyzer from the planned European ExoMars mission, and a sample analyzer (EAGLE would drill a sample from the icy crust) based on one that will fly on NASA’s upcoming Mars Science Laboratory. The students even took a stab at estimating the price tag: $838 million, or $1.13 billion if you throw in the cost of launch and operations. The payoff would be determining whether liquid water—and maybe life—exists today on Enceladus.
The college students may have beaten the professionals to designing a mission, but planetary scientists have already begun thinking about a return to Enceladus after Cassini. NASA’s Outer Planets Assessment Group, which advises the agency on strategies for exploring the solar system beyond Mars, took up the subject of future Enceladus missions at American Astronomical Society’s Division for Planetary Sciences meeting in Pasadena, California in October. Wray and two other members of the EAGLE team plan to present their results at the meeting, and most of the 20 students from this year’s Academy will be there.
Until recently, Jupiter’s moon Europa was the preferred target for future exploration in the outer solar system, because of the ocean thought to lie beneath its crust. But the icy shell around Enceladus is likely much thinner, at least in some places. The reservoir of water that feeds its geysers could be just tens of meters below the surface. Enceladus may also be an easier place to operate a spacecraft—the region around Europa is crackling with intense radiation.
Some scientists are therefore advocating a return to Saturn’s moons (Enceladus and the fascinating cloud-covered Titan) as NASA’s next big outer solar system adventure, instead of Europa.
Whether or not EAGLE flies, look for Wray and his NASA Academy classmates to figure in future plans to visit Enceladus. In the meantime, he’s off to graduate school at Cornell, where he’ll work with planetary scientist Steve Squyres on new high-resolution pictures soon to be coming back from Mars. Not bad for a kid just out of college. | <urn:uuid:b5986d7c-6bd1-4683-9f66-fc25d09d94db> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.airspacemag.com/space/mission-to-enceladus-9577482/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00003-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929785 | 849 | 3 | 3 |
New photographers are taught the ‘rule of thirds’ as one of the first guidelines toward making exciting pictures. This is a technique in which a hypothetical grid (similar to a noughts and crosses board) is utilized to frame subjects. The grid separates an image into nine equal portions with four junction points and four lines.
These points of intersection – and the lines which create them – serve as focus points. They accommodate a viewer’s natural tendency to focus on them. In doing so, the rule of thirds helps you to make pictures that are concurrently balanced and engaging.
In this post, we’ll explain how the R.O.T. is employed for single subject and multiple subject compositions. We’ll describe the guidelines of engagement and supply an example which will explain how the technique can be applied poorly. Lastly, you’ll discover why all rules of composition, including the ROT, are meant to be thrown out.
One Subject versus Many Subjects
In single subject photographs (i.e. those picturing a lone person or object), the composition’s main focal anchor rests along the left line of the grid. Points of interest that are positioned on that line will inspire your spectator to interact with your photo. When framing multiple subject compositions, a slightly different approach is needed.
Several points of interest need a prioritization of each subject’s importance to the photograph. You’ll need to consider which subjects will be in the foreground and which will remain in the background. Where you place those subjects on your ROT grid will either underline or discount their significance.
Of the four intersection points on your grid, the bottom right point has the most focal weight. That’s where your viewer’s eyes are naturally drawn in multiple subject compositions. The upper left point has the least focal weight. Imagine you were to seat your foreground subject on the upper left junction point while placing your background subject on the bottom right of the grid. Such framing would appear counterintuitive to your spectators. It would confuse them.
Further Rules Of Engagement
If humans are included in the foreground of your photos, the direction in which they are looking plays a significant role in creating a stimulating composition. The rule of thirds is best used in such circumstances when the subject is placed upon the line opposite of the direction in which he or she’s looking.
For instance, imagine your image is focused on a man who is looking toward the right. He deserves to be positioned on your grid’s left line. Likewise, the line along which he is looking should run along the top line of your grid. This kind of framing is intuitive to the viewer; it seems natural. And is more engaging.
The rule of 3rds is usually applied poorly. This happens when the shutter-bug understands the strategy, but does not fully appreciate why it works. As an example, suppose you are photographing a dog and have him framed so his head is positioned on the higher left point and his tail on the bottom right point. As discussed earlier, the bottom right point has the most focal strength. The upper left point, the least. As a result, the dog’s tail would receive the attention rather than his head, reducing the impact of your picture.
Learning And Bending The R.O.T.
Like all rules of composition, the rule of 3rds can be bent or broken. In reality, setting it aside can yield photographs that deliver shocking impact. As an example, a lone road that runs directly into the horizon can be positioned directly in the middle of your image. While doing so ignores the ROT, it can produce a powerful image that draws your spectator’s eye.
By framing your subjects according to the rule of thirds, you’ll be able to create compositions that appear balanced and interesting to your viewer. That said, after you learn the way to effectively use the ROT, be open to experimenting with pictures that ignore it. You could be stunned by the effect your footage can have.
About the Author:
This article was kindly provided by Poster brain, who’s passion is poster printing (and, for some reason, hair). They have scoured the planet for the finest quality paper, printers, and inks to provide an incredible poster experience.
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There is a downloadable multimedia tutorial with videos that teaches you how to take control over your camera, and get creative and confident with your photography. By combining illustrations, text, photos and video, it will help you get control in no time. Includes a bonus Field Guide—a printable pocket guide with some of the most essential information beautifully laid out inside.
It can be found here: Extremely Essential Camera Skills
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Rice noodles are the second most common rice product used in Asia, behind rice grains. Regular pasta, or enriched spaghetti, is more common in the United States. Regular pasta has more nutrients than rice noodles; however, rice noodles do not contain gluten, which makes them a good choice for people with gluten sensitivities or celiac disease.
Calories and Fat
Rice noodles and regular pasta are similar in calorie and fat content. Rice noodles have 96 calories per 1/2 cup, and pasta has 111 calories. Both types of noodles contain little fat. Regular pasta has 0.65 grams of fat per 1/2 cup, about 0.5 grams more than rice noodles. The majority of fat in regular pasta is unsaturated, or healthy, fat.
Protein, Carbohydrates and Fiber
Regular pasta is higher in protein than rice noodles. Rice noodles have 0.8 grams of protein per 1/2 cup, while regular pasta has 4.06 grams. Carbohydrate and fiber content vary little between the two noodles. Regular pasta has 21.6 grams of carbohydrate and 1.3 grams of fiber. Rice noodles have 21.91 grams of carbohydrate and 0.9 grams of fiber.
Enriched regular pasta has more vitamins and minerals than rice noodles because it contains added iron, thiamin, niacin, riboflavin and folic acid. The biggest difference between the two noodles is their folate contents. Regular pasta has 83 micrograms of folate, versus 3 micrograms in rice noodles. Folate is particularly important for women of childbearing age, because it is necessary for the health of a developing fetus. Regular pasta also contains about 10 times more thiamin and riboflavin, and twice as much niacin as rice noodles.
Regular pasta is enriched with iron and contains 4 percent of the recommended daily value, which is eight times more than rice noodles. Regular pasta has more calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium and zinc. These minerals help your body maintain a stable blood pressure, control muscle contractions, support the immune system and maintain healthy teeth and bones.
- spaghetti image by Bartlomiej Nowak from Fotolia.com | <urn:uuid:f4f0f7fb-56df-4015-9d86-0f9f577b2ea7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/nutritional-differences-rice-noodles-vs-regular-pasta-1943.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00167-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928216 | 450 | 3.078125 | 3 |
NASA astronauts on the International Space Station will get their first taste of ‘space lettuce’ today, when they harvest a crop of red romaine lettuce that’s been cultivated over the past 33 days in the orbiting lab’s special Veggie plant growth system.
The lettuce, which has been grown from seeds planted by NASA astronaut Scott Kelly on July 8, will be cleaned using citric acid-based sanitising wipes before being divvied up between the Expedition 44 crew members for taste-testing. The astronauts will get one half, and the other half will be packed up, frozen, and shipped back to Earth for scientific analysis.
Grown as part of NASA’s Veg-01 experiment, the lettuce has been exposed to red, green and blue LEDs to see how they respond to an environment that offers zero natural sunlight. While only red and blue light is needed to ensure that photosynthesis can still occur - they combine to produce the pinkish light you can see in the picture below - the scientists opted to add in green light too so they didn’t end up with some alarmingly purple leaves.
"Blue and red wavelengths are the minimum needed to get good plant growth," Ray Wheeler from NASA's Exploration Research and Technology Programs Office said in a press release. "They are probably the most efficient in terms of electrical power conversion. The green LEDs help to enhance the human visual perception of the plants, but they don't put out as much light as the reds and blues."
The seeds used had been stored on the ISS for the past 15 months. The first-ever batch of space lettuce was harvested in October 2014 and send straight home to the Kennedy Space Centre in Florida for a safety analysis. If today’s last-test goes well, NASA will explore ways to grow more edible crops on the ISS, and will look into how they can provide deep-space and long-duration mission teams with round-the-clock fresh food. One day, we might even have similar experiments set up on the surface of Mars.
"There is evidence that supports fresh foods, such as tomatoes, blueberries, and red lettuce, are a good source of antioxidants," said Wheeler. "Having fresh food like these available in space could have a positive impact on people's moods and also could provide some protection against radiation in space."
NASA also says that besides the obvious health benefits of having fresh vegetables around, the psychological benefits of having a lovely green garden up in space are likely to be significant. "The Veggie experiment is currently the only experiment we are supporting which involves evaluating the effects of plant life on humans in space," said Alexandra Whitmire, a scientist at NASA’s Johnson Space Centre tasked with figuring out to reduce any psychological risks associated with a Mars mission.
"Future spaceflight missions could involve four to six crew members living in a confined space for an extended period of time, with limited communication," she said. "We recognise it will be important to provide training that will be effective and equip the crew with adequate countermeasures during their mission."
"The farther and longer humans go away from Earth, the greater the need to be able to grow plants for food, atmosphere recycling, and psychological benefit," NASA’s Gioia Massa adds. "I think that plant systems will become important components of any long-duration exploration scenario."
All we want to know now is, what kind of dressing did they use? Cosmic caesar? Intergalactic Italian? Far-out French? Okay sorry, we'll stop now.
Update: The came, they saw, they conquered the space lettuce. And it looks delicious: | <urn:uuid:59bd60b9-61f8-4413-848a-f299c100814b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sciencealert.com/nasa-astronauts-will-eat-space-lettuce-for-the-first-time-today | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00047-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952949 | 749 | 3.578125 | 4 |
LONDON – Non-volatile memory bits can be made by applying phase-change material to previously created nanometer-scale gaps in carbon nanotube filamentary conductors, according to a paper published by researchers at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois.
The configuration achieves programming currents as low as 0.5 microamps for set and 5 microamps for reset operations, two orders of magnitude lower than state-of-the-art devices, the authors claim in their ScienceExpress paper, published March 10.
The researchers, led by Professor Eric Pop of University of Illinois, grew single-wall and multi-wall carbon nanotubes with diameters of between 1 and 6 nanometers and then used electrical breakdown, e-beam writing or an atomic force microscope to form a gap of less than 100 nanometers in each wire. The devices than received a sputtered layer of germanium-antimony-tellurium (GST) so that the gaps in the CNTs are filled with the phase-change material. Although amorphous GST is laid down over the entire device, the switching occurs only in the nanogap of the CNT, which is the location of highest electric field and heating effect.
The authors claim their results address the scaling of both the size and power reduction that is possible with programmable PCM bits. The paper reports on reversible switching with programming currents between 1 and 8 microamps, two orders of magnitude lower than state-of-the-art PCM devices. The PCM material switches between an off resistance of 50-megaohm to an on resistance of 2-Mohm but which can be as low 500-kohm, depending on sample preparation.
