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Ragas are based on these swaras, with Gamakas. For each raga, there is a particular sequence of swara. Music composed based on a raga uses the same swaras, which is meant for that raga but in different combinations, such as Arohanam, Avarohanam.
AROHANAM- is the ascending order of swaras.
(ie) Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa
AVAROHANAM- is the descending order of swaras.
(ie) Sa Ni Dha Pa Ma Ga Ri Sa
There are two types of ragas. They are Melakartha and Janya.
MELAKARTHA has 72 ragas.
JANYA ragas are Suddha Savery, Suddha Dhanyasi, Karnataka Dhevagandhri.
Thaalam is used to keep the rythm using hand movements(Beats). These hand movements are referred as Thattu, Veechu & Finger count. Aadhi, Roopakam, Misra Chaaphu, Kanda Chaaphu are commonly used Thaalams. | <urn:uuid:651364e7-72ab-4808-8cfe-92dad06bc0a4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://webspace.webring.com/people/lu/um_11/carnatic.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.838098 | 247 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Match the following words with their meanings on the right
a. big, plentiful
b. ways of getting or achieving something
c. surpassed; exceeded
d. limited; restricted
e. public criticism and debate (about something)
f. unfairly treated
Fill in the blanks with the words you have learned
1. Dissatisfied with the dictatorial rule of their king, the ________ people rallied together to overthrow his regime.
2. The thugs ________ the police who had to call for backup.
3. She earns a ______ salary as an investment banker.
4. Obtaining a university degree is commonly seen as one of the guaranteed _______ to success.
5. Many rural mainland children are ________ to small classrooms with very little facilities.
6. The professor's remarks that the Holocaust did not happen caused an ________ in western countries.
The use of antonyms
Prefixes, such as 'in', 'un' or 'dis', are added to a word to convey its opposite meaning. These words with the opposite meaning are called 'antonyms'.
Below are two examples of antonyms from the passage
equal - unequal
parity - disparity
Add the appropriate prefixes to the following words to convey the opposite meaning.
1. _______ of the fatal effects of smoking, many people take up the habit from a young age.
2. She has just broken up with her boyfriend. It would be _______ to ask her what she would do on Valentine's Day.
3. His _______ bid for the presidency didn't stop him from playing an active role in politics.
4. He is an honest man who always tells the truth. There's no reason for us to ________ him.
5. My teammates ________ with my idea and insisted on pressing ahead with their proposal.
6. Peter is lazy. His was criticised by his boss for being ________.
Word Power - 1. d 2. b 3. c 4. f 5. e 6. a; Fill in the blanks: 1. oppressed 2. outnumbered 3. hefty 4. avenues 5. confined 6. uproar; Grammar Focus - 1. Unaware 2. insensitive 3. unsuccessful 4. discredit 5. disagreed 6. incompetent | <urn:uuid:c50fa2ea-dc21-48ea-8912-f290644ad216> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scmp.com/article/582941/word-power | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00138-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943307 | 473 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Late in the afternoon of September 4, after nearly 10 days of protests by a coalition of labor, indigenous rights groups and farmers, the indigenous peoples and campesinos of Guatemala won are rare victory. Under the pressure of massive mobilizations, the Guatemala legislature repealed Decree 19-2014, commonly referred to as the “Monsanto Law,” which would have given the transnational chemical and seed producer a foot hold into the country’s seed market.
“The law would have affected all indigenous people of Guatemala,” said Edgar René Cojtín Acetún of the indigenous municipality of the department of Sololá. “The law would have privatized the seed to benefit only the multinational corporations. If we didn’t do anything now, then our children and grandchildren would suffer the consequences.”
Originally passed on June 26, the Monsanto Law was written to protect the intellectual property rights of multinational companies in their investments within Guatemala. The law also allowed Monsanto an entrance into the Guatemalan seed market and set in place stiff penalties for any farmer that was caught selling seed to another farmer without the proper permits. The response was a massive mobilization of a coalition of labor, indigenous groups and campesinos.
For 10 days, the streets in front of the legislature of the capital Guatemala City were clogged with thousands of protesters demanding the repeal of the law. Demonstrators also gathered in the rural departments of Guatemala to protest the law and the congressmen who had voted in favor of the law.
The changes to the seed market would have heavily hit the campesinos of the department of Sololá, which is a major production area for seed corn for the rest of the country. On September 2, 25,000 to 30,000 people from the around the communities of the department of Sololá shut down the Inter-American Highway in protest of the Monsanto Law. Protesters set up blockades along the highway in three places and shut down all traffic for nearly nine hours.
“The communities are organized against any law that privatizes their seed,” said Griselda Pocop of the Association of Women Moving Sololá. “They are also demanding the respect of the traditions and of their livelihoods.”
Sololá is one of the agriculture centers of Guatemala, with a majority of the population relying on the growing of maize, beans, coffee and other crops. The department also has one of the highest indigenous populations in the country, with 96 percent of the population identifying as Kaqchikel, T’zutujil, or Kiche Maya. Maize is sacred to the Maya; their cultures and societies revolve around it. According to the Kiche Maya creation story, the Popol Vuh, the gods made humans by grinding the different colors of maize.
As is written in the Popol Vuh, “There was a consensus (among the gods), and it was decided what would come of the red, yellow, black, and white maize; it is from these that they made our bones, our blood, and our flesh.”
The protection of seed is thus of the utmost importance for the indigenous peoples of Guatemala and across Mesoamerica. “We cannot live without our corn,” said Acetún of the indigenous municipality. “It makes up all of our lives. We consume it for our food, we sell it, it is us.”
Rafael, a campesino from the Kaqchikel Maya community of Pixabaj, Sololá, explained, “The people here are Maize … We are not French. We are not anything else. We are Maize; we are Maya.”
As the protests mounted, women took the lead in organizing for the defense of maize. In Sololá, women created a seed bank to archive and protect the various varieties of heirloom corn for future generations. “The women of Sololá have taken the lead in organizing to save and protect our heirloom seeds,” said Pocop. “It is our responsibility to preserve our traditional seed, and to pass along the traditional ways of doing things.”
Decree 19-2014 was written to comply with the requirements of the Central American Free Trade Agreement. Like the North American Fair Trade Agreement, known as NAFTA, the agreement opens up the economies of Central American countries and the Dominican Republic to cheap imports from the United States.
From the moment the trade agreement was proposed, the indigenous and farmer communities protested the law. They argued that since NAFTA had ravaged rural Mexico, CAFTA would have the same affect in the Central American countries. Despite the protests, CAFTA was ratified by Guatemala in 2006.
These trade agreements have opened up the Guatemala corn market to the importation of corn from the United States and tied the internal market to the global pricing. The results have been devastating. In the years since the agreement was signed, the price of corn has steadily increased. For years, one quetzal (roughly 12 cents) could purchase eight large tortillas. But today, for the same price, one can only purchase four smaller tortillas.
Many farmers have not been able to benefit from the increased prices of corn, because they have had to compete with cheaper imports from El Salvador, Mexico and the United States. “The trade agreement opened up Guatemala to the importation of corn and the prices went up,” said Pocop. “But the imported corn is still cheaper than that produced here.”
On the heels of this trade agreement, Decree 19-2014 would have opened up the Guatemala seed market to allow Monsanto’s modified and proprietary seeds into the country. Guatemala is not alone in the region in having to combat the privatization of seed by multinationals; campesinos in El Salvador too have had to defend their livelihoods from the privatizing effects of the trade agreement.
A rare victory
A week prior to the protest against the Monsanto law the Guatemalan Constitutional Court declared that articles 46 and 50 of the legislation, the two that most violated the rights of farmers, were unconstitutional.
Then, in a landslide vote of 117 in favor, 3 against, and 38 abstaining, the Guatemala legislature repealed Decree 19-2014. Soon after learning about the repeal, communities rejoiced. In Sololá alone, more than 5,000 people celebrated the elimination of the law.
Yet, just because the law has been repealed does not mean that the indigenous communities and campesinos of Guatemala are in the clear. According to Congressman Amlicar Pop, one of the few indigenous members of the legislature, legal loopholes exist in the bill that allow similar legislation to resurface under a different name.
“For the moment, there are legal loopholes that need to be resolved,” Pop told to the Guatemalan newspaper La Hora.
Meanwhile, the U.S. State Department declined to comment on any steps that might be taken to bring Guatemala in line with requirements of the Central American Free Trade Agreement.
This story was made possible by our members. Become one today. | <urn:uuid:003b16db-aeff-400a-af45-cb8e68a4730d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wagingnonviolence.org/feature/guatemala-indigenous-communities-prevail-monsanto/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963886 | 1,479 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Nigel Smith. Literature and Revolution in England, 1640-1660. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1994. xiv + 425 pp., 14 illustrations.
Lynchburg College, VA
Orchard, Christopher. "Review of Literature and Revolution in England, 1640-1660." Early Modern Literary Studies 1.1 (1995): 8.1-6 <URL: http://purl.oclc.org/emls/01-1/rev_orc1.html>.
- Nigel Smith's book attempts to show that written and printed literature during the 1640s and 1650s was both a response to the Civil War and a central part of that conflict, acting to articulate the political and religious transformations of these decades and contributing to the divisiveness that was characteristic of civil war. Smith provides a much needed revisionist study: his intention is to restore the political balance distorted by recent critical studies of the period (Potter, Anselment) by recognizing that Parliamentarian and radical cultures as well as Royalists had their own literary forms, while generating discourse from shared generic models. This hypothesis is notably achieved through Smith's analysis of how political writers of different persuasions borrow from the same classical sources. He also examines genres such as satire, in which Royalist or Parliamentarian use of similar images to describe the "other" indicates how "generic interaction is the literary counterpart or surrogate of social and political difference" (5), supporting his point that in the mid-seventeenth century "the currency of images (was) common property" (14).
- The thesis that literature was actively involved in the fragmenting of religious and political authority is developed in three sections: the conditions and contexts of literary production; the uses of literature in religion and politics; and genre transformations. Central to Smith's thesis are the end of royal censorship and the explosion of information through print. The growth of printed material explains the Levellers (the media manipulators of the 1640s), the decline of oratory and persuasion, and the emergence of a new kind of political writing (Leviathan and Oceana) and the replacement of the theatre with the newsbook as the public ground for news.
- More interesting are Smith's accounts of changes in literary forms: the fragmentation of the love lyric (caused by Royalist defeat) and the decline of the religious lyric (accompanied by the replacement of metrical psalms with hymns, which originated in sectarian churches); the dilution, internalization and "transprosing" (the heroic actions of the reformatory spirit in Milton's prose pamphlets) of the epic; and the replacement of the failed Arcadian romance structure by the Royalist use of prose romance. Importantly, Smith offers an innovative interpretation of the development of the satire which he locates in the carnivalesque elements of Leveller prose.
- There are only a few reservations. By concentrating on the role played by the newsbook in changes in literary forms, Smith does detract from important developments in other literary areas. And by focusing on the discourse of theatre in newsbook accounts, Smith misses the importance of the preface of the printed play, where Royalists such as Leonard Willan were appealing to the Commonwealth government to accept their vision of a new kind of republican theatre in the 1650s (providing temporary relief for industrious citizens in a civic setting). Another reservation is the implication that fable, structurally unaffected by war, was not perceived as a useful form by Republican writers. Actually, the fact that reference was made to the same Aesopian narratives by Republicans such as Francis Osborne as well as Royalists to suit their own political ideologies supports Smith's Bakhtinian reading of this period in which oppositional discourse helped energize society and place literature in a position of transforming and representing change.
- While Smith is correct to suggest that the rise in the levels of publication produced more readers than listeners, he does not reveal how print enabled Royalists, through prefaces and dedicatory verses to pre-Civil War plays and poetry, to encourage its readership to support divisiveness by viewing Members of Parliament as cultural philistines.
- Nevertheless, the importance of this book far outweighs its minor oversights. Smith offers a critical adjustment to Royalist weighted studies (Potter, Anselment) by recovering the voices of parliamentary and republican texts to show that, through polyphonic dissent, literature helped to shape public opinion. This analysis of how discourse was transformed by an awareness of the "other" is greatly enhanced by the presentation of oppositional discourses where least expected: Walton's The Compleat Angler, for example, is set off against another piscatorial text, Richard Franck's Northern Memoirs. Smith possesses an impressive knowledge of a wide variety of political, religious and poetic texts and importantly, by discussing the literary and rhetorical aspects of texts other than literary genres, he supports his contention that it was not just in pure literature but in the whole world of words "where the impact of the crisis of the 1640s and 1650s was most strongly registered" (362).
(RGS, 12 December 1997) | <urn:uuid:4f1c3a3b-76e7-4db3-877d-6c569e150171> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://extra.shu.ac.uk/emls/01-1/rev_orc1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952246 | 1,064 | 2.765625 | 3 |
When you’re ready to lay out your drawing for plotting, you’ll start working with layout tabs. Here are some tips to make this task easier.
Rename a layout tab by double-clicking it, then just type the new name and press Enter. And remember, you should name your layouts something other than Layout1, Layout2, etc.
Move a layout tab by dragging it to a new location. To copy, press Ctrl and drag. Then rename it.
To move through the layouts from left to right, press Ctrl+Page Down. From right to left, Ctrl + Page Up. This doesn’t cycle around, so when you get to the end, you have to go the other way.
Right-click a layout tab to do the following:
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- Create a new layout
- Create a layout from a template. The Select File dialog box opens. Choose a DWG, DXF or DWT file and click Open. AutoCAD imports everything on that layout, including viewports, existing text, the titleblock, etc.
- Delete a layout
- Rename a layout
Recent releases let you hide the tabs (one release, I don’t remember which one, even had this as the default). I don’t recommend it because you lose the ability to use some of these tips. If you don’t see tabs, right-click the button next to the MODEL/PAPER button on the taskbar and choose Display Layout and Model Tabs.
What are your favorite tips for working with layout tabs? Leave a comment! | <urn:uuid:8f8bdca5-ccdf-4c91-a5f0-29f615e6df5e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ellenfinkelstein.com/acadblog/working-with-layout-tabs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00107-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.842112 | 364 | 3.03125 | 3 |
2) Find the area under the curve f(x)=x^3+ 1 on 1< x < 2
3) TRUE OR FALSE (I'm using S to represent the antiderivative symbol)
b) S e dx = e + a constant
c) S lnx dx = 1/x + a constant
d) Does the antiderivative of a minus the antiderivative of 0 represent the area of a square? a is a constant greater than 0. | <urn:uuid:5258e588-a8a5-479a-a3ee-e7a6a5ef21fa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mathhelpforum.com/calculus/184718-integral-calculus.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.789779 | 103 | 3.046875 | 3 |
A chest infection is an infection of the airways leading down to the lungs, or an infection in the lungs themselves. 'Chest infection' is a general term that covers a number of conditions, including pneumonia and bronchitis.
People with a chest infection almost always have a cough, which may bring up phlegm (thick mucus) from their chest. The common cold is also caused by an infection that causes a cough, but as the infection is limited to the nose and throat, it is much less likely to cause any significant problems.
In the UK, acute bronchitis affects about 4.5% of the population each year. The condition is most common during the autumn and winter months.
A rarer form of chest infection is pneumonia, which affects between 0.05-1.1% of people. Most people who have the condition have mild pneumonia but it can potentially be very serious, so it is important to seek immediate treatment.
The two main types of chest infection – acute bronchitis and pneumonia are described below.
Acute bronchitis is an infection of the lining of the air tubes of the lungs, which are known as the bronchi. The infection is normally caused by a virus. It often follows a cold or the flu. Smoking increases your chances of getting the infection. Most people do not require medical treatment as the infection normally passes within 7-10 days.
Pneumonia is an infection that causes tiny air sacs in your lungs to become inflamed and filled with fluid. It is sometimes known as 'community-acquired pneumonia' because people often catch it during the course of their daily lives, such as at work or at school.
Pneumonia is usually caused by bacteria, although some cases of pneumonia can also be caused by viruses. People with mild pneumonia can usually be treated at home. However, if you have severe pneumonia, you may need to receive treatment in hospital. Those who are very young, very old, and those with another serious health condition, are more likely to require hospital treatment.
The risk of spreading bacteria to other people can be reduced by covering your mouth when you cough or sneeze, and by washing your hands regularly. You should also throw away used tissues immediate.
The symptoms of acute bronchitis and pneumonia can be similar - for example, a cough that brings up phlegm (thick mucus), and a high temperature. However, the key difference between the symptoms of acute bronchitis and pneumonia is that pneumonia is more severe.
When should I seek medical help for someone with a cough?
It is difficult to distinguish between a cough that is caused by a simple cold, acute bronchitis and pneumonia, from symptoms alone. Seek medical help if a person with a cough develops any of following problems:
- They feel, or look, significantly unwell and they are not managing well with daily activities,
- they are confused or disorientated,
- they have a temperature above 38C (100F),
- they have a high resting pulse rate (compared to normal),
- they are breathless at rest, or become breathless more easily than they would normally expect with exertion,
- they have a sharp pain in their chest when they breathe in (pleuritic pain),
- they cough up blood stained phlegm (thick mucus),
- they have a cough that last longer than three weeks,
- they have a significant long term health problem, such as diabetes, heart failure or any other long term condition that causes breathlessness, | <urn:uuid:7115679e-e717-422d-93db-a80423caff07> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.londonchestclinic.co.uk/chest-infection | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975048 | 735 | 4.125 | 4 |
Methotrexate (MTX), a popular cancer-fighting drug also used to treat psoriasis, ectopic pregnancies, rheumatoid arthritis, and lupus, lasts a long time in the body and causes birth defects in children from women who have it in their systems. The study of the drug's effect on fruit flies has allowed Queen's researchers including graduate student Joslynn Affleck to identify the genes on which the drug acts.
"We hope that through this model system we can provide insight into mammalian birth defects, which may be expected to increase in frequency in the future, due to the recent elevated use of MTX," says Affleck.
Many of the genes found to be affected by MTX are involved in cell cycle regulation, signal transduction, transport, defense response, transcription, or various aspects of metabolism.
"This study shows that MTX treatment has multiple targets," says Affleck. "And this provides us with a novel invertebrate model for the study of drugs that cause birth defects." The findings, funded by NSERC, are set to be published by Toxicological Sciences in the New Year.
"This is not a journal in the habit of publishing insect studies," notes biologist Dr. Virginia Walker, who co-authored the study. "The neat thing about this work is that fruit flies treated with this drug show 'birth defects' that are hauntingly similar to birth defects in human babies. Babies have bent limbs, tufts of hair and bulging eyes and the fruit flies have bent legs (and wings), tufts of bristles and rough eyes."
While identifying this gene array is significant in its own right, the successful use of fruit flies in this kind of study is a revelation to the researchers who view it as an efficient model for the initial testing of "rescue" therapies to try to prevent birth defects. Scientists can study the effect of the drug on the genes of as many as three generations of fruit flies in a month using readily available scientific tools, speeding up study times while keeping costs low.
"It also adds to the growing list of roles fruit flies can take," says Walker. Fruit flies are already used as models for aging, neural disease and cancer. | <urn:uuid:dd459765-5d33-41df-a869-0477cec30759> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news/Fruit-fly-research-set-to-revolutionize-study-of-birth-defects-1834-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963028 | 454 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Date: 17 Oct 2005 11:13:48 -0700
Here's a challenge for the interested amateur. If you compete you'll
learn some new things and maybe get some cred.
In doing ECC point multiplications there is an algorithm known as the
Fixed Point method (also known by other names, iirc, the "comb"
method). It computes a point multiplication in a constant and ideally
minimal amount of time using modest amounts of memory.
One of the flaws is that it isn't suitable for random point
multiplication because you have to generate the precomputed tables for
any base point you want to multiply.
The EC-DH protocol essentially works as follows
You want to calculate a shared secret with Bob's public key Y
1. pick a random k
2. Compute Z = kG
3. Compute R = kY
4. Send kG to Bob
5. Use the x co-ordinate of R as the shared secret
The other side computes
Y = xG
1. Compute R = xZ
2. Use the x co-ordinate of R
For the computation in step 2 and 3 of the generation algorithm we know
G and Y in advance and hence can pre-compute those values. But we do
not know Z in advance.
To speed this up we could transmit the tables for Z along with kG.
Clearly this slows down the generation side but if we only care about
the receive side it doesn't matter.
What is the security flaw in this protocol? (Yes, it is seriously
and are good things to use citeseer to look for. | <urn:uuid:d6b82958-f26b-43ba-b678-9b9eeab10018> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.derkeiler.com/Newsgroups/sci.crypt/2005-10/0406.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00166-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.902796 | 351 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Abraham Lincoln (18091865). Political Debates Between Lincoln and Douglas 1897.
a former occasion, and I repeat it now, that the course of argument that Judge Douglas makes use of upon this subject (I charge not his motives in this), is preparing the public mind for that new Dred Scott decision. I have asked him again to point out to me the reasons for his first adherence to the Dred Scott decision as it is. I have turned his attention to the fact that General Jackson differed with him in regard to the political obligation of a Supreme Court decision. I have asked his attention to the fact that Jefferson differed with him in regard to the political obligation of a Supreme Court decision. Jefferson said that Judges are as honest as other men, and not more so. And he said, substantially, that whenever a free people should give up in absolute submission to any department of government, retaining for themselves no appeal from it, their liberties were gone. I have asked his attention to the fact that the Cincinnati platform upon which he says he stands, disregards a time-honored decision of the Supreme Court, in denying the power of Congress to establish a National Bank. I have asked his attention to the fact that he himself was one of the most active instruments at one time in breaking down the Supreme Court of the State of Illinois, because it had made a decision distasteful to him,a struggle ending in the remarkable circumstance of his sitting down as one of the new Judges who were to overslough that decision; getting his title of Judge in that very way.
So far in this controversy I can get no answer at all from Judge Douglas upon these subjects. Not one can I get from him, except that he swells himself up and says, All of us who stand by the decision of the Supreme Court are the friends of the Constitution; all you fellows that dare question it in any way, are the enemies of the Constitution. Now, in this very devoted adherence to this decision, in opposition to all the great political leaders whom he has recognized as leaders, in opposition to his former self and history, there is something very marked. And the manner in which he adheres to it,not as being right upon the merits, as he conceives (because he did not discuss that at all), but as being absolutely obligatory upon every one, simply because of the source from whence it comes,as that which no man can gainsay, whatever it may be; this is another marked feature of his adherence to that decision. It marks it in this respect | <urn:uuid:a5bb84b7-5e35-489e-84d0-bf2d453e77a8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bartleby.com/251/pages/page341.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.987545 | 519 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Cholesteryl Ester Storage Disease
It is possible that the main title of the report Cholesteryl Ester Storage Disease is not the name you expected. Please check the synonyms listing to find the alternate name(s) and disorder subdivision(s) covered by this report.
- acid cholesteryl ester hydrolase deficiency, type 2
cholesterol ester hydrolase deficiency
Cholesteryl ester storage disease (CESD) is a rare genetic disorder characterized by subtotal defect of an enzyme known as lysosomal acid lipase (LIPA or LAL). This enzyme is essential for hydrolysis of triglycerides and cholesteryl esters in lysosomes. CESD is caused by mutations in the lysosomal acid lipase (LIPA) gene. The disorder is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait. Deficiency of the LIPA enzyme causes lipids storage in tissues and organs of the body potentially causing a variety of symptoms. In the liver the consequences are hepatomegaly due to hepatic steatosis and fibrosis that can lead to micronodular cirrhosis. Some individuals may not be diagnosed with CESD until adulthood.
While mutations causing Wolman disease produce an enzyme with no residual activity or no enzyme at all, CESD-causing mutations encode for LAL which retains some enzyme activity Genetic and biochemical evidence that CESD and Wolman disease are distinguished by residual lysosomal acid lipase activity. CESD belongs to a group of diseases known as lysosomal storage disorders. Lysosomes are particles bound in membranes within cells that break down certain fats and carbohydrates. Defective lysosomal enzymes associated with CESD leads to the accumulation of certain fatty substances (mucolipids) and certain complex carbohydrates (mucopolysaccharides) within the cells of many tissues of the body.
CLIMB (Children Living with Inherited Metabolic Diseases)
176 Nantwich Road
Crewe, CW2 6BG
Vaincre Les Maladies Lysosomales
2 Ter Avenue
National Tay-Sachs and Allied Diseases Association, Inc.
2001 Beacon Street
Brookline, MA 02146-4227
American Liver Foundation
39 Broadway, Suite 2700
New York, NY 10006
Lysosomal Diseases New Zealand
16 Woodleigh Place
Genetic and Rare Diseases (GARD) Information Center
PO Box 8126
Gaithersburg, MD 20898-8126
Hide & Seek Foundation for Lysosomal Disease Research
6475 East Pacific Coast Highway Suite 466
Long Beach, CA 90803
LAL Solace, Inc.
191 Barnstable Court
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Position of wings
Posted 01 May 2004 - 08:56 PM
Does one design have advantages/disadvantages over the others?
Posted 02 May 2004 - 01:02 AM
Posted 03 May 2004 - 09:37 PM
Posted 04 May 2004 - 08:27 AM
Low wing, mid-wing, or shoulder wing do NOT indicate the strength of the wing. The design of the wing spar and the strength of the structure dictate the g-loading a wing can take.
If you mount the wing in a shoulder position, then the mass of the bomber lies mostly below the wing, and the wing needs less dihedral to be stable. If you mount the wing in a low position, then it needs MORE dihedral to achieve the same stability. A mid-wing needs less dihedral than a low wing, but more than a shoulder wing for the same stability. Too much dihedral means the aircraft will not achieve a fast rate of roll.
The Hellcat suffered from this very weakness.
There are other design considerations.
A low wing means a short landing gear whereas a high wing needs a longer gear strut to achieve the same strength and ridgidity. When the strut is longer, it can generate more torque when landing, so the attachment structure must also be stronger (read that as heavier).
Any aircraft is a design compromise since aopimizing one facet of an aircraft's performance affects other areas of performance.
The lowest drag is a well streamlined, and well-filleted mid-wing. But ... they are harder to manufacture. If you want to see the ultimate in this area, check out the Republic XF-12. It weighed in around 46,000 kg and could go over 740 kph! Almost in the early jet speed range.
The best wing planform is elliptical. The best example of this is the Supermarine Spitfire. But, a tapered wing is ALMOST as good. The P-51, Zero, and Bf 109 had tapered wings. In the end, the Spit was probably the best fighter (not intended to start another best fighter thread) due to the fact that Reginald Mitchell optimized the wing first, and compromised after that. One of his compromizes was ... fuel! The Spit was mostly a short-legged beast, but flew wonderfully while the airscrew was turning under its own power.
So ... the realk answer is:
Wing design is a compromise, and there are many ways to do the same job. None are the best at everything, but many are very good at a lot of things. The designer must choose what wing planform and configuration best suits the design objectives he is working with, and he compromises everything else to a degree after he makes that choice. But ... only the chief designer makes the number one choice ... the wing.
Posted 05 May 2004 - 05:44 AM
I was thinking of the Davis wing on the B-24 and Coronado that is sholder mounted and thin. It was designed for long legs but had its own problums. I must agree with you that design is really compromise and what you want to center on first as most important.
As for the eliptical wings they are good for Props, but jets seem to lag a bit. But that is a hole nother topic. No bother with the Spit coment, it was an example for our betterment.[^]
Posted 05 May 2004 - 08:58 AM
If there were a jet designed for 400 to 550 mph, then an elliptical wing would be a really neat choice. Something like the Fairchild A-10 comes to mind. Unfortunately, elliptical wings do NOT lend themselves to efficient construction, so tapered wings are the norm.
If the speed goes above 550 mph, then the wings all start to get swept to help with high-speed aerodynamics. This can be reasdily seen in the French Arsenal VG-70 and VG-90, the last projects by Vernisse and Galtier (VG).
The closest thing I can think of to an elliptical wing in a jet is the Gloster Meteor III. The tapers almost form an elliptical wing, and it falls right in the speed range above at just under 500 mph. Another potential candidate was the WWII German Heinkel He-280. The leading edge was straight, but the trailing edge was elliptical. It was slightly faster at 544 mph, but right in the ballpark.
The French SNCAC NC 1071 MIGHT have an elliptical wing, but I can't find a plan-view of it, so I only suspect it to be so.
The French Sud Ouest 6000 and 6020 might be close to elliptical also, but they appear to be tapered when you look closely.
I can't think of anything else that even MIGHT be a jet example of an elliptical wing, so I suppose we can conclude that high-speed and ease of manufacturing in a jet are more important than aerodynamic considerations.
Posted 05 May 2004 - 10:30 PM
Posted 06 May 2004 - 04:49 AM
As for the A-10's design, it is one of my favorate jets and would have been at home in WWII, say the Eastern front. It is infact named after the P-47
My take on design of wing or set specs, it is all what the designers want. US makers go for function then form.
Posted 06 May 2004 - 08:28 AM
True, form instead of function.
I sometimes fly full scale aircraft (Cessnas and Pipers), but have flown radio controll airplanes for over 25 years off and on. I had one model with a completely elliptical wing ... even more pure elliptical than a Spitfire.
It flew absolutely great. So, based on THAT experience, I'd like to see a full-scale plane with a true elliptical wing. Too bad they're so hard to make!
It is also interesting to note that the Lockheed P-38 had a problem with near-sonic flight, but WAS recoverable if the pilot used the trim tabs to do it. The trim tab could move the elevator despite the shock wave ... it was considewrably stronger than the human-powered elevator. Some P-38s were fitted with dive recovery flaps. They changed the center of lift, moving it forward and resulting in a nose-up moment of force.
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|Name: _________________________||Period: ___________________|
This test consists of 5 short answer questions and 1 (of 3) essay topics.
Short Answer Questions
1. How does Ava feel about keeping Imani by herself?
2. What does Eddie want Joyce to do?
3. What do Eddie, Joyce and Ava do to ensure Imani's safety when with her mother?
4. Why did black people first start coming to Idlewild?
5. What did the letter Joyce received from the state say?
Write an essay for ONE of the following topics:
Essay Topic 1
Being diagnosed HIV positive has hastened Ava's enlightenment and sense of urgency to make the most of her life, and this comes through in the tone and style created by the author.
1. What do you think is meant by this statement? Use examples from the book to support your answer.
2. What would you do if you were in Ava's situation? Use examples from the book and your life to illustrate your answer.
3. Do you think a diagnosis like Ava's is the only way people can learn to live witha sense of urgency? Why or why not?
Essay Topic 2
Eddie succumbed to the lowest depths of the drug and street lifestyle and ended up committing murder, for which he paid with ten years of his life. Fortunately, Eddie had found redemption after adversity, though there is also a sense that Eddie still walks a fine line to maintain his forward focus.
1. What do you think is meant by redemption after adversity? Use examples from the book to support your answer.
2. Why do you think Eddie still walks a fine line to maintain his forward focus? Use examples from the book to support your answer.
3. Why do you think people like Eddie decide to change and are able to do so? Use examples from the text and your own life to support your answer.
Essay Topic 3
Time has also taken its toll on the lives of those closest to Ava, and we learn of the difficulties suffered by Joyce, Joyce and Ava's mother, Eddie and even Ava herself. Their stories are different, but the theme of success in spite of adversity is starting to emerge through the glimpses of character that the author reveals in these early chapters.
1. What do you think is meant by this statement? Use examples from the text to support your answer.
2. Do you think adversity can make a person try harder to be successful? Why or why not?
3. Do you think Ava, Joyce and Eddie's lives are any more difficult than most people's? Why or why not?
This section contains 501 words
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Skateboarding is a relatively new sport that developed out of the laid-back lifestyle of Californian surfers in the 1960s. Restless surfers stuck wooden boxes onto roller skate wheels, and they rode their "skateboards" after the day's surfing was done. Today, skateboards and the ramps on which the skaters ride are built with the latest materials and construction techniques. Skaters use the laws of physics to pull off the most amazing tricks. This volume explores these developments and how they make skateboarding one of the most exhilarating sports.