The authors report hundreds of switching cycles. Conventional PCM devices have been reported at more than 1 million cycles endurance.
The creation of nano-debris in the formation of the CNT gaps does not appear to be a problem, according to Professor Pop. "The
nanogaps are formed by an oxidation process, so it is possible that the C atoms
combine with O atoms forming gas (CO or CO2), not solid debris. Regardless,
debris does not seem to be a problem since the nanotubes show a “clean cut”
after imaging with atomic force microscopy (AFM)," Professor said in email correspondence with EE Times.
Professor Pop and his team only worked with individual devices. "That being said, I think the integration could be pretty high if the nanotubes could be closely spaced. Perhaps one could fit even up to 100 parallel nanotubes side-by-side (~10 nm spacing) and the memory bits could still work without cross-talk. This is just an educated guess based on some calculations we’ve done, not something that we have achieved in practice, yet, he said.
The authors go on to suggest that 5-nm GST bits in a CNT gap could operate at 0.5-V and less than 1 microamp, such that nanosecond switching times would result in sub femtojoule-per-bit energy consumption. There is also the option to use GeSb which has a lower switching threshold. The authors claim the results are "encouraging for ultra-low power electronics and memory based on programmable PCM with nanoscale carbon interconnects."
Professor Pop agreed that blowing billions of CNTs electrically serially would be too time consuming and that doing it one pass would consume too much power. "Yes,
we’ve considered this, but we don’t think this is necessarily the way to go for
a commercial application," said Professor Pop. "Commercially, nanogaps would probably be made through some large-scale etching
process, in large CNT arrays," he added.
However, the paper does not address
the introduction of additional manufacturing complexity, so the
development is a long way from being proven as a useful commercial
Micron Technologies Inc. and Samsung Electronics Co. Ltd. are the two companies most active in commercial phase-change memory. Both have 1-Gbit designs but neither company is boasting of high volume sales into commercial designs and concerns have been raised over the ability of conventional PCM-on-silicon memories to scale and compete with flash memory which is already at higher than 1-Gbit capacity implemented on processes with finer minimum dimensions.
Related links and articles:
Samsung CEO: Headwinds hinder PRAM
Update: PCM found in handset
CTO confirms IBM's PCM expectations
A series of articles on PCM by Ron Neale published in EE Times Memory Design Line:
PCM Progress: Temperatures rise and constituents on the move
PCM The Myth of Scalability Part 3- Is WAL-PCM the salvation?
PCM Scalability:The Myth (Part 2)
PCM scalability--Myth or realistic device projection (Part 1) | <urn:uuid:44aa6e8f-10b8-40b2-8a38-cfb2b4efedd5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1266395 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00133-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941501 | 1,028 | 2.828125 | 3 |
||2001 News Releases
Space Views Capture Record Nile Flooding
August 31, 2001
Thousands of people in the Sudan lost their homes this year to the swollen waters of the Nile, which reached their highest levels in more than two decades. Images from NASA's Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer show the rising waters that threatened residents north of Sudan's capital, Khartoum. The four views from space show the Nile and its main tributaries near Khartoum, before and after the rainy seasons in 2000 and 2001. The images are available online at:
The Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer, built and managed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., is one of several Earth-observing experiments aboard the Terra satellite, which was launched in December 1999. The instrument acquires images of Earth at nine angles simultaneously, using nine separate cameras pointed forward, downward and backward along its flight path. More information about the Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer is available at http://www-misr.jpl.nasa.gov .
JPL is a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena.
Contacts: JPL/Rosemary Sullivant (818) 354-0474 | <urn:uuid:2c7b2525-1960-41c3-8e5d-b83f67a9e589> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/releases/2001/release_2001_181.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.882382 | 259 | 3.078125 | 3 |
THE HISTORY of 34 ARMOURED BRIGADE
This History of 34 Armoured Brigade was apparently written towards the end of 1945. The Aftermath states: “4 RTR will be moving to Italy when they are good and ready.” In fact they moved in January 1946 and became part of 6 Armoured Division.
In a Foreword, not reproduced here, the author of the History says: “This short account is compiled by the Brigade HQ as the end of the formation’s life approaches, and is written solely because all its members are extremely proud to have served the fighting Regiments of a Brigade who have throughout always done their job and done it well.” Well said, indeed.
Peter Beale, December 2003
The Brigade was born on l December 1941 in Wiltshire.
It shared this birthday with two other Brigades, 35 and 36. All three were formed as Army Tank Brigades to be armed with the (then brand new) Churchill tank designed primarily for close co‑operation with infantry. Of the three Brigades this one was the most fortunate, for a year later 36 Brigade was disbanded (for reasons of manpower shortage in the R.A.C.) and 35 Brigade became C.D.L. (Canal Defence Light unit) and, despite a varied and intense life in 79 Armoured Division, it never got overseas before the end of the war.
For two and a half years 34 Brigade trained in various parts of Southern England, first as an independent brigade, then as part of 1 Division (which had just become the first of the divisions. of mixed composition, two brigades of infantry and one of armour). It then joined the 43 (Wessex) Division, and nine months before D‑Day once more became an independent Tank Brigade when mixed divisions were abandoned as uneconomical.
The Brigade fought, intermittently, from the NORMANDY bridgehead to the RHINE crossings for a period of eight months in both Canadian First and British Second Armies and in company with nine different divisions at various times.
AFTERMATH: German Occupation
After the RHINE crossing the Brigade was in Second Army reserve and was not used again, being left far behind in the final gallop through Northern Germany. In June 1945 the original Brigade changed out of recognition in reorganising for S.E.A.C. and was left with only one of its original Regiments, 107 Regt. R.A.C.
Hence this is the latest point of interest, although it continued to exist until the Spring of 1946, when eventually it disbanded after four years of existence.
NOTE :‑Throughout this account the formation is called Armoured Brigade, that being its latest title. But it was originally born as 34 Army Tank Brigade and wore the diabolo sign. Later it became 34 Tank Brigade when in the mixed divisions (1st and 43rd) and wore their signs. Then it went to FRANCE as an independent Tank Brigade wearing Second Army signs for a while, before choosing its own " Mace and Shield " sign in the NORMANDY bridgehead days and being called 34 Armoured Brigade. The Mace stood for the heavy in‑fighting weapon and tactics of heavily armoured Churchills, which had originally been specially designed as tanks to work in closest co‑operation with infantry. The Shield carries the colours of the R.A.C., the original regiments being all R.A.C. regiments.
Dec 1, 1941
On the 1st December, 1941, Brigade Headquarters formed from 226 Independent Infantry Brigade, and one Regt. (8th Bn. Essex Regt.) came across to R.A.C. becoming 153 Regt. R.A.C. Transferred from 226 Brigade were:
Brigade Major Major R. C. Macdonald (later D.S.O.)
Royal Warwickshire Regt.
Liaison Officer Lt. R. F. Jackson, R.A.C.
The first Brigade Commander was Brigadier J. N. Tetley, T.D. (later D.S.O.), who had previously commanded, as a Territorial Army officer, the 45th (Leeds Rifles) Bn. Royal Tank Regt. in the 8 Armoured Division.
On formation the Regiments were :
North Irish Horse. Commanded by Lt.‑Col. D. Dawnay
147 Regt. R.A.C. Commanded by Lt.‑Col. A. R. W. S. Koe
153 Regt. R.A.C Commanded by LL‑Col. C. L. Wilson, M.C.
The North Irish Horse came from ULSTER and had been Divisional Cavalry to 61 Division prior to becoming an Armoured Regt. (Valentines) under British Troops Northern Ireland.
147 Regt. R.A.C. had been the 10th Bn. Hampshire Regt. on coast defence in YORKSHIRE
153 Regt. R.A.C., mentioned above as 8th Bn. Essex Regt., formed after DUNKIRK, had since done coast defence.
After six months in WILTSHIRE forming as a Brigade and getting its Services it moved in June 1942 to join 1 Division (Mixed) in East Anglia. Here the Brigade launched into its first Exercise on arrival ( SCORPION), chiefly notable for clouds of choking dust, and returned from it to exceedingly primitive and depressing camps which were to be its new home.
Shortly afterwards another large scale Exercise, by name LIMPET, involving also 35 and 36 Tank Brigades and 9 Armoured Division besides 1 Division complete, took place around the THETFORD area finishing up in never‑to‑be‑forgotten deluges of rain in the Battle of Frog Hill. Then followed an extraordinary sauve‑qui‑peut movement by all concerned on the cease fire sounding. No tighter concentration of tanks in a small area was seen again until the FALAISE BAG closed in NORMANDY in August 1944.
But the Brigade was not to go overseas to NORTH AFRICA, and its place was soon taken in 1 Division by 25 Army Tank Brigade. In that autumn it lost the North Irish Horse to the latter in exchange for 151 Regt. R.A.C. The 151 Regt. R.A.C. had been converted from the 10th Bn. King's Own Royal Regt. about two months later than 147 and 153 Regts. R.A.C. Ours was its third Brigade and it was feeling a little sorry for itself and wishing (just a little) that it had remained infantry ! It was commanded by Lt‑Col. S. H. Crow and quartered in WESTGATE, Kent. In December 1943 it became 107 Regt. R.A.C. to carry on the name of its senior T.A. unit (ex 5th Bn. King's Own) which was disbanded.
In September 1942 the Brigade moved to SUSSEX taking over 25 Brigade's billets and former place as the Tank Brigade in 43 (Wessex) Division, but remained close to the South Downs to train and did not move to join 43 Division in EAST KENT until December 1942. Highland Court, BRIDGE, near CANTERBURY, was the permanent home of Brigade Headquarters from December 1942 until the whole Brigade moved to concentrate for overseas in the late Spring of 1944.
The Regts. ‑ 147, 151 and 153 Regiments R.A.C. ‑ settled down and, with its Services, the Brigade Group as such remained thereafter unchanged until its first casualties in NORMANDY.
February of 1943 saw us on Exercise SPARTAN, the biggest thing since Exercise BUMPER‑‑‑! No account can afford to ignore these mighty bloodless battles in the United Kingdom. The memory of them will live on in hearts behind the ribbon of the Defence Medal when recollection of many smaller, and bloody, battles in FRANCE, BELGIUM, HOLLAND. and GERMANY has slipped away.
After Exercise SPARTAN came Exercise THUNDERBOLT and, through the summer, Exercise HAMMER, Exercise NON‑STOP and a host of others in 43 (Wessex) Division. The training of the Brigade as a fighting formation progressed steadily under the eye of Major‑General (now Lt‑General) G. I. Thomas, C.B., D.S.O., M.C., who, we believed, even knew the name of' almost every lumbering Churchill tank in our harassed but always happy Brigade.
At the end of June 1943 Brigadier J. N. Tetley left to command 25 Tank Brigade and was replaced by Brigadier W. S. Clarke, who thereafter commanded the Brigade for the remainder of its life.
In the Autumn of 1943 the mixed divisions were abolished and, leaving 43 (Wessex) Division, 34 Armoured Brigade became and remained an Independent Brigade, thenceforward under XII Corps H.Q. Leaving this Division came as a severe shock to us, for we had become intensely “43rd." Having lived within it for a most strenuous year resulted in its members knowing and being known by their opposite numbers throughout the whole Division.
Previously the Regiments had shot at MINEHEAD and on the South Downs, now it was KIRKCUDBRIGHT and WARCOP ranges (and almost up to the last minute before embarkation we shot 75‑mm. on LARKHILL ranges as and when it could be fitted in). Here should be mentioned Exercises HARLEQUIN in September 1943, CANUTE II in November and SHUDDER in March 1944. In HARLEQUIN we journeyed through the various zones and areas of embarkation to the " hards " and L.C.T's. In CANUTE and SHUDDER we went through the reverse motions, pretending that we were on the other side of the Channel..