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aiii) How long does it take for the airplane to reach A? Got this one, too.
At A the airplane changes direction so it now flies towards B. The angle between the original direction and the new direction is theta as shown in a second diagram. This diagram also shows the point Y, between A and B, where the airplane comes closest to X.
b) Use the scalar product of two vectors to find the value of theta in degrees. I'm guessing that I should use the vectors OA and AB but I don't know how I'd actually carry that out.
ci) Write down the vector AX
cii) Show that the vector n
= <-3, 4> is perpendicular to AB
. I think I know how to do this one.
cii) Calculate the distance XY. ???
d) How far is the airplane from A when it reaches Y? I guess I need to know some of the previous answers to get this one! | <urn:uuid:cadc2628-c39d-4dbc-baec-9edb1f5d5cd6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mathhelpforum.com/pre-calculus/35068-vectors.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00172-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934236 | 205 | 3.53125 | 4 |
Themes and Goals
This one-lesson unit examines Mao Zedong as a revolutionary leader through Chinese propaganda posters from the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, 1966-1976. Both beautiful and powerful, these posters offer students a window on the cult of personality surrounding Mao and its place in the broader context of the Cultural Revolution. The lesson contains student readings and activities as well as introductory materials for the instructor and teaching strategies. It can be used either online or in the classroom.
Major themes of the unit:
Audience and Uses
This material could be useful in a variety of undergraduate courses including but not limited to:
Suggestions for using the unit:
Mao Zedong and the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution
Mao Zedong is remembered as the father of China ’s communist revolution, and he presided over what amounted to a series of revolutions in modern China. Mao was the leader of the Communist forces when they triumphed over Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalists in 1949 to form the People’s Republic of China. As Chairman of the Communist Party in the 1950s, he spurred on the Chinese people in the pursuit of economic revolution under the banner of the Great Leap Forward. And in the 1960s and 1970s he sought to remake Chinese society and culture yet again by ridding the nation of traditional elements and urging the country’s youth to pursue constant revolutionary struggle in the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution.
The Cultural Revolution had at least two goals for Mao. One was to restore his leadership position, which had faded in the wake of the disastrous Great Leap Forward. Another was to create a society that truly reflected his socialist ideals.
Mao believed that political revolution could only follow cultural revolution — changing people’s patterns of thinking and everyday behavior was the first step towards true liberation. Arguing that China’s cultural-historical heritage was the greatest impediment to revolutionary change, he decreed that the “Four Olds" should be smashed — old thinking, old culture, old customs, and old habits. The Red Guards took on this iconoclastic mission with enthusiasm. Schools closed, and young people were free to travel and attack remnants of the old order wherever they saw them. Teachers were vilified, artwork was destroyed, books were burned, and lives were ruined as idealistic young people sought to realize Mao’s vision of a society freed from the deadweight of tradition.
Image Courtesy of the IISH Stefan R. Landsberger Collection
Mao was the guiding light of the Cultural Revolution. His image permeates the political posters of the period, radiating like the sun as he smiles down on China ’s grateful masses. As zealous members of the Red Guard sought to transform all aspects of Chinese life in his name, Mao was elevated to a god-like status. He became a model for the Chinese people, larger than life and said to be capable of tremendous physical feats. This personality cult ensured that his portrait or an image of his “Little Red Book," the accepted text of orthodox revolutionary thought, figured prominently in many of the posters of the period. People worked for Mao when they worked for the revolution and vice versa.
As revolutionary policy changed across the decade between 1966 and 1976, so did the depiction of Mao in the posters. These mass produced images of the great leader signaled appropriate behavior and thought in an easily understood visual idiom at a time when the entire nation was in a state of nearly constant flux and unease.
All forms of media and communication were tightly controlled during this period. Everything, from poetry to posters, had to reflect Mao Zedong Thought. Mao wrote poetry, gave speeches and produced written works that were edited and disseminated to provide guidance for almost any occasion or event.
Posters and the Revolutionary Message
Posters were an ideal means of communicating the revolutionary message to China’s diverse population. Newspapers and magazines were not of much use when addressing uneducated peasants, film was expensive, radio was geographically difficult, and live theater was available only to limited audiences. Speaking through mass produced images rather than written text, inexpensive posters were an efficient means of addressing both illiterate peasants and busy urbanites, and they were often the propaganda tool of choice. Estimates put the number of posters produced during the Cultural Revolution at well over two billion. Designed as weapons of revolution, these ubiquitous artifacts used compelling symbols to introduce new ideas, create allegiance, and inspire action.
Modern political posters were first widely used in China to mobilize the population against the Japanese in the late 1930s. In Yan’an, the Chinese Communist Party base from 1935 until the late 1940s, Mao brought together artists and presented his ideas on the purpose and methods of artistic expression. Artists were sent to the Soviet Union to learn Soviet methods. Influenced by their Soviet study and local Chinese use of woodblock prints and paper cuts, the Yan’an artists began to develop a genre of design that depicted the revolutionary lifestyle. Where Russian posters were often serious and concerned with modern industry and machinery, Chinese posters were generally sunny and bright, filled with smiling people carrying out Mao’s principles. The posters are warm and vibrant, often saturated with shades of red, an auspicious color in Chinese culture and the color of international communist revolution.
The Revolutionary Nature of the Cultural Revolution
Mao Zedong’s Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution was not a stereotypical revolution. Revolution can be defined as a mass movement or collective action that uses violent means to overthrow a government and other institutions of society. This definition would not include the Cultural Revolution, since the Communist Party remained in power after 1976. If we look at revolution in a broader cultural sense, however, it becomes clear that the Cultural Revolution was indeed revolutionary.
Mao sought to remake Chinese culture and society, and there is little question that China was fundamentally changed during the years between 1966 and 1976. To choose the most obvious example, in a nation that valued filial piety so highly, the elevation of young revolutionaries over their teachers, elders, and parents was clearly an event with revolutionary repercussions.
In contradistinction, however, we can see that the perhaps the most important power relationship in modern societies, state control over individual citizens or subjects, was either unaffected or perhaps even strengthened during this period. We are left, then, in much the same place as Mao, struggling to understand the nature of the relationship between political revolution, on the one hand, and cultural revolution, on the other.
Cheek, Timothy. Mao Zedong and China’s Revolutions: A Brief History with Documents. Boston: Bedford Books, 2002.
The resources found on the Mao Zedong page and in the Further Online Resources section below provide useful background for a variety of purposes. Particularly good are Morning Sun (http://morningsun.org/images/index.html) on the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution and its visual images, and Stefan Landsberger's Chinese Propaganda Poster Pages (http://www.iisg.nl/landsberger/)
Instructors may choose to lead the entire class in discussions of the images or to split larger classes up into small groups of 4-6 students. In the case of small group discussions, students may be asked to present their “reading" of a particular image or set of images to the class as a whole during the last 20-30 minutes of class time. Or, if the instructor chooses to forego in-class presentations, each student or group might be asked to submit a short written summary of their discussion.
Viewings, readings, and discussion questions for use in class, small groups, or in online web discussions are provided below. They are divided by topic.
In addition to the specific resources listed below, use the “Chinese Posters" section of the International Institute of Social History website, “The Chairman Smiles," for these discussion activities: http://www.iisg.nl/exhibitions/chairman/chnintro.php
Propaganda is information or ideas that are publicly disseminated to further a particular political cause.
This activity demonstrates how the work of others contributed to Mao’s cult of personality.
From the Picturing Power exhibition
Readings and Audio:
The emphasis here is on Mao’s role in leading the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution.
from the Picturing Power exhibition
Image Courtesy of the IISH Stefan R. Landsberger Collection
These materials focus on the question of leadership. Liu Shaoqi argues that supreme leaders should provide models of right behavior, an assertion that resonates with traditional Confucian notions of moral leadership.
from the Picturing Power exhibition
This section focuses on art’s role in revolution and politics.
Chinese political posters featuring Mao Zedong can be compared to posters found in other countries. Often, revolutionary leaders are used as cultural symbols. Chinese posters from the 1960s and 1970s are generally distinguished by their portrayal of Mao Zedong himself, or such symbols of the Cultural Revolution as his “Little Red Book." Using the information on “The Chairman Smiles" site, comparisons can be made to posters of revolutionary leaders of the Soviet Union and Cuba, as well as other selected national and revolutionary leaders from other parts of the world.
Sample Comparative Activity Using Cuban Posters
This activity shows how instructors might address the question of comparative revolution through political posters. The focus here in on Cuba, but a similar activity could be engineered around Soviet posters.
Image courtesy of the Collection IISG, Amsterdam
from The Sixties Project website
These resources are in addition to those found on the Mao Zedong Online Resources page:
The Chairman Smiles: Chinese Posters, International Institute of Social History
“The Cultural Revolution: A Terrible Beauty is Born," by Ban Wang (Chapter 6 from The Sublime Figure of History: Aesthetics and Politics in Twentieth-Century China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997.)
Leaders and Role Models, Visual Sourcebook of Chinese Civilization, Patricia Buckley Ebrey, University of Washington
Picturing Power: Posters from the Chinese Cultural Revolution, Indiana University
Posters from the Cultural Revolution (under Galleries) and Mao Quotes Factoid Generator (last entry under Feature Articles), Visions of China, CNN
Visual Culture and Memory in Modern China: Images, Modern Chinese Literature and Culture
Michael Wolf Collection of Propaganda Posters
These resources are in addition to those found in the Castro section of the Other Leaders Online Resources page.
The Chairman Smiles: Cuban Posters, International Institute of Social History
Cuban Poster Art Archive, Lincoln Cushing
Political Posters from the United States, Cuba and Viet Nam, The Sixties Project
These resources are in addition to those found in the Lenin section of the Other Leaders Online Resources page.
The Chairman Smiles: Soviet Posters, International Institute of Social History
Political Posters, Imants Kluss Home Page
Political Propaganda Posters from the Soviet Union, from the private collection of Gareth Jones
Revolution by Design: The Soviet Poster, International Poster Gallery
Russian Revolutionary Posters, Evergreen Review
Soviet Posters – Come the Revolution, University of Birmingham
Other Countries (including U.S., North Korea, Germany) and General Resources
The Art of Propaganda: Nationalistic Themes in the Art of North Korea
Nazi Posters: 1933-1945, German Propaganda Archive, Calvin College
Paper Trails: Exploring World History through Documents and Images:
Recruitment and War Bond Posters
Trenches on the Web: Posters from the Great War
World War II Poster Collection, Northwestern University Library
Andrews, Julia F. Painters and Politics in the People's Republic of China, 1949-1979. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994.
Apter, David and Saich, Tony. Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Republic. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994.
Barmé, Geremie. Shades of Mao: The Posthumous Cult of the Great Leader. Armonk, N.Y: M. E. Sharpe, 1996.
Chu, Godwin C. Radical Change Through Communication in Mao's China. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1977.
Denton, Kirk A. “Visual Memory and the Construction of a Revolutionary Past: Paintings from the Museum of the Chinese Revolution," Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, vol. 12, no. 2 (Fall 2000), pp. 203-235.
Fraser, Stewart E., ed. One Hundred Great Chinese Posters: Recent Examples of “the People's Art" from the People's Republic of China. Images Graphiques, 1977.
Galikowski, Maria. Arts and Politics in China, 1949-1984. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1998.
Holm, David. Art and Ideology in Revolutionary China. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991.
Landsberger, Stefan. “The Deification of Mao: Religious Imagery and Practices during the Cultural Revolution and Beyond," pp. 139-184 in Woei Lien Chong, ed. China's Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution - Master Narratives and Post-Mao Counternarratives. Boulder, CO: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002.
Landsberger, Stefan. Chinese Propaganda Posters: From Revolution to Modernization. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2001.
Meisner, Maurice “Iconoclasm and Cultural Revolution in China and Russia" in Gleason, Abbott, Peter Kenetz and Richard Stiles, eds., Bolshevik Culture. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1985.
Powell, Patricia and Wong, Joseph. “Propaganda Posters from the Chinese Revolution," in Historian, Summer 1997, vol. 59, issue 4, available through EBSCO online database.
Stambler, Benita. “The Electronic Helmsman: Mao Posters on the Web." Education About Asia, Spring, 2004.
Sullivan, Michael. Art and Artists of Twentieth-Century China. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996.
Wolf, Michael; Duo, Duo; Min, Anchee. Chinese Propaganda Posters: From the Collection of Michael Wolf. Koln; London: Taschen, 2003. | <urn:uuid:a8e52db7-40d6-484f-be0e-84ceaa349b0a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.columbia.edu/cu/weai/exeas/asian-revolutions/resources/poster-politics.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922267 | 2,974 | 4.09375 | 4 |
THE EVOLUTION OF MAMMALS
The changes from a reptilian to a mammal's lifestyle is significant. Reptiles are cold-blooded, relying on external heat sources to raise their body temperature to a point necessary for activity. During cold periods and at night, the reptile must accept substantial down time, awaiting the warmth of the next day to get started again. This leads to a lifestyle of relatively short bursts of energy needed to catch its prey and long periods of inactivity while the body processes the food. Mammals, on the other hand, are warm-blooded, generating their heat internally, retaining it by insulation of fur and/or fat. Having a more consistent body temperature means a more continuous activity level, which means more fuel (food) is required to supply the energy necessary for this active lifestyle. A more efficient metabolism is required which includes greater oxygen intake abilities and nutrient uptake. Larger lungs, diaphragm, a four-chambered heart, and improved circulatory systems were the result. A more efficient method of removing metabolic wastes was also required, resulting in improvements to the kidneys and the separation of the urinary and fecal excretory tracts (which are still combined in the monotremes, which include the platypus and echidna, the opossums and some species of shrews today).
Additionally, reptiles relied on giving birth to eggs. Eggs are basically left to hatch and fend for themselves. The new mammals evolved a system of reproduction which leaves the young to develop more fully inside the mother. After birth, the young are afforded extended parental care by the the reliable provision of the mother's mammary glands. Thus, the young can spend its energy in further physiological growth, rather than having to be immediately able to hunt and defend itself. Both these advances allowed more time for the development of a more complex organism and the cerebral system in the mammalian ancestry.
While we recognize that the "Age of Mammals" begins after the demise of the dinosaurs some 65 million years ago, the story of mammalian evolution begins well before their reign. One has to go back to a period 250 million years ago when the transition to mammals began in the form of mammal-like reptiles.
Mammals evolved from a group of reptiles called the synapsids. These reptiles arose during the Pennsylvanian Period (310 to 275 million years ago). A branch of the synapsids called the therapsids appeared by the middle of the Permian Period (275 to 225 million years ago). It was over millions of years that some of these therapsids would evolve many features that would later be associated with mammals.
It's impossible to know from which of the reptiles the first mammals evolved. The hallmarks of today's mammals - hair, warm blood and milk-producing glands - do not fossilize. We know that some dinosaurs, such as the Stegosaurus and Dimetrodon, supported large plates or sails of skin, developed to function as solar panels, absorbing the sun's heat for quick mobilization. However, during the period of dinosaurs, some of the sail-backed pelycosaurs (which includes the Dimetrodon) lost their sails. Even acknowledging a warming period ensued, it would be improbable that such an effective heating mechanism would be lost through evolution unless a more efficient method of heat control had evolved to replace it. It is therefore reasonable to supposed that the pelycosaurs and their successors, the therapsids, were to some degree endothermic. The therapsids, being only three feet long, would need some form of body insulation if it was to be effective. Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that some of these creatures were covered in hair, or fur.
It is felt that hair was first evolved in early mammals to help regulate temperatures. The earliest mammals grew these sensory cones between the scales of the evolving reptiles, which, when brushed on objects, gave a stimulus to the brain. Certain remnant scales still exist on rats' tails, armadillo shells and the backs of pangolins. Animal whiskers are still sensory receptacles. Hair is mainly the protein keratin, a form of skin, which is the same material making up the epidermis, feathers, fingernails, horns, hooves and claws. Humans have about 100,000 hairs on our head, while sea otters have 170,000 to 1,000,0000 hairs in their underfur; only one of the otters’ three types of hair. Polar bear hairs have hollow cores. The cores scatter light, making the hairs seem white. Actually, they are colorless. Sunlight passes through the bear's long guard hairs to its black skin, which absorbs the radiation as heat. The inner insulating hair prevents the heat from being radiated back to the air (similar to glass of a greenhouse). Most mammals can cause their hair to become erect, thus increasing the air, (i.e., heat) retention. Although humans have lost most of their body hair, goose bumps are the results of our own relic muscles that still exist which used to control these hairs. White-tailed deer grow winter coats four times thicker than summer coats.
Early in the evolution of the therapsids arose a group called the cynodonts. These early mammal-like reptiles changed their teeth from being designed for catching and holding prey and then swallowing whole, to adding specialized teeth, including molars, designed for better mastication of food allowing for quicker digestion. In reptiles, all the teeth are alike, being replaced alternately along the jaw in waves from the back of the jaw to the front. Larger, but similar teeth replace the earlier teeth. As the cynodonts progressed toward today's mammals, this process was replace by the characteristic pattern of one set of deciduous teeth followed by one set of permanent teeth. The permanent nature of teeth enabled a specialization of teeth to serve specific functions. Additionally, the jaw of the cynodonts reduced the number of jaw bones. This freed up the superfluous bones to evolve into an entirely new function, becoming the tympanic, malleus and incus of the mammal's inner ear. Improved hearing gave these creatures a better awareness of their environment and, in turn, this increasing sensitivity called for a greater capacity for processing the auditory information in the brain.
The cynodonts dominated the world of 250 million years ago. At this time, all the land masses were joined together in one super-continent, called Pangaea, consisting of the northern Laurasia (Europe, Asia and North America) and the southern Gondwanaland (South America, Africa, Antarctica and Australia). By about 200 million years ago, the dynasty of the cynodonts suddenly was ended by the appearance of dinosaurs. Both the numbers of species and the size of the remaining species was markedly reduced. For the next 135 million years, these early mammals played a very small role in the world (both literally and figuratively), often termed the 'Dark Ages' of mammalian evolution. However, the evolution of the remaining mammals did not stop.
With the days dominated by the dinosaurs, these early mammals confined themselves to a nocturnal lifestyle or limited rocky or underground habitats. Such a lifestyle could only be possible with a warm-blooded creature, who could maintain a body temperature necessary for nocturnal activity. Being small, the physical requirements of getting around necessitated the development of agility and coordination. Also, being carnivorous added to need for augmented sensory perception. Such activities require a higher metabolism, meaning more food. Finally, being nocturnal resulted in eyes becoming relatively large, hearing more acute, the nose more sensitive, vocal cords more developed, and whiskers becoming more pronounced. All these factors combined to give the small early mammals an awareness of their environment which demanded constant fine-tuning of the integration between cerebral and physical equipment. This enabled an opportunity for increasing evolution of reproductive strategies, maternal behavior, parental care, communication between individuals and learning.
In a manner of speaking, the net result was that, while dinosaurs were getting larger and developing extensive defensive and offensive tools, they were really evolving primarily their physical hardware, while the evolution of the early mammals used its energy in evolving their brain and behavioral software.
During this period of dinosaur dominance, the three forms of mammals that still exist today appeared; the monotremes, the marsupials, and the placentals. All three of these groups are believed to have originated from a common ancestor. If one were to define the first mammal as the most recent common ancestor of these three forms of mammals, as some do, then an animal found in England (Phascolotherium bucklandi) lays claim to that honor, roaming some 165 million years ago during the middle Jurassic period. Others argue for a creature from Texas during the late Triassic, about 225 million years ago, with the name of Adelobasileus cromptoni. By the Jurassic Period (180 to 130 million years ago), mammals were shrew-like animals, being insectivorous carnivores.
The earliest mammals are generally agreed to have been the ancestors of todays' monotremes. Monotremes resemble reptiles and differ from all other mammals in that they lay shell-covered eggs that are incubated and hatched outside of the body of the mother. Like reptiles, the ducts of the excretory system and the genital ducts open into a single external opening known as the cloaca (thus, the ordinal name Monotremata). Like mammals, they have fur, a four-chambered heart, are warm-blooded, and nurse their young from specialized glands. However, as might be expected in these primitive mammals, the four-chambered heart is, to an extent, incomplete, the body temperature averages lower than that of other mammals, and their are no nipples; rather, the milk is excreted through skin glands, with the young suckling the body fur to receive the milk. The monotremes are represented today by two species of echidnas and one species of platypus.
These monotremes split from the early mammals around 130 million years ago, probably in Australia, while it was still joined to Antarctica, as part of Gondwanaland. Monotremes had dispersed through Antarctica into South America by the early Paleocene (65 million years ago), but are only found today in Australia, where they were safe from competition with the more advanced placental mammals.
About 120 million years ago, the mammalian line ceased laying eggs and began bearing live young. These forms of mammals were the first marsupials, who bore their young at a very early stage in their development and transferred them to a pouch where modified sweat glands secreted milk. It is generally accepted that the first marsupials arose in North America and spread to South America, then to Antarctica and Australia some time before the breakup of Pangaea near the end of the Cretaceous period, some 70 million years ago. Others argue that a southern continental origin is more probable.
By the the end of the Cretaceous (65 million years ago), Pangaea had begun to break apart. These early marsupials (and the limited number of monotremes) were the sole inhabitants of the southern land mass, Gondwanaland, and the marsupial lines radiated out to fill out every niche available. (Although later continental movements enabled carnivorous placental mammals to reach South America and Africa, the islands of Antarctica and Australia remained to be occupied solely by marsupials and monotremes. More about the invasion of South America by placental carnivores can be read at THE VELVET CLAW.)
Meanwhile, in Laurasia, another branch of mammals took the marsupial reproductive strategy one step further. As the early mammals evolved, they continued to expand their awareness of the environment reflected in improved senses of sight, smell, touch and hearing. These processes, and an increasing need for coordination, required constantly more cerebral capacity. The placental evolution best suited this need. In this system, the embryo remained in the uterus, receiving nutrients and oxygen from the mother for an extended amount of time, enabling the development of the brain. As the brain continued to expand, it brought the mammals greater ability to learn, continuing the cycle and speeding up the process well beyond the levels attained by marsupials. The splitting of the placentals from the marsupials date back to about 120 million years ago. The first living placental order is believed by most scientists to be the Insectivores (including shrews and moles), while others support the Xenarthra, which includes the armadillos, sloths, and anteaters as more primitive.
About 70 million years ago, placentals and marsupials arrived in South America; the placentals being the herbivores, and the marsupial, the carnivores.
With the lowering
ocean level creating the Panama land bridge about 3 million years ago, the
placental carnivores (including the saber-toothed tigers) migrated south from
North America and wiped out the marsupial carnivores.
This land bridge was responsible for the northward migration of opossum,
armadillos and porcupines and the southward migration of raccoons, weasel, dogs,
bear and cats (including the saber-toothed cat).
Mastodons, tapirs, horses, llamas and deer were the hoofed emigrants
southward. Rabbits and rodents
(including the very successful mice) also went south.
Today, fully half of the land mammal genera of South America came by way
of this land bridge, while only three genera (the porcupine, opossum and
armadillo) having found permanent homes in North America from the south.
By the end of the Cretaceous period, some 65 million years ago, as the continents diverged, the climate became more erratic, the vegetation changed, and the dinosaurs disappeared, the 'Age of Mammals' finally gets under way.
So many changes were occurring. Of course, the removal of the dinosaurs opened the daylight world to the mammals. Flowering plants, which had quickly dominated the landscape over the coniferous gymnosperms, evolved symbiotic relationships with the mammals, bringing mutual benefit to both plants and animals; food for the animals and a method of fertilization for the plants, thus enabling a radiation of new species of both plants and animals. And the movement of the continental plates caused the formation of new mountains and new habitats. As the Atlantic basin widened, the Andes and the Rocky Mountains rose where the American continents independently butted up against the Pacific plate. India broke free from Africa and drifted north towards Asia, creating the Himalayan range. As Africa turned a little and pushed against Europe, both continental plates crumpled a little, creating the Alps and the Atlas Mountains. With these new habitats came new plants, insects, and soon, new mammals.
The first mammalian carnivores to evolve from (and to feed on) the ancestral insectivores are known as the creodonts, which split into two main groups about 55 million years ago; the felids and the canids, or as we know them, the cats and dogs. (More on this can be found by reading about THE VELVET CLAW.)
Next came the herbivores to feed on the plant material itself. The teeth became broad, extremely hard and high-crowned to grind the tough fibrous plant material. The digestive system became specially adapted for processing low-nutrient plants, and the unnecessary claws evolved into hooves, which in Latin is ungula, thus, the name of ungulates. Like the carnivores, these herbivores split into two main groups; the odd-toed perissodactyls and the even-toed artiodactyls.
As has been the case throughout the evolution of animals, where food resources will allow, gigantic forms arose, and where food was limited smaller forms predominated. The concept of convergent, or parallel, evolution led each continent to evolve similar types of cats, dogs, rodents, pigs, and rhinoceros to fill in similar ecological niches.
As temperatures moderated from the Paleocene into the Eocene (from 53 to 36 million years ago), tropical forests aided in the rise and spread of the flowering plants and the radiation of the mammals. But, throughout the Oligocene and into the Miocene (from 36 to 8 million years ago), the temperature dropped about 5 °F as a result of a shift in the axis of the Earth's rotation and resulting formation of the ice cap on Antarctica, which at this time was arriving at the south pole. This drop in temperature (and consequential drop in precipitation) caused a change in vegetation from forest to grasslands. With this gradual change in the environment, came an evolutionary adaptation among the animals. Grass replaced forest in many regions and with it a number of habitats for browsers, who primarily feed on woody plants, were lost.
However, certain animals were able to capitalize on the dense stands of grass vegetation which enabled larger animal populations than afforded by forest habitats. With the exploitation of grasses, teeth became a limiting factor in species diversity since the grasses contained crystal of silica, which quickly wore down teeth. As a result, new species with specially adapted teeth incorporating hard enamel evolved, feeding primarily on these grasses. These new animals are known as grazers.
The grass itself benefits from the presence of the herds for they trample and eat the seedling of bushes or trees that might take root on the plain and that would, were they to grow tall, rob the grass of light and eventually displace it. It seems likely therefore that the spread of the grasslands and the evolution of grazing animals proceeded together, step by step.
Grass is high in cellulose, a material hard to digest. One adaptation was the emergence of bacteria in the gut to help break down the grass. The lagomorphs, including rabbits and hares, furthered this adaptation by passing the grass through their digestive system twice. After excreting the food product, it is ingested again to extract as much of the nutrients as possible. This process is called coprophagy, and is also practiced by some mice and beaver.
Certain of the even-toed ungulates evolved an extra stomach (the rumen) which partially broke down the food before passing it back to the mouth for further chewing before being sent down to the true stomach for final digestion. This, of course, is the proverbial "chewing of the cud." These are known as the ruminants. The success of these more advanced ungulates can be shown by the number of existing species. There are 194 species of even-toed ungulates and only 16 odd-toed ungulates, of which the horse is the only exclusive grazer among them.
This cud chewing makes
for longer time for food to be processed (70 - 100 hours through the gut) than,
say, for a horse (30 -45 hours). The
central difference, then, is that the digestive system of the horse is less
efficient than that of the ruminant, but in compensation the horse eats greater
quantities of food; the emphasis in ruminants is on highly efficient digestion
and on more selective feeding, but not on high rates of food intake.
Given food in short supply, the ruminant will probably survive after the
horse has starved to death.
Within the ruminants,
antlers and horns are found in the most progressive families.
The antlered artiodactys include the deer, elk, caribou and moose.
Antlers are usually present and occur in males only, with the exception
of caribou, where both sexes have antlers.
Antlers differ from horns in being annually shed and regrown each year.
In the Giraffadae (giraffe and okapi), both male and female have fur
covered bone protuberances. In the
Antilocapridae (pronghorn sheep), both male and female have a boney spur with an
annually shed sheath. Finally, in
the Bovidae family (antelope, bison, sheep, goats, and cattle), usually both
male and female have horns. The
horns are never shed and in some species grow throughout the life of the animal. Bovid horns are never branched, but can be spectacularly
curved or spiraled. The domestication of bovids about 8,000 years ago was one of
the major factors responsible for the first civilization in the Tigris/Euphrates
River valley in Mesopotamia (annual grain crops, including wheat and barley were
another reason). A few bovids
reached the New World in the Pleistocene via the Bering Strait land bridge.
Because this avenue of dispersal was under the influence of severe boreal
climatic conditions at this time, it functioned as a filter bridge, and only
animals adapted to these conditions dispersed across the bridge.
Migrators to the New World included bighorn sheep, mountain goat, musk
ox, and the bison. Other Old World
bovids that couldn't make the cold crossing included antelopes and the gazelles.
Bovids inhabit grasslands, making their greatest stand currently in the
savannas and grasslands of Africa.
In addition to the ungulates, the rodents prospered as plant eaters. They, too, dealt with the tough plant material. Their evolution was to maintain open roots to their front gnawing teeth, the incisors, so that they continue to grow throughout the animal's life, compensating for wear. Like the ungulates, rodents also enlisted the help of bacterial life to further break down the cellulose in the guts of the animals.
And, of course, with the grazers coming out in the open grasslands, came the predators. Only the largest of the herbivores (elephants and rhinoceros) were safe from predation. The smaller rodents burrowed for protection. Others chose speed to outrun predators. Horses, for example, evolved in North America, running on its' toes, which, over time, were reduced from four toes to one. (Numerous toes, necessary for better traction in the soft soil of the forests, became unnecessary, and, in fact, a liability on the hard ground of the drier grasslands.) Legs increased in length for running and the skull elongated to enable the eyes to better see predators while they fed.
As part of the mixing
of continental members 3 million years ago, horses traveled over the Bering
Strait to the Old World and over the Panama isthmus to South America.
Dramatic climatic shifts and the arrival of man contributed to the
extinction of Equus in the Americas. Only
one genus world-wide exists in the Old World from their maximum in the Miocene.
This genus, includes all the world's horses; zebras, asses and onagers -
the ancestor of the domesticated horse.
Speed was the name of the game. While the ungulates evolved speed by running on their toes, the predators couldn't do this since they needed their claws for the catch. Instead, they effectively lengthened their limbs by making their spine extremely flexible, enabling their hind and front legs to overlap beneath the body. Or they hunted in groups, like the lions and dogs.
Back in the forests, some of the tiny insectivorous creatures from the days in the shadows of the dinosaurs, adapted a lifestyle in the trees. The foods available in the trees were rich and varied, including leaves, buds, fruit, insects, eggs and nestlings. As opposed to a terrestrial life, where the sense of smell was the most important sensory organ, life in the trees emphasized the development of vision. Eyesight evolved to include looking sideways, integrating the two fields of vision to give a stereoscopic image of the surrounding, with perhaps even the first tints of color. In addition, agility and coordination were critical. Use of the forehands to grasp branches and food resulted in opposable thumbs, and the rear legs became more the means of propulsion and static support, leading ultimately to the ability to sit with the back erect. In addition to these traits, an omnivorous diet required a range of teeth functions, not just the slicers of the carnivores nor the grinders of the grazers. Along with these developments, was the co-committal development of the cerebral capacity. From this beginning, arose the primates.
With the origin of the primates, some 80 million years ago, came certain features that would forever differentiate these mammals from all others. Among them, they have retained four kinds of teeth (incisors, canines, premolars and molars), opposable thumbs, two mammary glands, frontally directed eyes and a relatively large brain. It is from this stock that has lead to the evolution of the human being, another story in itself.