On 7 February, 1944, as a new appointment, a Second‑in‑Command of the Brigade, Colonel A. D. R. Wingfield, D.S.O., M.C. (10th Royal Hussars) joined us, and to his energy, gunnery enthusiasm, and great experience in recent fighting, a very great debt is owed. Waterproofing training and exercise in water, up to five feet deep for tanks, went on at high pressure. In the event we landed almost dryshod on the NORMANDY beaches. From late April 1944 up to embarkation in June the Brigade was concentrated in SURREY with Headquarters at HINDHEAD and the Regiments and Services grouped around that area.
D‑Day (6 June, 1944) found the Brigade still waiting for orders to move. These came shortly afterwards and the advance parties moved off on D + 10 (16 June). It was to be a fortnight before they were reunited with their parent units and during that time they travelled to TILBURY and other staging camps down the NORTH bank of the THAMES, saw their first flying bombs, cursed the discomforts of rather squalid quarters (fortunately only for 48 hours !) and put to sea in various boats of a convoy formed off SOUTHEND. The weather was most unkind, and on arrival off the beaches of NORMANDY they heaved about at anchor, in the gale, watching the coast from COURSEULLES to OUISTREHAM, until the sea allowed transfer ashore. Once ashore on 23 June they bivouacked in a hay field close to 12 Corps H.Q and waited for the Brigade. Meanwhile " swanning " trips around recent scenes of armoured battles. and mechanical inspections of PANTHERS and TIGERS filled in time quite happily.
About 18 June the rest of the Brigade moved to the marshalling areas around the SOUTH and EAST coasts of ENGLAND, the Brigade and even individual units being split up into various different areas. Then came a storm in the Channel and instead of the expected stay of only a few hours in the marshalling camps, for many of us it developed into an unexpected holiday by the sea of over a week's duration. The camps were very well organised, and a good time was had by all concerned waiting for the storm to subside. A number of flying bombs were seen and heard but none of them fell uncomfortably close to us. At last the orders came to embark. The crossing of the Channel was accomplished without incident, the various parts of the Brigade being united once more in the concentration area around CULLY.
The Brigade suffered a double loss on leaving the United Kingdom. Lt‑Col. W. Schofield, T.D., Brigade Umpire from its earliest days and friend and confidant of every one in the whole formation, who had worked wholeheartedly in all its life hitherto in many capacities besides umpiring, had to be left on the wrong side of the Channel. Colonel A. D. R. Wingfield, D.S.O., M.C., .was hurriedly taken off his boat on arrival on the other side to take command of 8 Armoured Brigade, Brigadier H. J. B. Cracroft having been wounded. Colonel Wingfield came back to us shortly and twice again left to be similarly employed before finally taking over 22 Armoured Brigade on 14 October in HOLLAND.
ACTIVE SERVICE IN NORTH WEST EUROPE
FRANCE Phase I: NORMANDY Bridgehead
By the beginning of July 1944 the whole Brigade Group was concentrated in the Second Army bridgehead area around CULLY in VIII Corps area, but still under command of XII Corps. On 8 July, at very short notice, it moved across to the command of I Corps, but was not used in the capture of CAEN, which fell the next day, so it returned to CULLY and prepared to go into the line in Operation GREENLINE with 15 (Scottish) Division under XII Corps.
(a) Initial Actions of each Regt. in Operation GREENLINE, 15 to 18 July.
This operation was one of many carried out about this time to keep the enemy fighting hard, enlarge the ODON bridgehead, and hold his attention away from preparations being made for a breakthrough EAST of CAEN. The famous Hill 112 was first captured at the end of June and had been furiously fought over ever since. Now the slopes around it were littered with more than two dozen burnt‑out tanks of both sides and the stinking human wreckage of war in the No‑Man's Land, irrecoverable due to fire from the German‑held reverse slopes. The Hill and pronounced ridges NORTH EAST and SOUTH WEST of it were so shaped that our line, cramped between the wooded ODON stream and the crest, had a foreshortened field of fire compared to the gentle and bare slopes on the German side. Here the enemy held a fine deep position and made us pay dearly for every sally on to, or over, the crest in daylight.
The plan was a thrust over Hill 112 down to ESQUAY at last light by a battalion of 227 Infantry Brigade and 107 Regt. R.A.C. Before withdrawal after dark infantry were to dig in NORTH of BON REPOS to facilitate operations by another battalion of 227 Infantry Brigade supported by 147 Regt. R.A.C. at first light towards EVRECY village. Simultaneously with the latter, elbow room was to be made by a battalion of 44 Infantry Brigade and 153 Regt. R.A.C. up the ODON valley on our side of the crest to the SOUTH WEST, thereby enlarging the bridgehead to include GAVRUS and BOUGY.
This was the initial " blooding " of the Brigade from 15 to 18 July, and it proved to be so severe in the case of one Regt. (153 Regt. R.A.C.) that a fuller description of it is given here than can be allowed to subsequent actions.
107 Regt RAC went into action first and carried out a most successful " last light " raid with one battalion of 227 Infantry Brigade down the forward slope of Hill 112 and into and around the village of ESQUAY. Every tank of two leading Squadrons was in action and two troops of Crocodiles (141 Regt. R.A.C.) successfully took part. The third Squadron waited in reserve behind the crest in an area which was continuously mortared at intervals throughout the evening and night. Unfortunately Brigadier Mackintosh Walker, Commander of the Infantry Brigade, was killed and Lt‑Col. D. H. D. Courtenay was concussed by a mortar strike on his tank turret, subsequently becoming a casualty in the ORNE bridgehead operation. Only four tanks were lost in this raid, many members of their crews regaining our lines after dark on the backs of other tanks or on foot. Subsequently 107 Regt. R.A.C. had a small skirmish on 18 July with dug‑in Tigers " and two 88~mm. S.P. guns and lost four more tanks on the ridge.
Total 107 Regt. R.A.C. personnel casualties for the three days were 5 Officers and 41 Other Ranks (of which 1 Officer and 8 Other Ranks were killed).
147 Regt RAC. were due to attack early next morning but it had to be called off because the minefields were not breached around BARON and various flail tanks and two of its Churchills went up on deep laid mines. The following night its attack was called off on account of fog and its first battle took place late on 17 July with 158 Infantry Brigade (then under command of 15 (Scottish) Division). In an attack to capture the EVRECY area a long advance down the forward slope leading to that village was planned and from the tank point of view the event must be classed as a very gallant failure. Suffice to say that the attack was too hurriedly staged and the infantry weak from casualties (one composite company being one officer and 50 other ranks strong, the second company consisting of one composite platoon), and they were very tired and could not keep up with the tanks who were compelled to move smartly under 88mm. fire from EVRECY village. 150 prisoners‑of‑war were taken but intense mortaring forced the infantry back to their start line and A Squadron (Major P. E. G. Lobb) were lucky to get back from a deep penetration of the enemy area with the loss of only six tanks. B Squadron lost four and C Squadron one tank.
Personnel casualties for 147 Regt. R.A.C. from 15 to 18 July amounted to 9 Officers and 36 Other Ranks (of which 4 Officers and 12 Other Ranks were killed).
153 Regt RAC went into action for the first time on the morning of 16 July with the 8th Royal Scots .(44 Infantry Brigade) to capture successively GAVRUS and BOUGY. This was done by attacking up the SOUTH bank of the River ODON and keeping the left flank defiladed from EVRECY by the ridge. Up to this time few casualties were sustained but in the afternoon the enemy counter‑attacked twice with an assortment of Tiger and Panther tanks accompanied by infantry, and mortared Forward Rally positions unceasingly throughout the afternoon and evening. Not an inch of ground was given up and heavy casualties were inflicted on the enemy. But it was held at a considerable cost, and regimental tank crews were actually fighting, or standing by in their tanks at instant readiness, continuously for 30 hours without relief from the zero hour until the enemy relaxed his efforts. When it became possible the Regt. was withdrawn, having only 29 battleworthy tanks left, 12 tanks having been knocked out by direct hits and others damaged.
Personnel casualties for 153 Regt. R.A.C. amounted to 16 Officers and 80 Other Ranks (of which 9 Officers and 30 Other Ranks were killed). The loss included:
the C.O. (wounded early in the attack),
two Squadron leaders (Majors P. V. Ward and L. F. Little killed), two seconds‑in‑command of Squadrons,
two Squadron Recce Officers,
Regimental Intelligence Officer,
the remainder being Troop Leaders.
Command of the Regt. was taken over by Major Norris King, M.C. (then promoted), who had led them since the loss of Lt.‑Col. R. B. P. Wood early in the action. The Regt. was rested and reformed in a very sodden cornfield close to MARCELET, where Main Brigade H.Q. was located. Within nine days it was in action again, all members of the Brigade having contributed Officers and Other Ranks.
So ended the Brigade's first operation, which in three days cost us the loss of 30 Officers and 156 Other Ranks, but with two notably successful actions to its credit and the feeling of great confidence in itself. At the end of the three days only 97 tanks remained battleworthy owing to the impossibility of carrying out any heavy maintenance under existing circumstances.
(b) Subsequent Events in the ODON Bridgehead.
From 18 July onwards the Brigade settled down to life on the perimeter of the bridgehead, in closest support of the 53 (Welsh) Division, which eventually stretched from BOUGY to the River ORNE at MALTOT. 153 Regt. R.A.C. returned to the line after 8 days in the cornfield. A second raid in force was made on ESQUAY on 23 July. Again 107 Regt R.A.C. was used, but this time in support of 4th Bn. Welch Regt. The latter suffered 67 casualties but 107 Regt. R.A.C. came back intact and even recovered, by towing, what had been one of their casualties in the previous attack. Only 6 prisoners were taken. The smoke barrage which enabled this raid to be staged in broad daylight over the forward slope was perfectly controlled this time, to which our lack of casualties can' be attributed. Yet a third time 107 Regt. R.A.C. raided ESQUAY on 2 August with much the same result. On this day two other raids were made in force, each supported by tanks, one beyond BOUGY (147 Regt. R.A.C.) and one below MALTOT (153 Regt. R.A.C.).
On 4 August 107 Regt. R.A.C. was moved to the WEST to support 59 Division (with whom it continued to fight up till the latter's withdrawal and disbandment in mid‑August). Altogether in this first phase, i.e. until the breaking of the ring round the River ODON bridgehead, the Regiments of the Brigade had an unpleasant time, living in closest proximity to the F.D.L's and suffering steady casualties from mortar and artillery fire day and night.
Up to 5 August 47 tanks were battle casualties (of which 16 were brewed up but less than half' of the others were total loss) and personnel casualties in the Brigade Group amounted to 37 Officers and 210 Other Ranks in all categories (killed, wounded or missing).
Phase II Break out and pursuit to River SEINE, 5 to 30 August, 1944.
XII Corps was momentarily pinched out of the line by advances on both flanks, but came in again a day later on the banks of the ORNE, and by 6 August 153 Regt. R.A.C. were supporting 53 (Welsh) Division opposite THURY HARCOURT, 107 Regt. R.A.C. were supporting 59 Division opposite FORET de CINGLAIS, with 147 Regt. R.A.C. initially in reserve midway between the two others.
The most notable action in this phase was that fought by 107 Regt. R.A.C. with 176 Infantry Brigade in forcing a crossing and holding a small bridgehead over the River ORNE opposite BRIEUX and GRIMBOSQ. Counter‑attacked heavily on the evening of 7 August by Panthers in force, only a few tanks of A and C Squadrons survived by the following morning. At first light B Squadron, under Major D. H. Davies, crossed and put up a magnificent fight with eleven tanks (all that he could get across the ford). When finally reduced to only two tanks still fightable he was recalled to the WEST bank at nightfall, but the bridgehead was out of danger and 147 Regt. R.A.C. crossed into it as soon as the ford was clear. 107 Regt. R.A.C. were then withdrawn completely, having lost 22 tanks, of which 17 were burnt out in action and a total loss. Personnel casualties were relatively light, only 3 Officers and 7 Other Ranks being killed, and 7 Officers and 40 Other Ranks wounded (some of the latter were caused by a misdirected attack by our own aircraft on the echelon which was coming up to the Regt.).