(Editors' note: With the preceding information derived from various sources and, thus, dates of publication, there are some discrepancies in established dates as new information is continually being made available. While I've done what is possible to rectify these differences, the state of the science precludes the total agreement of all dates to be achieved from a summary of numerous documents.) | <urn:uuid:a1bd3949-779e-4881-9666-c7114ec558f0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://bobpickett.org/evolution_of_mammals.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00012-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951026 | 5,326 | 4.1875 | 4 |
|Alt names||Upper Palatinate|
|Located in||Bayern, Germany|
- source: Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names
- source: Family History Library Catalog
- the text in this section is copied from an article in Wikipedia
The Upper Palatinate is one of the seven administrative regions of Bavaria, Germany, located in the east of Bavaria. | <urn:uuid:ae5399f5-a7b9-4875-bfb7-1d6fe7372966> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.werelate.org/wiki/Place:Oberpfalz%2C_Bayern%2C_Germany | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00175-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.726945 | 80 | 2.921875 | 3 |
The Art of Trinidad and Tobago
South's Can boulay riots hotter than North's
By Michael Anthony
March 04, 1984
The famous and often-cited Canboulay riots which took place in Port of Spain at Carnival 1881 were in fact quite minor to the serious and widespread clashes which marred the carnival in San Fernando and Princes Town 100 years ago.
Canboulay, or properly written "Cannes Brulees", means "burning cane", and this commemorated the putting-out of cane fires during slavery. After slavery it became one of the important and deep-rooted festivals of the black people and was marked by ribald dancing and the lighted flambeaus carried in the street.
The police always opposed this with vigour, claiming that the lighted flambeaus could burn down the town. The people, who always regarded the police as oppressors, resisted and resisted bitterly.
During the period that Canboulay was observed on August 1, the anniversary of the Abolition of Slavery, it was easy to suppress the cult, but when this was crushed and the people started Carnival time, it became almost impossible to quell it, because the masses claimed the right to celebrate Carnival as they thought fit.
And more than that, with the people in celebration, and emboldened by drink, and most important of all with masks on their faces, Canboulay riots involving policemen and masqueraders became the order of the day.
This became especially so during the carnivals of the 1880's when Captain Arthur Baker was in office. Captain Baker had sworn to wipe out Canboulay for good and he, with a contingent of policemen, had made a frontal attack on Canboulay masqueraders in those historic Canboulay riots in Port of Spain at Carnival 1881.
The governor of that time, Sir Sanford Freeling, had taken the part of the masqueraders and had confined the police to barracks, which brought him into direct conflict with Baker. In 1883 Freling was recalled to England before completing his term, so Baker had won in the end.
Now, just before carnival 1884, Baker decided to make his presence felt. Port of Spain was now quiet, so Baker thought he would turn his attention to the ribald, unchecked Canboulay revelries in the South.
African Drummers - Photo credit Christine
With Canboulay drums nightly rolling in San Fernando and Princes Town, the Police once more clamped the usual Carnival ban on Canboulay, and under the direction of Captain Baker, prepared for the event.
The week before Carnival several people were enlisted as Special Constables for the Carnival. These were generally the men of substance in the area, but among them were a number fo old masqueraders who were reformed" and now regarded as police spies.
There were also a few indentured labourers amongst the number. Because of the sharp cultural differences, the East Indian indentured labourers had no sympathy with the Carnival, and were often informers on the clandestine movements of Canboulay masqueraders.
Princes Town, on Carnival Sunday evening, all the special constables were assembling at the police station to take instructions from Magistrate Hobson. These special constables were given long balata staves and the policemen were armed with rifles.
It was hardly 10 p.m. when the sound of the defiant Canboulay horns sounded all over Princes Town. The special constables and armed policemen were in the station yard ready to rush out to the attack, but waited until one of the bands had taken to the streets.
Then at one o'clock in the morning a shrill cry of defiance tore the air, the rolling of Canboulay drums was heard, and Canboulay flambeaus were seen blazing in the night.
Magistrate Hobson held back the special constables and armed policemen because this seemed to be an unexpectedly large Canboulay band and he felt he did not have enough men to cope with it. He kept his fore in the yard of the Police station while his spies informed him of the movements of the Canboulay revelers and of the wild dancing going on in the centre of the village.
He attempted to send to San Fernando for reinforcements but the Canboulay revelers were one step ahead, for they had cut the telephone lines. He had no alternative but to keep his force at the police Station.
But the masqueraders were in a hostile mood and had planned to do battle with the police. Now seeing that the police did not attack, they felt the policemen were afraid, and so they decided to attack the police. With chanting and yelling, and the frantic dancing of the Canboulay, they moved on the Police Station.
When the masqueraders burst into the station yard the special constables and armed policemen retreated inside the building for safety. The masqueraders shouted threats and then began hurling stones into the Police Station.
Then some of them entered the police station door and, in a dramatic incident, Magistrate Hobson was felled with a stone. He called on his men to fire.
A boy was shot dead instantly, and two persons were seriously wounded, one shot through the leg. Needless to say, the masqueraders tumbled out and fled.
Having had the Canboulay broken up and at the same time having had terror struck in the district, Princes Town knew a very quiet and somber Carnival in the year 1884.
In San Fernando there was the same eagerness to put an end to the Canboulay, and all officers of the Constabulary were put on the alert. Here too a great number of people were sworn in as Special Constables and all Friday they stood in readiness as Canboulay horns sounded on the air.
The Special Constables assembled at the Police Station on Harris Promenade while at about 1:30 p.m. on Friday hostile Canboulay devotees began parading in Coffee Street, apparently itching for a clash with the police.
Stick Fighters - Photo credit Christine
The clash came soon afterwards when the police, together with the Fire Brigade Volunteers and Special Constables, moved into Coffee Street. Bottles, stones, and other missiles flew wildly about, and blood flowed, but the riot was suppressed.
On Carnival Sunday night there was even more trouble. At 9 p.m., with Canboulay noises resounding in the town, the captain of the volunteer Fire Brigade, Robert Johnstone, sent some men to Cipero Street.
From the tower of the Court House on Harris Promenade, a Canboulay procession had been spotted.
The band was intercepted and was ordered to stop drumming and put out the flambeaus.
The masqueraders were heavily outnumbered and so they complied, but this was not the case in every instance.
A reporter wrote: On getting a little above the old police guardroom in Coffee Street, a mob armed with sticks was seen at the corner of Upper Hillside and Coffee Street…and blows were exchanged."
Bottles and stones were flung about freely, and many of the guardsmen were injured, some severely. The same reporter said, of the aftermath: The company was then marched to the guardroom in Cipero Street, and having rested for about half an hour, paraded up and down Coffee Street until about five o'clock, then returned to barracks."
But even this did not stop the Canboulay and the loud singing and drumming must have been heard on Carnival Monday and Tuesday, both in Coffee Street and in the Spring Vale section of San Fernando.
In later years the Canboulay became less ribald and defiant, in direct proportion to the relating of what the masses would have called persecution".
By the end of the century the rhythm of bottle-and-spoon had joined the drums and the singing remained as strident as ever. Just before the Second World War the pans came, the drums and bottle-and-spoon faded away, but the singing was still there, the singing of the road march.
In time, though, even the singing could not compete with the musical pans, but of course there remained the carnival (or Canboulay) crowds, and the music in the street.
Check out the album for Canboulay and Best Village photos: | <urn:uuid:66ad5602-7da2-438e-ae8c-84947765e4fd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.trinisoca.com/features/canboulay.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.980352 | 1,756 | 3.015625 | 3 |
In winter 1931, California's economy first began to feel the full impact of nationwide
depression. Transient, homeless men became a major problem in the state, and to aid them,
Governor Rolph--armed with a budget surplus--had thirty labor camps created where the
indigent were housed and fed while they cleared brush and built roads. | <urn:uuid:0052ebed-d3e2-4fa8-9bcb-65489e2dddd3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf6f59p2b3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00010-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972222 | 72 | 3.234375 | 3 |
Although a bonsai tree can be grown from a seed, started from a cutting or harvested in the wild (in areas where you can get permission to do so), the most common way to obtain a new plant for bonsai is through a reliable nursery. Start looking for a tree or shrub for bonsai in early spring. Choose a specimen that is 6 to 8 inches tall (15 to 20 cm) and has a strong, tapered trunk that is free of scars and blemishes [source: Lesniewicz]. The style you have in mind for your new bonsai tree, like upright, slanted, cascade or another traditional form, will help you select a plant variety with a good basic shape and the characteristics you need. Pruning and wiring bonsai is usually started in the second year and onward, but selecting a good basic shape will save you time and extra work later.
Choose a pot that will complement the color of the foliage and balance the tree's emerging design. Bonsai pots are typically shallow and always include drainage holes. The pot and tree work together to create the bonsai design, and although a bonsai tree may be planted in many pots during its life, each pot helps create balance and harmony in the overall design.
After choosing a specimen, potting the young tree is the first step in transforming it into bonsai. The following steps will help you turn a tree, shrub or other plant into a bonsai-in-training. The process of growing a true bonsai will take years, but these first steps are important because they will help your tree adjust to a shallow pot and a smaller root system.
- Make sure the young plant is well-watered before potting.
- Prepare the pot by feeding a length of small gauge bonsai wire through the drainage hole to support the tree until it becomes established.
- Place a thin layer of gravel in the bottom of the pot for drainage, temporarily blocking the drainage hole if too much gravel escapes.
- Remove the bonsai tree from its old pot, and remove the soil from around the roots. A bonsai root hook and rake can help make this part of the process easier.
- Inspect the roots, discarding any dead or damaged bits.
- Trim the roots by about two thirds. This seems extreme, but controlling root growth is an essential element in creating and maintaining bonsai. Given time and care, the tree will adjust to its new circumstances. | <urn:uuid:a76df03c-d72a-48c2-8ac5-289a2ce8da2d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://home.howstuffworks.com/bonsai5.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934413 | 517 | 2.71875 | 3 |
The Scheme Programming Language
Click below to go directly to a specific section:
Significant Language Features|
Areas of Application|
Scheme started as an experiment in programming language design by challenging
some fundamental design assumptions. It emerged from MIT in the mid-1970's.
It is a dialect of the Lisp Programming Language invented by Guy Lewis
Steele Jr. and Gerald Jay Sussman. Originally called Schemer, it was shortened
to Scheme because of a 6 character limitation on file names. Scheme is
a small, exceptionally clean language which is fun to use. The language was
designed to have very few, regular constucts which compose well to support a
variety of programming styles including functional, object-oriented, and
Significant Language Features
Scheme has lexical scoping, uniform evaluation rules, and uniform treatment of
data types. Scheme does not have the concept of a pointer, uninitialized
variables, specialized looping constucts, or explicit storage management. In
Scheme, all data types are equal. What one can do to one data type, one can
do to all data types. There are seven kinds of expressions: Constant, Variable
reference, Procedure creation, Procedure application, Conditional, Assignment,
and Sequence. Scheme also has the usual assortment of data types: Characters,
Strings, Arrays, Lists, Numbers, Functions (also called procedures), Boolean,
Ports, and Symbols. Numbers are especially interesting in that an integer is
a rational and a real is a complex. Scheme requires no looping constructs.
Any function which calls itself in the "tail" position is just a loop. Scheme
has several important advantages. It is elegantly simple in that regular
structure and trivial syntax avoids "special case" confusion. Its expressiveness
means that one spends little time trying to work around the language--it lets
users concentrate on what they want to say rather than on how to say it. Its
support of a variety of styles (including object-oriented) allows users to
better match their solution style to the style of the problems to be solved.
Its formal underpinnings make reasoning about programs much easier. Its
abstractive power makes it easy to separate system specific optimizations from
reusable code. Its composability makes it easy to construct systems from
Areas of Application
Scheme is currently gaining favor as a first programming language in
universities and is used in industry by such companies as DEC, TI, Tektronix,
HP, and Sun.
- Schools using Scheme
- Chez Scheme and MacScheme are probably the best known commercial
implementations, but there are a large number of experimental and teaching
implementations as well.
- This is a free implementation of Chez Scheme, called
Petite Chez Scheme. Very simple.
- Another implementation, this one is for Linux.
From Germany...land of engineers!!
- This site publishes educational materials using the Scheme
programming language and provides Windows and Macintosh Scheme interpreters.
- The revised report on Scheme, including formal syntax in BNF, from MIT, of course.
MIT Scheme Reference
- Abelson, H., Sussman, G.J., and Sussman, J. (1985). Structure and
Interpretation of Computer Programs. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
- Dybvig, Kent R. (1987). The Scheme Programming Language.
- Eisenberg (1988). Programming in Scheme. MIT Press.
- Eisenberg, Hartheimer, Clinger, and Abelson (1990). Programming in
MacScheme. MIT Press.
- Ferguson, Martin, and Kaufman (1988). The Schemer's Guide.
- Lightship (1990). MacScheme. MIT Press.
- Springer, G. and Friedman, D.P. (1989). Scheme and the Art of Programming.
MIT Press and McGraw-Hill.
I would like to thank the Internet for its vast information on the programming
language Scheme, Scott Ruthfield (firstname.lastname@example.org) for his hello-world
program, Ken Dickey for his substring search program, Richard A. O'Keefe for
his sort information and Ozan Yigit for his prime number program.
Last modified: 9:30 PM on 10/20/1999
This page has been accessed | <urn:uuid:b40ea13a-8617-4852-b43b-0df7aee08c32> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis400/scheme/scheme.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.876528 | 924 | 3.59375 | 4 |
Will Boost Your Health
What is lactic acid fermentation?
Lactic acid fermentation is a process in which lactic acid (C3H6O3) is formed as a product of energy exchange which takes place during the metabolism of certain microorganisms. Most all vegetables and fruits provide their own lactic acid-producing bacteria.
Lactic acid acts as a food preservative. Lactic acid fermented foods have been used for centuries in the diets of the Balkans, Germans, Greeks, Indians, Japanese and Russians. Instructions for making lactic acid ferments were written by the Roman scholar Pliny as early as 50AD.
Vegetables that have been through the lactic acid fermentation process, sometimes called simply ferments (also raw cultured vegetables) are unheated, cultured (referring to the fermentation process) vegetables that have been shredded or cut in small pieces and mixed in a solution of salt brine. When left in a sanitary container for 1-3 weeks at about 15º to 18º degrees C and in the dark, the lactobacilli proliferate. These friendly bacteria are naturally present in vegetables and also in our digestive tract. They break down sugars and starches found in the vegetables and aid the pancreas and intestines in proper digestion. The difference between raw cultured vegetables and something like commercially-available, heated sauerkraut is that in a commercial sauerkraut the lactobacilli and healthful enzymes, have been destroyed.
In raw cultured vegetables, the fermentation process breaks down the cells of the vegetables making them more digestible, similarly to cooking. However, since the vegetables are unheated, they can still supply a healthful balance of enzymes and micro-organisms.
Some related terminology:
Dysbiosis: When the bad bacteria and yeast become overgrown in your intestinal tract, you have a condition called dysbiosis. Dysbiosis has been linked with disorders like yeast infections, irritable bowel syndrome and rheumatoid arthritis. A common cause of dysbiosis is antibiotic therapy. The antibiotics that you take for killing an infection will also kill the healthy bacteria in your digestive tract and these need to be replenished.
Prebiotics are non-digestible foods that make their way through our digestive system and help good bacteria grow and flourish. Prebiotics keep beneficial bacteria healthy. An example of a prebiotic is the compound inulin which is found in Jerusalem artichokes, chicory root, raw oats and unrefined wheat.
Probiotics means "for life". These friendly bacteria produce vitamin K and many B vitamins including B12. Some common probiotics are Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium longum, Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus plantarum.
Synbiotics refer to a combination of probiotics and prebiotics. An example would be Lactobacillus and inulin.
The body can tell the difference between healthy and unhealthy bacteria. Inside the intestine, the unhealthy or pathogenic bacteria create an immune reaction leading to diarrhea, cramps and abdominal pain. Clostridium difficile is one of those pathogenic bacteria and is a complication of prolonged or repetitive antibiotic use. Giardia is a parasitic infection that leads to chronic diarrhea. Either of these and other pathogens can be crowded out by probiotic bacteria.
Other notes: There are more bacteria in your gut than there are cells in your body.
Harmful bacteria ingested with food are normally killed by stomach acid. If the acid is not strong enough, the bacteria survive and ferment (sour) the food causing indigestion.
Dr. Louis Pasteur declared sauerkraut to be the healthiest of vegetables.
Lactobacillus is one of a number of bacteria that can produce acid in the mouth contributing to tooth decay.
Normal gut flora can be thrown out of balance by the use of antibiotics or other drugs, alcohol use, stress, various diseases, exposure to toxins and even the use of antibacterial soap.
Because lactic acid bacteria convert lactose into lactic acid, their use may help people who are lactose intolerant to better tolerate lactose (milk sugar).
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professional and take responsibility to become educated in caring for your own health. | <urn:uuid:fa95df2e-bdff-41c6-9f36-cd25ec4357e1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.natural-pain-relief-guide.com/lactic-acid-fermentation.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.911211 | 1,022 | 2.84375 | 3 |
PRINT THIS DATA
Tundra climates are characterized by sub-freezing mean annual temperatures, large annual temperature ranges, and moderately low precipitation. The tundra climate region occurs between 60° and 75° of latitude, mostly along the Arctic coast of North America and Eurasia and on the coastal margins of Greenland. In areas dominated by the tundra climate type, winters are long and cold, especially in the region north of the Arctic Circle where, for at least one day in the year, the Sun does not rise. Winter precipitation generally consists of dry snow, with seasonal totals less than in the summer when cyclonic storms that develop along the boundary between the open ocean and sea ice yield rainfall. Typical annual totals are less than 350 mm (13.78 in), but higher totals are possible in upland areas. In contrast, summers are generally mild, with maximums from 15 to 18 °C (59°F to 64°F), although the average temperature of the warmest month is less than 10°C (50 °F). Days are long, but they are often cloudy.
The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "ET". (Tundra Climate).
The average temperature for the year in Palmer is 38.9°F (3.8°C). The warmest month, on average, is August with an average temperature of 49.5°F (9.7°C). The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of 30.0°F (-1.1°C).
The highest recorded temperature in Palmer is 55.4°F (13°C), which was recorded in August. The lowest recorded temperature in Palmer is 19.7°F (-6.8°C), which was recorded in January.
The average amount of precipitation for the year in Palmer is 32.4" (823 mm). The month with the most precipitation on average is November with 4.0" (101.6 mm) of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is May with an average of 1.6" (40.6 mm). There are an average of 69.0 days of precipitation, with the most precipitation occurring in July with 11.0 days and the least precipitation occurring in January with 3.0 days.
In Palmer, there's an average of 41.3" of snow (0 cm). The month with the most snow is October, with 8.5" of snow (21.6 cm). | <urn:uuid:64709721-b6b3-45e4-a140-72e63e93157a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather-summary.php3?s=704805&cityname=Palmer%2C+Alaska%2C+United+States+of+America&units= | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953336 | 516 | 3.671875 | 4 |
Transport stream (TS, TP, or MPEG-TS) nyaeta hiji protokol komunikasi keur audio, video, jeung data nu ditetepkeun dina MPEG-2 Bagean 1, Systems (standar ISO/IEC 13818-1). Tujuan rancangannana nyaeta keur ngidinan multipleksing video jeung audio digital sarta keur nyinkronisasi kaluaran. Transport stream nawarkeun fitur keur ngoreksi kasalahan pikeun transportasi ngaliwatan media nu henteu pati dipercaya, sarta dipake dina aplikasi siaran saperti DVB jeung ATSC. Transport stream beda jeung program stream, nu dirancang keur media nu bisa dipercaya kaws DVD.
Lapisan komunikasi[édit | édit sumber]
|Artikel ieu keur dikeureuyeuh, ditarjamahkeun tina basa Inggris.
Bantosanna diantos kanggo narjamahkeun.
- Komposisi mangrupa-rupa program.
- Packetized Elementary Stream (PES)
- Elementary stream (ES) — audio atawa video (the below is for video only)
- Group of pictures (GOP) — providing random access points
- Slice — preventing an error from being propagated through intra prediction
- Macroblock—consisting of 6 to 12 DCT blocks
- Encoding block or just block—a DCT encoding block, 8x8 pixels
Unsur penting transport stream[édit | édit sumber]
Paket[édit | édit sumber]
A packet is the basic unit of data in a transport stream. It consists of a sync byte, whose value is 0x47, followed by three one-bit flags and a 13-bit PID. This is followed by a 4-bit continuity counter. Additional optional transport fields, as signaled in the optional adaptation field, may follow. The rest of the packet consists of payload. Packets are 188 bytes in length , but the communication medium may add some error correction bytes to the packet. DVb-ASI uses 204 bytes and ATSC 208 bytes as transport stream packet. (DVB t=8 and ATSC t=10 i.e. extra bytes = 2*t). ATSC transmission adds 20 bytes of Reed-Solomon forward error correction to create a packet that is 208 bytes long. The 188-byte packet size was originally chosen for compatibility with ATM systems [] .
|Transport Error Indicator (TEI)||1||Set by demodulator if can't correct errors in the stream|
|Payload Unit Start Indicator||1||1 means start of PES data or PSI otherwise zero only .|
|Transport Priority||1||One means higher priority than other packets with the same PID.|
|Scrambling control||2||'00' = Not scrambled. The following per DVB spec : '01' = Reserved for future use, '10' = Scrambled with even key, '11' = Scrambled with odd key|
|Adaptation field exist||1||1 means presence of the adaptation field|
|Payload data exist||1||1 means presence of data|
|Note: the total number of bits above is 32 and is called the transport stream 4-byte prefix.|
|Adaption field||0 or more||Depends on flags|
|Payload Data||0 or more||Depends on flags|
|Adaptation Field Length||8||Number of bytes in the adaptation field immediately following this byte|
|Discontinuity indicator||1||Set to 1 if a discontinuity occurred in the continuity counter of the TS packet|
|Random Access indicator||1||Set to 1 if the PES packet in this TS packet starts a video/audio sequence|
|Elementary stream priority indicator||1||1 = higher priority|
|PCR flag||1||1 means adaptation field does contain a PCR field|
|Splicing point flag||1||1 means presence of splice countdown field in adaptation field|
|Transport private data flag||1||1 means presence of private data bytes in adaptation field|
|Adaptation field extension flag||1||1 means presence of adaptation field extension|
|Below fields are optional||variable||Depends on flags|
|PCR||33+9||Program clock reference|
|OPCR||33+9||Original Program clock reference. Helps when one TS is copied into another|
|Splice countdown||8||Indicates how many TS packets from this one a splicing point occurs (may be negative)|
PID[édit | édit sumber]
Each table or elementary stream in a transport stream is identified by a 13-bit PID. A demultiplexer extracts elementary streams from the transport stream in part by looking for packets identified by the same PID. In most applications, Time-division multiplexing will be used to decide how often a particular PID appears in the transport stream.
Program[édit | édit sumber]
Transport stream has a concept of programs. A single program is described by a Program Map Table (PMT) which has a unique PID, and the elementary streams associated with that program have PIDs listed in the PMT. For instance, a transport stream used in digital television might contain three programs, to represent three television channels. Suppose each channel consists of one video stream, one or two audio streams, and any necessary metadata. A receiver wishing to decode a particular "channel" merely has to decode the payloads of each PID associated with its program. It can discard the contents of all other PIDs.
Program Specific Information (PSI)[édit | édit sumber]
There are 4 PSI tables: Program Association (PAT), Program Map (PMT), Conditional Access (CAT), and Network Information (NIT). The MPEG-2 specification does not specify the format of the CAT and NIT.
PAT[édit | édit sumber]
PAT stands for Program Association Table. The PAT lists PIDs for all PMTs in the stream. TS Packets containing PAT information always have PID 0x0.
PMT[édit | édit sumber]
Program Map Tables, or PMTs, contain information about programs. For each program, there is a PMT, with the PMT for each program appearing on its own PID. The PMTs describe which PIDs contain data relevant to the program. PMTs also provide metadata about the streams in their constituent PIDs. For example, if a program contains an MPEG-2 video stream, the PMT will list this PID, describe it as a video stream, and provide the type of video that it contains (in this case, MPEG-2). The PMT may also contain additional descriptors providing data about its constituent streams.
PCR[édit | édit sumber]
To assist the decoder in presenting programs on time, at the right speed, and with synchronization, programs usually periodically provide a Program Clock Reference, or PCR, on one of the PIDs in the program. This is also known as the master clock. Timing in MPEG2 references this clock, for example the presentation time stamp (PTS) is relative to the PCR. The first 33 bits is based on a 90kHz clock, incremented for each Hertz or cycle. The 9 bit extension is based on a 27MHz clock.
Paket kosong[édit | édit sumber]
Some transmission schemes, such as those in ATSC and DVB, impose strict constant bitrate requirements on the transport stream. In order to ensure that the stream maintains a constant bitrate, a Multiplexer may need to insert some additional packets. The PID 0x1FFF is reserved for this purpose. The payload of null packets may not contain any data at all, and the receiver is expected to ignore its contents.
Rujukan[édit | édit sumber]
- ISO/IEC 13818-1 Second edition (PDF). 2000-12-01. pp. page xi or 11 according to PDF viewer. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-11-13.
- DVB scrambling control bits defined. Page 6
Tempo oge[édit | édit sumber]
- Tuner ATSC
- Elementary stream
- Packetized Elementary Stream
- Program and System Information Protocol
- Unidirectional Lightweight Encapsulation (ULE)
- HDV jeung AVCHD, nu duanan nerapkeun stream TS kana data nu dipaketisasi
Conto parabot nu aya[édit | édit sumber]
- ATSC Transport Stream Tools for Linux
- Ethereal MPEG-2 TS Dissector
- DVB Stream Explorer | <urn:uuid:ac90455f-833c-45f6-acec-df2158fe050d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_stream | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00165-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.75664 | 1,933 | 2.71875 | 3 |
|Official Country Name:||Republic of Poland|
|Region (Map name):||Europe|
|Area:||312,685 sq km|
|GDP:||157,739 (US$ millions)|
|Number of Daily Newspapers:||59|
|Circulation per 1,000:||28|
|Number of Nondaily Newspapers:||460|
|Circulation per 1,000:||23|
|Total Newspaper Ad Receipts:||836 (Zloty millions)|
|As % of All Ad Expenditures:||10.80|
|Number of Television Stations:||179|
|Number of Television Sets:||13,050,000|
|Television Sets per 1,000:||337.8|
|Number of Cable Subscribers:||3,583,620|
|Cable Subscribers per 1,000:||92.6|
|Number of Satellite Subscribers:||2,500,000|
|Satellite Subscribers per 1,000:||64.7|
|Number of Radio Stations:||792|
|Number of Radio Receivers:||20,200,000|
|Radio Receivers per 1,000:||522.9|
|Number of Individuals with Computers:||2,670,000|
|Computers per 1,000:||69.1|
|Number of Individuals with Internet Access:||2,800,000|
|Internet Access per 1,000:||72.5|
Background & General Characteristics
General Historical Description
Poland reached the pinnacle of its influence in the sixteenth century, when it became one of the most important powers in Europe. At that time, Poland's territories stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea.
When the sixteenth century Jagiellonian dynasty came to an end, the Poles introduced the heretofore-untried governmental strategy of an elected monarchy of kings chosen from royal families. Notable was the Polish introduction of a parliamentary voting system called the liberum veto. In this system any member of parliament could veto a law with a single vote.
The seventeenth century was a turbulent time in Polish history. The Swedes first invaded Poland, then the nation fought a war with the Turks. Poland also experienced a Cossack rebellion in the southeastern territories. Poland slowly crumbled and eventually, at the end of the eighteenth century, Russia, Austria and Prussia divided Poland into three sections.
Poland continued to be occupied during the nineteenth century, despite two uprisings in 1830 and 1863. Independence finally arrived with the end of World War I. Unfortunately, after Poland gained independence it was soon overrun by Germany and the Soviet Union in World War II.
Poland's postwar fate was decided by the Allies at the Yalta Conference held in February 1945. There was no Polish representation at the conference. A Provisional Government of National Unity, made up of members of the pro-Soviet government and émigré politicians was established. Free elections were to be held shortly after the end of the war, but those elections did not occur. A government in exile formed, and Britain and the United States withdrew their support and diplomatic recognition of Poland due to Soviet actions within the country.
Polish borders were greatly altered after the Allied conference in Potsdam, Germany, in 1945. The Soviet Union retained control of the territories it had obtained in 1939, while Poland gained large areas of former German territory in the west including the industrial region of Upper Silesia, the ports of Gdansk and Szczecin, and a long Baltic coastline.
Political strife and labor turmoil in the 1980s led to the formation of the independent trade union Solidarity. Solidarity soon gained a strong political following and with the advent of glasnost in the Soviet Union, was able to rapidly become a robust political entity. After the collapse of the Soviet empire, Solidarity swept parliamentary elections and the presidency in the 1990 elections.
An important role was played by the media in shaping social attitudes that led to the Solidarity movement. Despite censorship and administrative interference, the evolution of the Polish film school in 1956 helped bolster freedom of thought through art. Also of importance to the loosened fetters of censorship was the political, literary and scientific activity pursued by people in exile. Radio Free Europe played a significant role in molding public opinion. Similar roles were played by the Paris-based periodical Kultura and a number of similar publications.
In 1988 Poland experienced a large number of strikes. By 1989 roundtable talks between the authorities and the opposition were arranged and were held with the mediation of the Church. The talks were bolstered by a new world politic. Perestroika in the USSR and the support of the Western states for reforms in Poland helped Polish negotiators bargain.
In June 1988, elections were held that had been agreed upon in the roundtable contract. The Communist Party did not even win the votes of its own members, and retained with difficulty only those offices that had been allocated to it beforehand by the contract with the opposition. The efforts of Lech Walesa and other leaders brought about the first non-communist government in the Soviet bloc.
Privatization programs during the early 1990s enabled the country to transform its economy into one of the most vigorous in Central Europe, boosting hopes for acceptance to the EU. Poland joined the NATO alliance in 1999.
General Characteristics of the Population
About 38 million people live in Poland, and the yearly rate of increase is 4.8 people per 1,000. World War II was cataclysmic to the country as 6 million people—or about one-sixth of the population—died, including nearly 3 million Polish Jews in Nazi death camps.
Around 60 percent of Poles live in a city. There are a number of large cities, including Warsaw with a population of around 1.7 million.
Poland has made significant progress in education. In 1970 about half of the population had a primary education or less. By 1997 that number had dropped to one-third. Also during that time span, the number of college-educated people increased from 2 percent to nearly 10 percent. Educational advancement has been gender-based. Men improved their education largely through vocational training while women tended to obtain a general secondary education. As a result, 57 percent of working women now have at least a general secondary education while 43 percent of working men have a basic technical education.
Although improvement has taken place, Poland still needs to augment its educational system to meet the needs of the twenty-first century. Poland's people still lack skills in information technologies, new ways of organizing industry and job elasticity.
An Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Adult Literacy Survey illustrated the gap between Poland and other European countries. The survey revealed that more than 70 percent of Poles did not reach a moderate level of competency, while in all other countries only 32 to 44 percent of respondents failed to do so. The low level of adult literacy in Poland is prevalent for those living in rural areas. Polish farmers had scores 40 percent lower than Polish respondents of other professions. In other OECD countries, farmers' disadvantage was between 9 and 10 percent. Low adult literacy rates in Poland are largely explained by the poor performance of two sizeable groups of Polish respondents, namely farmers and people with basic technical education. These two groups represent about 63 percent of the total working-age (15 to 64) population.
Attempting to obtain higher educational standards entails major effort. The school system in Poland seems to be substandard. The country is characterized by qualms on the final shape of educational reform. In addition, ambiguity about its financing and lack of lucidity on the separation between the state, local communities and other educational partners concerning responsibilities remains problematic. Socio-economic disparity between social groups and regions also may create difficulty in achieving elevated educational norms.