The above action put 107 Regt. R.A.C. out of the running for a few days owing to the fact that both 147 Regt. R.A.C. and 153 Regt. R.A.C. were fighting small actions and forging ahead. They were absorbing the contents of the Forward Delivery Squadron more profitably than 107 Regt. R.A.C. could have used the tank replacements in view of its need for reorganisation. Two days later 107 Regt. R.A.C. produced a composite Squadron from the whole Regt. which, under Major D. H. Davies, acquitted itself well until the Regt. was re‑tanked and reorganised. This was some three weeks later after Lt.Col. H. H. K. Rowe had come back to them in replacement for Lt.‑Col. D. H. D. Courtenay who had become a casualty on 9 August.
About now the enemy front began to crumble and 153 Regt. R.A.C. on the left with 197 Infantry Brigade and 147 Regt.. R.A.C. on the right with 56 Infantry Brigade fought their way steadily forward. On 13 August the composite Squadron of 107 Regt. R.A.C. was in action again so that 147 Regt. R.A.C. could move across and take over from 153 Regt. R.A.C. On. 16 August 147 Regt. R.A.C. reported contact on the left with the Canadians at 1744 hours, and by then the FALAISE battle proper was in full swing on our left.
On 15 August 153 Regt. R.A.C. had their last fight. They had done some fine fighting in the last eleven days, constantly thrusting forward to create havoc in the enemy's rearguard positions (notably in actions around BOIS d'HALBOUT) but on that day 4 Armoured Brigade passed through them and took over the fighting while they were concentrated for disbandment. Manpower considerations at this time demanded reduction in R.A.C. units and 153 Regt. R.A.C. were the junior Armoured Regt. In exactly one month's fighting they had lost 19 Officers and 99 Other Ranks and 18 tanks in action. They had never failed to accomplish whatever task they were set and, up to the end of the North West European campaign, no harder fighting was ever performed by any of the five Regiments that fought in the Brigade than they carried out in Operation GREENLINE at BOUGY on the River ODON.
Simultaneously with their disbandment this Brigade was ordered to assume command of 7 R.T.R. and 9 R.T.R. from 31 Tank Brigade. 7 R.T.R. joined on 19 August after an 80 mile march on tracks from the EAST flank of Second Army by a most circuitous route.
By 19 August 147 Regt. R.A.C. had fought with 53 (Welsh) Division down to about 15 kilometres SOUTH EAST of FALAISE, i.e. beyond PIERREFITTE on the ARGENTAN road. This was the most southerly point ever reached by any part of the Brigade. On this day 147 Regt. R.A.C. were detached and put under 15 (Scottish) Division for the advance to the River SEINE, while the Brigade less 147 Regt. R.A.C. (i.e. 7 R.T.R. and 107 Regt. R.A.C.) came into XII Corps Reserve.
The disbandment of 153 Regt. R.A.C. made up casualties in the other three Regiments, so that when 7 R.T.R., 147 Regt. R.A.C. and 107 Regt. R.A.C. had been completed there was little left. One complete Squadron of 153 Regt. R.A.C. tanks and personnel, under Major E. C. Garner, was composed and sent bodily to 107 Regt. R.A.C. who, with this aid and that of the Forward Delivery Squadron, reorganised to War Establishment.
Losses in tanks in action for this latest advance amounted to 26 (9 of which brewed up) exclusive of the 22 lost at the River ORNE crossing by 107 Regt. R.A.C..
But, inevitably, as a result of recent continuous fighting, the total personnel casualties for the original three Regiments had increased considerably and stood on 20 August at:
Killed 20 Officers and 56 Other Ranks,.
Wounded 31 Officers and 224 Other Ranks.
Missing 0 Officers and 41 Other Ranks.
Total 51 Officers and 321 Other Ranks.
Total tanks 95 (42 totally brewed).
From 23 to 30 August 147 Regt. R.A.C., under command of 15 (Scottish) Division, moved up to and over the River SEINE below LES ANDELYS, where they liberated a village called FRESNE ARCHEVECQUE and sat down therein for weeks. They were not reunited to the Brigade until a month later when the latter came EAST again after the capture of LE HAVRE.
For 14 days the Brigade was grounded until moved forward on 4 September (now under the First Canadian Army) and over the River SEINE, collecting en route 9 R.T.R. (who passed to our command on 4 September), and through ROUEN to prepare to assault LE HAVRE.
Capture of LE HAVRE; investment of DUNKIRK; move to BELGIUM and HOLLAND
The Brigade, less 147 Regt. R.A.C., arrived on tracks from the area of FALAISE with two halts en route at BRIONNE, short of the River SEINE, and at YVETOT, between ROUEN and ANGERVILLE L'ORCHER. On arrival on 6 September the Brigade came under command of 49 (West Riding) Division, who were to assault LE HAVRE from the NORTH EAST and EAST while 51 (Highland) Division with 33 Armoured Brigade did the same from the NORTH.
Covered to landward by belts of minefields, which in places proved to be 800 yards deep, and fortified through years of enemy occupation with innumerable concrete redoubts and deep shelters, the fortress was ordered to hold out as a German bastion to the end of the war. The defence overprints were terrifying in their horrific detail. All true too, but what they did not show was the indifferent morale of the garrison which yielded, in three days of battle, 11,000 unwounded German prisoners‑of‑war of the German Army, Navy and Air Force.
Granted, no chances were taken by I Corps, and a terrific air bombardment preceded the attack of two British Infantry Divisions supported by Churchill and Sherman Brigades of tanks. More than a Brigade of 79 Armoured Division's Assault units of every kind and generous artillery supported the attack throughout, but even so the fighting was not comparable to any met elsewhere in the whole campaign. This account will, therefore, be brief.
56 Infantry Brigade (with 7 R.T.R.) broke through from the NORTH EAST while 146 Infantry Brigade (with 9 R.T.R.) cleared all enemy EAST of the River LEZARDE and 147 Infantry Brigade (with 107 Regt. R.A.C.) followed through 56 Infantry Brigade's gap. All three then cleared the Citadel, Town and Dock area because 51 (Highland) Division were halted in the FORET de M0NTGEON.
This was the only action fought by 7 R.T.R. with the rest of the Brigade (they were soon afterwards detached for DUNKIRK) and, as it happened, they played the most notable part in that they covered the main effort where the deepest minefields were breached by the greatest concentration of 79 Armoured Division's Assault Units, followed them through, covered the infantry assault and escorted the Squadron of Crocodiles in their cooking of redoubts and subdued such 88‑mm. guns as had the temerity to oppose the advance. The leading Squadrons lost 4 tanks on mines and 4 flails were also mined or knocked out on the evening of 10 September. Congestion in the serviceable gaps was acute the first night, so that two Squadrons spent the night with the foremost infantry. The turretless Honeys of their Recce Troop collected and carried back 157 personnel casualties through the gaps in the course of the night and re‑fuelled and re‑armed the forward Squadrons. Nothing but a tank could cross the mud and no Churchill could attempt to wriggle back through the traffic. 7 R.T.R. only lost 1 killed and 19 wounded.
The following day (11 September) all Regiments took part as the ring tightened, and on 12 September a single troop of 7 R.T.R. had the good fortune, aided by dash, of capturing the Garrison Cornmander, his whole staff and 400 prisoners. No infantry accompanied this troop of B Squadron, which raced ahead into the fort at 1130 hours and won the reward from the Corps Commander for the collection of WILDEMUTH himself.
The Brigade had 11 tank casualties (1 brewed up) ; 5 of these were on mines and the other 6 from 88‑mm. guns. Ammunition expenditure was phenomenal, casualties negligible, and success complete. After our previous experiences this type of war was quite a change.
Now began a very trying period of existence for the whole Brigade, except for its R.A.S.C Company who were whisked away, as was most of the units' first line transport, to keep the Armies going up in BELGIUM and HOLLAND at the end of the long Lines of Communication from NORMANDY. The Brigade as such was grounded and out of action. By 18 September, gathering 147 Regt. R.A.C. again into the fold, the four Regiments, Brigade H.Q. and Services were concentrated around the AUFFAY - St. SAENS area about midway between DIEPPE and ROUEN.
On 29 September began a strange movement of four Regiments. and a very large Delivery Squadron of Churchill tanks, whose silhouettes closely resembled haystacks. Around 300 Churchills rumbled up Northwards for 3 days, filled to capacity inside and piled high over the turret level with their first line ammunition. Unable to get our transport back, we obtained permission to trek as and how we could. We did, but the experience was, and we hope will remain, a unique one for the R.A.C.
At DESVRES, 10 miles EAST of BOULOGNE on 2 October the 7 R.T.R. left us to give a hand at DUNKIRK, which was then being contained by some units of 51 (Highland) Division, and shortly after the siege was begun under the Czech Armoured Brigade. Further details concerning 7 R.T.R. will occur later. From DESVRES the Brigade, less 7 R.T.R., completed one more day on their tracks before being lifted across Western BELGIUM on transporters to the EINDHOVEN area.
From the beaches of NORMANDY to the BELGIAN border on tracks is a long way for 40‑ton Churchills, very few of which were new, or anything like it, on D‑Day. The mileages covered by three tanks are given here to show what can be done, if it survives battle long enough, with a tank whose estimated total life in June 1944 was reckoned at 800 miles maximum without complete overhaul.
(a) Tank RAMILLIES of 147 Regt. R.A.C. 1680 miles
(b) Tank LION of 107 Regt. R.A.C. 1900 miles
(c) Tank IMPERATOR of 9 R.T.R. 1562 miles; knocked out in Reichswald battle
Since landing in NORMANDY no original tank in any of the four Regiments had done less than 500 miles on its tracks (including fighting) by the time it arrived in the area DESVRES‑St. OMER.
By 6 October the Brigade (less 7 R.T.R.) reached the EINDHOVEN area and returned, momentarily, to XII Corps, all Regiments going immediately into the line spread between St. OUDENRODE to HILVARENBEEK. The following day XII Corps moved NORTH and that front and the troops in the line came into I Corps and First Canadian Army Sector.
I Corps operations in EINDHOVEN area and flank protection of the Canadian advance from ANTWERP to STEENBERGEN.
From 6 October to 13 October the Brigade supported various Infantry Brigades of 51 (Highland) Division from the edge of EINDHOVEN up as far as St. OUDENRODE area with 9 R.T.R. and 107 Regt. R.A.C., while 147 Regt. R.A.C. assisted the ROYALS, who were extended on 16~ miles of (mostly canal) " front " from BEST to POPPEL. This slightly extended even the ROYALS and 147 Regt. R.A.C. acted as their mobile reserve. They did a little offensive prodding in the region of HILVARENBEEK without much result other than keeping the Boche on the jump and having that rather nice little place well and truly " stonked " in retaliation. By now Lt.‑Col. W. B. Blain had taken over 147 Regt. R.A.C. and Lt‑Col. A. W. Brown had gone to command 3 R.T.R. in 29 Armoured Brigade.
On 14 October the Brigade (less 7 R.T.R.) passed to the command of 49 (West Riding) Division and were pulled out and moved Westwards to between ANTWERP and TURNHOUT.
CLARKEFORCE operations cannot be described in full, but many place names given here will evoke memories in those for whom this history is written. CLARKEFORCE was formed on 17 October, and was composed of:
H.Q. 34 Armoured Brigade; 107 Regt. R.A.C.; 49 (WR) Div. Recce Regt; One troop Fife and Forfar Yeomanry (Crocodiles); D Company 1 Leicestershire Regt; One troop S.P. Anti‑tank battery, R.A.; Two Sections, R.E.; 191 Field Regt. R.A., (under command with O.C. acting as C.R.A's representative).
Placed under command later
7 Duke of Wellington's Regt.; 1/4 King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry; Two troops S.P. Anti‑tank, R.A. (M 10s).
Its role was to launch through a gap, NORTH of St. LEONARD, to be made by 49 (West Riding) Division, advance Northward (in order to protect the right flank of the 4 Canadian Armoured Division) and to gain ground as a spearhead to 49 (West Riding) Division whose main bulk would follow up and take over as opportunity occurred. The Divisional Commander's briefing was wide in its terms and gave the O.C. Force the fullest freedom to operate over a generous area of country to the EAST of where the Canadians right flank was expected to move. Provided thrust was maintained he promised his fullest backing; in the event some desperate fighting ensued on the part of the Division purely in keeping open our Lines of Communication, and we never once had to look over our shoulder no matter what we by‑passed. The village of LOENHOUT, the area of STONE BRIDGE, WUESTWEZEL and the woods to the North of it all saw actions close behind CLARKEFORCE, but this did not involve the fighting part of it which could concentrate its energies on the main object. This was mainly due the speed with which the Force advanced.
It was in the woods to the North West of WUESTWEZEL that the 107 Regt. R.A.C. echelon vehicles were captured. They were eventually released after suffering casualties including the loss of their R.S.M., Mr Gregg, and several vehicles.
In the operations which took place CLARKEFORCE performed as envisaged, launching through a hole made by 9 R.T.R., supporting 56 Infantry Brigade, who speeded the Force with all possible help. Thereafter a somewhat tenuous Line of Communication connecting the Force and the rest of 49 (West Riding) Division was subjected to fierce counter‑attack from the EAST by enemy infantry and armour, and only maintained on 21 October by infantry from the following Brigade, supported by 147 Regt. R.A.C., fighting heavily all one day. Thus in Operation REBOUND (19 to 24 October) all the Brigade (less 7 R.T.R.) were heavily involved.
In Operation THRUSTER (26 to 29 October) the HALLAMS with 9 R.T. R. came up on the right flank of CLARKEFORCE and then 9 R.T.R. were used fully in capturing ROOSENDAAL; 147 Regt. R.A.C. operated even further EAST to cover their flank, under command 104 (Timberwolf) Division U.S. Army (who had come under I Corps for about a month and were having their initial blooding).
CLARKEFORCE existed for 12 days, and fought on nine of those days with its Armoured Regt. (107 Regt. R.A.C.) involved in two very exhausting and continuous spasms of five and four days. There were less than three non‑fighting days between in which some rest and real maintenance were possible, although in this pause two short moves had to be made and all planning and orders done for the second operation. The Regt. fought successful actions involving all its Squadrons at NIEUMOER, VIESSEHENHEUVEL and EAST of ESSCHEN in the first advance, and at BREMBOSCH, WARBERGSHE BRIDGE, COSTLAR and WOUW in the second drive forward. Early on it was found that the Recce Regt. could not lead, resistance never softening up enough, so that Churchills were used in the forefront of the advance after the first 24 hours. This helped to keep down the Recce Regt. casualties, which were serious enough in any case from the mines and enemy S.P. guns. This was a heavy strain on 107 Regt. R.A.C. but all had started fresh and morale was such at the finish after capturing WOUW that nothing would have seemed impossible to them.
The action of 147 Regt. R.A.C. referred to earlier took place NORTH EAST of WUESTWEZEL in BELGIUM and resulted in a litter of knocked out enemy S.P. guns ranging from an 88‑mm. JAGDPANTHER, several 105 mm, and numerous 75‑mm. S.P's on PzKW III chassis. Eighteen such enemy equipments were claimed by 147 Regt. R.A.C., and it is certain from inspection of the ground afterwards that many had been recovered by towing after being knocked out in action. After all action in the area had finished, and it was possible to check the lane of 34 Armoured Brigade's advance, no less than 13 enemy self‑propelled equipments, some field guns and a large miscellany of other enemy weapons were found to mark the path of 16 miles of advance and continuous fighting.
Our own losses totalled:
Killed 6 Officers, 25 Other Ranks.
Wounded 8 Officers, 55 Other Ranks.
Total personnel 95
Tank casualties 35 (14 totally brewed).
One notable tank casualty was a Mark VII of 9 R.T.R. which sustained nine direct hits in front from 75-mm. armour piercing projectiles at short range without being completely penetrated by any.
After these operations, whilst the infantry continued to clear right up to the banks of the River MAAS, along the dyke roads and over tank‑proof country, the Brigade was concentrated around LEUR and ROOSENDAAL for the whole of November, and training was carried out by all concerned. It was during this period of rest and training that it was possible to try to help out 7 R.T.R. at DUNKIRK.
SIEGE OF DUNKIRK (1 October, 1944 to 15 February, 1945).
The 7 R.T.R. joined the Brigade on 19 August 1944 and ceased to belong to it on 15 February, 1945.
Originally we were informed that a Regt. must be dropped off at DUNKIRK for a week or two to keep the Jerries quiet there. 7 R.T.R. needed a rest more than the others, although all were relatively fresh, so they were chosen. In the event they remained there for no less than 18 weeks, and had, at times, a very sticky life indeed. By Christmas time 1944 they had had 98 casualties to personnel, of whom 29 sick were serious cases admitted to hospital (mostly from exposure).
The Battalion took over the Western sector of the perimeter from the Ist Bn. Black Watch. On 7 October it took over as infantry and used very few tanks at first. Then it used more tanks and indulged in infantry‑cum‑tank attacks, only the ‘infantry’ were also tank personnel ; they killed a lot of Germans and took 28 prisoners‑of‑war and took several positions on one occasion. Finally Lt‑Col. A. R. Leakey, M.C. developed a strangely unorthodox, but highly efficient, technique and harried his opponents to no uncertain tune. He obtained a state of complete battle superiority over his sector with a most peculiar mixed force of British R.A.C., 25 French marines and a constantly varying number of Free French irregular " foot," supported by Czech field gunners and British Bofors Light A.A. Adaptability on this sticky wicket paid high dividends. General Lishka, commanding the investing forces, was very appreciative of the consistently successful operational antics of his Western sector.
Operations elsewhere prevented any relief of 7 R.T.R. until November when 147 Regt. R.A.C. sent a Squadron down to give some rest to the 7 R.T.R. crews who were by now undergoing considerable strain with the lengthening nights. It was intended to call on each of the three other Regts in turn, but it proved impossible to carry out this scheme as the Brigade was suddenly switched from HOLLAND to the GEILENKIRCHEN area of GERMANY, so that the visiting Squadron only did 4 days in the line before recall. Later a fourth fighting Squadron brought out from the United Kingdom and joined the 7 R.T.R., which proved a great relief to them. This Squadron, under Major E. G. A. Kynaston, remained with them until they ceased to belong to this Brigade, when it was turned into F Squadron of 49 Armoured Personnel Carrier Regt. (R.T.R.) under Lt.‑Col. N. H. King, who had left us on the disbandment of 153 Regt. R.A.C.
On 15 February, 1945, 7 RTR finally left 34 Armoured Brigade and, being taken over by Lt‑Col. R. B. P. Wood (now recovered from his wound), was turned into a Crocodile Regt. in 79 Armoured Division. Lt.‑Col. A. R. Leakey, M.C. went to command 5 R.T.R. in 22 Armoured Brigade.
HOLLAND (BLERICK); GERMANY (GEILENKIRCHEN); ARDENNES
On 24 November the Brigade (less 7 R.T.R. and 107 Regt. R.A.C.) came under command of XXX Corps for operations in GERMANY EAST of MAASTRICHT, and 107 Regt. R.A.C. came under XII Corps for the capture of BLERICK, opposite VENLO.
107 Regt. R.A.C. supported 44 Infantry Brigade of 15 (Scottish) Division in capturing BLERICK on 3 December. This was wholly successful for 107 Regt. R.A.C., whose only casualties were one Officer killed and one Officer and two Other Ranks wounded. One tank was damaged on mines and another capsized over an embankment. The Regt. rejoined the Brigade on 6 December and reverted to command.
By early December the Brigade was taking over from 8 Armoured Brigade and had two Regiments line‑holding in close support of 43 (Wessex) Division while Operation " SHEARS " was being planned. This was the first time the Brigade had found itself with the Division it knew best in the whole of second Army and with whom it had trained so intensively for a whole year in KENT. There was, therefore, much enthusiasm for the new set up, many reunions, and much line‑shooting and lie-swapping at all levels from Brigadiers to Troopers and Privates. Our 170 Company R.A.S.C. found itself providing a platoon of " 30 Corps Services Battalion”, and holding a sector of the foremost defended localities, " Panhandle " wood and its schu-minefield.
On 17 December, Operation SHEARS, designed to carry the line forward to the ROER River with the United States Army on our right fighting actually in the SIEGFRIED Line, was suddenly cancelled and 43 (Wessex) Division were replaced by 52 (Lowland) Division and pulled out of the line. We followed them two days later.
RUNDSTEDT was smashing forward in his initial success through the EASTERN ARDENNES, and a certain Operation VERITABLE was postponed. 43 (Wessex) Division were already studying this latter operation and planning for the second time. We were making a first acquaintance with maps showing a large forest called the REICHSWALD and receiving initial instructions from Major‑General G. I. THOMAS, C.B., D.S.O., M.C., on the larger plan.
By 19 December we were well into the American Zone and sitting behind the MEUSE from LIEGE to HUY under 43 (Wessex) Division at first, and later under the Guards Armoured Division in reserve. The weather was beginning to become seasonable at last, after we had experienced incredibly muddy conditions in our first period over the German border. There, in front of GEILENKIRCHEN, Churchills had been compelled to sit on platforms to avoid bogging in stationary positions. The Shermans of 8 Armoured Brigade, even with track extensions, had had a terrible time and the seas of fluid mud resembled PASSCHENDAELE in the last war.
Moving again SOUTH up the River MEUSE the Brigade left 9 R.T.R. with 51 (Highland) Division and it, after a brief sojourn in " flying‑ bomb- suburb” of LIEGE, moved forward to sit for a fortnight in the snow covered hills SOUTH WEST of that place. Through NAMUR to the DINANT area, now under 6 Airborne Division and in deep snow, the 107 and 147 Regts. R.A.C. went to RINNE and CELLE areas respectively.
By 2 January 1945, 147 Regt. R.A.C. was in the line in contact in the ROCHEFORT area and presently 107 Regt. R.A.C. moved off NORTH to support 53 (Welsh) Division around MARCHE.
By " moving " at this time it should he understood more endurance was often demanded of the tank crews than in many battles. Ten miles in 24 hours continuous effort was considered quite good going. Deep snow across country was friendly but when, as frequently occurred, tanks were forced on to a road, Churchills without ice‑bar tracks travelled in any direction as easily as curling stones on polished ice. Lateral communication to the now extended Regiments was completely impossible, they being extended over a front of more than 50 miles of Christmas‑card scenery, deep in snow. By now the German salient was steadily decreasing and BASTOGNE and St. HUBERT were losing their operational significance, and as soon as the issue was certain 30 Corps were shifted NORTH and Operation VERITABLE again became on.