Transformation in the Polish media sphere began immediately after the collapse of the Communist regime in 1989. On April 11, 1990, Polish parliament passed an anti-censorship act that modified the Press Act of 1984 implemented by the previous communist administration. The structure of Poland's media also was reformed by the Polish legislature. Economic reforms in the print arena gave journalists who had previously worked for state-owned newspapers the opportunity to take over ownership. In addition, foreign investors were allowed to enter the Polish media market.
Electronic media also experienced reformation. First, the transformation of the state-owned broadcasting apparatus into a public company was implemented. Second, policies encouraging commercial radio and television stations were instigated. The Polish government modeled the organizational framework of Poland's electronic media after the French Conseil National dÁAudiovisuel.
Poland enjoys a strong tradition of newspaper publishing. The Press Research Center at Jagiellonian University in Krakow reports that about 5,500 print media periodicals are published in Poland. A menagerie of daily and weekly newspapers of various qualities offers an assortment of opinions to Polish citizens.
Generally, periodicals in Poland can be separated into pre-and post-1989 categories. Papers existing before 1989 established under Communist rule have been privatized and sold to investors, often foreign. Publications that came into being during or after the change of the political system often reflect the values of post-communist Poland.
A strong characteristic of Polish newspapers is they do not attempt to disguise their political sympathies and readers can expect the opinions of editors to be explicitly expressed. In addition, Polish papers often do not separate news from opinions.
Gazeta Wyborcza is the most widely read newspaper in Poland. It was launched as a venture of the Solidarity movement in 1989. The newspaper was, at conception, owned by the Polish company Agora. Agora was a Polish company founded by the anti-communist movement in Poland. Eventually it was partially purchased by the U.S.-based media conglomerate, Cox Communications. The paper has a circulation of around 600,000.
Other larger dailies in Poland include: the Rzeczpospolita , Super ExpressDziennik Sportowy, Nasz Dziennik, and Trybuna.
Local newspapers in Poland benefit from a circulation of between 7 to 8 percent of the total circulation figures. Poland's industrial regions serve as the crux of the local press industry. Pomorze'Pomerania; Wielkopolska'Major Poland; and Slask'Silesia operate as hubs for the majority of local newspapers that have circulations between 1,000 and 3,000.
Publishers in Poland also distribute 78 regional journals. In addition, a budding magazine sector is gaining readership. Notable, however, is that many major magazines are owned by foreign concerns: Gruner & Jahr/ Bertelsmann, Axel Springer, H. Bauer, Hachette Filipacchi. There are a few local publishers, including: Agencja Wydawniczo-Reklamowa WPROST, Proszynski, S-ka and POLITYKA Spoldzielnia Pracy. Polityka and Wprost are two of the most prestigious news magazines and each has a circulation of around 300,000. Another competitor in the magazine market is the Polish edition of Newsweek. Magazines currently account for about 12 percent of the money spent on advertising, with the European average around 20 percent.
Most sales of newspapers, periodicals and magazines occur at kiosks. Subscriptions represent less than 4 percent of total sales.
The local media in Poland has expanded at a rapid rate since 1989. Three periods may be noted. The first was founded upon widespread support for Solidarity. The second phase was rooted in the dissolution and disbanding of the anti-communist forces. Finally, local media is now based upon profit rather than political thought.
Tendencies in the print media in Poland have been similar to those in other developed countries; however a few differences should be noted. First, there has been a marked drop in the number of readers and circulation of newspapers since 1985. This has been true across Europe with the exception of Portugal, where the starting point for the number of readers was quite low. Magazines have had a different history. The largest difference is the magazine industry's tendency to address specialized, particular products rather than aiming for a mass audience. The number of titles in Polish magazines has increased dramatically—an
Until 1989 Poland had only one broadcaster 'Polish Radio and Television' which was operated by the state. After the fall of the Communist government, television and radio structure changed. First, Polish Radio was separated from Polish Television and both were reconstructed into public service organizations. Commercial interest in radio and television has grown and foreign investment has surged, albeit lower than in print media. This can be explained by legal limitations on Polish media which stipulates that broadcasting companies may not have more than 33 percent foreign ownership.
Following a period of intense reform efforts in the early 1990s, Poland's was the initial economy in the region to recover to pre-1989 levels of economic output. Growth in the gross domestic product (GDP) since 1993 historically has been strong, averaging more than 5 percent annually, and making the Polish economy among the most robust in Europe. OECD admitted Poland as a member in 1996. Additionally, Poland has met nearly all of the conditions for European Union membership and is expected to be admitted within a few years.
Poland's economic performance has remained relatively good when compared to other post-transition economies. Poland's insistence in engaging in a reform strategy has led to the nation becoming one of the most prosperous in the region. Policies allowing privatization of state-owned companies and statutes allowing the establishment of new business have been followed by rapid development in the private sector.
Key industrial areas including coal, steel, railroads, and energy have undergone restructuring and privatization. However, further progress in public finance depends on privatization of Poland's remaining state sector.
Although Poland's economy is better and more stable than its counterparts in Central and Eastern Europe, the GDP per capita remains inferior when compared to its Western neighbors. Recent analysis indicates that Poland's GDP is little better than half the level of the poorest European Union members. Also notable is that Poland's GDP has leveled in recent years. In the first half of 2000 the GDP was 5.4 percent higher than in the previous year, in the second half that had fallen to 2.7 percent, and dropped again to a lowly 1.8 percent in the first half of 2001.
Poland's economic situation has impacted Polish media. The last half of the 1990s witnessed a number of newly established quality newspapers disappearing from the media market due to harsh economic realities. Their situation was significantly worse in comparison to older, pre-existing newspapers that received higher profits from advertisements. Ironically, the public adjusted to placing advertisements in "old" newspapers even when the circulation of new newspapers was similar. Further, Poland's new government does not subsidize the press, which makes capital from advertising essential to survival.
Since the fall of communism, the major legislation in broadcast media is the Broadcasting Act (Radio and Television Act) of 1992, as well as the Regulation of National Council of Radio and Television which grants and revokes licenses required for broadcasting radio and television programs. The Broadcasting Act of 1992 establishes the National Council of Radio and Television. This institution is designed as an independent body whose most important tasks are to grant and revoke licenses for broadcasting stations, appoint members of supervisory boards for public radio and television, and control and evaluate practice in the audiovisual field. The National Council is patterned after French Conseil National dÁudiovisuel, and its members are elected for six-year terms.
The National Council has granted dozens of licenses both on the national level and the local level. The license procedure is transparent and open to the public. Complaints concerning granting or refusing a license may be brought before the Supreme Administrative Court.
The primary legislation governing the printed press is still the Press Act of 1984 as amended several times, especially in 1990. The Press Act of 1984 now states that the only requirement necessary to start the publishing of a newspaper is registration by the Regional Court. The act also stipulates that state institutions, economic entities, and organizations must provide the press with information. Only when it is required to keep state secrets may entities refuse to provide information.
The Church has attempted to influence broadcast law. Agreements with the government and Polish Radio and Television gave the church favorable access to electronic media as early as mid-1989. The Church pays less than commercial stations for its radio licenses. An ill-defined clause enshrining "respect for Christian values" was controversially forced through by the Church's supporters in parliament as part of the new Radio and Television broadcasting bill passed in December 1992. Poland's government can therefore revoke licenses according to vague criteria about safeguarding Christian values. In the present absence of state censorship, the Church has to take recourse to the rather sparse provisions provided by the press and penal codes. The Church is concerned with prohibiting pornography and obscenity over the airwaves. In August 1995, Trybuna reported that pressure was being exerted by municipal authorities against newstands to restrict the sale of pornographic magazines.
There exists a history of censorship in Poland. Before the pre-1918 liberation censorship of materials was common. After liberation in November 1918, censorship was curtailed. However, the state of emergency prevailing over much of Poland, due to numerous wars waged during the first few years of independence, provided rationalization to suspensions of democratic freedoms of the press. The 1920 war against Soviet Russia also brought about the introduction of censorship in defense of military secrets.
Between the two world wars, Poland tended to display little censorship of the press. Legislation in interwar Poland initially granted publishers the ability to print a wide variety of opinion. Furthermore, the 1921 March Constitution codified a variety of press liberties.
After 1926 the Sanacja government became increasingly authoritarian and the unified Press Law of 1927 allowed the use of economic sanctions to curtail press independence. By 1935, the Poland's constitution no longer provided for freedom of the press. The government began to coerce editors to print sympathetic stories and instructed newspapers about what to print. The government and its agents also attempted to dominate the distribution network. In 1928, the government signed an agreement with the Association of Railway Bookshops to exclude publications of a communist nature from its kiosks.
In 1934 a press agreement was secretly signed with Nazi Germany. All works critical of Hitler and other leading Nazis were banned and removed from circulation. Hitler's Mein Kampf was distributed. Further, the Catholic Church occasionally supported repressive measures against specific individuals and works which allegedly offended religious sentiment and public decency.
The invasion by Germany in 1939 brought harsh censorship to the Polish press. Production and distribution of papers were deeply affected in the war, but the impact varied between cities depending on German behavior. In Krakow, for example, the early days of occupation were relatively calm and journalists received permission from the local military authority to publish newspapers, albeit subject to censorship. The inhabitants of Krakow went without papers for only a short while. In sharp contrast, in Czestochowa the German occupation was extremely violent. Media was absent from Czestochowa for months and when newspapers slowly reappeared, the Germans completely controlled their content.
Early in the war and until early 1943, the Polish-language press existed only to communicate German directives. The German occupation government used the press often to remind the Poles of their "sub-human" status. By 1943, recognizing the precarious nature of the war on the eastern front, Joseph Goebbels issued a memorandum recommending that Poles be enlisted in the fight against Soviet Bolshevism. Local government and press leaders were prepared to institute the "reforms" which Goebbels recommended with the hope that this would pacify the Polish population. Examples of the reforms included eliminating malicious statements about Poland and its "national character." The press was to emphasize the "good, even friendly relations" with the Germans. In spring 1943, Germany finally implemented reforms along the lines suggested by Goebbels. By that time, Polish resistance had grown in power, and with the Russians, was defeating the Germans on the eastern front.
After World War II, Russian censorship of the Polish press initially rivaled the Nazi's authoritarian policies. With the creation of the Soviet-backed Lublin government, communists moved quickly to control key areas of cultural activity. Soon, the state's control and accumulation of print works, enforcement of publishing plans, and its development of absolute domination over the publishing process allowed for complete censorship of information distributed by the press. The Soviet-backed government's iron-hand authority—from financing to distribution—would come to determine in every respect the products made available to the public. By 1950 the government had established a near-monopoly in the collection of subscriptions and distribution of periodical publications. This censorship lasted for nearly 40 years.
Key differences in censorship between the 1960s and earlier decades were noticeable, particularly in the streamlining of the system. The Censorship Office received ever more precise, and sometimes contradictory, instructions—the "Black Book"—on a regular basis in the attempt to guarantee the Communist Party a monopoly on information. Access to information or limited freedom to criticize depended on the individual's status in the official hierarchy.
Lessening government censorship was one of the 21 demands made by Solidarity in the Gdansk Agreement of August 1980. Real reforms were beginning to take shape, and by July 1981 new laws were passed which enabled editors to challenge government censorship decisions in the courts. Tygodnik Solidarnosc mounted the first successful challenge in November 1981 and overturned the government's decision to confiscate readers' letters. The 1980 Gdansk agreement reformed much of the censorship process. Certain types of speech and publications, such as orations by deputies at open parliamentary sessions, school-approved textbooks, publications approved by the church and Academy of Sciences publications were no longer subject to government censorship. This legislation partly dismantled the censorship process. However, imposition of martial law in the early 1980s negated these new-found freedoms. Yet, the basic trend during the 1980s leaned toward less censorship, particularly with the advent of glasnost. By 1989 about 25 percent of all newspapers were exempt from preventive control.
Change spread quickly upon the fall of communism. Newspapers were soon privatized and although television has been slower to reform, new technology and Poland's movement toward the European Union tended to lead to diminishing attempts by the government to retain control over broadcasting. There has been, however, with the election of socialist leaders, a move by the government to regain more control of the media.
Several present statutes help to outline the Polish government's relationship with the press. Article 14 of the constitution of 1997 guarantees freedom of the press and of other mass media. In addition, the Broadcasting Act of 1992 privatized state radio and television into joint stock companies that eventually led to private commercial radio and television stations. The act also limits foreign ownership in broadcasting entities to less than 34 percent.
The present-day Polish constitution provides for freedom of speech and the press, and the government, for the most part, respects this right. However, there are some marginal restrictions in law and practice.
By statute, an individual who "publicly insults or humiliates a constitutional institution of the Republic of Poland" may be fined or even imprisoned for up to two years. In addition, persons who slur a public functionary may receive up to one year in prison. The most famous case tried under this law found President Aleksander Kwasniewski suing the newspaper Zycie for insinuating the president had contacts with "Russian spies." Additionally, individual citizens and businesses also can use this provision of the Criminal Code. Network Twenty One, which sells Amway products, employed the statute to prevent a broadcast detrimental to its interests. Another case includes talk show host Wojciech Cejrowski, who was charged with publicly insulting Kwasniewski. Eventually Cejrowski lost the case and was fined.
The new criminal code also specifies that speech which "offends" religious faith may be punishable by fines or imprisonment for up to three years. In 1997, the Council for the Coordination of the Defense of the Dignity of Poland and Poles filed charges against the left-leaning newspaper Trybuna for its alleged insults of the pope. The Warsaw prosecutor's office, however, decided to drop the case.
Another statute that restricts the press includes The State Secrets Act that allows for the prosecution of people who betray state secrets. Human rights groups have criticized this law as restraining the fundamental right of free speech.
Protection of journalistic sources also is addressed in the criminal code. The law grants news sources protection except in cases involving national security, murder, and terrorist acts. Further, if the accused is benefited, statutory provisions may be applied retroactively. Journalists who decline to reveal sources preceding the new code's ratification may avoid sanctions by invoking journalistic privilege.
Up to this point there have been no restrictions placed on the establishment of private papers, journals and magazines. KRRiTV (The National Radio and Television Broadcasting Council) has authority in regulating programming on radio and television. KRRiTV also distributes broadcasting frequencies and licenses and apportions subscription revenues to public media. KRRiTV theoretically is to be a non-partisan, apolitical board. Legally members must be suspended from active participation in political parties or public associations. However, since they are chosen for their political allegiances and nominated by the parliament, serious questions often arise concerning board members' neutrality.
Broadcast law states that broadcasting should not encourage behavior that is illegal or hostile to the morality or welfare of citizens. The law requires that programs respect "the religious feelings of the audience and Christian system of values." This law has never actually been seriously tested in the courts.
The Ministry of Communication selects frequencies for television broadcaster to operate. KRRiTV then auctions the frequencies. The first such auction, held in 1994, gave the Polsat Corporation and a few other local entities licenses to operate. Further licenses were granted in 1997 to TVN and Nasza Telewizja.
Two of the three most widely viewed television channels and 17 regional stations, as well as five national radio networks, are owned by the Polish government. Public television tends to be the major source of information. However, satellite television and private cable services are becoming more available. Cable services carry the main public channels, Polsat, local and regional stations, and a variety of foreign stations.
Statutes concerning radio and television require public television to provide direct media access to the main state institutions, including the presidency, "to make presentations or explanations of public policy." Both public and private television provides coverage of a spectrum of political opinion.
In 2002, Prime Minister Leszek Miller's administration earned a reputation as being unfriendly to media. It has taken action to curb the independence and influence of the country's two most prestigious newspapers, Gazeta Wyborcza and Rzeczpospolita, both of which have attempted to hold government accountable. Shortly after taking office, Miller's government reopened a legal clash with Rzeczpospolita, whose ownership is split between a Norwegian publishing company and the state. Prosecutors have introduced criminal charges against three of its senior managers and confiscated their passports. The newspaper argues that the government is attempting to gain control of the papers by not allowing the Norwegian interest voting rights and/or forcing the Norwegians to sell. In addition, the company that owns Gazeta Wyborcza, founded by Polish reformers, wants to purchase shares in a Polish television network. The Polish government has since introduced legislation that would halt private media companies from having interest in both television and journalistic companies. The Polish government is exempt from the provision, which means the state would be free to print its own agenda.
Attitude toward Foreign Media
The presence of foreign capital is most visible in the newspapers sector, especially the local/regional market, where a comfortable relationship exists between publishers and foreign investors. Two firms are in the forefront: Passau Neue Presse (PNP, from Germany), and Orkla Media (from Norway).
Twelve dailies and one weekly are fully owned or controlled by PNP. PNP controls papers in regions where it is present. It is estimated that the company's economic activity makes up about 15 percent of the total income in the newspaper sector of the Polish media market. PNP is a multinational corporate media entity controlling 40 percent of the Czech local market, and it has sizable holdings in Austria as well as Germany.
Orkla Media entered the Polish market in 1993 and controls 10 dailies and 18 percent of the Polish newspaper market sector. On each local market, with one exception, the titles owned by Orkla have dominant position.
H. Bauer Verlag specializes in popular television, women's, and teen magazines. Bauer Verlag publishes 11 magazines and controls 12 percent of the magazine market. Bauer also is present on the Czech, Slovak and Hungarian markets.
Axel Springer Verlag has eight titles and controls 5 percent of the magazine market. Springer Verlag differentiates from Bauer Verlag due to the fact that nearly 40 percent of its revenues originate from advertising. Springer also is active on the television and radio market and is one of the leading media groups in Germany.
Cox Enterprises, a U.S. firm, owns 20 percent of the media company Agora, which radically increased its revenues after selling its shares to Cox. Although Cox doesn't have a dominant share, it is the biggest partner in the company. Agora invests in radio (Inforadio and six local stations) and television (Canal Plus Poland).
In television there are two important firms with foreign capital investments: Canal Plus has more than 200,000 subscribers in Poland, while Polish Cable TV (PTK) has 700,000 subscribers.
There is room for further growth in the pay-television market. The pay channel RTL7 was launched in 1997 by the film and television giant CLT-Ufa. It is based outside of Poland and distributed by satellite in order to circumvent Polish restrictions on foreign ownership. However, RTL7 can only muster audience shares in the low single digits. If allowed to broadcast from Poland the share would undoubtedly rise. This is not likely to happen unless the ownership laws that bar foreign companies are changed. The National Broadcast Council is sympathetic to the case and tried without success to raise the maximum foreign ownership stake allowed from 33 percent to 49 percent. This effort failed.
Foreign investors are waiting for Poland's entry in to the European Union, scheduled for 2003. As an EU member, Poland will have to conform to European-wide media laws, and all ownership restrictions will be lifted.
Polish press agencies include Polska Agencja Prasowa (PAP, or Polish Press Agency); Polska Agencja Informacyjna (PAI or Polish Information Agency) and Katolicka Agencja Informacyjna (KAI or Catholic Information Agency). There are a number of small information providers, which also offer wire and photo services.
Historical Overview of Broadcast Media
The Polish United Workers' Party (PUWP) believed television had a specific function in a socialist society. Communist Party leaders often attempted to use television as a conduit to transmit socialist and communist ideology to the people of Poland. They soon discovered that television presented a host of problems as propaganda tool. First, party leaders were unable to fully control the content of television. Second, and perhaps more importantly, government leaders did not comprehend how the plethora of televisions functions prevented the party from reaching its goals. Some have suggested that the government's policies regarding television were a contributing factor in the fall of communism in Poland.
There exist several limitations when analyzing television as an element of social change in Poland. Significant is the fact that radio, not television, was the media of choice in Poland. Before 1970 there were fewer than 3 million televisions in Poland. In addition, only one channel broadcast for only a few hours each day, and its quality of transmission left much to be desired. Television coverage was incomplete in Poland until after the early 1970s. Despite these shortcomings, the government still recognized the potential of television as a propaganda tool. Socialist leaders believed that television would bring culture to the masses and would bring village and city closer together.
Party leaders enjoyed some success in the beginning. Surveys indicated that the television viewing population was partial to various programs presenting the party line concerning economic and political topics. Television also broadcast celebrations denoting Socialist holidays.
The government soon discovered that the persuasive abilities of television tended to decrease over time. People also began to doubt the veracity of television reporting. Perhaps the event that most diminished television's credibility was Pope John Paul II's visit in June 1979. The pope's popularity in Poland was not fully understood by the government. As he worked his way across Poland that summer, he addressed hundreds of thousands of people. Polish television attempted to denigrate the visit, and it censored the coverage, belittled the number of people present at masses, and limited the amount of coverage. Polish viewers were incensed.
Characteristics of Broadcast Media Public radio (Polskie Radio S.A.) and public television (TVP S.A.) still rank as most important among broadcast stations. Polish Public Radio provides four national programs: PR 1 and PR3 (for the general public), PR 2 (which features classical music and literature), and education channel Radio Bis. It also incorporates PR 5, which broadcasts abroad on shortwave frequencies, and 17 regional radio stations, each an independent broadcasting company. Public radio also produces programs in ethnic minority languages.
Two national public television channels (TVP, SA) and 11 regional channels operate in Poland. Ethnic minority television programs are also produced in minority languages by regional stations.
Financing for public radio and television comes through a combination of license fees and advertising. With the fall of the communist system, the National Council for Radio and Television has been created to grant frequencies for broadcasting and new broadcasters.
National commercial channels include Polsat TV, TVN (ITI Holdings), and Channel 4. A 24-hour information channel also is operated by TVN. Other channels include Catholic Puls TV, coded RTL 7, Canal Plus, and Wizja TV. About 500 cable television operators exist in Poland with more than 2 million subscribers. The cable operators, by statute, must transmit two public channels.
There is access to various satellites from Poland. The most popular satellite channels are MTV, Eurosport, RTL and the Cartoon Network.
Electronic News Media
The Polish Internet market is growing, and shopping and banking are becoming popular with well-educated Poles. Numerous local and national government Web sites offer information in an assortment of languages.
Most media outlets in Poland have developed Web sites. The electronic database of the Press Research Centre has recorded 1,516 Internet addresses.
However, media advertising via the Internet may be difficult. Europemedia reports that only 24 percent of Polish firms consider advertising on the Internet to be better than advertising via traditional media. Further, according to research conducted by the Krakow Academy of Economics, 48 percent of Polish entrepreneurs believe that advertising through traditional media is superior to online advertising. However, while Polish firms are skeptical about online advertising, more than half of the companies surveyed claimed they would "definitely" be using the Internet in the future to promote their products.
Education and Training
Polish journalists are, for the most part, well educated and competent in their craft. Many hold college degrees but this is not a requirement.
The major media employers' organizations are: the Polish Chamber of Press Publishers, the Association of the Local Press Publishers, the Convent of Local Commercial Radio Stations, the Association of Independent Film and TV Producers and the National Industrial Chamber of Cable Communications, the Polish Journalists Association (SDP), the Journalists Association of the Republic of Poland (SDRP), the Catholic Association of Journalists, the Syndicate of Polish Journalists, the Union of Journalists, the Union of TV and Radio Journalists, the European Club of Journalists, the Local Press Association, the Polish Local Press Association, the Polish Chapter of the Association of European Journalists.
A code of ethics was adopted on March 29, 1995, in Warsaw by most of these organizations. The code stated that journalists should perform their craft in accordance with the principles of truth, objectivity, dividing commentary and information, honesty, tolerance, and responsibility.
A multitude of media voices exist in Poland and most are tolerated. Videotapes are available in local stores, and comics, once heavily influenced by government intervention, are free to portray a variety of political stances. Polish law now allows competition for state owned radio and television. Further, several private newspapers have commenced publishing. Privatization has become the hallmark of Polish post-communist culture. In Poland during the first year after the fall of communism, the number of journals and newspapers increased by 600 in five months. More than just creating new publications, the Poles began to provide avenues for publishing. New publishing companies were formed to replace the Robotnicza Spoldzielnia Wydawnicza (RSW, the Workers Cooperative Publishing House), the organization that had control over 80 percent of Polish publications for 40 years.
Television growth in Poland has been explosive as well. The total advertising money spent virtually doubled between 1997 and 1999, from 3.7 billion zlotys (U.S. $840 million) to 7.3 billion zlotys (U.S. $1.67 billion). Poland is one of a number of countries in Europe where private stations have to compete for both audiences and advertising revenue with subsidized state-owned channels.
The media in Poland remains in an expansionist mode. Polish media is taking on a global dimension with the introduction of digitalization, specialization, concentration of media ownership, and development of local media.
The rapid growth of Polish media may also have some detrimental consequences. The media companies now existing in Poland must be willing to work diligently to develop new strategies in order to hold their place in the market. The concentration of media ownership, as big media conglomerates buy weaker publishers and stations, may become problematic. Locally, newcomers to the profession may not be as experienced or well trained. Finally, the demand for sensationalism has grown and may lead to inferior coverage of newsworthy events.
Polish media has experienced tremendous change since 1989. Privatization has been leading Poland away from an ideological to a market-driven media model. This could lead to Polish media being dominated by corporate interests as media conglomerates gain a larger share of the media. However, there is a possibility that privatization will cease. The Polish government has become less friendly to foreign investment. The government seems to be giving up and even reversing previous plans for privatization in the media sector.
Poland has attracted the largest amount of foreign investment among European Union candidate countries: 36 billion euro. The sale of hundreds of companies has made it possible to substantially change telecommunications. This has enabled an injection of not only capital, but also new technology and management methods of key importance for the process of restructuring Poland's media industry.
Polish media is sitting upon the threshold of a new era. The path it chooses to tread will be directed by economic and political forces both inside and outside of Poland.
- 1984: Polish Press Act
- 1989: Industrial unrest and economic problems lead to Round Table Talks between the government and the opposition.
- 1989: In partly democratic elections, Solidarity wins a landslide victory; Tadeusz Mazowiecki becomes the first non-Communist prime minister.
- 1990: The name of the country is changed back to "Rzeczpospolita Polska" or "The Republic of Poland."
- 1990: The Polish Communist Party ceases to exist.
- 1990: First democratic presidential elections; Lech Walesa elected president.
- 1990: Anti-Censorship Act introduced.
- 1992: Radio and Television Broadcasting Act introduced.
- 1993: A coalition of leftist parties gains control of the Sejm, the Polish parliament.
- 1995: Aleksander Kwasniewski, a leader of the leftist coalition and former communist, is elected president. He promises to continue reforms and integration with free Europe.
- 1997: Constitution adopted including Article 14 which guarantees freedom of the press.
Bernhard, Michael H., ed., et al. From the Polish Underground: Selections from Krytyka, 1978-1993. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995.
Bates, John M., "Freedom of the Press in Interwar Poland: The System of Control," Peter D. Stachura (ed.), Poland between the Wars, 1918-1939, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998, pp. 87-108.
——. The Black Book of Polish Censorship, New York, 1984.
Casmir, F. L., ed. Communication in Eastern Europe: The Role of History, Culture, and Media in Contemporary Conflicts. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1995.
Central Europe online. Available from www.europeaninternet.com/centraleurope .
Choldin, Marianna T. A Fence Around the Empire, Durham, USA: Duke University Press, 1985.
Ciecwierz, Mieczyslaw. Polityka prasowa 1944-1948, Warsaw:PWN, 1989.
Committee to Protect Journalists. "Country Report: Poland." Committee to Protect Journalists: 2000. Available from www.cpj.org/attacks99/europe99/Poland.html .
Davies, N. God's Playground, 2 vols, Oxford: OUP, 1981.
Dobroszycki, L. Reptile Journalism: The Official Polish Language Press Under the Nazis, 1939-1945. Yale University Press. New Haven, CT, 1995.
Eastern European journalism: before, during and after communism. Cresskill, N.J.: Hampton Press, 1999.
Garton Ash, Timothy, ed. Freedom for publishing, publishing for freedom: the Central and East European Publishing Project. Budapest: Central European University Press, 1995.
Giorgi, Liana. The Post-Soviet Media: What Power the West? The Changing Media Landscape in Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic. Aldershot, England; Brookfield, Vt. : Avebury, 1995.
Kondek, Stanislaw A. Wladza i wydawcy, Warsaw: Biblioteka Narodowa, 1993.
Leftwich Curry, J. Poland's Journalists: Professionalism and Politics, Cambridge, 1990.
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——. The Media and Intra-Elite Communication in Poland (4 volumes), Santa Monica, 1980.
Monroe's Post-Soviet Media Law Review. Available from www.vii.org/monroe .
Notkowski, Andrzej. Prasa w systemie propagandy rzadowej w Polsce 1926-1939, Warsaw-Lodz: PWN, 1987.
O'Neil, Patrick, ed. Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe. London: Frank Cass, 1997.
OECD. "Adult Literacy Survey." Available from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs97/9733.pdf .
Pietrkiewicz, Jerzy. "'Inner Censorship' in Polish Literature," SEER , 1957, vol. XXXVI, no. 86, pp. 294-307.
Sparks, Colin, and Anna Reading. Communism, Capitalism and the Mass Media. London: Sage Publications, 1998.
Szydlowska, Mariola. Cenzura teatralna w dobie auto-nomicznej 1860-1918, Cracow: Universitas, 1995. | <urn:uuid:d01cd5fc-9407-4543-b4b2-2663b5426910> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pressreference.com/No-Sa/Poland.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00070-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955004 | 9,119 | 3.28125 | 3 |
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At a recent United for
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Even if you use tobacco, you can still prevent your kids from starting. Try to quit, but in the meantime, don’t use tobacco around them. Don’t leave it where they can easily get it. Start talking to your kids about tobacco use at an early age (5 years old) and keep talking about it until they leave home. Many kids start using tobacco by age 11 and most are addicted by age 14. If your kids’ friends smoke, talk about ways to refuse tobacco because they will be pressured to use. Keep on talking. They are listening, though you might not think so. | <urn:uuid:1ed7cdba-8837-479b-a9c6-c8f25b861584> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.hoosiertimes.com/quit/2009/05/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00153-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964818 | 209 | 3.21875 | 3 |
The assassination of political leaders in Mexico during the revolution was, unfortunately, becoming quite common. Between 1910 and 1920, three of the biggest names of the Mexican Revolution; Madero, Zapata, and Carranza, were assassinated. These leaders died because they were betrayed by men the three thought they could trust.
Madero was always trustful of Huerta and his loyalty. Zapata was killed by a trusted Carrancista officer who had promised to defect to Emilianos side. Carranza was killed by a loyalist as he was fleeing the capital as he was being overthrown.
Pancho Villa had grown up not trusting anyone, even his closest friends. Villa would never allow anyone to walk behind him, even in his own house. Having shot many men in his life as a bandit and during the revolution, Villa always feared being shot himself. Following the revolution, he made a truce with Obregon and agreed to settle down to a quiet life in Canutillo. However, he never left Canutillo without an armed escort of at least 50 of his fierce Dorado cavalry fighters.
Over the next couple of years, he became more comfortable with the Obregon presidency and his feeling that the president would have him killed began to ease. However, there was one man whom Villa feared would be the one to kill him. Jesús Herrera, was the last male of the Herrera clan.
This was the family Villa had attempted to completely wipe out years earlier. Since Jesús was the last of the Herrera family, Villa decided to go after him. Villa hired several hit men, a Villista general and a colonel, who were unsuccessful in their attempts to kill Herrera.
Herrera had been making public statements, telling Villa that, If he wanted peace of mind he would find it in an insane asylum." Herrera wrote the newspaper and sated that, "this criminal has lost his mind, that the whole country is full of the blood that this infamous bandit was shed. He compared Villa to ,a savage beast shouting with pain and rage, anxiously looking for anyone whom he should sully with his filthy spittle.
Villa then decided to write Obregon and complain to him that Herrera had sent killers after him but they had failed in their attempts. Obregon did nothing, so Villa decided to start a media campaign and wrote letters to El Universal newspaper in Canutillo. This was a bit unusual since Villa said he was trying to lead a quiet private life.