The Brigade left the ARDENNES for EINDHOVEN concentration area on 22 January, but even getting out and back over the River MEUSE took some doing. Sliding down the hill into NAMUR and scrabbling up the other side to the waiting transporters took 107 Regt. R.A.C. the best part of 3 days. No loaded transporter could hope to ascend out of the valley, and 40 tons of tank toboggan take a little handling even with Eskimo crews. American traffic police, who witnessed, and endeavoured to control, this new form of winter sport, acquired considerable experience. With the invention, by the O.C. of our R.A.S.C. Company, of a device for rendering passable frozen slopes which were otherwise proof against movement by tanks, a new phrase the Fletcher Carpet came into our vocabulary. By sending convoys of his vehicles loaded with road metal and bales of straw to a main road hill hitherto impassable to tanks, they could get up or down it once a sandwich layer, straw‑road metal‑straw, had been laid. No other device was as efficient but one night of frost and the straw, turning brittle, vanished in chaff so that it was only of temporary use. Ice‑bars often failed bite deep enough on such very hard ice, which often defeated chains on wheeled vehicles whilst ordinary rubber treads got enough grip for traction.
Operation VERITABLE: the advance to the RHINE via REICHSWALD-BROEDERSBOSCH‑ALPON‑WESEL.
Operation VERITABLE was the name given to the plan of a major offensive by XXX Corps under First Canadian Army H.Q. (for the first part of the operation). It was designed to clear the area between the Rivers MAAS and RHINE from NORTH to SOUTH and formed the left claw of mightily successful pincer‑like destruction by British and U.S. Armies of German forces WEST of the RHINE. In fact Field Marshal B. L. Montgomery called it the " Battle for GERMANY."
Planning began as soon as all were concentrated around EINDHOVEN. With our recent arctic experiences in mind, no less than 700 tons of new “ice‑bar" track were fetched in and all tanks re‑shod. Fullest experiments were made for the prevention of the formation of packed ice on track plates. Turret lifting, with consequent wrecking of the segments of the ring, was so common in the ARDENNES as to be a very serious problem. When snow reached a certain temperature it was compressed to ice by the weight of the tanks and carried round by the tracks in such a way that it packed between the track and the turret. As events proved ice bar track was not required, turrets galore were lifted and jammed untraversable but due to other causes than snow. A great thaw set just before the offensive was launched (after the Brigade was completely snow‑camouflaged and packed like sardines behind the Canadian line at GROESBEEK). Clay and logs travelled around tracks to lift turrets despite stripper‑bar devices, mud ploughs and every other conceivable precaution.
At EINDHOVEN the 9 R.T.R. carried out intensive training in forest fighting tactics and night advances through bush, a. type of going reckoned as tank‑proof hitherto, with units of 53 (Welsh) Division, which was to stand them in good stead later.
107 Regt. R.A.C. tied up with 51 (Highland) Division for the capture and clearance of a part of the REICHSWALD Forest. They were to operate on the immediate right of 147 Regt. R.A.C. and 9 R.T.R., in support of 53 (Welsh) Division, who were allotted the bulk of the REICHSWALD. to capture.
The move of 53 miles to concentrate SOUTH of NIJMEGEN was made on tracks under cover of darkness and in one jump. Once arrived there security demanded no movement of personnel in daylight. Such congested conditions had not been experienced since the NORMANDY bridgehead days, where whole Regiments often sat down in one field. But the great difference now was it was intensely cold and frozen up, so that the tank crews found no hardship in unlimited sleep under cover and regular food at intervals, and were content to wait, knowing that something big was cooking for them just over the GROESBEEK hills in front only 3 miles away.
On 8 February tank crews standing by to cross a wide no‑man's‑land of mud and mines listened to five hours of music by more than 1,000 guns firing on the narrow XXX Corps front. Every calibre of shell from super heavy to Bofors 40‑mm. and " carpets " of rockets flew overhead, machine gun barrages were fired almost continuously and practically inaudibly. 8 Armoured Brigade fired stacks of dumped 75‑mm. ammunition in pepper pot activity in front of 51 (Highland) Division before joining the general advance elsewhere. No "journalese" description of the heartening effect on 147 R.A.C., teed up to open the ball, could overstate the experience.
The " going " was such that 79 Armoured Division units failed to cross the start line on 53 (Welsh) Division's front, and that area was soon jammed with bogged flails, AVsRE and Crocodiles. However, ordinary Churchills mostly got over 4,000 yards of atrocious going with relatively few casualties from mines, and 147 Regt. R.A.C. led their infantry right up to the edge of the forest, whose area is 8 miles long and varies from 3 to 5 miles wide. None of 147 Regt. R.A.C. tanks penetrated the forest until after 71 Infantry Brigade infantry had taken their final objective within the edge. One Squadron 9 R.T.R. passed through 147 Regt. R.A.C. and advanced with one of the battalions of 71 Infantry Brigade through the night. The remainder of 9 R.T.R. followed into the forest during the night. Next day the attack continued with the over‑running of the forest sector of the SIEGFRIED line defence. This was found to be not developed by the enemy as the forest was reckoned to be fully tank-proof.
For 6 days the battle continued without any noticeable pause until the forest was completely cleared. During that time 9 R.T.R. and 147 Regt. R.A.C. had no relief day or night, and Squadrons shrank steadily in numbers. Some tanks became bogged down to turret‑top level and had to be left for weeks as irrecoverable. Some tanks had turrets lifted either by mud or logs, or traverses wrecked by guns hitting trees, and these and other causes, including loss by direct action of the enemy, reduced the two Regiments to considerably less than one‑third of their initial strength.
One outstanding performance of 9 R.T.R. in the REICHSWALD must be recounted. During the night 8/9 February the Regiment, less one Squadron, carried out a fighting advance of 2,000 yards with 160 Infantry Brigade to capture the STOPPELBERG feature. This manoeuvre had been thought out and practised a fortnight previously. Moving on a single Squadron front, tanks crashed through areas of young plantation and were guided on foot where the trees were too solid to smash, but they arrived on the objective, up with their infantry, to whom their noisy movement had been comforting and helpful in traversing dense woodland full of disorganised enemy troops. The German Sector Commander, a full Colonel, was captured in the melee at first light and protested vigorously that such a use of tanks was " not fair”!
Meanwhile 107 Regt. R.A.C. supported 51 (Highland) Division but only with single troops once the infantry entered the forest, and never with the complete Regt. inside the forest itself. On the other hand this Regt. continued to be actively engaged for 20 days consecutively and was used to crack, and burst through, the SIEGFRIED line in a deep, fully developed area of bunkers and strong points covering GOCH. They continued to fight until the line stabilised momentarily when it had been carried well SOUTH of GOCH and 51 (Highland) Division came in to rest and 107 Regt. R.A.C. reverted to command of Brigade.
17 February was a notable day in that all three Regiments attacked in support of three different Divisions in line across the right of XXX Corps front as follows:
Right 9 R.T.R. supported 52 (Lowland) Division in a two‑Squadron attack in the BROEDERBOSCH;
Centre 107 Regt. R.A.C. supported 51 (Highland) Division on a one‑Squadron front in area HELVORST;
Left 147 Regt. R.A.C. supported 53 (Welsh) Division on a one‑Squadron front NORTH of GOCH.
The support of three Divisions in line like this simultaneously set the Commander of 34 Armoured Brigade a problem he never solved, although to be split in support of two Divisions over one attack was not unusual.
Tank casualties in forest fighting were as shown below and take into account only up to the night 17/18 February for 9 R.T.R. and 147 Regt. R.A.C., who, between them, cleared seven‑eighths of the forest.
Enemy Action. Other Causes.
Mined 6 Turret segments 13
H.E. shellfire 5 Mechanical failure 20
A.P. shellfire 2 Total clutch failure 3
Bazookas 4 *Bogged 32
Total 17 Total 68
Grand total for two Regts. 85 tanks.
*Note, it was estimated that 75 per cent of the tanks in the forest were bogged at one time so that this was only a small loss in proportion.
In addition to the above, 107 Regt. R.A.C. up till 21 February lost
Penetrated H.E. 2
Penetrated A.P. 1
Penetrated Bazooka 1
Total 10 tanks.
Personnel casualties were
Killed 3 Officers, 3 Other Ranks.
Wounded 9 Officers, 42 Other Ranks.
Total Casualties 57
Tanks of the Brigade knocked out the following:
2 JAGDPANTHERS; 1 75‑mm. S.P. gun on Mark IV chassis; 3 6‑inch guns; 8 105‑mm. field guns; 3 75‑mm. anti‑tank guns,
in addition to capturing intact four 105‑mm guns, serviceable in every way.
When 9 R.T.R. were withdrawn from the REICHSWALD they got 30 hours rest and were made up in tanks so far as stocks in the Forward Delivery Squadron permitted ; this produced B and C Squadrons each eleven tanks strong. The Regt., less A Squadron, proceeded down to the right flank below GENNEP to support 52 (Lowland) Division, who were to thrust down the EAST bank of the River MAAS and attack due Southwards through 51 (Highland) Division. This entailed fighting through the wooded BROEDERSBOSCH area (in all 4 miles long and 2 to 3 miles wide, mostly dense pine plantations 6 to 8 feet high). To the left flank lay enemy second line MAAS defences backed by swampy ground nearly all the way to GOCH, to the right the enemy first line of MAAS defences, a maze of trenches and mines.
32 Guards Brigade were attacking on the left but only to capture MULL, a short advance which in the event cost them heavy casualties, being overlooked and shocking bad going.
The action by 9 R.T.R. lasted for 3 days, 2 weak Squadrons being always kept in action.. On the second day A Squadron arrived with 6 tanks and was got into action to relieve C Squadron (who had lost 2 tanks the previous day and had been pulled back to re‑check up turrets as several were far from battleworthy). On the third day the attack was called off temporarily when our forward infantry positions were along the anti‑tank ditch covering KASTEEL BLIJENBEEK, by which time 5 tanks and one AVRE were knocked out and infantry casualties were proving costly. By this time about half of the wooded area was in our hands. The German Second Para Regt personnel were fighting very toughly and tried showers of panzerfaust against our forward tank troop at close range, but usually they went off against trees, fell short or over, although 2 tanks were brewed up by being thus hit in vital places.
By 19 February the 9 R.T.R. were pulled back and replaced by 147 Regt. R.A.C. brought down from the MALDEN area to take over the role of line‑holding reserve for a few days while this part of the front was allowed to relapse into relative quietude.
Meanwhile, the Forward Delivery Squadron, and Armoured Replacement Group behind it, were making great efforts to fill up the Regiments with tanks. In one day (22 February) of the 40 tanks recovered and standing in deep mud outside the Brigade Workshops in MALDEN no less than 35 had, after inspection, to be backloaded as beyond second line repair. Many were, in any case, worn out and had obviously to go back to Base Workshops. The results of the antics in the forests were felt for some time, in that turret ring segments, thought on first inspection to be alright, later developed distortion. Clutch wear was often very bad and all these minor troubles took some time to get right.
A lull now ensued on 52 (Lowland) Division front for a few days, KASTEEL BLIJENBEEK still holding out despite numerous attacks on it by air and artillery. Its immensely thick walls slowly subsided but its defenders appeared unmoved and sat firm surrounded by the flooded moat until they withdrew unobserved during the night of 28 February/1 March. About this time 52 (Lowland) Division took over more front to the left but it proved quite tank‑proof on account of swamp and in any case had been heavily mined and had to be slowly deloused by Royal Engineers on foot.
147 Regt. R.A.C. came under 1 Special Service Brigade (of Commandos) at mid‑day on 1 March and began to gallop the following day (2 March) and on 3 March the leading Squadron of 147 Regt. R.A.C. reached TWISTEDEN, SOUTH WEST of KEVELAER. On this day troops of XXX Corps and U.S. forces advancing towards them from the SOUTH met as the enemy withdrew to his RHINE bridgehead.
On 7 March the Brigade reverted to Corp's Command but were ordered to move forward through GELDERN to relieve 8 Armoured Brigade on 8 March after 52 (Lowland) Division had relieved 53 (Welsh) Division in that sector.
With Brigade H.Q. at ISSUM, 9 R.T.R. took over from 13/18 Hussars on the right and 147 Regt. R.A.C. took over from Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry on the left, on the perimeter WEST of ALPON around the bridgehead by which enemy paratroops were covering the WESEL bridge over the. RHINE.
On 10 March 9 R.T.R. attacked with 52 (Lowland) Division troops in compressing the perimeter and reached the road OSSENBERG‑XANTEN beyond ALPON. On 11 March 147 Regt. R.A.C. attacked and reached MENZELEN, (2 miles from the RHINE) but the enemy was pulling out or surrendering in large numbers all along the front, marching in under white flags. So the front line reached the WEST bank of the RHINE with forward troops looking across the wrecked bridge of WESEL.
On 12 March the Brigade was withdrawn and came into Second Army reserve, being moved WEST into HOLLAND across the River MAAS to SOUTH of VENLO, to lick its wounds and finish recovering from the early disorganisation caused by its unorthodox but successful efforts in knocking out the REICHSWALD PLUG on which the Northern defence of the RHINELAND between the RHINE and MAAS was based.
In the plan for completing victory Second Army was to advance with only three Corps forward. I Corps with two Armoured Brigades and various A.G'sR.A. were put in Army reserve. Events moved so quickly and the advance was so rapid that because (in the words of the Field Marshal) "the battle for GERMANY had been fought and lost by HITLER WEST of the RHINE," none of the Army reserve was ever called forward to fight again. The Commander of I Corps took over control of all the area between the MAAS and the RHINE in the British Sector, and through I Corps went VIII, XII, and XXX Corps in the RHINE crossing of 24 March.
On 3 April the Commander of I Corps ordered the Brigade to cross the RHINE and sit down in a large parish of many square miles, clear up the more attractive dangerous stores left by both Armies on the EAST of that river, maintain law and order and see to the safety of the Lines of Communication of the advancing British Second Army.
So 34 Armoured Brigade and its Services became pacifiers of a large territory beyond the newly established "RHINE Barrier Zone". Accordingly Headquarters moved to BOCHOLT and Regiments took over large areas and spread far and wide collecting huge quantities of all sorts of war material, policing roads, disarming gangs of Displaced Persons roaming about on revenge and plunder bent. 9 R.T.R. area spread well up into HOLLAND beyond WINTERSWYCK at this time, where celebration of liberation was the order of the day, and all cleansing activity was taken off their hands by enthusiastic free Dutch. 107 and 147 Regiments R.A.C. took over down to the boundary with the U.S. forces.
By 14 April the Brigade again moved forward some 40 miles to BURGSTEINFURT, on the same task, where it reigned over an area 50 miles by 40 miles, having taken over MUNSTER from the U.S. forces. VE‑Day, three weeks later, found us still there.
Total casualties in personnel (including those of 153 Regt. R.A.C., which only fought for one month before disbandment in NORMANDY) totalled just under 1,000 all ranks. But a careful check made 4 months after our last action showed a great decrease due to wounded either returned to their Regiments or known to have since recovered sufficiently to serve elsewhere. So that, allowing for optimism over convalescents, the final figures came down to :
Officers 43 killed and 38 seriously wounded
Other Ranks 199 killed and 402 seriously wounded
A total for all Regiments, Headquarters and Services of 682.
This is the figure for 8 months of fighting, and shows losses of four Armoured Regiments for that time (and for five when 7 and 9 R.T.R. were fighting in 31 Armoured Brigade in the ODON bridgehead and before 153 Regt. R.A.C. were disbanded).
Tank Losses in Action.
Total losses, reckoned on all Regiments on the same basis as casualties (i.e. 4 Regiments and 153 Regt. R.A.C) were 272 Churchill tanks. Of these 85 brewed up in action, but undoubtedly a very high proportion of the other 187 were recovered subsequently and fought again after some degree of repair.
Some 300 (odd) tanks were supplied through the Forward Delivery Squadron, but this does not include the heavy replacement necessary for 7 and 9 R.T.R. prior to joining 34 Armoured Brigade. In personnel, from 5 July, 1944 to VE‑Day, 129 Officers and 1,870 Other Ranks passed through the same unit in replacement of casualties, temporary or permanent ; this figure includes unhorsed crews awaiting fresh tanks, but does not include supply to 7 and 9 R.T.R. while in 31 Armoured Brigade.
So much for the cost of our journey from the NORMANDY bridgehead to the EAST bank of the RHINE.
It was a fairly long journey, although not comparable to that of many others who had fought and travelled for years since ALAMEIN. Most of it was done on our own tracks and only a relatively short distance on transporters. Within 5 months of going into action for the first time on 15 July 1944, we fought in four countries and in support of seven different Infantry Divisions. This included being grounded for a fortnight in September after the capture of LE HAVRE, and the month of November in HOLLAND clear of any fighting, apart from 7 R.T.R. who were laying siege to DUNKIRK.
The Brigade had never been armed with any tank but the Churchill for the whole of its life, starting with Mark Is and Mark IIs, with their two‑pounder main armament, in the winter of 1941/42. We saw our tanks surmount their mechanical teething troubles and grow to man's estate, as then reckoned, in the Mark III, with its six‑pounder gun, and so forward in improvement until we proudly counted our relatively few Mark VIIs with their thicker armour when we left the United Kingdom. On leaving the UK each Regiment had twenty-two 6-pdr tanks, kept to have the benefit of DS (Discarding Sabot) ammunition for use against enemy tanks. This provision applied to the original units of 34 Brigade when they reached France, but 31 Brigade (7 and 9 RTR) were almost entirely converted to the 75 mm gun.
We fought throughout with a mixture of:
Mark III (increased armour welded on to ordinary Mark III with 6‑Pdr. Gun).
Mark IV (75‑mm. gun converted from free elevation to geared).
Mark V (95‑mm. gun Close Support ‑ 2 tanks per Squadron).
Mark VI (75‑mm. built as such).
Mark VII (75‑mm. built as such with thicker armour).
The Churchill was a tank that demanded hard work from its crews, but it could take a great deal of punishment and was a magnificent performer across all kinds of country. Although the main armament was always inferior to that of its opponents, Churchill crews would not have wanted to fight in any other tank.
On 8 May, 1945‑VE‑Day‑salutes were fired all over the area, in most cases from the highest point available such as the pinnacle on which stands the Schloss Bentheim (9 R.T.R.). We were now under command 51 Medium Regt. R.A., who came up from ITALY on the GOLDFLAKE scheme and who made sure that noise in our part of WESTPHALIA was not lacking.
Just ten days after VE‑Day came the news that the Brigade was to go to S.E.A.C. (South East Asia Command) ; with a considerably changed face it is true, but 34 Armoured Brigade was going EAST. This news caused much frantic checking of Age and Service Group numbers ‑ the under 27's stayed in NORTH WEST EUROPE, but the rest . . . . .
The plan was that we should reorganise in EUROPE with five Regiments; 4/7 Royal Dragoon Guards, 4 R.T.R, 1 Fife and Forfar Yeomanry, 107 Regt. R.A.C. and 49 Armoured Personnel Carrier Regt , but take only three into battle against the Jap, for 4/7 Royal Dragoon Guards were to go to an Indian Armoured Division, 49 Armoured Personnel Carrier Regt. were to strip off on arrival in S.E.A.C. and even 1 Fife and Forfar Yeomanry were to have left us in the United Kingdom where we should have received in exchange 1 Royal Gloucestershire Hussars. This question of a spell of training in the United Kingdom was the only consolation to the over 27's.
While this news was being fed to us in small and digestible doses, Regiments were fully employed in clearing up the battlefield. This proved to be quite an exacting task and, to ensure that we didn't do more damage to the countryside than had been done in war, the powers that be sent down a team of experts in the shape of No. 7 Enemy Ammunition Depot Control Unit (Mobile Section) to show how to dispose of vast quantities of every type of ammunition with reasonable safety. For months afterwards NORTH WESTPHALIA was lit day and night by burning cordite and our days were punctuated by explosions from the local quarries. Countless tons of explosives were disposed of thus, to the delight of small German boys and senior officers alike.
Pretty soon, however, our attention was diverted from this light-hearted pastime to the more serious business of making ready for war again. By the end of June the four newcomers had joined the Brigade leaving only 107 Regt. R.A.C. as a name which we knew of old. 9 R.T. R. and 147 Regt. R.A.C. had, however, left behind them their S.E.A.C. eligibles in exchange for those in early release groups in 107 Regt. R.A.C. and 4 R.T.R. 147 Regt. R.A.C. disbanded in October after living for a while on the border of the Russian Zone, and 9 R.T.R. disbanded in December after a period at WUNSTORF.
This was a sad time for those of us who had been with the Brigade all through, for even 107 Regt. R.A.C. was not quite the unit we had known, comprising as it now did one Squadron made up of ex-147 Regt. R.A.C. personnel and the 153 Regt. R.A.C. Squadron which it had acquired in FRANCE. This business of personnel swapping was not peculiar to 107 Regt. R.A.C. alone; besides the interchange between 4 RTR and 9 RTR, 4/7 Royal Dragoon Guards and 1 Fife and Forfar Yeomanry took in personnel from 30 Armoured Brigade (79 Armoured Division).
Many members of the Brigade Headquarters staff and Squadron changed and went on changing, for the whole formation had to be 100 per cent. S.E.A.C. eligible. Of newcomers our Brigade-Major, Major Peter Gohns M.B.E., alone did a good long spell. Thus it will be seen that we were still 34 Armoured Brigade in name but in very little else except our tanks. Even in this we were reorganised on to a one‑third Crocodile basis in each Churchill Regt. This advent of Crocodiles, and the conversion of 4 R.T.R. from Buffaloes to Churchills necessitated a period of' intense training. To this end a Brigade School was founded in the Prohibited zone along the EAST side of the Dutch frontier NORTH of GRONAU. This task was taken on by 7 Forward Delivery Squadron who passed more than 600 students through the mill of intensive training chiefly in Flame, but, to a lesser extent, also in Driving and Maintenance, Wireless, and Stuart and Churchill conversion courses.
4/7 Royal Dragoon Guards, 4 R.T,R. and 107 Regt. R.A.C. trained on and shot over the TRUPPENUBUNGSPLATZ at PADERBORN, a magnificent area at that time with plenty of Panthers Tigers and other attractive ready‑made targets all over it. 1 Fife and Forfar Yeomanry shot at FALLINGBOSTEL near the notorious BELSEN camp.
The Brigade was still in the process of settling down and unit Seconds‑in‑Command and other officers kept changing around in units; even one Commanding Officer left us, Lt‑Col. H. H. K. Rowe being succeeded by Lt.‑Col. R. H. Taite (our Brigade Major in June 1944).
On 15 August, 1945 (VJ‑Day itself) a diverting and somewhat mysterious event occurred. Almost overnight 1 Fife and Forfar Yeomanry was snatched from among us and roared away on wheels to BRUSSELS for Operation " CORONET," an operation which was to take them to PACIFIC Isles or the JAPAN homeland via the U.S.A. No sooner had they arrived in BELGIUM than the order was cancelled. They spent a few days in BELGIUM by way of compensation, and within a week had crawled back to their old haunts in TECKLENBURG KREIS. The reason for this strange behaviour was occasioned by the momentous announcement from the other side of the world that atom bombs had finished the Jap, but this news only reached us some hours after the last Fife and Forfar vehicle had left GERMANY.