Villa writing Obregon and asking for his help in stopping Herrera was also strange in the fact that Obregon had defeated Villa at Celaya and they had been enemies during the revolution. Either Villa figured Obregon saw the revolution as something they were obliged to participate in, or Villa was naïve. The latter is probably why Villa would even inform the president of assassination attempts. Obregon finally did reply, three weeks later.
Obregon told Villa that the, excessive obligations of his presidency, had caused the delay in his reply. In his response, Obregon also told Villa that he would look for a, discreet way, to prevent the repetition of such, painful incidents.
Within a short time, Herreras public attacks on Villa stopped. Historians believe that Obregon had come up with a solution for the Herrera problem; the assassination of Pancho Villa within three months of Villas letters to Obregon.
In July 1923, Villa was making a trip by car to the village of Rio Florido, where he would become the godfather of the child of a friend. The trip would take about a day or so. Ever since he had moved to Canutillo, Villa never went anywhere without his escort of his fifty guards. However, on this trip, his secretary Trillo, told Villa that it was getting too expensive to constantly take his entire escort. Villa agreed, and only took four men who could fit in his car, alongside Villa, Trillo, and his driver. Villa had now fallen in love with his automobile and loved to go riding.
Eventhough Herrera had stopped his public warnings to Villa, the former revolutionary leader was still cautious. He ordered one of his Dorado leaders, Gil Piñon, to send three heavily armed men from his escort to ride ahead to the outskirts of Parral, to make sure the trip from his home in Canutillo would be safe. Once he would arrive in Parral, he had no worries since there were hundreds of federal troops under the command of his friend, Colonel Felix Lara.
As they drove through Parral, on July 10, neither Villa nor his four escorts noticed that several rifles were aimed at him and his car from the windows of an apartment at the corner of Benito Juarez and Gabino Barrera streets. No shots were fired this day as when his car reached the intersection; hundreds of kids ran out of a nearby school. The rifles were pulled back to wait for another opportunity.
Then days later, on July 20, 1923, Villa was on his way back home after having visited some friends and one of his former wives. Villa sent word to Lara to send him three cheeses. This was code for the three-armed escorts who were to meet Villa on the outskirts of Parral.
Unknown to Villa, was the fact that Lara and his men had left Parral that same day. They had gone to the nearby town of Maturana to allegedly rehearse for the Diez y Seis military parade, which was a Mexican national holiday. This was a bit odd since the celebration was two months away. Villa may not have continued his trip had he known Lara and his men were out of town. However, as they drove into Parral, Villa was now at the wheel and in a good mood. As he came up to the intersection of Benito Juarez and Gabino Barrera, a man on the street raised his hand in salute and shouted out, Viva Villa. A cry Villa had heard hundreds of times on the battlefield with his División del Norte.
Pancho Villa's body after his assassination in 1923. No photo Credit Available
The famous battle cry for Villa was to now turn into a soliloquy for his death, as the mans raised hand was an apparent signal for the killers hidden in an apartment, overlooking the Mexican hero. They opened fire when Villas car reached the corner and slowed to make a turn.
Villa was hit nine times and was killed instantly. Also killed were Trillo, the chauffeur and Villas assistant, Daniel Tamayo. Three members of his escort were also hit. Two others began running, Ramon Contreras who was badly wounded, managed to pull out his gun and kill one of the assassins before he managed to escape. The other escort who ran was later cornered next to a river and was shot and killed.
More than forty hollow-point bullets had hit Villas car. These bullets expand after entering their target and shred the interior of the object or person they enter. After making sure Villa was dead the killers casually rode off on horseback.
The first report back to President Obregon was that Villas own men had killed him. Obregon doubted this and told his staff and generals this. A few hours later, Colonel Lara wired Obregon saying that about seven to nine armed men, apparently all of them rancheros, had assassinated Villa.
A photo montage of Pancho Villa's corpse was put together by a seller of
postcards so that Americans could immerse themselves in morbid fantasies
of death over the demise of Villa. No photo Credit
Lara added, the pursuit of these individuals is not possible, as you wished and as I would have wished, since I had no horses that could be utilized for that purpose. This was not a very strong excuse since Parral was filled with horses, and Lara could have easily have requisitioned them as the garrison commander.
Obregon was suspicious of Laras reasoning, but never conducted any investigation of his inaction and no type of action was ever conducted against Lara.
Word of Villas assassination quickly made it back to his home in Canutillo. However, Obregon had ordered federal troops to Villas home to prevent any type of reprisal. A standoff between the troops and Villas supporters at the ranch lasted for about three days and eventually simmered out. The troops stayed on for another ten days before pulling out without a fight.
Villa was buried the day after his death on Saturday, July 21, 1923. Thousands of citizens from Parral followed his coffin to the cemetery, which was drawn by two black horses. There was a military guard and a band, both of which demonstrated the honor due him as a former general.
Sadly, none of Villas men or his closest friends were at his funeral. They were at Canutillo, armed and ready for an attack by the government troops.
Katz, Freidrich, Katz. The Life and Times of Pancho Villa. Stanford University Press, 1998.
Before the Revolution
Attack on Colombus, NM
The Punitive Expedition
Corridos de Pancho Villa | <urn:uuid:23d3e038-27c4-41b2-aa85-51d6911c7a6e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.laits.utexas.edu/jaime/jrn/cwp/pvg/assassination.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.993394 | 1,885 | 2.75 | 3 |
Parents of young children are some of the best-prepared people for travel. Not counting the old crumbs in the seat of the car, parents are the experts in packing snacks, along with water, milk and spare clothing.
This weekly column about parenting issues is written by local early childhood experts. It publishes on Mondays in the Steamboat Today. Read more columns here.
People who live in the mountains develop skills for driving in snowy conditions. However, even with an all-wheel drive car and good tires, it’s possible to get stuck in deep snow. Being stranded brings the risk of prolonged exposure to cold temperatures. Hypothermia occurs as your body loses heat faster than it can be produced, and eventually, the body’s stored energy is used up.
Children lose heat more quickly than adults, mostly through their head, making them more prone to hypothermia. Dressing in layers and wearing a hat helps preserve body heat. Wool, silk or polypropylene inner layers of clothing that are slightly loose fitting hold more body heat than cotton. Adding an outer layer of clothing made of tightly woven, wind-resistant material also helps reduce body-heat loss.
Winter is the time of year to take inventory of supplies in the family car. Being prepared takes a lot of the stress out of traveling with children.
Winter survival kits should include at least:
■ Fluorescent distress flag and emergency flares
■ Shovel, windshield scraper and small broom
■ Flashlight with extra batteries and battery-powered radio
■ Local maps
■ Tow chain or rope
■ Road salt and sand or kitty litter
■ Booster cables
■ Water and snack food
■ Matches and candles
■ Extra hats, socks, mittens, snow boots and extra blankets
■ First-aid kit with pocket knife
■ Necessary medications
What to do if you get stranded
Staying in your vehicle when stranded often is the safest choice if winter storms create poor visibility or if roadways are covered with ice. These steps will increase your safety when stranded:
■ Tie a brightly colored cloth to the antenna as a signal to rescuers and raise the hood of the car if it’s not snowing.
■ Move anything you need from the trunk into the passenger area. Move any extra floor mats under your feet for extra insulation.
■ Wrap your entire body, including your head, in extra clothing, blankets or newspapers.
■ Stay awake. You will be less vulnerable to cold-related health problems.
■ Run the motor (and heater) for about 10 minutes per hour, opening one window, one that is downwind from a snowstorm, slightly to let in air. Make sure that snow is not blocking the exhaust pipe — this will reduce the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning.
■ As you sit, keep moving your arms and legs to improve your circulation and stay warmer.
■ Do not eat unmelted snow because it will lower your body temperature.
■ Huddle with other people for warmth.
For more information, visit www.bt.cdc.gov/disasters/winter/guide.asp.
This article was provided by the Northwest Colorado Visiting Nurse Association, which has been a member of the Routt County Early Childhood since its inception in 1998. Information is from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Colorado Emergency Preparedness guidelines.
This article was written in collaboration with Jim Johnsen, of Northwest Colorado EPR regional staff. | <urn:uuid:38afaaf7-2249-450b-95a6-6dc1991f0d2a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.steamboattoday.com/news/2014/jan/19/thoughtful-parenting-take-stress-out-winter-travel/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930176 | 717 | 3.015625 | 3 |
All known eukaryotic ad prokaryotic cytoplasm contain reductases which participate in reducing disulfide bonds. Thus, proteins are oxidized to form disulfide bonds only in certain extra-cytoplasmic compartments such as the periplasmic space in gram negative prokaryotes or endoplasmic reticulum in eukaryotes. Exceptions to this may occur in certain thermophilic archaea such as Crenarchaea and few thermophilic bacteria (e.g. Aquifex and Thermotoga). There are websites such as Phobius or SignalP that can be used to predict whether a protein is in the oxidizing periplasm or endoplasmic reticulum. One can get an idea of the importance of cysteines in a protein of interest by analyzing how conserved the cysteine residues are in close homologs. | <urn:uuid:f90cad34-05c7-46f7-8dc2-83f2dfe99542> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.neb.com/faqs/1/01/01/does-my-protein-have-disulfide-bonds | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00132-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.903052 | 190 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Subjects: Social Studies, Classroom Tools
User Access: Student, Teacher
instaGrok is an educational (re)search engine that lets students (any anyone else) research any topic in an engaging, visual way. instaGrok finds the best information on the topic and presents it as interactive concept map ("grok"), showing key facts, concepts and relationships, videos, images and more.
* Explore educational materials (websites, videos) on the topic
* Understand key concepts, facts and relationships
* Adjust difficulty level
* Browse educational websites, images, and videos
* Pin their favorite materials, collecting evidence for their report
* Test their knowledge with quizzes
* Write a report in the journal
instaGrok Classroom for Edmodo adds the following benefits:
* Teacher dashboard allows teachers to see students' research activity, including sites visited, quiz questions answered and more
* Students can submit their journals as Edmodo assignments
* Students can create bibliography and reflect credibility of sources, teaches can review
More Apps By instaGrok
About the Edmodo Store
In the Edmodo Store, you can discover innovative apps that integrate seamlessly with Edmodo to help create engaging learning experiences for students.
Visit our help center to learn more about using apps with your students.
Edmodo helps connect all learners with the people and resources needed to reach their full potential.
Sign Up with Edmodo and start using it with your students today. | <urn:uuid:e6723711-b5aa-43ca-8448-f66d7ce2a996> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.edmodo.com/store/app/instagrok-classroom | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.875712 | 311 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Earth from Space: Canaries’ new hot spot
An active, underwater volcano just off the southern coast of the Canary island, El Hierro, is pictured in this Envisat image.
The volcanic plume has discoloured the surrounding waters and the muddy water has reached El Hierro’s shores.
Residents on the island are also feeling frequent tremors – occurring several times a day – and have reported seeing dead fish floating in the water.
Residents have also reported seeing offshore explosions spewing metres above sea level. The potential for toxic gases emanating from an underwater volcano has prompted authorities to close some beaches on the island.
The volcanic Canary Islands were formed by the Canary hotspot. The archipelago consists of seven main islands – some of which are visible here – and several smaller islets.
This image was acquired on 9 November 2011 by Envisat’s Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer.
The Image of the Week is featured on ESA Web-TV, broadcast online every Friday at 10:00 CET. | <urn:uuid:7681ec46-4f7c-45e6-a1c5-c116dc9e8fc0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Observing_the_Earth/Earth_from_Space_Canaries_new_hot_spot | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00022-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949282 | 214 | 2.953125 | 3 |
The pufferfish Tetraodon nigroviridis has a genome of 350 Mb, the smallest genome known to date in the vertebrates. This characteristic makes it very attractive for genomic studies, and inspired the launching of a sequencing project at Genoscope in 1997, the year that the center opened. The initial objective of Genoscope was to compare the genomic sequences of this fish to that of humans to help in the annotation of human genes and to estimate their number. This strategy is based on the common genetic heritage of the vertebrates: from one species of vertebrate to another, even for those as far apart as a fish and a mammal, the same genes are present for the most part. In the case of the “compact” genome of Tetraodon, this common complement of genes is contained in a genome eight times smaller than that of humans. Although the length of the exons is similar in these two species, the size of the introns and the intergenic sequences is greatly reduced in this fish. Furthermore, these regions, in contrast to the exons, have diverged completely since the separation of the lineages leading to humans and Tetraodon. The Exofish method, developed at Genoscope, exploits this contrast such that the conserved regions which can be identified by comparing genomic sequences of the two species, correspond only to coding regions. Using preliminary sequencing results of the genome of Tetraodon in the year 2000, Genoscope evaluated the number of human genes at about 30,000, whereas much higher estimations were current. The progress of the annotation of the human genome has since supported the Genoscope hypothesis, with values as low as 22,000 genes and a consensus of around 25,000 genes.
The sequencing of the Tetraodon genome at a depth of about 8X, carried out as a collaboration between Genoscope and the Whitehead Institute Center for Genome Research (now the Broad Institute), was finished in 2002, with the production of an assembly covering 90% of the euchromatic region of the genome of the fish. This has permitted the application of Exofish at a larger scale in comparisons with thegenome of humans, but also with those of the two other vertebrates sequenced at the time (Takifugu, a fish closely related to Tetraodon, and the mouse). The conserved regions detected in this way have been integrated into the annotation procedure, along with other resources (cDNA sequences from Tetraodon and ab initio predictions). Of the 28,000 genes annotated, some families were examined in detail: selenoproteins, and Type 1 cytokines and their receptors. The comparison of the proteome of Tetraodon with those of mammals has revealed some interesting differences, such as a major diversification of some hormone systems and of the collagen molecules in the fish.
A search for transposable elements in the genomic sequences of Tetraodon has also revealed a high diversity (75 types), which contrasts with their scarcity; the small size of the Tetraodon genome is due to the low abundance of these elements, of which some appear to still be active. Another factor in the compactness of the Tetraodon genome, which has been confirmed by annotation, is the reduction in intron size, which approaches a lower limit of 50-60 bp, and which preferentially affects certain genes.
The availability of the sequences from the genomes of humans and mice on one hand, and Takifugu and Tetraodon on the other, provide new opportunities for the study of vertebrate evolution. We have shown that the level of neutral evolution is higher in fish than in mammals. The protein sequences of fish also diverge more quickly than those of mammals. A key mechanism in evolution is gene duplication, which we have studied by taking advantage of the anchoring of the majority of the sequences from the assembly on the chromosomes. The result of this study speaks strongly in favor of a whole genome duplication event, very early in the line of ray-finned fish (Actinopterygians). An even stronger evidence came from synteny studies between the genomes of humans and Tetraodon. Using a high-resolution synteny map, we have reconstituted the genome of the vertebrate which predates this duplication - that is, the last common ancestor to all bony vertebrates (most of the vertebrates apart from cartilaginous fish and agnaths like lamprey). This ancestral karyotype contains 12 chromosomes, and the 21 Tetraodon chromosomes derive from it by the whole genome duplication and a surprisingly small number of interchromosomal rearrangements. On the contrary, exchanges between chromosomes have been much more frequent in the lineage that leads to humans. All these results are presented in an article published in the 21th October 2004 issue of Nature.
Tetraodon nigroviridis is a little fish (less than 10 centimeters long in captivity) which is popular with tropical fish fanciers. In its natural state, it is found in rivers and streams of Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Indochina, Malaysia, the Philippines), as well as in estuaries and mangrove swamps, and even occasionally in the sea; it is therefore not strictly limited to fresh water. Tetraodon nigroviridis belongs to the family of “smooth” pufferfish (Tetraodontidae) and, at a higher systematic level, to the order Tetraodontiforms, which also includes the diodons or “spiny” pufferfish (Diodontidae), sunfishes (Molidae), boxfishes (Ostraciidae) and triggerfishes (Balistidae), among others. Tetraodon nigroviridis is often confused with a closely-related species, Tetraodon fluviatilis. Genoscope has found molecular markers which can differentiate between the two species (access to this data and phylogenetic results). Other members of the Tetraodontid family are fugus, salt water fish for which one species, Takifugu rubripes, was also the target of a sequencing project (see below). The Tetraodon nigroviridis and Takifugu rubripes lines diverged 18 to 30 million years ago.
Interest in the Tetraodontids was kindled in 1968 when R. Hinegardner discovered the very small size of their genomes; in particular, this author showed that the genome of Tetraodon, with a size grossly estimated at 380 Mb (by measuring the DNA content of the cells), was the smallest of the 300 genomes of teleost fishes measured, and consequently the smallest vertebrate genome known. As a comparison, the zebrafish, Danio rerio, which is used as a model organism in genomics and genetics, has a genome of 1.6 billion base pairs, four times larger than that of Tetraodon. The human genome, which contains 3.2 billion base pairs, is eight times larger than that of Tetraodon. Following this discovery, Sydney Brenner and his colleagues at Cambridge confirmed the small size of the genome of another pufferfish, the fugu Takifugu rubripes, which they estimated to be 400 Mb by using a partial random sequencing approach. This early sequence data further confirmed the hypothesis of the compactness of the pufferfish genome; since the majority of the functions present in other vertebrates are found in teleost fish, it was reasonable to suppose that fish and mammals possess a more or less comparable repertoire of genes. It was therefore expected that the small size of the pufferfish genome was not due to a large reduction in the number of genes compared to mammals, but to a reduction in non-coding sequences. The first sequences obtained by Brenner confirmed this: they revealed the small size of introns and intergenic regions of fugu, resulting from the scarcity of repeated sequences. It is in this sense that this genome, which is dense in exons, is called “compact”. The structure of the genes themselves appeared conserved: in the few cases studied the introns were found in similar positions in the Takifugu gene and in the orthologous gene in humans. A preliminary analysis of the Tetraodon nigroviridis genome published in 2000, demonstrated the same rarity of repeated sequences.
How can this compactness of the pufferfish genome be explained? The analysis of partial genomic sequences from Tetraodon nigroviridis and Takifugu rubripes has provided some of the answers. Transposable elements, which constitute the majority of repeated sequences, represent 45% of the sequence of the human genome, whereas they are very scarce in pufferfish: they represent only 3.8% of the assembly of the genomic sequence of Tetraodon nigroviridis and 2.7% of the Takifugu assembly. These are the smallest values known in multicellular eukaryotes, even if the true abundance of transposable elements in these two fish is most likely a little higher; they are in fact concentrated in the heterochromatic regions of the Tetraodon genome (Dasilva et al., 2002), and therefore underrepresented in the assembly. Although rare, the transposable elements are characterized by high diversity in Tetraodon. It is possible that the transposable elements and other sequences which have no functional constraints have a higher level of deletion in these fish, which seems to be confirmed by the fact that pseudogenes are eliminated more rapidly in Tetraodon than in humans. Another factor which could explain the compact genomes of the Tetraodontids is a high resistance to insertions which may be inherent to this lineage, as suggested by a comparative study with diodons and a sunfish (Neafsey and Palumbi, 2003). The size of the genomes of pufferfish may have increased more slowly than it did in other Tetraodontiform lineages, or, more probably, may have experienced a reduction during evolution. At any rate, these animals constitute an excellent model for understanding the factors which determine the evolution in size of genomes.
Sydney Brenner was the first to express an interest in a compact
genome such as that of Takifugu as a tool for the study of other
vertebrate genomes. In 1993 he proposed to sequence all or part of the
genome of fugu in order to access the repertoire of vertebrate genes
at the lowest cost possible. By sequencing a given quantity of DNA in
a pufferfish, there is a much better chance of finding an exon than by
sequencing the same quantity of DNA in another vertebrate, especially
in mammals such as humans. Sequencing at moderate coverage is thus
sufficient to get a good idea of the gene content in a compact
genome. Furthermore, the rarity of repeated sequences makes a random
shotgun sequencing strategy possible, which is rapid and economic, but
is not suitable for a genome which is as vast and complex as the human
Despite these arguments, the fugu project did not get off the ground immediately. It had not yet obtained financial support by 1997, and its realization seemed problematic. Genoscope therefore decided to undertake the sequencing of another fish with a compact genome in order to make a “model vertebrate genome” available to the scientific community. Tetradodon nigroviridis was chosen on account of its small size, ease of maintenance in a fresh-water aquarium and its availability in the tropical fish fancier milieu, whereas Takifugu rubripes, which is found in the coastal waters of China and the Japanese archipelago, is difficult to import. Furthermore, large tanks of sea water are needed to maintain fugu which may attain several kilograms. Tetraodon nigroviridis is therefore more suitable for molecular analyses in which the biological material must be easily and constantly accessible (Crnogorac-Jurcevic et al., 1997).
Following Genoscope’s first publications on the genomic sequences of Tetraodon in the year 2000, the importance of sequencing a small genome for the analysis of the human genome was demonstrated. At this moment, the sequencing project for Takifugu rubripes was initiated, resulting in the publication of a draft genome sequence in 2002 (45,000 contigs assembled in more than 12,000 scaffolds covering 332.5 Mb, for a total genome size estimated at 365 Mb) (Aparicio et al., 2002). The comparison of predicted proteins in the fugu sequence with human proteins revealed strong correspondences for three-quarters of them, which validated the initial hypothesis of a comparable repertoire of genes in all vertebrates.
The Tetraodon and Takifugu projects are less redundant than they appear. Comparisons of the genomic sequences of two pufferfish separated by 18 to 30 million years enables improvement of the annotation on both sides, which reinforces the utility of these model genomes.
The principal objective of the sequencing of the Tetraodon genome, at the beginning of the project, was to compare the genomic sequences of this fish with those of humans in order to facilitate the identification of human genes. This comparative genomics approach is based on a simple hypothesis: during the 400 million years that have passed since the separation of the Tetraodon and Mammals lineages, the genomic regions which are constrained by their function - especially the coding sequences - have accumulated fewer mutations and thus diverged more slowly than the other regions. The evolutionary distance which separates us from this fish is sufficiently large to ensure that the introns and intergenic regions will have diverged completely, but is sufficiently short such that the majority of coding sequences will have been conserved for at least part of their length. This contrast thus makes it possible to identify them by comparisons at the whole genome scale (a different use of the genome than that chosen later in the Takifugu project, in which the human-fish comparison was limited to predicted genes).
For this purpose, Genoscope has developed a comparative genomics tool
called Exofish (for EXOn Finding by Sequence Homology), based on the
BLAST algorithm (Frequently
Asked Questions about Exofish). A comparison between genomic
sequences of the fish and the target human sequence produces Ecores
(Evolutionary COnserved REgions), which are alignments of
Tetraodon sequences with conserved regions in the human
genome. A calibration makes it possible to define the parameters for
optimizing specificity (conditions under which no ecore will be found
in the introns of known human genes) without compromising sensitivity
(the percentage of human exons detected).
Exofish was utilized for the first time in 2000, when only 33% of the sequence of Tetraodon and 42% of the human genome sequence had been determined. The goal of this comparison was to evaluate the number of human genes; at this time very different values had been proposed. The principle of the evaluation was simple: the number of ecores obtained on a partial sequence of the human genome was extrapolated to the ensemble of the genome, then divided by the average number of ecores per gene (as measured on a reference collection of human genes). This calculation led to an estimation of the number of human genes of 28 000 to 34 000 (see a press release). This result, which was published in 2000 (Roest Crollius et al., 2000), was in agreement with another estimate published at the same time, but which was based on a different principle (B. Ewing & P. Green, 2000). However, it was much less than the estimates that were current at the time: the human genome had been reported to contain from 50,000 to 90,000 genes, and some researchers believed that our genome contained at least 200,000 genes! Many were surprised by this drop in the estimation of the number of genes, because it indicated that humans had barely twice the number of genes of the fruit fly. Since the completion of the sequencing of the human genome in April 2003, the Genoscope’s estimate has been confirmed by progress in annotation: automatic annotation procedures such as Ensembl, Twinscan or SGP2 have identified between 22,000 and 43,000 human genes.
During 2003, when a 99% complete human genome sequence and a Tetraodon assembly covering 90% of the genome were available, Genoscope undertook a new evaluation of the number of human genes using Exofish. This time, the average number of ecores per gene was calculated from ecores present on five “finished” human chromosomes (chromosomes 6, 13, 14, 20 and 22), for which the annotation had been validated by human experts. From the number of ecores obtained for the ensemble of the human genome sequence, a first estimate of the total number of genes is deduced and corrected for the fraction of ecores which detect pseudogenes. This calculation leads to a human gene number ranging from 22,500 to 29,500, in good agreement with the above annotation results (Jaillon et al., 2004).
The ecores obtained by human-Tetraodon comparisons (accessible with the Comparative Genoscope browser) have been used in the annotation procedure for several human chromosomes which have been published to date (beginning of 2004). Despite these efforts, about 15,000 ecores remain outside of all annotations (genes or pseudogenes) of the human genome sequence as of spring 2004. These have served to define 904 new human gene models using gene models corresponding to these ecores in Tetraodon. More than 60% of these new putative genes, which were probably not detected previously because of their small size, have been confirmed by expression data.
When Exofish is utilized to compare genome sequences from Tetraodon with those of other mammals such as the rat and the mouse, the same ecores are detected as in the human genome. Conversely, the ecores produced by comparing genomes of humans, mouse and Takifugu with the genome of Tetraodon have helped in the identification of the genes of this little fish (for the annotation procedure, see the Sequencing project page).
The Tetraodon nigroviridis sequencing project started in 1997 at Genoscope. It was an internal project, which was defined and implemented at the very beginning of the center’s activity. At this time, the only vertebrate for which complete sequencing was planned was the human genome: the mouse sequencing project was initiated only in 1999 and the sequencing of Takifugu rubripes began at the end of 2000. The choice of Tetraodon nigroviridis as a sequencing target - a fish with a compact genome which was more convenient than Takifugu to maintain in captivity - was thus initially motivated by the need for a comparative genomics tool for the exploration of the human genome that could be obtained quickly and cheaply. The sequence data produced in this first random shotgun sequencing phase (0.3 genome equivalents) could thus be successfully used for a large-scale comparison with the human genome in 2000, indicating the existence of about 30 000 genes in humans (see previous section). In parallel with this random sequencing approach, regions of special interest (genes of the immune system) were integrally sequenced at Genoscope after selecting the corresponding genomic inserts in BAC clones.
The project was next oriented toward producing a sequence of the Tetraodon genome that would be as complete as possible, pursuing the whole genome shotgun strategy at high depth. The new objectives - a detailed analysis of the Tetraodon proteome, the organization of its genome and the regions syntenic with other vertebrate genomes - required a high quality assembly. In June 2001, the Whitehead Institute Center for Genome Research (WICGR, now the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard) joined forces with Genoscope in this effort. Around half of the reads were undertaken by the WICGR, so that the project was considerably accelerated. Thus at the end of 2001, six genome equivalents had been produced (2.3 Gb of raw sequence), with each center contributing about half the sequences (see press release). This was a large enough amount of sequence data to enable a first attempt at assembly at Genoscope (70% of the genome covered by about one hundred thousand contigs). Two additional genome equivalents were subsequently produced by Genoscope.
Eventually the total of 8.3 genome equivalents was assembled in 2002. The resulting draft (about 50,000 contigs linked in more than 25 000 supercontigs, or scaffolds) covers 90% of the euchromatic regions of Tetraodon and presents better long-range contiguity than the genomic draft of Takifugu. Using data from physical mapping, 39 “ultracontigs”, representing 64% of the sequence assembly, could be anchored on the 21 chromosomes of Tetraodon (see their distribution on the karyotype). This is the first time that an overview of the organization of a fish genome has been available on a chromosome scale. Annotation of the draft sequence at Genoscope has produced 27 918 gene models. For more details on the assembly and annotation, see the Sequencing project page and the article in Nature, October 2004 (Jaillon et al., 2004).
One of the first lessons of the draft genomic sequence of Tetraodon was the confirmation of the small size of this genome. The 26 000 scaffolds which form the assembly cover 342 Mb (gaps included). The 312 Mb of sequence that they contain represents 90% of the euchromatin of Tetraodon (as measured with a set of random reads), which can thus be evaluated at 346 Mb.
On the other hand, the total size of the 21 chromosomes which constitute this genome has been estimated to fall between 329 to 356 Mb by flux cytometry. Thus the heterochromatic regions seem to be limited. This extreme compactness explains why the percentage of GC base pairs (GC%) of the genome of Tetraodon is higher than that of large mammalian genomes, as this percentage is positively correlated with the gene density in vertebrates. However, the distribution of GC% produces the same type of asymmetric bell curve - which indicates a non-homogeneous distribution of genes - as that found in humans and mice; it is only shifted toward the higher values. In Takifugu rubripes, however, the distribution of GC% is homogeneous. This striking difference between the genomes of two closely related species might be explained by sequencing or assembly defects in a (G+C)-rich fraction of the genome of Takifugu.
The genomic sequence has also made it possible to perform a detailed study of the diversity and abundance of transposable elements in Tetraodon. As expected, these are rare in this compact genome: about 4,000 copies were detected in unassembled sequences, at least 3.8% of the genome. However, they are also quite diverse : 75 consensus sequences (see Table 3) could be reconstituted (53 class I elements and 22 class II elements, representing a large variety of families), whereas only about 20 different types have been defined from the millions of copies present in the human and mouse genomes. Some families seem to still be active. In order to explain the record rarity of transposable elements in Tetraodon, it must be postulated that they have experienced an unusually high level of deletion. The transposable elements are concentrated in heterochromatic regions, in particular on the short arms of the small chromosomes. In euchromatic regions, there is a preferenial presence of SINEs (short interspersed elements) in (A+T)-rich regions and of LINEs (long interspersed elements) in (G+C)-rich regions, which is the opposite of what is observed in mammals.
Annotation of the genomic sequence of Tetraodon has led to the definition of 27 918 models of protein-encoding genes. This number is of the same order as that found in humans. On a very global scale, the results of Exofish analysis (see above) confirm this result. We have compared the genomic sequences of four vertebrates (Takifugu, Tetraodon, mouse and human), using each in turn as a target, and obtained a similar number of evolutionary conserved regions (ecores). However, these ecores could just as well correspond to pseudogenes as genes, and we know that pseudogenes are much less frequent in Tetraodon and Takifugu than in mammals. This implies that these fish possess slightly more protein-coding genes than mammals.
Genes represent 40% of the Tetraodon genome. There are an average of 6.9 coding exons per gene, and the size distribution of the exons is similar to that observed in humans. On the contrary, the size distribution of the introns is clearly different. The lower size limit for introns is the same in both vertebrates (between 50 and 60 bp), but there are many more introns which approach this lower limit in Tetraodon than in humans. This phenomenon only concerns a sub-population of Tetraodon genes, however. It is unclear why some genes have evolved toward reduction in intron size whereas others do not seem to be affected.
A special effort was made to identify genes which pose problems in annotation (see the "Sequencing project" page). This is notably the case for genes encoding type I cytokines and their receptors, whose sequences are poorly conserved in vertebrates. None of these genes were found at first in the Takifugu genome, and it was justified to ask whether this large gene family which includes hormones and interleukins is absent in fish. In the Tetraodon genome, we discovered 39 genes from all gene families known in vertebrates. Comparison with the latter indicates that, since the last common ancestor of Tetraodon and mammals, diversification has been especially strong on hormone systems (growth hormones and prolactin) in the Actinpterygian lineage (ray-finned fish), whereas it has operated more strongly on interleukins in the mammalian lineage.
The global comparison between the proteome of Tetraodon and those of other sequenced vertebrates (Takifugu, human, mouse) and of the sea squirt Ciona intestinalis (an invertebrate chordate) has been instructive. Analysis of the protein domains using InterPro revealed only a few differences between fish and mammals, but some of these are of particular interest:
If the frequency of various functional categories is compared based on “Gene Ontology” classifications, again, few differences are found. The two fish and Ciona tend to differ as a group from the ensemble of mammals; they exhibit a higher frequency of enzymatic and transport functions, and a lower frequency of structural proteins and proteins implicated in signal transduction.
The availability of the genomic sequences of humans and mice on one hand, and Takifugu and Tetraodon on the other, provides new opportunities for the study of the evolution of vertebrates. Initially, we studied the rate at which these sequences have diverged in the course of evolution, at the level of DNA with no functional constraints.
When one is to study the rate of neutral evolution between two vertebrate lineages which are as far apart as teleost fish and mammals, it is not possible to identify ancestral repeated sequences as can be done with humans and mice. We have therefore turned to the freely mutable positions in genes inherited in common by the four species. The first step was thus to define an ensemble of 5802 quadruplets of orthologous genes. Within these orthologs, we then studied the third positions of some codons which are "fourfold degenerate" ? that is, the third base of these codons can be substituted by any of the three other possible bases without altering the nature of the encoded amino acid and is therefore “free” to change. This study has confirmed the neutral nucleotide substitution rate which was previously measured using a smaller number of orthologs between humans and mice; it has also shown that the level of neutral evolution between the two fish was 2.5 times higher than between the two mammals.
We then studied the level of divergence of protein sequences, by comparing the sequences of the same ensemble of orthologs. The average similarity is less between orthologous proteins of Takifugu and
Tetraodon than between proteins of humans and mice. Furthermore, the lineages of the two fish have not been separated for as long as those of the two mammals. Thus, the protein sequences have diverged faster in the fish, as has already been observed using a smaller sample of genes. A comparison with a close relative of the vertebrates - the sea squirt Ciona intestinalis - confirms this result: the frequency of mutations which cause the substitution of one amino acid for another (Ka) is higher on average between Ciona and Tetraodon than between Ciona and humans. Furthermore, the ratio between non-synonymous (Ka) and synonymous (Ks) substitutions is also higher between the two fish than between the two mammals. Since the last common ancestor of pufferfish and mammals, evolution has thus accelerated in the first group, or else slowed down in the second lineage.
Recent studies have supported the hypothesis of the duplication of the entire genome in the lineage of ray-finned fishes. An ancient whole genome duplication (WGD), followed by a massive loss of duplicated genes, has already been demonstrated in yeasts. Such events may be a very important mechanism in the evolution of eukaryotic genomes. We therefore looked for the trace of a WGD in the Tetraodon genome. The Tetraodon genome sequence presents a unique advantage for this type of research: it is the first genome of a fish for which the available assembly is, in large part, anchored on the chromosomes. For the first time, we can study the distribution of duplicated genes at the global level, with the goal of determining whether there was a sudden leap to the tetraploid state, or whether there was a serie of discrete duplication events.
We have thus identified more than 1000 pairs of duplicated genes in Tetraodon, and almost 1000 in Takifugu. About 75% of the duplication events seem to have happened before the separation of
Takifugu and Tetraodon lineages. The distribution of these ancient gene duplications is striking: copies of genes present on a given chromosomal segment are all present on a single other chromosome, and this pattern is found for the ensemble of chromosomes. The simplest way to explain this finding is to suppose that the whole genome has been duplicated in a single event. The conservation of this tetraploid organization over the hundreds of millions of years since the duplication could be due to the high density of genes in the Tetraodon genome: chromosome rearrangements would be more detrimental than in mammals, because they would be more likely to interfere with gene expression.
A study of the distribution of orthologous genes between the genome of Tetraodon and those of humans and mice has provided the definitive evidence in favor of the WGD, and therefore ended the controversy on this subject. Again, the anchorage of a large part of the Tetraodon genome sequence on the chromosome has been the key factor: it has made it possible to produce the first high resolution synteny map between fish and mammals. From 6,684 Tetraodon genes of known position with an ortholog in the human genome, we have defined 900 synteny groups (groups composed of at least two contiguous Tetraodon genes for which the orthologs are situated on the same human chromosome). In the same way, 6,831 Tetraodon genes with mouse orthologs have been organized into 1,014 synteny groups. The fact that the synteny groups are more numerous with mice than with humans confirms the higher frequency of chromosome rearrangements in rodents.
We have utilized these synteny findings to reconstitute the ancestral organization of the genome at the moment of divergence of the ray-finned fishes lineage. After duplication of this ancestral genome, the supernumerary copies of the genes would have been lost at random on one chromosome or the other in a duplicated pair. We would therefore expect to find genes derived from a same ancestral chromosome on two different modern chromosomes. The investigation of the syntenic relations with the human genome effectively confirms this binary distribution: the orthologs of genes of a given chromosomal region in humans are found, for the most part, on two different chromosomes of Tetraodon. This provides an independent demonstration of the duplication of the whole genome, but is also a much more powerful strategy than the study of duplicated genes for delimiting the duplicated chromosome segments and reconstituting the fusion and fragmentation events. We propose that there were 12 chromosomes in the ancestral genome. This result is consistent with the modal value for the haploid number of chromosomes in Teleosts, which is 24. The 24 chromosomes formed by the duplication in the Teleost lineage underwent 5 fusions, 3 translocations and 2 fragmentations to produce the 21 chromosomes of the Tetraodon genome.
On the evolutionary path leading to humans, the interchromosomic rearrangements were more frequent. This reflects the large increase in the number of repeated sequences in this lineage. In the resulting “swollen” genomes, less dense in genes, rearrangements could happen more frequently as they were less deleterious. It is even possible to evaluate the relative age of these events: the genes present on two ancestral segments that were joigned long ago would have been mixed and homogenized by intrachromosomal rearrangements on the whole length of the new chromosome; on the contrary, the genes present on newly joigned segments would be more clearly seggregated. It is thus possible to detect, for example, the recent fusion wich led to the human chromosome 2, from two chromosomes that remain distinct in the chimpanzee. In a near future, the sequencing of the genomes of other vertebrates and of the amphioxus, closest living parent of the vertebrates, will allow further exploration of the history of this chromosomal mosaic.
The sequencing of the genome of Tetraodon nigroviridis is one of Genoscope’s internal projects. In 2001, the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard (formerly the Whitehead Institute Centre for Genome Research) has joined the project and has produced a substantial part of the reads. The assembly step has also been performed in collaboration with the Broad Institute. Several groups have contributed to the analysis and the annotation of the genomic sequence of Tetraodon nigroviridis: | <urn:uuid:3afa793e-bd10-4a13-816f-e65bf81c3ad8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/spip/-Tetraodon-nigroviridis,387-.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947533 | 7,150 | 3.4375 | 3 |
Papilio rutulus rutulus
Photo Life History: Papilio rutulus rutulus
Suitable Lab Host Plants: Any willows, cottonwoods, or aspens.
Caring for Live Female Butterflies: Feed females every day.
Methods of Female Oviposition: The open screen cages slide show demonstrates how this is accomplished for glaucus-group females, which, can be quite uncooperative for a few days when it comes to laying eggs in captivity. It's important to set them up in a cage where there is plenty of room to fly to and from the host plant. Also, provide nectar sources for females. Clark Thompson created a successful setup for California populations of Papilio rutulus.
How to Find Eggs: Because the larval host plants of western tiger swallowtails can be plentiful and tall, it is always wise to look for immatures on isolated host plants, if at all possible. This is not an easy task in Utah and Colorado because of how common host plants are. Population numbers of this butterfly can fluctuate due to predation, parasitism, and other factors.
How to Hatch Eggs: Consolidate eggs into one container.
How to Find Caterpillars in the Field: For earlier instars, look on the dorsal side of the leaf. For later instars, look for swallowtail pads. Finding glaucus-group caterpillars in numbers can be difficult and sometimes requires a certain degree of patience and hard work. Finding eggs and caterpillars seems to be much easier in Idaho and certain parts of Oregon as compared to Utah because host plants are not quite as concentrated. Always remember to look for isolated host plants. This can be especially helpful at places such as Bogus Basin Highway, Ada County, Idaho, where small clumps of willows and poplars grow along the road--the smaller the clumps, the more concentrated caterpillars can be found. This also holds true for Limenitis lorquini burrisoni caterpillars.
Number of Broods per Year: 1-3; depending upon location
Overwintering Stage: Pupa.
Avoiding Diapause Techniques: Not applicable.
Disease Prevention: Change out host plant and remove frass every five to six days using the open terrarium technique.
Emergence: Emergence Container | <urn:uuid:02b44e0e-2876-4a3d-bc99-f957507c08da> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.raisingbutterflies.org/papilio-rutulus-rutulus/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00126-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.895009 | 488 | 3 | 3 |
Health and Human Services Department, United States
The United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) is responsible for overseeing government departments and programs devoted to public health. The HHS manages federal health insurance programs Medicare and Medicaid for certain citizens. Other operational departments within the HHS have a direct impact on general matters of national security, public safety, and counter-terrorism.
The HHS currently oversees over 300 various programs and has an annual operating budget of around 460 billion dollars. The department was founded in the 1930s as part of the New Deal, but has since grown in scope to cover everything from preschool programs to medical research.
Two main branches of the HHS are especially important to the preservation of national security. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for pharmaceutical research and the approval of medicines for sale and distribution in the United States. The FDA also regulates some aspects of agriculture and insures the safety of food products for consumers. Working with the Environmental Protection Agency, the FDA helped to establish guidelines for drinking water treatment and regulation. Food safety, water purity, and drug research and approval have increased in importance in recent years since America has come under terrorist threat. The FDA sponsors research into protecting food and water systems from bioterrorism attacks. Other research funding supports the development and testing of vaccines and drugs to fight diseases that are most likely to be used in such an attack.
Perhaps the most important organizational branch of the HHS in terms of national security, as well as public health, is the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The CDC, located in Atlanta, Georgia, is the primary disease research facility in the world and monitors the spread of epidemic diseases whether natural or the result of bioterrorism. The CDC has introduced several new initiatives to investigate, plan for, and combat bioterrorism and radiological attacks. Constant research on disease virulence, transmission, and treatments insures that most diseases are readily identifiable. Several instances in the past, including the September 11th terrorist attacks on the Unites States, have prompted the CDC to issue advisories to doctors on symptoms of diseases that can be the result of bioterrorism. The CDC stressed that some of these diseases could be difficult to diagnose because they had been eradicated from the United States for decades. Also, the organization released information to the general public regarding the best ways to prepare for and survive a biological or radiological attack.
The HHS, with the aid of the CDC, also administers general and emergency vaccination and inoculation programs, including advising the military on possible health threats that could be encountered abroad. Individual state bioterrorism readiness plans must also be approved by the HHS.
█ FURTHER READING:
Centers for Disease Control "Bioterrorism Preparedness." < http://www.bt.cdc.gov/ > (November 28, 2002). | <urn:uuid:feb75347-f655-41ef-9241-9e96c7e217d6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.faqs.org/espionage/Gu-In/Health-and-Human-Services-Department-United-States.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00121-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955978 | 584 | 2.96875 | 3 |
The Dental Hygiene program is a sequence of courses that prepares students for positions in the dental profession. Learning opportunities develop academic, technical, and professional knowledge and skills required to perform dental hygiene services. Registered dental hygienists work in a variety of professional settings. The public is most familiar with dental hygienists in the private dental office. In this capacity, they perform numerous services in the promotion and prevention of oral diseases. These include oral prophylaxis; examining the head, neck, and oral areas for signs of disease; patient education; taking or developing radiographs; and applying fluoride or sealants. In this setting, registered dental hygienists play a vital role in protecting the oral health of the American public. Program graduates receive a Dental Hygiene Associate of Applied Science degree.
The Dental Hygiene Associate of Applied Science degree at Atlanta Technical College is accredited by the Commission on Dental Accreditation American Dental Association, 211 East Chicago Avenue Chicago, Illinois 6061, 312/440-4653. www.ada.org
Occupational Trends: The demand for dental services will grow because of population growth, older people increasingly retaining more teeth, and a growing emphasis on preventative dental care. To help meet this demand, facilities that provide dental care, particularly dentists offices, will increasingly employ additional dental hygienists to meet the growing need. Ongoing research indicating a link between oral health and general health also will spur additional demand for preventative dental services, which are typically provided by dental hygienists. Nationally the dental hygiene profession is growing to include expanded duties as Advanced Dental Hygiene Practitioner s that will safely providing cost-effective, diagnostic, preventive, therapeutic and restorative services directly to the un-served public. Advancement opportunities usually come from working outside a typical dentist office, and usually require a bachelors or masters degree in dental hygiene. Some dental hygienists may choose to pursue a career teaching at a dental hygiene program, working in public health, or working in a corporate setting.
Dental hygiene ranks among the fastest growing of occupations. (Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010 -11th Edition) Employment of dental hygienists is expected to grow 36 percent through 2018, which is much faster than the average for all occupations. This projected growth ranks dental hygienists among the fastest growing occupations, in response to increasing demand for dental care and more use of hygienists. Job prospects are expected to be favorable in most areas, but competition for jobs is likely in some areas. In Georgia alone the forecasted openings are predicted to be elevated by 25% for the next 5 years. (EMSO Occupational Report) Program graduates may be employed in a variety of settings including private practice clinicians and government positions such as educators, researchers, administrators, managers, preventive program developers, consumer advocates, and consult
Minimum Program Length: 6 Quarters
Estimated Program Cost: $16,000
- Must be 18 years of age
- Official high school or GED transcript is required to apply
- Achievement of minimum program admission scores in Reading, English, and Math
- Teas Exam
- Transfer of previous post-secondary credits will be determined by the registrar.
- 3.0 suggested GPA
Other Conditions for Admission:
A Competitive admissions process is applied using past academic performance, relevant experience, and the Teas exam as rating guidelines.
Contact dental hygiene program directly at firstname.lastname@example.org for information on information session dates.
Dental Hygiene is a limited enrollment-competitive program. Submit the complete Dental Hygiene Admission Packet and documentation to the dental hygiene program office after completing the following steps
Applicants must be at least seventeen (17) years old and be an official high school graduate or GED recipient. All general education course work must be successfully completed prior to selection into the program. All applicants must file an application for admission to ATC and declare Dental Hygiene as their major. International students must meet Atlanta Technical College guidelines regarding International Student admissions for college admission and continued matriculation into specific programs.
1.) Submit letter of Intent/application to the ATC dental hygiene program. This form is included inside the dental hygiene application packet.
2.) Complete and submit criminal background check online with Certified Background check/provide copy of valid American Heart Association CPR (needs to be valid for program duration). Background check form is provided with the dental hygiene application packet and associated costs are the responsibility of the applicant.
3.) Attend Program Information Session. The Dental Hygiene Program hosts Information Sessions for students interested in a detailed description of the program and the admission process. There are no points for admission awarded for attendance to an informational session, however the student will gain useful information regarding program costs, program requirements, program course information etc.
4.) Provide unofficial copies of college transcripts (all colleges with pre-requisite course info.) with the Dental Hygiene Program Application. Keep one copy of every transcript for your personal records.
5.) All science/math based courses must have been completed within the past five years with a grade of "B" or better.
6.) Complete general education coursework prior to making application to the dental hygiene program. This would include all general education courses required for graduation with an Associate of Applied Science degree from the state of Georgia. Transfer students should have pertinent courses transferred to Atlanta Technical College and should have completed courses with Atlanta Technical College a minimum of one semester prior to submitting program application. This includes the following courses specific to the dental hygiene program:
- English 1101 Composition & Rhetoric
- Speech 1101 Public Speaking
- Psychology 1101 Introduction to Psychology
- Sociology 1101 Introduction to Sociology
- Math 1101 Mathematical Modeling or Math1111 College Algebra
- Chemistry I 1211 Chemistry I and the lab component
- Humanities 1101 Introduction to Humanities
- Biology 2113 Anatomy & Physiology I and its lab component
- Biology 2114 Anatomy & Physiology II and its lab component
- Biology 2117 Introductory Microbiology
*Cumulative GPA of 3.0 required for an applicant to be selected for the dental hygiene program. Additional consideration is given for students with "A" or "B" in prerequisites & science courses (see Past Academic Experience Computation Form).7.) Current work or volunteer experience a minimum of (96) hours in a dental office setting prior to making application to the program. A letter of recommendation and verification of the volunteer or work performance should be included with application. A form for documentation is provided with application.
No applications or supportive application documents will be accepted beyond application deadline. Students must complete the complete application including selection and support documentation of courses to be used for computation of "Past Academic Performance" points when submitting application to the dental hygiene program. All documentation including copies of transcripts and verification of experience must be attached to the application and properly labeled with the student\\\\\\\'s identifier. The application will be considered incomplete if documentation and transcripts are not attached. Because there are more applicants than space available, once basic criteria are met, program admission is based on points obtained from the following criteria:
1. Past Academic Performance including cumulative GPA and/or course grades
2. Teas exam scoring
3. Work/volunteer Experience
4. Designated Alternate status from preceding year
*Satisfying the required criteria for application into the dental hygiene program is the responsibility of the student. Students should use their resources, plan accordingly and be cognitive of meeting requirements with their best ability as the program is a competitive admissions program and is NOT able to admit all students despite best efforts of all parties
Blood and Airborne Pathogens
Students enrolled in Category I and II programs at Atlanta Technical College will be performing tasks in which there is a normal occurrence for exposure to blood, other potentially infectious body materials, and airborne pathogens. These tasks will be performed in the classroom, laboratory, and clinical activities for each occupational training program/course. Students will be required to present documentation of Hepatitis B and Tuberculosis immunizations as a result of potential occupational exposure. Students should contact their program director for more information.Additional Information
Students applying for admission into the dental hygiene should complete the pre-requisite general education courses prior to applying for placement in the program. In order to obtain licensure as a dental hygienist a background check without violation is required by the state dental board.
The Georgia Board of Dental Examiners and/or other state licensing agencies will request documented information regarding conviction of a felony and/or misdemeanor, pending and/or current criminal charges. State licensing agencies do not issue licensure to individuals with records of criminal and felonious charges and convictions. All applicants for licensure as a dental hygienist shall consent to a criminal background check. Georgia state law OCGA 43-11-71. The board shall have the authority to refuse to grant, revoke, or discipline the license of any licensed dental hygienist if such dental hygienist has any of the following:
1.) A felony conviction;
2.) A conviction for any crime involving moral turpitude
3.) An arrest, charge, or sentence for any felony or crime involving moral turpitude where:
a.) a plea of nolo contendere was entered
b.) first offender treatment granted, or
c.) the adjudication was otherwise withheld.
Blood and Airborne Pathogens: Students enrolled in Category I and II programs at Atlanta Technical College will be performing tasks in which there is a normal occurrence for exposure to blood, other potentially infectious body materials, and airborne pathogens. These tasks will be performed in the classroom, laboratory, and clinical activities for each occupational training program/course. Students will be required to present documentation of Hepatitis B and Tuberculosis immunizations as a result of potential occupational exposure. Students should contact their program directors for more information. Policies and procedures regarding blood and airborne pathogens may be reviewed at www.tcsg.org/tcsgpolicy/menu.html.
Provides the student with a thorough knowledge of external and internal morphological characteristics of human primary and secondary dentition. Also introduces the student to various tooth identification systems, classifications of occlusion and dental anomalies. Topics include: oral cavity anatomy, dental terminology, external and internal tooth anatomy, tooth nomenclature and numbering systems, individual tooth and root morphology, occlusion and dental anomalies.
Focuses on anatomy of the head and neck. Emphasis is placed on those structures directly affected by the practice of dentistry. Topics include: terminology; anatomic landmarks; osteology of the skull; temporomandibular joint; muscles of mastication; muscles of facial expression; nervous system; blood supply of the head and neck; lymphatic system and immunology; endocrine and exocrine glands of the head and neck; nasal and paranasal sinuses; facial spaces and the spread of dental infections; and anatomy concerning local anesthesia.
Focuses on the nature, qualities, composition and manipulation of materials used in dentistry. The primary goal of this course is to enhance the student\\\'s ability to make clinical judgments regarding the use and care of dental materials based on how these materials react in the oral environment. Topics include: dental materials standards, dental materials properties, impression materials, gypsum products, mouth guards and whitening systems, dental bases, liners and cements, temporary restorations, classifications for restorative dentistry, direct restorative materials, and indirect restorative materials, polishing procedures for dental restorations, removable dental prostheses, sealants, and implants.
Provides fundamental skills to be utilized in the delivery of optimum patient care by the dental hygienist. Topics include: patient assessment, instrumentation, charting, occlusion, caries, emergencies, ethics and professionalism, asepsis, and patient and clinician positioning.
Provides fundamental skills to be utilized in the delivery of optimum patient care by the dental hygienist. Topics include: asepsis, ethics and professionalism, emergencies, patient assessment, patient and clinician positioning, instrumentation, charting, occlusion and caries.
Emphasizes the application of radiology principles in the study of the teeth and their surrounding structures. Topics include: radiation physics principles; radiation biology; radiation safety; radiographic quality assurance; imaging theory; radiographic interpretation; radiographic need; legal issues of dental radiography; and digital radiography techniques and principles.
Emphasizes the application of radiology principles in the study of the teeth and their surrounding structures. Topics include: radiation safety, radiographic quality assurance, imaging theory, radiographic interpretation, radiographic need, and digital radiography principles and techniques.
Continues the development of knowledge in patient care. Topics include: prevention, instrumentation, patient management, dental appliances, treatment planning, and applied techniques.
Continues the development of knowledge in patient care. Topics include: prevention, instrumentation, patient management, dental appliances, and treatment planning.
Introduces principles of basic pharmacology as they pertain to the practice of dentistry and dental hygiene. Emphasizes actions and reactions of medications commonly used in the dental office or taken by dental patients. Topics include: pharmaceutical referencing; legal and ethical considerations; drug effects; contraindications; drug related emergencies; dental related anesthesia; and pain control.
Continues the development of student knowledge in treating patients and preventing oral disease. Topics include: instrument sharpening; patient assessment; antimicrobial use; pulp vitality testing; treatment of hypersensitivity; whitening; implant care; tobacco cessation; pit and fissure sealants, scaling, debridement and root planing; ultrasonics and air polishing and dietary analysis.
Continues the development of student knowledge in treating patients and preventing oral disease. Topics include: instrument sharpening; patient assessment; antimicrobial use; pulp vitality testing; treatment of hypersensitivity; whitening; implant care; tobacco cessation; pit and fissure sealants; scaling, debridement and root planing; ultrasonics and air polishing; dietary analysis, and applied techniques.
Introduces pathology as a specialty of dentistry and includes the etiology, pathogenesis and recognition of various pathological conditions. Emphasis is placed on oral and paraoral pathology and systemic conditions affecting the head and neck. Topics include: terminology and biopsy procedures; inflammation, repair, and regeneration; soft tissue and dental anomalies; pathogenesis of caries and pulpal pathology; cysts and tumors of the head and neck; systemic conditions that affect the oral structures; infectious diseases; diseases of the salivary glands; diseases of bone; blood dyscrasias; vesiculo-erosive and autoimmune diseases; and genetic diseases and syndromes of the head and neck.
Provides students with a broad understanding of the healthcare system and an objective view of the significant social, political, psychological and economic forces directing the system. Prepares students to promote oral health and prevent oral disease in a community, by meeting specific dental health needs of community groups. Topics include: epidemiology; community dental care assessment; community dental care provision; preventive counseling for groups; group oral health education; terminology; dental care systems; biostatistics; and concepts of dental research.
Continues the development of student knowledge necessary for treatment and prevention of oral diseases. Topics include: treatment of patients with special needs.
Continues the development of student skills necessary for treatment and prevention of oral disease. Topics include: special needs patients and applied techniques.
Continues the development of student knowledge in treating patients and preventing oral disease. Topics include: instrument sharpening; patient assessment; antimicrobial use; pulp vitality testing; treatment of hypersensitivity; whitening; implant care; tobacco cessation; pit and fissure sealants, scaling, debridement and root planning; ultrasonics and air polishing and dietary analysis.
Focuses on the dental hygiene field and presents the fundamental concepts and principles necessary for successful participation in the dental profession. Topics include: employability skills; State of Georgia Dental Practice Act; office management; expanded duties; legal aspects; ethics; dental hygiene practice settings; and dentistry and dental hygiene regulation.
Continues the development of student skills necessary for treatment and prevention of oral disease. Topics include: applied techniques and time management.
Provides fundamental information on periodontal anatomy, pathogenesis of the periodontal diseases, and an introduction to modern rational periodontal therapy, including preventive, non-surgical, and surgical methods. Topics include: tissues of the periodontium; periodontal pathology; periodontal diseases; assessment and treatment planning; periodontal disease therapy; and periodontal emergencies. | <urn:uuid:95b81a29-72b3-461d-85c2-85343dde5677> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.atlantatech.edu/academics/program.php?id=389 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.892081 | 3,476 | 2.703125 | 3 |
EDC2400 Diversity and Pedagogy
|Semester 3, 2013 Online Toowoomba|
|Faculty or Section :||Faculty of Education|
|School or Department :||Education|
|Version produced :||21 July 2014|
Examiner: Noah Mbano
Moderator: Nicole Todd
Modern learning communities and workplaces are becoming increasingly complex social environments as the forces of change impact on families, economics, technology, culture, roles of government and workplace reform. Influences such as globalisation, information technology development, increased social and cultural diversity, shifting patterns of wealth and disadvantage, and the ongoing explosion of knowledge demand a response from educational contexts. Children, young people and adults are being challenged to live with complexity, uncertainty and diversity more so in current times than ever before. Diversity in the student population comes in many forms and encompasses cultural and linguistic differences, varying abilities, aptitudes and interests, differences in social and economic resources, family structures, values and aspirations. Beginning career educators require engagement with learning contexts that promote diversity as a valuable resource for learning and that enable the development of process skills, attitudes and knowledge essential in the reflective and responsive practitioner.
This course is designed to assist educators to develop their pedagogical awareness and skills so that they are best placed to cater for the collective and individual educational needs of diverse learning communities. Students will participate in a broad range of learning contexts focusing on the exploration of best practice in quality teaching for diversity. The socio-cultural, legislative, policy and professional contexts that inform inclusive education will be explored along with their implications for teaching and learning. Students will be given the opportunity to access specialist knowledge and pedagogy associated with a range of issues in Diversity and Pedagogy. Students will be provided with core instructional material dealing with key concepts in the field. NOTE: Minimum enrolment numbers apply to this offering. Should enrolments not reach the minimum number required for on-campus study, students may be transferred to the ONLINE offering and advised of this change before semester commences.
The course objectives define the student learning outcomes for a course. The assessment item(s) that may be used to assess student achievement of an objective are shown in parenthesis. On completion of this course students will be able to:
- critically discuss the rationale for and implementation of inclusive education, with particular reference to learners with a diverse range of learning needs (Quizzes)
- define and critically discuss the nature of student diversity and the implications for teaching and learning in all contexts. (Assignment 1)
- Identify barriers to access and participation for all learners (Assignment 1 and Assignment 2)
- demonstrate the ability to develop, modify and implement inclusive curriculum to meet the specific needs of individuals and groups of students (Assignment 1 and Assignment 2)
- demonstrate ability to search online and databases to find information and to critically reflect on issues that relate to diversity and inclusive education (Assignment 1)
- demonstrate knowledge, understanding and application of course content using appropriate personal, professional and academic literacies (Quizzes, Assignment 1 and Assignment 2)
|1.||Exploration of the socio-cultural, legislative, policy and professional contexts that inform the educational responses to diversity and inclusive education.||20.00|
|2.||Barriers to access and participation for Indigenous peoples in Australia and globally. Strategies to reduce barriers of diverse cultural backgrounds, homelessness, mental health, disability, poverty and English as a second language will be addressed.||20.00|
|3.||Relationships and collaboration in the inclusive setting.||20.00|
|4.||Differentiating the curriculum and Universal Design principles.||20.00|
|5.||Planning, implementation and assessment for diverse learning groups.||20.00|
Text and materials required to be purchased or accessed
ALL textbooks and materials available to be purchased can be sourced from USQ's Online Bookshop (unless otherwise stated). (https://bookshop.usq.edu.au/bookweb/subject.cgi?year=2013&sem=03&subject1=EDC2400)
Ashman, A., & Elkins, J. (eds) (2012), Education for inclusion and diversity, 4th edn, Pearson Education Australia, Frenchs Forest.
Carrington,S. & MacArthur, J 2013, Teaching in Inclusive School Communities, Milton: John Wiley & Sons, Australia.
Foreman, P (ed) (2011), Inclusion in action, 3rd edn, Cengage, South Melbourne.
Hyde, M., Carpenter, L., & Conway, R. (eds) (2010), Diversity and Inclusion in Australian Schools, Oxford University Press, South Melbourne.
Whether you are on, or off campus, the USQ Library is an excellent source of information http://www.usq.edu.au/library..
Student workload requirements
|Description||Marks out of||Wtg (%)||Due Date||Notes|
|QUIZ 1||10||10||25 Nov 2013|
|ASSIGNMENT 1||40||40||02 Dec 2013|
|QUIZ 2||10||10||06 Jan 2014|
|ASSIGNMENT 2||40||40||20 Jan 2014|
Important assessment information
There are no attendance requirements for this course. However, it is the studentsí responsibility to study all material provided to them or required to be accessed by them to maximise their chance of meeting the objectives of the course and to be informed of course-related activities and administration.
Requirements for students to complete each assessment item satisfactorily:
To satisfactorily complete an individual assessment item a student must achieve at least 50% of the marks.
Penalties for late submission of required work:
If students submit assignments after the due date without (prior) approval of the examiner then a penalty of 5% of the total marks gained by the student for the assignment may apply for each working day late up to ten working days at which time a mark of zero may be recorded. No assignments will be accepted after model answers have been posted.
Requirements for student to be awarded a passing grade in the course:
To be assured of receiving a passing grade a student must achieve at least 50% of the total weighted marks available for the course.
Method used to combine assessment results to attain final grade:
The final grades for students will be assigned on the basis of the aggregate of the weighted marks obtained for each of the summative assessment items in the course.
There is no examination in this course.
Examination period when Deferred/Supplementary examinations will be held:
As there are no examinations in this course, there will be no deferred or supplementary examinations.
University Student Policies:
Students should read the USQ policies: Definitions, Assessment and Student Academic Misconduct to avoid actions which might contravene University policies and practices. These policies can be found at http://policy.usq.edu.au.
APA style is the referencing system required in this course. Students should use APA style in their assignments to format details of the information sources they have cited in their work. The APA style to be used is defined by the USQ Library's referencing guide. http://www.usq.edu.au/library/referencing
Students will require access to e-mail and have Internet access to UConnect for this course. | <urn:uuid:553c4962-dc84-41ee-8cc0-395d2a64f676> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.usq.edu.au/course/specification/2013/EDC2400-S3-2013-WEB-TWMBA.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00065-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.899966 | 1,536 | 3.3125 | 3 |
The loudest sound ever produced by an animal (relative to its size) has been recorded by scientists, and the culprit is a tiny aquatic insect that uses its genitals to make a sound as loud as a lawn mower.
The water boatman, a small bug about the size of a flea, lives at the bottom of lakes and rivers in chirps so loudly that people on the shores can hear. That’s pretty impressive, considering that only about 1 percent of sound produced underwater can be heard in the air.
The chirping sound is made when the water boatman strikes its penis against an appendage on its stomach.
Discovery News reports the discovery is more than just fodder for some pretty juvenile jokes:
The findings signify more than just the novelty of an insect stroking its private parts extremely loudly. James Windmill, one of the researchers who made the discovery, notes that a better understanding of the discovery could lead to new acoustic devices like smaller sonar systems for unmanned underwater vehicles or miniaturized ultrasound probes for medical applications.
The loudest-sound measurement is only relative to the bug’s size. The overall loudest sound ever produced by an animal was 236-decibel drone recorded by a sperm whale.