The coming of VJ‑Day brought with it in time the inevitable announcement that all our reorganisation had been in vain, for S.E.A.C. no longer wanted us. Undismayed, we turned our minds again to cleaning up GERMANY and ceasing to be lodgers with our erstwhile landlady, 76 A.A. Brigade, we divided the area with them on a basis of equality. In the course of time we were reduced to the shape of an occupational Brigade and, having cast off our operationally Far‑Eastern outlook, we acquired the new and wholly necessary vestments of Education and Welfare. We had fitted ourselves for war not once but twice, and now we set our minds to the tasks and pastimes of peace.
With a background of patrols, house‑checks, automatic arrests and V.P. guards we started all forms of athletic training in earnest and towards the end of the summer our efforts culminated in two athletic meetings, Swimming and Field and Track events. The enthusiasm aroused by these meetings was terrific and every unit in the Brigade entered teams to compete for the honour of winning the home‑made shields produced by our R.E.M.E. Workshops.
As the evenings grew shorter our minds turned to other field sports and the countryside echoed with the cries of oddly clothed shooting parties bent on their sport and on supplementing the rations which were to be reduced to the " Home Service Ration Scale "; but this shooting was to become a more serious business than mere sport with the advent of Operation BUTCHER, an operation designed to fill the German civilian larder with the carcasses of buck so that the Battle of the Winter in GERMANY might the more easily be won. Lt‑Col. N. H. King, D.S.O., M.C., was appointed gamekeeper in chief and he organised some really scientific slaughter to achieve the task which had been set him in record time. This particular operation came to an end in due course and the sport rather than the business of shooting came to the fore again.
The even tenor of our existence was shattered for the second time since VE‑Day by our being called upon to provide reinforcements of eligible Age and Service Groups for 7 Armoured Division, who were to be re‑modelled in such away as to remain unmoved, for a considerable time, by the release scheme and its acceleration. In all we lost some 900 officers and men for whom we took into the fold in exchange an equivalent number of 7 Armoured Division " types."
Now, as these last words go down in our history, we know that we are about to vanish completely. 49 Armoured Personnel Carrier Regt. has departed from among us, disbanded, and their officers and men have dispersed to the four corners of the earth. 4/7 Royal Dragoon Guards are to leave us soon for the Near East. 4 R.T.R. will be moving to ITALY when they are good and ready, which won't be long. 1 Fife and Forfar Yeomanry are becoming the Recce Regt. to 51 (Highland) Division. To 107 Regt. R.A.C. falls the fate of disbandment. And Headquarters won't be long behind. | <urn:uuid:11d40923-432d-4a6b-a7be-eff3acc6f610> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.royaltankregiment.com/9_RTR/History%20of%2034%20Armd%20Bde.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973553 | 18,259 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Despite decades of deterrence efforts, drinking and driving continues to be a major public health and traffic-safety epidemic. While awareness initiatives such as the “Friends Don’t Let Friends Drive Drunk” campaign helped to curb alcohol-related traffic fatalities in the United States from 26,173 in 1982 to 16,711 in 1997, the effectiveness of such programs has since reached a plateau. In 2004, the NIAAA reported 16,919 fatalities.
“Little is known about the factors that lead individuals to initiate and continue drinking and driving behavior,” said William Wieczorek, CHSR director. “By establishing a theoretical model, it will allow for the creation of specific intervention techniques that will be able to stem this behavior at its origins.”
The five-year project will draw on data collected from the Buffalo Longitudinal Study of Young Men, which was directed by Wieczorek and John Welte, principal investigator with the University at Buffalo’s Research Institute on Addictions, 12 years ago. Although participants from the original study were recruited for a broader investigation of drug use, drinking, and criminal behavior, the data collected from the 625 participants, along with numerous in-depth interviews, will provide the framework for the current grant.
In addition, Wieczorek and his team will take an innovative look at geographic and neighborhood impacts on behavior during the first phase of the study. Rather than relying on strict census-tract data that can be confined by borders and boundaries, Wieczorek will incorporate geospatial measures, such as neighborhood characteristics and proximity to bars, restaurants, liquor stores and grocery stores.
“We want to capture the essence of what neighborhoods are like,” Wieczorek said.
Following a review of the existing statistics, CHSR will telephone former participants, who are now in their late 20s and early 30s and living throughout the country.
Wieczorek notes that while it will be necessary to reconnect with participants who display drinking and driving tendencies, it will be equally important to follow up with people who choose not to drink and drive.
“Even though this study will be looking at what causes individuals to initiate or continue drinking and driving behavior, deciphering what variables affect a decision not to drink and drive will be just as valuable,” Wieczorek said. “To have an accurate and representative sample, we need to gather data from both ends of the spectrum.”
To complete this complex study, Wieczorek has assembled a team of accomplished scientists that consists of Welte; Craig Colder, associate professor of psychology at UB; Kelly Marczynski, assistant director and senior research scientist with CHSR; Thomas Nochajski, associate professor of social work at UB; David Wong, professor and chair of the Earth Systems and Geoinformation Sciences Department at George Mason University; and Lening Zhang, assistant professor of sociology and criminology at Saint Francis University in Loretto, Pa.
CHSR will receive $3,058,757 in funding over five years for the project, including $585,258 in the first year. | <urn:uuid:b8401d88-f373-4d45-89aa-8fbce3fd6cb4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://newsandevents.buffalostate.edu/news/buffalo-state-awarded-3-million-study-drinking-and-driving-behavior | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948361 | 656 | 2.6875 | 3 |
following lesson plans have been arranged to develop students
abilities in four areas, namely knowledge, critical thinking,
values and communication skills.
have been planned for students in Grades 10 to 12 and are
related to the Human and Social Sciences learning area. They
do not follow any specific curriculum, as it is anticipated
that this website will be used in many different situations,
given the global nature of the Internet.
Knowledge: As students work through this lesson, they will:
come to some understanding of the physical size of Africa,
and its importance as part of the world community begin to
see the unnatural country borders understand the diversity
of the inhabitants.
Critical Thinking: Students should be able to extract and
critically evaluate information from different sources interpret
and evaluate evidence and be able to distinguish between fact
Values: They should come to some feeling of empathy through:
seeing the world through the perspective of people who live | <urn:uuid:62c839f7-3b5e-4d7a-8e55-510c1912d109> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.schoolnet.org.za/PILAfrica/en/webs/c002739/africasite/2classroomlessonplans.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.89816 | 194 | 3.546875 | 4 |
types of maths ability?
The experiment also tests the idea that we all have
two different types of maths ability.
first you are probably born with. Its the
type of instant judgement you make when you see
three coins on a table. You instantly know there
are three - without counting.
instant judgement can be used for even more coins,
providing theyre laid out in a regular pattern
like the dots on dice.
second type of maths ability includes all the
maths you are taught - for example, addition,
subtraction, multiplication and counting.
animals do maths?
It seems that animals can also do maths. Consider Professor
Three bears go into a cave
Two come out
Would you go in?
Many animals make this type judgement - based on maths.
So are some people born bad at maths?
This is one of the subjects professor Brian Butterworth
has been investigating. Just as some people are born
with dyslexia for words, it seems that others are born
with dyscalculia - a blindness for numbers.
have also discovered that there is a specific
part of your brain responsible for doing maths.
It is just above your left ear. Damage to this
part of your brain causes a type of number-blindness.
To read more about what its like to be dyscalculic,
Click here for the results of this amazing experiment | <urn:uuid:f893df93-b6c4-4bfc-bc77-eb5ce9d833f4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.youramazingbrain.org.uk/newresearch/bornmaths.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945683 | 297 | 3.40625 | 3 |
Teachers Lesson Plans
Intrigued by artistic developments in Italy, Dürer made two trips to Venice in 1494-1495 and 1505-1507, which had a profound impact on his art. He began to explore the secrets of perspective and to wed ideals of beauty, proportion and harmony to a northern European taste for realism and detail.
In comparing Adam and Eve, and The Large Horse what is most apparent at first are their dissimilarities; one illustrates a biblical narrative, the other a military scene. Their similarities lie in the artist approach to his subject matter. Though one scene is the depiction of a biblical narrative and would have been seen as more important than the military scene, we see that the artist has rendered both with the utmost attention to detail, and emphasis on depicting proper proportions in both.
Later he would turn to publishing as a means to promote measurement as an artistic tool. In 1525 Dürer published Painter's Manual, intended to teach proper use of measurement to artists, this would be followed by a treatise on the Fortification of Towns, Castles and Places (1527) and The Four Books on Human Proportion, published posthumously in 1528.
Interestingly after years of study Dürer ultimately decided that there was no absolute ideal human proportion, a notion that is echoed in one of his most famous quotes. "What beauty is I do not know. Nobody knows it but God." | <urn:uuid:1e8ab9fa-5837-498d-937e-2fdb79083eaa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cybermuse.gallery.ca/cybermuse/teachers/plans/compare_e.jsp?langId=1000&pageNum=5&lessonid=304 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977192 | 294 | 3.828125 | 4 |
By Elaine Heffner, CSW, Ed.D.
Recently a father asked me for help with talking to his six-year-old daughter about a surgery she was going to have. He wondered how far in advance to talk about it, how much to tell her, and how to keep her from worrying about it. He, of course, was very worried.
Why is it sometimes hard to know how to talk to our children? To begin with, as with this father, it may be something we ourselves are worried about, and so we fear passing our own concerns to our children. In fact, part of our own upset is the fear of upsetting them. Children don’t always worry in the same way or about the same things we do. But if the issue is something that directly affects the child, we worry that it will be too upsetting. We want to spare our children any pain or unhappiness.
Of course, at times we also may want to protect ourselves from the behavior that may follow when a child learns about something he may not like. Children often express their feelings through difficult behavior, and it may seem that not discussing an issue will prevent this behavior. We may think we are protecting our children when we are really protecting ourselves from behavior with which we don’t want to deal.
The fear that our children will be upset by what we have to discuss can cause us to put off talking about something important or to try to minimize it unrealistically, making something difficult sound easy or more pleasant than it may be in reality. One mother, who was worried about her son’s reaction to her and the father going on vacation, waited until the morning they were to leave to tell him about it. She told him what a great time he would have with his grandparents who were visiting. In fact, he hardly knew his grandparents whom he rarely saw. Mom then had to deal with his angry behavior when they returned. Her attempt to avoid the protest and upset she anticipated ended with behavior that was even harder for her to confront.
At times we find ourselves trying to protect our children from things that are inevitably part of life. Loss is hard to talk about, whether the death of a family member or a pet, a friend who is moving away, even separation from mom when school starts. We hope that our children don’t have to experience these things, but we also fear that if they do, their emotional well-being will be damaged in some way. This concern interferes with the ability to talk to our children not only about real facts but, more importantly, about their feelings and our own.
Life can be painful sometimes. Even the usual developmental steps involve giving up earlier pleasures, which can be difficult to do. The question is not how to avoid them — which we cannot do, anyway — it is how can we as parents help children develop the ability and strength to deal with them.
These days when there is a pill for everything, it’s easy to get the idea that we’re not supposed to feel unhappy or uncomfortable about anything. But the fact that something doesn’t feel good doesn’t make it bad. Confronting difficulty and working our way through it gives us strength and confidence in our own abilities. And by supporting children through this process, parents help their children grow.
Of course children will react – protest what they don’t like or feel unhappy about certain things. Sometimes we block off the expression of these feelings because they make us feel bad. But what actually helps children most is our recognition of these feelings – acknowledging that some things are hard, but that we are here to help them through it. It is the emotional support of parents that makes talking about the hard things so valuable.
Let the following strategies help you when talking to your child about a difficult topic: | <urn:uuid:a667fed1-6bbc-4b0e-bfc1-46aa309b67a4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pbs.org/parents/special/article-talkingtochildren.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00140-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982944 | 789 | 2.734375 | 3 |
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