Read the full story here: “Genitals Are Loudest Animal’s Noisy Tools.” | <urn:uuid:22c7210b-adea-46b1-ab82-07fd7b7d6bb4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.seattlepi.com/thebigblog/2011/07/01/what-one-bug-uses-to-sound-like-a-lawnmower-bet-you-cant-do-this-with-yours/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00168-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957092 | 280 | 3.3125 | 3 |
Water is a tame beverage with a tumultuous public-health history. For decades, doctors said we should be drinking eight glasses of the stuff each day. By the time Michelle Obama had built a campaign around water, the backlash had begun.
“There’s no real scientific proof that, for otherwise healthy people, drinking extra water has any health benefits,” Indiana University pediatrics professor Aaron E. Carroll wrote in The New York Times last year.
A new study suggests there is a benefit, though—a big one. Drinking water might just help you eat less. According to the paper, published in the Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, drinking more water is associated with eating fewer calories, as well as less sugar, salt, and cholesterol.
For the study, researchers from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign looked at a dataset of 18,311 adults who were interviewed about everything they ate and drank on two different occasions, between three and 10 days apart. The amount of water each individual drank didn’t vary much between the two days. However, by running their answers through a simulation based on the entire dataset, the researchers found that an increase in daily plain water consumption by between one and three cups correlated with a reduction in daily total energy intake by between 69 and 206 calories. That might sound small, but 206 daily calories amounts to a pound of fat in about 17 days. There was also a reduction in sugar intake by between 6 and 18 grams, sodium by between 78 and 235 milligrams, and cholesterol by between 7 and 21 grams.
Ruopeng An, an assistant professor in kinesiology at the University of Illinois and lead author of the study, said there were two reasons why water might make people more abstemious. First, there’s the substitution effect: People might be drinking water instead of sugary beverages. Second, they might feel more satisfied with a belly full of water, so they won’t eat as many snacks.
He said he’s not sure if this strategy would work similarly for seltzer or sparkling water, or for artificially sweetened drinks. “The percentage of people who drink sparkling water is pretty low,” he said, which suggests he and I run in very different circles.
If An’s findings are replicated, they could be noteworthy. Research so far has been mixed on whether drinking more water helps with weight loss—or does anything in particular. It’s certainly easier to lose weight by sipping Dasani than by avoiding french fries.
Jennifer Kuk, a professor of kinesiology at Canada’s York University, who was not affiliated with the study, said there is some truth to the idea that water can reduce calorie consumption by filling up the stomach. But “in general, the effect is pretty minor as your stomach will get stretched over time," she said.
There have been a few other studies that have shown water could be used as a weight-control tool, especially if it’s chugged right before a meal, according to Yoni Freedhoff, a Canadian obesity expert who was also not associated with the study. But he cautioned that the effect was minimal—just a couple of pounds a year.
Finally, it’s important to note that dietary recall, the method used in this study, is notoriously flawed. Most people can’t remember what they ate down to the gram. Charles Burant, the director of the Michigan Nutrition Obesity Research Center, threw the most cold water on water, saying, “the investigators didn’t report on what one would have predicted … [that] those who drink more water weigh less. If water decreases caloric intake, then those who have the highest intake, shouldn’t they weigh less?”
“This study should not be used as evidence that if you drink more water, then you’ll eat less,” he concluded. “That’s been around a long time and that just doesn’t seem to work.”
An and several others said the study is but further evidence that people should try to avoid sugar-sweetened beverages in favor of water.
Burant also suggested a counterintuitive way that water consumption might be keeping people away from the cookie jar: “Perhaps the heavy water drinkers are in the bathroom more often, reducing the time they [have] to eat?” | <urn:uuid:986e5c5c-43a5-424f-9989-d9be80064257> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2016/03/the-water-diet/473124/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975618 | 915 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Editor's note: This is the third installment in a five-part series being published by The Journal in conjunction with Pollution Prevention Week.
Residents and local businesses alike can work toward creating a less toxic environment in which to thrive by limiting the use of commercial household cleaning products.
In an email interview Tuesday, Sue Flanagan, a West Virginia University Extension Service agent, said "toxic" means "harmful."
"Many common cleaners like drain cleaners, oven cleaners ... and even some laundry detergents have toxic ingredients. They can be harmful if swallowed, inhaled or absorbed through the skin," she said.
Gale Foulds, president of the Sleepy Creek Watershed Association, said the chemicals from household cleaners can also cause problems for the environment, from obstructing septic tank processes to contaminating streams.
"Putting so many of the cleaners in septic systems kills the bacteria in the septic system, which destroys its function," she said.
Foulds said herbicides and pesticides can be harmful to the environment as well.
"(They) can destroy our necessary insects that we need to keep our garden plants healthy and to pollinate our flowers and shrubs," she said.
Disposal of chemicals should be taken seriously, Foulds said. Washing them down the drain is not a safe means of disposal.
"Many of them do not break down in a normal septic system or sewer treatment plant, and so they get into the streams and rivers," she said. "They endanger the fish and the critters that live in the creeks."
Foulds suggested looking into county-sponsored hazardous waste disposal programs and events as a way to get rid of chemicals.
Home and business owners can find alternatives to chemical cleaners such as commercial "green" cleaners. However, there are even less expensive options available, such as baking soda and vinegar.
"Many stains on counter tops, glassware or dinnerware can be removed with a paste of baking soda and water. Use a vinegar-water solution to clean windows and mirrors," Flanagan said.
Flanagan suggested thinking ahead as a way to prevent the need for chemical cleaners. She used taking care of a slow drain as an example.
"Taking care of a slow drain might prevent a serious clog later, and enable you to avoid using commercial drain cleaners," she said.
"There's all kinds of ideas that are helpful without using harmful chemicals," Foulds said.
- Staff writer Rachel Molenda can be reached at 304-263-8931, ext. 215. | <urn:uuid:e6f21781-3536-4336-b145-e8bd0414dbbe> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.journal-news.net/page/content.detail/id/584642/Chemicals-should-be-minimized.html?nav=5006 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00133-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955748 | 530 | 2.96875 | 3 |
In the aquarium, detritus (often called mulm) is organic material made up of fragments of fish waste, uneaten food particles, dead animals, mucus, shed skin and decaying plant matter. It is commonly suspended in the water and sucked into the filter but in conditions where there is little water movement, like Betta bowls, it can settle to the bottom and pile up into a fluffy brown or gray carpet. It can also be sticky or slick and may coat plants and decor. In a cycled aquarium this dead material is not dangerous in and of itself, but being high in nutrients it can lead to a rise in nitrate levels and algae growth. If not removed in an uncycled aquarium it will breakdown further into harmful ammonia. This toxin poses an imminent threat to fish and can lead to disease or even death. While ammonia is a major concern, the detritus itself generally isn’t and is just simply removed upon detection.
If you find detritus in your tank the easiest method for removal is by running a siphon a half inch or so over the tank bottom. Detritus is very light and is sucked up easily. In smaller Betta bowls, a simple turkey baster will remove the material. If detritus is a reoccurring issue in your tank you may want to consider installing a filter. | <urn:uuid:b3d01425-5ba9-4f5e-b288-6c569347b25f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://nippyfish.net/2007/01/18/glossary-detritus-mulm/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934637 | 276 | 3.125 | 3 |
Filed under: Experience
I’m a huge believer that people can process information more quickly and more deeply when it is presented as a visual narrative. 80% of the brain is dedicated to visual processing….
One of the best examples of this is Gapminder -a data visualization tool used to highlight statistics about our world to promote the UN Millenium Development goals.
Contextualizing abstract data in this manner allows for an increased understanding of the World, possibly leading to insights and more informed decisions.
If you can get people to play with the information and see the impact, you can unlock even greater understanding:
Designers Jochen Winker and Stefan Kuzaj work with the visualization of data, and have been developing innovative models for absorbing complex information. Their latest work (you can see above) features methods for making information interactive, requiring users to engage with devices in order to fully unlock the value of the information at hand.
Some great examples:
- If there’s anything good that has come out of the financial crisis it’s the slew of high-quality graphics to help us understand what’s going on. Some visualizations attempt to explain it all while others focus on affected business. Others concentrate on how we have been affected. Some show those who are responsible. After you examine these 27 visualizations and infographics, no doubt you’ll have a pretty good idea about what’s going on.
- GOOD recently asked its readers to create an infographic that shows both the devastation of the recent Haiti earthquake along with aid efforts thus far
- the entire collection of GOOD’s infographics can be found here
- 7 Visualization Groups On Flickr
- Infographics & Data Visualisation (slideshare presentation)
- Jeffrey Veen – Designing our way through data
- We hear all about a rich web of data, but what can we learn from these trends to actually apply to our designs?
9 Comments so far
Leave a comment | <urn:uuid:9cbbf293-e8a2-46c5-89d1-8e4d248d7d56> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://katiechatfield.wordpress.com/2010/02/26/tell-me-and-ill-forget-show-me-and-i-may-remember-involve-me-and-ill-understand/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00077-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.910952 | 410 | 2.734375 | 3 |
North American Commission Pushes for Green Building Design
An organization led by North America's top environmental officials has issued a new report calling for greater international collaboration to build green.
The Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC), formed to address environmental concerns within North America's free-trading nations, stated the need for "a lasting and achievable vision" of green buildings. The vision for Canada, the United States, and Mexico includes the creation of stakeholder task forces in each country, targets to build net zero-energy buildings, and the promotion of private sector financing.
"This effort can help strengthen the economies of North America by spurring new markets and business opportunities for manufacturers, utilities, and other companies," said the report, which the Montreal-based commission released on March 13.
The targets recommended by the commission follow the framework of U.S. architect-turned-activist Ed Mazria's "2030 Challenge," which calls for new buildings to be designed to emit half or less of the greenhouse gases of the regional average for their type. The challenge also outlines a target for "carbon-neutral" buildings by 2030, meaning the structures would require no fossil fuel-emitting energy to operate.
Commercial and residential buildings currently consume a large share of total energy needs across North America: 20 percent in Canada, 30 percent in Mexico, and 40 percent in the United States, the report said. Spending more money upfront for efficient design is one of the simplest solutions for reducing energy use, say green building experts. Yet despite the potential gains, green building is being used in only about 2 percent of non-residential and 0.3 percent of residential structures in the United States and Canada. No reliable data is available for green building in Mexico, the report says.
The U.S. Green Building Council, the authority that grants green design certification, says environmentally friendly construction, on average, reduces energy use 30 percent, carbon emissions 35 percent, water use 30 to 50 percent, and generated waste 50 to 90 percent. The commission's report also highlights the health benefits associated with green buildings, such as the effect of improved ventilation on indoor air quality, estimated at $58 billion a year.
In December, international consulting firm McKinsey & Company released a sweeping cost-benefit analysis of reducing U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. The report said improving energy efficiency in commercial and residential buildings would be by far the cheapest and most effective first step.
"Most improvements use existing technology," the report said. "Together, they could offset 70 percent of incremental power...forestalling the need to build many of the new power plants projected through 2030."
Improving the design of heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems (HVACs) may not generate enough savings to offset the cost of improved efficiency. But all other building improvements, such as installing efficient lighting, retrofitting enhanced insulation, and switching to renewable energy for water heaters, would eventually save money over time, the McKinsey report said.
The CEC's report discusses some of the major roadblocks to green building design in North America. A shared problem is the insistence of governments and institutions to remain fixed within operational budgets, which do not consider the life cycle of a building's expenses. Also, tenants who pay for improved energy efficiency do not reap the economic benefits, an obstacle known as "the split incentive problem." To address this, many landlords are now offering a "green lease" that rewards green building improvements.
In Mexico, the report said, a "paucity of urban planning and building regulations" is limiting progress. But among the steps forward, a Mexican housing fund last year formed a "green mortgage" program that offers more affordable mortgages to homeowners who purchase green buildings.
The CEC, formed in coordination with the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1993, is led by top environmental officials in Canada, Mexico, and the United States. However, the commission says the report does not reflect the views of its member nations, but rather of the CEC's professional staff. | <urn:uuid:cb9574e7-b58b-4734-a20a-6a7c130360a5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.enn.com/top_stories/article/33508 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951598 | 823 | 3.125 | 3 |
An international team led by Australian researchers has studied the genetics of pancreatic cancer, revealing it is actually four separate diseases, each with different genetic triggers and survival rates.
The research paves the way for more accurate diagnoses and treatments.
The significant findings also include 10 genetic pathways at the core of transforming normal pancreatic tissue into cancerous tumours.
Some of these processes are related to bladder and lung cancers, opening up the possibility of using treatments for these cancers to also treat pancreatic cancer.
The study was led by Professor Sean Grimmond, formerly of The University of Queensland's Institute for Molecular Bioscience (IMB), now the Director of Research & The Bertalli Chair in Cancer Medicine, University of Melbourne Centre for Cancer Research.
Published today in the international journal Nature, the research team included Professor Andrew Biankin from the Garvan Institute of Medical Research and the University of New South Wales and bioinformatician Dr Nicola Waddell, now based at QIMR Berghofer Medical Research.
Over seven years, scientists analysed the genomes of 456 pancreatic tumours to determine the core processes that are damaged when normal pancreatic tissues change into aggressive cancers.
Professor Grimmond said there was an urgent need for more knowledge about the genetic causes of pancreatic cancer, with most patients only living a few months after diagnosis and the condition predicted to become the second most common cancer in Western countries within a decade.
"We identified 32 genes from 10 genetic pathways that are consistently mutated in pancreatic tumours, but further analysis of gene activity revealed four distinct subtypes of tumours," he said.
"This study demonstrates that pancreatic cancer is better considered as four separate diseases, with different survival rates, treatments and underlying genetics.
"Knowing which subtype a patient has would allow a doctor to provide a more accurate prognosis and treatment recommendations.”
Importantly, Professor Grimmond said there are already cancer drugs, and drugs in development, that can potentially target the parts of the 'damaged machinery' driving pancreatic cancers to start.
For example some strains of pancreatic cancer are unexpectedly associated with mutations normally associated with colon cancer or leukaemia and for which experimental drugs are available or in development.
Other pancreatic cancers bear strong similarities to some bladder and lung cancers and we can start to draw on that knowledge to improve treatments," Professor Grimmond said.
In a world first, the team performed an integrated genomic analysis, meaning they combined the results of several techniques to examine not only the genetic code, but also variations in structure and gene activity, revealing more information than ever before about the genetic damage that leads to pancreatic cancer.
This study builds on earlier studies performed by the team as part of the International Cancer Genome Consortium (ICGC).
Other Australian institutions involved in the study include the University of New South Wales; St Vincent’s Hospital; University of Newcastle; Royal North Shore Hospital; University of Sydney; Royal Prince Alfred Hospital; University of Western Sydney; Fiona Stanley Hospital; Royal Adelaide Hospital; Princess Alexandra Hospital; University of Western Australia; Macarthur Cancer Therapy Centre; SA Pathology; and The University of Adelaide.
The research was funded by organisations including National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia; Queensland Government; The University of Queensland; Australian Government; Australian Cancer Research Foundation; Cancer Council NSW; Cancer Institute NSW; Garvan Institute of Medical Research; Avner Nahmani Pancreatic Cancer Research Foundation; R.T. Hall Trust; The Petre Foundation; Philip Hemstritch Foundation; and Gastroenterological Society of Australia.
Media: Bronwyn Adams, UQ Institute for Molecular Bioscience, email@example.com, 07 3346 2134, 0418 575 247. | <urn:uuid:1dde4587-2673-4295-bb49-95c036aaae87> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.uq.edu.au/news/article/2016/02/pancreatic-cancer-four-diseases-each-new-treatment-possibilities | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00041-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927827 | 776 | 3.25 | 3 |
describes the situation in which one organism
lives within cells
of another organism. The intracellular organism is called an endosymbiont
(see this article for examples of endosymbionts in nature).
It is also generally believed that certain organelles of the eukaryotic cell originated as bacterial endosymbionts. This theory is known as the endosymbiotic hypothesis.
All Wikipedia text
is available under the
terms of the GNU Free Documentation License | <urn:uuid:b286150c-6438-4954-a2ae-fc2303ae6bbd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/en/Endosymbiosis | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00002-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.901393 | 107 | 3.125 | 3 |
08 May. 2012 | Comments (0)
This month the blockbuster movie, Titanic, was re-released in 3D. With special glasses, audience-goers are now able to see the ship crash into the iceberg even more vividly than before. In true Hollywood style, the film depicts a massive iceberg looming over the "unsinkable" ship with the crew scrambling to avoid a head-on collision.
We usually think of threats in this way: something big and dangerous that can sneak up and overwhelm us when we aren't looking. But the real story of the Titanic paints a different picture. It is a story that, while less dramatic, offers relevant lessons for leaders navigating their organizations through icy waters.
You've Been Warned
The Titanic received six warnings of ice on the day of the collision. They were all ignored by the wireless operator, who was preoccupied with transmitting passenger messages and by the crew, who were focused on breaking the speed record. So pay attention. The signs are already there if you listen. Some companies, like Borders, Kodak and Polaroid, ignore the signs. Others, like Domino's Pizza, catch themselves before it is too late.
Size Doesn't Matter
The iceberg that the Titanic struck was not very big. It didn't even come up as high as the bridge of the ship. And the hole in the boat was actually quite small — six cuts measuring a little over three square feet.
Our brains are wired to think of threats as coming from something bigger, but it's often the little things that become our downfall. Clay Christensen's work on disruptive innovation shows the power of David against Goliath, the mammal over the dinosaur, the startup over the incumbent.
It's What You Can't See
The iceberg that struck the Titanic was almost invisible. Continuous melting had given it a clear, mirror-like surface which reflected the water and dark night sky, like black ice on a wintry road. This type of iceberg is called a "blackberg." It is possible that the crew could have been looking right at the iceberg from a distance and not seen anything unusual.
Look Below the Surface
Only about ten percent of an iceberg's mass is above water, with the other ninety percent below (hence the phrase "tip of the iceberg.") With so much mass below the surface, it's almost impossible to push an iceberg out of the way. Even a ship the size of the Titanic couldn't push what looked like a small iceberg out of the way.
When First Officer Murdoch saw the iceberg, he put the engines in reverse and started turning away from the iceberg. It's a natural reaction to hit the brakes when you see a threat. But this action may have sealed the Titanic's fate. Ships turn more quickly when they have forward motion. If the captain had maintained the ship's speed or even accelerated, he might have avoided hitting the iceberg altogether.
So as you think about your business, think what warning signs you might have overlooked. Consider where the icebergs might be that you can't see, or where the threats might look deceptively small on the surface. And when you do see a threat, beware of hitting the brakes; the best reaction might be to step on the gas.
This blog first appeared on Harvard Business Review on 04/20/2012. | <urn:uuid:3c5a2026-46ce-44db-9521-4dc79f178b3b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://hcexchange.conference-board.org/blog/post.cfm?post=614 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00148-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967532 | 678 | 2.625 | 3 |
According to most linguistic / historical sources, the English language as we know it today is a West Germanic language (the other two languages in this family being German and Dutch). Modern English is the descendant of Old English, and Old English was essentially born when the Anglo-Saxons migrated to the isle of Great Britain in the 5th c. C.E., from their traditional homeland in the north-west of modern Germany. Prior to this time, it's believed that the inhabitants of all parts of the British Isles were predominantly Celtic speakers, with a small Latin influence resulting from the Roman occupation of Britain.
Of the languages that have influenced the development of English over the years, there are three whose effect can be overwhelmingly observed in modern English: French ("Old Norman"), Latin, and Germanic (i.e. "Old English"). But what about Celtic? It's believed that the majority of England's pre-Anglo-Saxon population spoke Brythonic (i.e. British Celtic). It's also been recently asserted that the majority of England's population today is genetically pre-Anglo-Saxon Briton stock. How, then — if those statements are both true — how can it be that the Celtic languages have left next to no legacy on modern English?
The Celtic Question — or "Celtic Puzzle", as some have called it — is one that has spurred heated debate and controversy amongst historians for many years. The traditional explanation of the puzzle, is the account of the Germanic migration to Britain, as given in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. As legend has it, in the year 449 C.E., two Germanic brothers called Hengest and Horsa were invited to Britain by Vortigern (King of the Britons) as mercenaries. However, after helping the Britons in battle, the two brothers murdered Vortigern, betrayed the Britons, and paved the way for an invasion of the land by the Germanic tribes the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes.
Over the subsequent centuries, the Britons were either massacred, driven into exile, or subdued / enslaved. Such was the totality of the invasion, that aside from geographical place-names, virtually no traces of the old Brythonic language survived. The invaded land came to be known as "England", deriving from "Angle-land", in honour of the Angles who were one of the chief tribes responsible for its inception.
Various historians over the years have suggested that the Anglo-Saxons committed genocide on the indigenous Britons that failed to flee England (those that did flee went to Wales, Cornwall, Cumbria and Brittany). This has always been a contentious theory, mainly because there is no historical evidence to support any killings on a scale necessary to constitute "genocide" in England at this time.
More recently, the geneticist Stephen Oppenheimer has claimed that the majority of English people today are the descendants of indigenous Britons. Oppenheimer's work, although being far from authoritative at this time (many have criticised its credibility), is nevertheless an important addition to the weight of the argument that a large-scale massacre of the Celtic British people did not occur.
(Unfortunately, Oppenheimer has gone beyond his field of expertise,which is genetics, and has drawn conclusions on the linguistic history of Britain — namely, he argues that the pre-Roman inhabitants of England were not Celtic speakers, but that they were instead Germanic speakers. This argument is completely flawed from an academic linguistic perspective; and sadly, as a consequence, Oppenheimer's credibility in general has come to be questioned.)
Explanations to the riddle
Although the Celtic Question may seem like a conundrum, various people have come up with logical, reasonable explanations for it. One such person is Geoffrey Sampson, who has written a thorough essay about the birth of the English language. Sampson gives several sound reasons why Celtic failed to significantly influence the Anglo-Saxon language at the time of the 5th century invasions. His first reason is that Celtic and Germanic are two such different language groups, that they were too incompatible to easily mix and merge:
The Celtic languages… are very different indeed from English. They are at least as "alien" as Russian, or Greek, say.
His second reason is that, while many Britons surely did remain in the conquered areas of England, a large number must have also "run to the hills":
But when we add the lack of Celtic influence on the language, perhaps the most plausible explanation is an orderly retreat by the ancient Britons, men women and children together, before invaders that they weren't able to resist. Possibly they hoped to regroup in the West and win back the lands they had left, but it just never happened.
I also feel compelled to note that while Sampson is a professor and his essay seems reasonably well-informed, I found a rather big blotch to his name. He was accused of expressing racism, after publishing another essay on his web site entitled "There's Nothing Wrong with Racism". This incident seems to have cut short the aspirations that he had of pursuing a career in politics. Also, even before doing the background research and unearthing that incident, I felt suspicion stirring within me when I read this line, further down in his essay on the English language, regarding the Battle of Hastings:
The battle today is against a newer brand of Continental domination.
That sounds to me like the remark of an unashamed typical old-skool English xenophobiac. Certainly, anyone who makes remarks like that, is someone I'd advise listening to with a liberal grain of salt.
Another voice on this topic is Claire Lovis, who has written a great balanced piece regarding the Celtic influence on the English language. Lovis makes an important point when she remarks on the stigmatisation of Celtic language and culture by the Anglo-Saxons:
The social stigma attached to the worth of Celtic languages in British society throughout the last thousand years seems responsible for the dearth of Celtic loan words in the English language… Celtic languages were viewed as inferior, and words that have survived are usually words with geographical significance, and place names.
Lovis re-iterates, at the end of her essay, the argument that the failure of the Celtic language to influence English was largely the result of its being looked down upon by the ruling invaders:
The lack of apparent word sharing is indicative of how effective a social and political tool language can be by creating a class system through language usage… the very social stigma that suppressed the use of Celtic language is the same stigma that prevents us learning the full extent of the influence those languages have had on English.
The perception of Celtic language and culture as "inferior" can, of course, be seen in the entire 1,000-year history of England's attitudes and treatment towards her Celtic neighbours, particularly in Scotland and Ireland. The Ango-Saxon medieval (and even modern) England consistently displayed contempt and intolerance towards those with a Celtic heritage, and this continues — at least to some extent — even to the present day.
My take on the question
I agree with the explanations given by Sampson and Lovis, namely that:
- Celtic was "alien" to the Anglo-Saxon language, hence it was a question of one language dominating over the other, with a mixed language being an unlikely outcome
- Many Celtic people fled England, and those that remained were in no position to preserve their language or culture
- Celtic was stigmatised by the Anglo-Saxons over a prolonged period of time, thus strongly encouraging the Britons to abandon their old language and to wholly embrace the language of the invaders
The strongest parallel that I can think of for this "Celtic death" in England, is the Spanish conquest of the Americas. In my opinion, the imposition of Spanish language and culture upon the various indigenous peoples of the New World in the 16th century — in particular, upon the Aztecs and the Mayans in Mexico — seems very similar to the situation with the Germanics and the Celtics in the 5thcentury:
- The Spanish language and the native American languages were completely "alien" to each other, leaving little practical possibility of the languages easily fusing (although I'd say that, in Mexico in particular, indigenous language actually managed to infiltrate Spanish much more effectively than Celtic ever managed to infiltrate English)
- The natives of the New World either fled the conquistadores, or they were enslaved / subdued (or, of course, they died — mostly from disease)
- The indigenous languages and cultures were heavily stigmatised and discouraged (in the case of the Spanish inquisition, on pain of death — probably more extreme than what happened at any time during the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain), thus strongly encouraging the acceptance of the Spanish language (and, of course, the Catholic Church)
In Mexico today, the overwhelming majority of the population is classified as being ethnically "mestizo" (meaning "mixture"), with the genetics of the mestizos tending generally towards the indigenous side. That is, the majority of Mexicans today are of indigenous stock. And yet, the language and culture of modern Mexico are almost entirely Spanish, with indigenous languages all but obliterated, and with indigenous cultural and religious rites severely eroded (in the colonial heartland, that is — in the jungle areas, in particular the Mayan heartland of the south-east, indigenous language and culture remains relatively strong to the present day).
Mexico is a comparatively modern and well-documented example of an invasion, where the aftermath is the continuation of an indigenous genetic majority, coupled with the near-total eradication of indigenous language. By looking at this example, it isn't hard to imagine how a comparable scenario could have unfolded (and most probably did unfold) 1,100 years earlier in Britain.
There doesn't appear to be any parallel in terms of religious stigmatisation — certainly nothing like the Spanish Inquisition occurred during the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain, and to suggest as much would be ludicrous — and all of Britain was swept by a wave of Christianity just a few centuries after, anyway (and no doubt the Anglo-Saxon migrations were still occurring while Britain was being converted en masse away from both Celtic and Germanic paganism). There's also no way to know whether the Britons were forcibly indoctrinated with the Anglo-Saxon language and culture — by way of breaking up families, stealing children, imposing changes on pain of death, and so on — or whether they embraced the Anglo-Saxon language and culture of their own volition, under the sheer pressure of stigmatisation and the removal of economic / social opportunity for those who resisted change. Most likely, it was a combination of both methods, varying between places and across time periods.
The Brythonic language is now long since extinct, and the fact is that we'll never really know how it was that English came to wholly displace it, without being influenced by it to any real extent other than the preservation of a few geographical place names (and without the British people themselves disappearing genetically). The Celtic question will likely remain unsolved, possibly forever. But considering that modern English is the world's first de facto global lingua franca (not to mention the native language of hundreds of millions of people, myself included), it seems only right that we should explore as much as we can into this particularly dark aspect of our language's origins. | <urn:uuid:b989142a-b50c-4867-8fcd-4414a9bc7e11> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://greenash.net.au/thoughts/2010/08/the-english-language-and-the-celtic-question/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969209 | 2,355 | 4.03125 | 4 |
There are many reasons that networking code is very hard to write, but one of the less well known is a reason I call the "Law of Quadratic Reliability".
Let me illustrate using a computer game as an example. Say your computer game has bugs in it (as most software does) which causes it to crash occasionally. Say that on average the game runs for ten hours before crashing. This will certainly be annoying to your customers, but not devastating. Most of the games they play will complete without problems, so they probably won't be too angry about your occasional hard-to-find bug.
Now imagine that your game is running on ten networked computers, with ten players. Because there are ten copies of your program in use, the overall probability that one of the ten machines will suffer a crash during the game due to that bug is ten times higher. The ten player game now runs on average for only one hour before one of the machines suffers a crash. If that crash stops the game, then you've ruined the game-play experience for not just one player, but for all ten. Your bug is not just ten times more serious in a ten player game -- it's a hundred times more serious. It is ten times more likely to happen, and when it does happen it annoys ten times as many people.
That's why it's the law of Quadratic Reliability -- the reliability requirement of a multi-player game goes up proportionally to the square of the number of players.
In some ways the problem is even worse than quadratic:
So this is the double-jeopardy of networked games compared to single-player games -- it is both much harder to make a networked game that is bug free, and much more important to do so.
The problem of Quadratic Reliability can be somewhat mitigated if you can make your game networking code robust enough that the game can continue even if one or more of the player's machines crash. This is also very hard to do, and most multi-player games do not attempt it. | <urn:uuid:2a6d76c1-03ec-49ad-93d0-d495a6f9cf6f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.stuartcheshire.org/rants/Quadratic.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969445 | 427 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in Oak Park, Illinois, a conservative upper-middle-class suburb of Chicago. He graduated from high school in 1917 and worked as a reporter for the Kansas City Star. Hemingway sailed to Europe in May 1918 to serve as a volunteer ambulance driver for the Italian Red Cross during World War I. Within weeks, he suffered a serious injury from fragments of an exploding mortar shell on the Italian front. He recovered in a hospital in Milan, where he had a romantic relationship with a nurse, Agnes von Kurowsky. This incident provided the inspiration for his novel A Farewell to Arms, published in 1929.
When the nineteen-year-old Hemingway returned home in 1919, his parents did not understand the psychological trauma he had suffered during the war, and they pestered him to get a job or go to college. His short story “Soldier’s Home” draws on his difficulties in coping with his parents’ and friends’ romanticized ideals of war.
Hemingway eventually began working for the Toronto Star Weekly. He married his first wife, Hadley Richardson, in 1921. He became the European correspondent for the Toronto Daily Star and moved to Paris with his wife in December 1921. There, Hemingway became friends with the poet Ezra Pound, the writer Gertrude Stein, the artists Joan Miró and Pablo Picasso, and other individuals belonging to the group of prominent expatriate writers and artists living in postwar Paris. Hemingway’s reputation began to grow both as a journalist and as an author of fiction. His novel The Sun Also Rises, published in 1926, established him as one of the preeminent writers of his day.
The Sun Also Rises portrays the lives of the members of the so-called Lost Generation, the group of men and women whose early adulthood was consumed by World War I. This horrific conflict, referred to as the Great War, set new standards for death and immorality in war. It shattered many people’s beliefs in traditional values of love, faith, and manhood. Without these long-held notions to rely on, members of the generation that fought and worked in the war suffered great moral and psychological aimlessness. The futile search for meaning in the wake of the Great War shapes The Sun Also Rises. Although the characters rarely mention the war directly, its effects haunt everything they do and say.
Amid the increasing literary success that followed the publication of The Sun Also Rises, Hemingway’s marriage began to fall apart, and he divorced Richardson in 1927. He quickly remarried, to a fashion reporter named Pauline Pfeiffer. In 1928, they moved to Key West, Florida, where they lived for over a decade. Hemingway’s life, however, was far from rosy. His father, Clarence Hemingway, committed suicide in 1928 after developing serious health and financial problems, and Hemingway engaged in an affair with a woman named Martha Gelhorn, which led to his divorce from Pfeiffer. He married Gelhorn in 1940.
In 1937, Hemingway traveled to Spain to cover the Spanish Civil War for the North American Newspaper Alliance. His novel For Whom the Bell Tolls, based on his experiences in Spain, was published in 1940, after he moved to Havana, Cuba, with Gelhorn. The book became an instant success, but he did not publish another novel for ten years. Meanwhile, he and Gelhorn divorced, and Hemingway married Mary Welsh, his fourth and last wife. Hemingway won the Pulitzer Prize in 1953 for his phenomenally successful The Old Man and the Sea and the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954.
Deteriorating health began to plague Hemingway. His heavy drinking increased his health problems, and he began to suffer from wild mood swings. In 1960, Hemingway and Welsh moved to Ketchum, Idaho. Not long afterward, he entered the Mayo Clinic to undergo treatment for severe depression. His depression worsened in 1961, and on July 2 of that year, Hemingway woke early in the morning and committed suicide by shooting himself in the head.
Hemingway’s style differs distinctively from that of writers before him, and his work helped shape both the British and American literature that followed it. His prose is extremely spare, succinct, and seemingly very direct, although his speakers tend to give the impression that they are leaving a tremendous amount unsaid. Modern prose fiction continues to be heavily influenced by Hemingway’s technique in this regard. His body of work continues to be considered among the most important in the development of twentieth-century literature.
I believe that the raised baton also refers to the fact that Jake is impotent and he and Brett will never have the relationship that they both desire.
36 out of 48 people found this helpful
Ernest Hemingway stated, concerning this book, that “‘The Sun Also Rises’ is a damn tragedy with the earth abiding as hero forever”. Unfortunately, we have not really understood how he explained this in his writings because we have not understood the character of Brett- what she symbolizes- in this novel. Brett is not to be seen as a separate, individual character in her own right but rather she symbolizes an element within another character. We can only understand the true significance of Hemingway’s declaration if we begin to see... Read more→
5 out of 6 people found this helpful | <urn:uuid:07a8bbd0-1f3a-46e7-a06a-e2b4fb3afb09> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/sun/context.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00021-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.976832 | 1,150 | 3.40625 | 3 |
Return to Circus Maximus
Venationes were held in the Circus Maximus almost exclusively until AD 63, when the protective moat surrounding the arena was filled in by Nero to provide additional seating for the equites. In its place, a revolving cylinder of wood, covered with ivory, was secured, which gave no foothold to the animals. Eventually, fights were transferred to the Colosseum. In this terracotta "Campana" plaque, one can see the eggs used to count laps, and a crenellated tower patterned after a wooden siege tower. The fact that the animals are shown prowling between the monuments suggests that, even by the first half of the first century AD, there still was no permanent barrier in the arena around which the chariots raced.
"At this time there occurred, too, all sorts of spectacles in honour of Severus' return, the completion of his first ten years of power, and his victories. At these spectacles sixty wild boars of Plautianus fought together at a signal, and among many other wild beasts that were slain were an elephant and a corocotta. This last animal is an Indian species, and was then introduced into Rome for the first time, so far as I am aware. It has the colour of a lioness and tiger combined, and the general appearance of those animals, as also of a dog and fox, curiously blended. The entire receptacle in the amphitheatre had been constructed so as to resemble a boat in shape, and was capable of receiving or discharging four hundred beasts at once; and then, as it suddenly fell apart, there came rushing forth bears, lionesses, panthers, lions, ostriches, wild asses, bisons (this is a kind of cattle foreign in species and appearance), so that seven hundred beasts in all, both wild and domesticated, at one and the same time were seen running about and were slaughtered. For to correspond with the duration of the festival, which lasted seven days, the number of the animals was also seven times one hundred."
Dio, Roman History (LXXVII.1.3-5)
In celebration of the seventh and final day of the Saecular Games in AD 204 (which nominally occurred once every century, saeculum, to ensure that they could be witnessed only once in a lifetime), Septimius Severus had the the spina of the Circus decorated to look like a ship. Commemorating the event, a silver denarius issued two years later shows the turning posts at the prow and stern, and a sail mounted on the obelisk in the center. Below are depicted an ostrich and bear and, between them, a lion and lioness chasing a wild ass, and a panther attacking a bison (BMCRE 343, RIC 274).
Pliny variously describes the corocotta as a cross between a dog and a wolf (VIII.72; Strabo, XVI.4.16, where the word is spelled "crocuttas") and a hyena and a lioness (VIII.107). The Historia Augusta has Antonius Pius presenting a corocotta even earlier than Severus, probably at his decennalia in AD 148 (X.9). Apparently, the creature was a species of hyena, as it is specifically called by Aelian, On the Characteristics of Animals (VII.22, "Hyaina") and Porphyry (On Abstinence from Animal Food, III.4), who says "the Indian hyaena, which the natives call crocotta, speaks in a manner so human, and this without a teacher, as to go to houses, and call that person whom he knows he can easily vanquish." The scientific name of the spotted or laughing hyena, in fact, is Crocuta crocuta, from the Greek root krokoutas, which in turn derives from the Greek for "saffron, crocus," a source of yellow dye and the color of the animal.
Reference: Antike Bildmosaiken (2003) by Bernard Andreae; Gemini Auction V catalog (January 8, 2008), item 441.
Return to Top of Page | <urn:uuid:d5a33f56-8a0e-43d7-8753-355ef8c7a812> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/circusmaximus/venationes.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968625 | 876 | 3.15625 | 3 |
As a landowner, there's nothing more satisfying than to see deer, turkey and other wildlife using your property. But as more and more land is lost to development, the importance of managing habitat for wildlife is increasing. With the help of representatives from Wildlife Habitat Consultants, as well as state and federal wildlife biologists, the Vermont Fish & Wildlife Department has sponsored workshops to educate landowners on the benefits of habitat improvements.
Bobcats range through portions of all 48 contiguous states, yet in recent years they have become a species of concern here in Vermont.
Download the teaching materials created by Len Schmidt (and students), Community High School of Vermont, S. Burlington, VT.
Vermont’s Moose population was virtually extirpated by the late 1800’s. By 1980 an estimated 200 moose had made their way back into the mountains of the Northeast Kingdom and the numbers have been on the rise ever since. The fact that moose can be found in every Vermont county is great news but as the population increases so does some of the negative impacts. Knowing the number of moose in the state is critical to properly manage the population. To accomplish an accurate count, the Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department is going high tech using infrared technology from the sky.
On warm early spring nights amphibians across Vermont are on the move. Salamanders and frogs migrate in mass from their upland wintering habitat to wetland breeding grounds. Unfortunately in many areas these migrations take them across heavily traveled roads resulting in high mortality rates. In recent years however a dedicated group of volunteers has been keeping an eye on the spring weather. When conditions are right these salamander saviors descend on known crossing sites both to ensure a safe migration and to learn more about some of Vermont’s most delicate and rarest residents.
Mention the word “rattlesnake” and the reaction you’ll get is either awe and fascination or fear and loathing. Timber rattlesnakes are listed as an endangered species in six of the 27 states that they inhabit from New Hampshire to northern Florida. Here in Vermont at the northern extent of their range a small population exists and is barely holding on after years of persecution. Today wildlife biologists, the Nature Conservancy and concerned volunteers are taking steps to ensure that timber rattlesnakes survive and thrive in Vermont.
The first record of banding birds in North America dates back to 1803 when John James Audubon tied silver cords to the legs of phoebes. This allowed him to identify two of the nestlings when they returned the following year. It wasn’t until 1902 when the first scientific system of banding began in North America. In the early 1900’s concerns over the declining numbers of waterfowl, passenger pigeons and over harvesting of egrets for their plumes resulted in an international agreement to manage migratory birds. Over the past century banding data has been a critical tool used to manage waterfowl. Banding birds requires capturing them and when it comes to waterfowl the most effective method is the use of rocket netting.
For centuries various plant species have been imported from other countries as ornamentals for various landscaping projects. They may look great when manicured by a landscaper but when these plants are spread into the wild they can become extremely invasive, out-competing native plants, increase erosion along stream banks, and provide less nutritious food and insufficient cover for wildlife. To help combat the spread and promote awareness of invasive plants the Nature Conservancy has developed a program to get us all “Wise on Weeds”
Almost half of today's students graduating with a wildlife degree have never hunted and have a minimal understanding of the impact that hunters provide to wildlife management and other conservation programs. In 2005 the Wildlife Management Institute and Max McGraw Wildlife Foundation began the Conservation Leaders for Tomorrow program as a way to introduce students to the culture and concepts of hunting. For the last two years the Conservation Leaders for Tomorrow program has held their program at Camp Kehoe on Lake Bomoseen in Castleton, Vermont. | <urn:uuid:9dff47e2-de4c-424b-b6ef-21f86440642d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.vpt.org/category/show-topics/conservation?page=3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408828.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946748 | 838 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Office of Science and Technology Policy
Papers and Presentations, Mathematics and Science Initiative
Thank you Secretary Paige for inviting me to speak at this year's Science Education Summit. Last year you invited me to speak about mathematics, which I love. I described it as the beautiful and powerful language of nature. I also explained last year that although I love mathematics, I am not a mathematician. I am a scientist, and I welcome the opportunity at this year's summit to say a few words about the difference, and offer a few personal remarks about the importance of science and science education for everyone. I would also like to thank you for convening these summits, and for your vigorous efforts on behalf of quality education. The summits address the core of President Bush's education agenda "No Child Left Behind."
I spoke of mathematics as the language of nature, which immediately raises the question: What is nature? I suppose that is obvious to most people. We use the word "nature" to refer to everything that exists outside ourselves, and sometimes even to ourselves since we are part of nature too. Nature encompasses the stars and planets, earth, sky, and water. It includes the smallest things and everything that can be made from those things, whatever they are, living or inert. And nature includes not only the animals, vegetables, and minerals, but also their behavior – how they interact with each other and all the rest of nature; how they grow and age and interact and disperse in the endless course of time. The Universe of nature is a grand place, our ultimate home. Each of us wants instinctively to understand our role within it. And that instinct emerges spontaneously when as children we learn the names of things and what they mean to us.
"No Child Left Behind" acknowledges this instinctive curiosity of children, and strives to sustain it through best teaching practices during the learning years. We have a responsibility to all children to give them the tools for understanding the world they live in. One of those tools is science. I think there is confusion about science, and I think being clear about it would help us teach it better. So let me attack this subject for a few minutes this morning.
Science is not nature, math, or nomenclature
Mathematics – the language of nature – is not science, nor is nature herself science. Science is something else. Science is not the names of plants or the bones of the body. The popular science icon Richard Feynman told a story about his boyhood when his father taught him about birds on long walks in the mountains. His friends made fun of him because despite these sessions, he did not know the names of any birds. His father told him "You can know the name of [a] bird in all the languages of the world, but when you’re finished, you’ll know absolutely nothing whatever about the bird. You’ll only know about humans in different places, and what they call the bird." What Feynman did learn were the behaviors and habitats and unique characteristics of the birds themselves. Many people, myself included, have difficulty remembering names, but we are able to function well enough in society despite that handicap. So there is something more to know than names.
And yet naming things is necessary for science, because science is ultimately a social activity and the ability to communicate unambiguously what we are talking about is essential to the progress of science. The point is not that naming things is unimportant – it is essential. But it is not science.
Science is not description, or collected facts
I could go on for hours about what science is not. Like the names of things, however, much of what science is not is nevertheless important for actually doing or applying science. Science is not simply a description of things, no matter how accurate. The people of ancient Sumer in what is now Iraq, the earliest civilization known, made accurate observations of the stars and planets, but they were not scientists. But accurate observation is essential to science. And science is not simply a collection of facts about things, partly because what we mean by a "fact" is rather slippery and bound up with the concept of "truth." Is the statement that "this footprint was caused by a tyrannosaurus rex" factual or not? And yet whatever definitions we choose, facts are undeniably a part of science.
Science is a way of improving understanding about nature
"Science" has become a word loaded down with meanings. At its core, however, science is a way of continually improving our understanding about nature. It is a method, a practice, even for some a way of life. And it is based on examining nature to test our ideas. This conception of science requires us to assume there is a nature that consistently "answers" the same questions the same way. All our experience indicates that is correct, that nature is reliably consistent, as long as we are careful about what questions we ask. But nature is most marvelously intricate, harbors many mysteries, and often fools us with superficial appearances. Science does not answer all questions that we may ask. Nor does it give us truth. Science does not even tell us how nature works. What science does is test our ideas about how nature works.
Science as a universal method
When I became Director of Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1998, Department of Energy officials asked me to introduce "performance based management" practices in the Laboratory. At first, I was only vaguely aware of what that meant, but it soon became clear that I was expected to have well defined plans, to execute work according to the plans, and if the work turned out differently than expected, to change the plans for the next time around. Management experts call this the cycle of continual improvement. It goes with a mnemonic that seems to go back to W. Edwards Deming: Plan, Do, Check, Act. I like that way of doing things. That is the core method of science, and I explained it to our scientific staff that way. The same ideas form the basis of the President's Management Agenda, promulgated by President Bush to improve the performance of all government agencies.
I have given a lot of thought to why every organization does not embrace this so obviously sensible method. The reason seems to be that making plans and checking performance against them requires a lot of time – not to mention thought – and changing your ideas about how things should be done encounters huge psychological resistance. Good management and good science are neither intuitive nor easy. Science requires background knowledge to make useful plans or hypotheses; it requires discipline to execute work or experiments that conform to the plan; it requires patience and attention to detail to observe and document the results; and it requires a combination of humility and creativity to abandon preconceptions and forge a new path forward.
Prerequisites for learning science
I claim that learning science, real science, breaks down our resistance to new ideas and builds confidence in our ability to learn from experience. Along the way, it teaches us that many things we think we know about the world are provisional, and must be tested continually against what we actually see happening around us. To learn these lessons and apply them for ourselves, we must have more than a slogan, we need certain basic skills and knowledge. We need the language of science, the descriptive framework, the history of previous failed attempts, and the skills of observation. Without these prerequisites, attempts to draw inferences from observation may actually be counterproductive.
A science lesson
I recall a painful incident from my eighth grade science class. We were learning about weather, and during a class discussion I remarked that I thought warm air was more moist than cold air. I don't recall my reason for saying so. Others in the class disputed it. The teacher herself (not trained in science) was skeptical but proposed an experiment. We moistened two handkerchiefs and placed one on the steam radiator that was heating our classroom, and the other outside the window in the frigid winter air. The inside handkerchief dried and the other remained wet. Everyone in the class immediately clamored that the experiment had proven me wrong. The handkerchief in the warm air was dry, and that in the cold air was wet, so the warm air was dryer than the cold air, right? The teacher solemnly declared that the experiment had decided the question against me. I was devastated, and my further arguments were dismissed by all as sheer stubbornness. Of course I was right, but I didn't immediately understand how to argue my case. Everyone else, including the teacher, had read the experiment wrong. It was a bitter lesson for me, and it took me years to get over my anger at myself for not being quick-witted enough to state my case properly.
This is what teacher education is all about. Science is not a simple thing. It occurs in complex settings where even simple questions lead quickly to deep ideas. (Example: Why is the sky blue?) Its methods are not entirely obvious, and even simple experiments require skill in execution if they are to give unambiguous results. For many students the laboratory portion of introductory science courses is a lesson in frustration. The lab activities are very different from the "book learning" and the contrived problems students do for homework or on exams. The real world is messy, and students approach it with a wide diversity of prejudices based on their personal experiences.
Styles of learning
As a young physics professor I was approached by some artists to give a course on "science and technology for art." It would be open only to art students in the University of Southern California's School of Architecture and Fine Arts, and I agreed to the project. At one point, I brought the students into a traditional physics laboratory to learn about electricity. There were oscilloscopes, power supplies, signal generators, and so forth on all the lab benches. The artists were fascinated by this equipment. They hooked wires here and there, making sparks and turning knobs to see what would happen. They were excited and having tremendous fun. I was stunned by their reaction. It was totally different from my experience with students studying to be scientists or engineers. By contrast, faced with the same setup, the science students were shy with the equipment. They wanted to know if what they were seeing was what they were supposed to see. The art students cared little about what they were supposed to see. They discovered things about the equipment in ten minutes that the science students would not discover for weeks.
This striking difference in the laboratory behavior of young artists versus young scientists made a deep impression on me. I interpreted the difference as originating in prior experience. Students who aim for an art degree may have much more experience with materials and equipment than their science-oriented counterparts. The artists were more pragmatic than the scientists, more fluent with the messiness of the real world, more prepared to learn its behavior so they could use it for expression. The art students did not become scientists, but they learned about the phenomena and quickly mastered them for their own purposes.
Science discloses patterns in nature
What the art students did not learn was the conceptual structure that tied together the various elementary phenomena that made the equipment work. They did not know about Ohm's law, or the math of oscillating circuits, or Newton's laws of motion. So they failed to perceive the deeper harmony of nature that science knowledge brings. Their artist's views of the connectedness of real things failed to penetrate the surface, and their projects, while intriguing and sometimes beautiful in appearance, employed the superficial phenomena for effect, and ignored the deeper beauty of the underlying laws.
This sense of deep connectedness in nature, of reliable patterns of cause and effect that we can learn from careful observation, is one of the great rewards of science education. It is an experience that gives power, and reduces the alienation so many seem to have from the world of inhuman things in our environment. Let me close with another personal experience.
We need to motivate young people to learn science and enable them to succeed in it
Young people are not motivated to learn science because it is good for our nation's economy. But if young people do not learn science it will be bad for our nation's economy. To realize the ambitions of "No Child Left Behind" we must give our teachers the tools they need to help them create experiences for young people that awaken the desire to know more about their world. And we need to give our young people the skills and knowledge they will need even to begin to understand what science is all about.
Few federal agencies have succeeded as well at motivating young people toward technical careers as NASA. Our nation's investment in space exploration and space science is being returned daily in the enthusiasm of schoolchildren for the Mars rovers Spirit and Opportunity. Investments in President Bush's vision of sustained space exploration will produce many future returns through the young minds it recruits to technical careers. It is my pleasure to introduce the man who is responsible for implementing these important ventures, NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe. | <urn:uuid:85bf1912-f4e6-43a1-a78a-6ab783fed26b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/research/progs/mathscience/marburger04.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972299 | 2,652 | 2.859375 | 3 |
How to see the constellation Capricornus. The constellation Capricornus the Sea-goat is best seen at early evening in September and October. If you live in the Northern Hemisphere, and are familiar with the Summer Triangle asterism, draw an imaginary line from the star Vega and through Altair to find this arrowhead-shaped constellation low in the southern sky. At mid-northern latitudes, the huge Summer Triangle asterism hangs high in the south to overhead on autumn evenings.
No matter where you live worldwide, Capricornus climbs highest in the sky in early September around 10 p.m. local time (11 p.m. local daylight time). Because the stars return to the same place in the sky about one-half hour earlier every week, look for Capricornus highest up in mid-September around 9 p.m. (10 p.m. Daylight Saving Time). By the month’s end, look for it highest up at 8 p.m. (9 p.m. Daylight Saving Time).
By the way, as seen from the Southern Hemisphere, Capricornus appears upside-down in contrast to our northern perspective and is either overhead or high in the northern sky on September evenings.
Another way to star-hop to Capricornus from northerly latitudes is by way of the constellation Cygnus the Swan – or as others see it – the Northern Cross asterism. Draw an imaginary line from the bright Summer Triangle star Deneb through the star Epsilon Cygni to locate Capricornus the Sea-goat rather close to the horizon.
Capricornus or Capricorn? Capricornus generally refers the constellation while Capricorn identifies the corresponding sign. Yes, there is a difference between a constellation of the Zodiac and a sign of the Zodiac!
Capricornus is a member constellation of the Zodiac. This year, in 2015, thee sun passes in front of Capricornus from January 20 to February 16. However, the sun’s passage through the sign Capricorn happens from the December 21 solstice to January 20 – about one month earlier than the sun’s passage through the constellation Capricornus. By definition, the sun enters the sign Capricorn at the December (or southern) solstice.
Think of it this way. Zodiacal signs stay fixed relative to the solstices and equinoxes. On the other hand, the equinox and solstice points move 30o westward in front of the zodiacal constellations – backdrop stars – in a period of about 2,160 years.
In the year 131 B.C. the solstice point moved out of the constellation Capricornus and into the constellation Sagittarius. Looking into the future, the December solstice point will cross into the constellation Ophiuchus in the year 2269. These dates are based upon the constellation boundaries as defined by the International Astronomical Union in 1930.
How a sea-goat came to reside among the stars. The image of Capricornus as the Sea-goat is said to have come from Oannes (Adapa), the Sumerian god of wisdom. The ancient Greeks associated Capricornus with their god Pan.
Typhon, the dreadful fire-breathing monster, was about to devour Pan. But Pan turned himself into a fish – or tried to – before jumping into a river to make his great escape. However, Pan was so scared that he goofed up, changing himself into a half-goat, half-fish hodgepodge instead of a fish.
In other words, Pan Pan-icked. The word panic is said to have originated from the god Pan’s misadventure with Typhon, the fire-breathing monster!
Bottom line: This post talks about the astronomical constellation Capricornus the Sea-goat (not the astrological sign). It explains how to find the constellation, and tells a few stories about it from the ancient myths.
Taurus? Here’s your constellation
Gemini? Here’s your constellation
Cancer? Here’s your constellation
Leo? Here’s your constellation
Virgo? Here’s your constellation
Libra? Here’s your constellation
Scorpius? Here’s your contellation
Sagittarius? Here’s your constellation
Capricornus? Here’s your constellation
Aquarius? Here’s your constellation
Pisces? Here’s your constellation
Aries? Here’s your constellation
Birthday late November to early December? Here’s your constellation
Bruce McClure has served as lead writer for EarthSky's popular Tonight pages since 2004. He's a sundial aficionado, whose love for the heavens has taken him to Lake Titicaca in Bolivia and sailing in the North Atlantic, where he earned his celestial navigation certificate through the School of Ocean Sailing and Navigation. He also writes and hosts public astronomy programs and planetarium programs in and around his home in upstate New York. | <urn:uuid:65027611-ce56-48bc-8f77-306674426bda> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://earthsky.org/constellations/capricornus-heres-your-constellation | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00035-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.918503 | 1,088 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Undoubtedly, the Convention on Trade in Endangered Species’ (CITES) greatest achievement to date has been to putting an end to the international ivory trade.
In 1900, there were an estimated 10 million African elephants roaming across sub-Saharan Africa. By 1989, there were fewer than 500,000, largely due to their poaching to fuel an increasing international appetite for ivory. While the loss of their habitat certainly contributed to the demise of their populations, there was no doubt that the cruel exploitation of African elephants for their tusks was the main cause.
In October 1989, the African elephant was included in Appendix I of CITES, effectively banning the commercial international trade of all African elephant products, including ivory. While CITES clearly still has much work to do on the
Undoubtedly, the Convention on Trade in Endangered Species' (CITES) greatest achievement to date has been putting an end to the international ivory trade.
In 1900, there were an estimated 10 million elephants roaming across sub-Saharan Africa. By 1989, there were fewer than 500,000, largely due to poaching fuelled by an increasing international appetite for ivory. While the loss of elephants' habitat certainly contributed to the demise of their populations, there was no doubt that trade in their tusks was the main cause.
In October 1989, the African elephant was included in Appendix I of CITES, effectively banning the commercial international trade of all African elephant products, including ivory. CITES clearly still has much work to do on the issue: illegal poaching of elephants for their tusks continues, and certain African states regularly attempt to downgrade elephants' CITES listing. But at this year's conference, at least, there are no ivory stockpile sale proposals on the table.
The 16th meeting of the Conference of the Parties (CoP) to CITES, taking place in Bangkok, is happening on the 40th anniversary of the adoption of CITES. It is now clear that individual schemes to promote conservation through open trade, spread across the globe, are simply not working.
This is the reason why I believe it is time for the CITES parties to reaffirm in an open forum that CITES is a conservation treaty and its fundamental aim remains "to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival". Without such a reaffirmation, CITES could lose its true course and its ability to fulfil the very purpose it was established to achieve.
Work and discussions outside the formal CITES conference are pivotal in achieving conservation goals. The CoP is often dominated by heated debate on a limited number of species, and sound decisions are often sacrificed due to lack of understanding and lack of unity. There is little incentive to hold calm, rationale dialogue with the pressure of a high-profile vote looming.
Ongoing dialogue outside of the CoP supports the formal structure of CITES. There are now more than 50 NGOs involved in the CITES community and their role is more important than ever, especially when they work together. The task of protecting the world's elephants, for example, is far too big for any one NGO or party to address. Cooperation between all those involved in protecting animals on the ground is vital to achieve meaningful success in the future.
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Furthermore, it is vital that CITES operate in a way that promotes transparent and inclusive decision-making. The Parties must recognise the impact that administrative and organisational issues can have on determining the efficacy of the CITES treaty. Without the right mechanisms to facilitate an open, clear and fair decision-making process, CITES could be open to widespread criticism, which would affect its ability to operate effectively.
One such issue currently facing CITES is the use of secret ballots. A proposal, which we strongly believe would help avoid the overuse of secret ballots, has been submitted to this year's conference by Denmark on behalf of the European Union. The proposal seeks to ensure greater transparency and consistency in handling the conservation issues, as the secret ballots can be used by some countries to unfairly influence others to get their way.
Likewise, a separate proposal seeks to require all nominees to the Plants and Animals Committee to submit a "Declaration of Interest". The implementation of CITES depends on unbiased and sound scientific advice, and it is the role of the Animals and Plants Committee to provide that advice.
If this proposal is adopted, each member of the Animals and Plants Committee will be required to reveal any links that may constitute a conflict of interest and could therefore compromise the integrity of their evidence. It simply goes without saying that this is essential. Without it, the integrity of the Convention could be called into question.
In more general terms, the key to CITES' continued success is simplicity. For CITES to remain effective, strict implementation should be the priority. Decision-making regarding key definitional and technical issues needs to be based on the precautionary principle and an aggressive pursuit of species conservation. Moreover, finite resources should be directed towards compliance assistance and enforcement capacity building.
Science must retake centre stage as the fundamental underpinning of CITES decision-making. But much more investment is required to fund scientific research into the plight of so many species under threat which we simply do not yet know enough about. CITES' decisions must, of course, always be based on sound science. Like any organisation that relies on co-operation, though, diplomacy and international goodwill are also important to its future success.
The International Fund for Animal Welfare has been a committed member of the CITES community for more than 30 years, and while we accept that CITES alone can't change the status of the conservation of the world's most threatened species, it can give them a chance. We hope that by continuing to work together, we can make the next 40 years the best ever for CITES and the precious species it protects.
Azzedine Downes is president and CEO of the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW).
Follow him on Twitter: @AzzedineTDownes
Source: Al Jazeera | <urn:uuid:4f875ad9-1410-4ee9-97ab-38a5d9aafa2e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2013/03/20133782830166135.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00164-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962713 | 1,262 | 3.5625 | 4 |
The DiffGram is one of the two XML formats that you can use to render DataSet object contents to XML. The other format is the standard XML layout, which includes a root node that is named after the DataSet and that includes as child subtrees the names of the embedded tables. Each subtree represents one record in the given table. All this information is available through the DiffGram format, and much more, as well.
The key difference between the two XML formats lies in the ultimate goal for which they were designed. The ordinary XML serialization is mostly for persistence and local data storage, whereas the DiffGram format serves a slightly more ambitious purpose. The DiffGram is a format intended for network data exchange and .NET remoting.
You can persist a DataSet object with or without schema information, and the resultant XML file is a simple snapshot of the data being stored in the DataSet. In fact, only the current value of each row and column is persisted. Each row's state (added, modified, deleted) is lost, along with any error information associated with it.
The DiffGram format, however, includes also row state and row error information and considers both current and original values of each updated row. When you transmit a DiffGram over a network, or more simply across the boundaries of two distinct .NET processes, you serialize the representation of the DataSet object's living instance. From a DiffGram, you can rebuild a high-fidelity copy of the original DataSet with both error and row state information. By contrast, from the ordinary serialization XML format, you can build only a brand-new DataSet with fresh, unchanged, and error-free row information. Incidentally, the .NET Framework always serializes the DataSet object as a DiffGram when it has to travel across process or network boundaries. For example, a .NET Web Service's clients always get return DataSets as DiffGram XML strings.
A DiffGram is simply an XML string written according to a particular schema. It is in no way a .NET type. You create a DiffGram, or populate a DataSet from a DiffGram, by using the same methods you would use for the ordinary XML serialization of ADO.NET objects. These methods are WriteXml and ReadXml. The following code snippet shows how to serialize a DataSet object to a DiffGram:
StreamWriter sw = new StreamWriter(fileName); ds.WriteXml(sw, XmlWriteMode.DiffGram); sw.Close();
The resultant XML code is rooted in the <diffgr:diffgram> node and contains up to three distinct data sections, as follows:
<diffgr:diffgram> <MyDataSet> : </MyDataSet> <diffgr:before> : </diffgr:before> <diffgr:errors> : </diffgr:errors> </diffgr:diffgram>
The first section (MyDataSet, in the example above) is mandatory and represents the current instance of the data. The MyDataSet block is nearly identical to the ordinary XML serialization you can get. There are only a few differences, the greatest of which is that the DiffGram format never includes schema information. Another difference is that the DiffGram format doesn't support the Hidden column mapping type. When writing a table to XML, you can decide on a per-column basis how the value of that column has to be rendered. Values are normally rendered through a node element, but you can use attributes or, under special circumstances, simple text to change the representation. Another possible option is to hide the column completely from the XML representation. The XML serializer ignores such columns when you ask for an ordinary XML serialization, but columns are included when a DiffGram is prepared. However, these columns include a special annotation (that is, a node attribute) that states that they were originally marked as hidden.
The <diffgr:before> section includes the original values of the rows that have been modified or deleted since the DataSet's creation. The DataSet's current state is stored in the previously mentioned mandatory block. The difference between the rows' original and the current values--the DataSet's changes--is stored in the <diffgr:before> section. Only modified or deleted records are listed here. Newly added records are listed in only the data instance because they have no preceding reference to link to. The DiffGram format uses a unique ID to track the records in the two sections. Finally, the messages related to pending errors on rows are listed in the <diffgr:errors> sections.
You use the ReadXml method to load a DiffGram into a DataSet:
StreamReader sr = new StreamReader(fileName); ds.ReadXml(sr, XmlReadMode.DiffGram); sr.Close();
Note that for the loading to succeed, the DataSet must already have a compliant schema. All the necessary tables and columns have to exist already, even if they're empty. This requirement is a direct consequence of the lack of schema information in the DiffGram format.
Other platforms can also use the DiffGram format to send and receive information to a .NET Framework application. The DiffGram format is at the foundation of XML representation of data sets in .NET. | <urn:uuid:7f89720f-99eb-4545-969c-21943a4278e2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://sqlmag.com/xml/diffgram-format | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00140-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.89257 | 1,117 | 2.765625 | 3 |
8 Ways to Welcome Students
A third grade teacher shares her 8-step plan for starting the new school year.
- Grades: PreK–K, 1–2, 3–5
I try to make students feel welcome as soon as they step into my classroom. I believe the most important part of the first day is helping students feel comfortable and enthusiastic about attending school. Here is my 8-step plan for starting off right from day one.
1. Setting the Right Tone
I open the morning by reading First Day Jitters. It is important for students to know that teachers and all students share the same insecurities and nervous feelings at the beginning of the year. This story offers a way to open communication and set a tone for trust and openness, which I hope to build upon throughout the year.
2. Enjoying a Sweet Start
At the end of the first day, students receive a treat bag with meaningful items to set the tone of the class for the year.
- an eraser — mistakes are opportunities for learning
- Smarties candies — we all have different kinds of “smarts”
- a pencil — "Because I know that you are sharp!"
- a stick of gum — we are going to stick together as a team
- a Hershey kiss — we have a safe and caring classroom
- candy — we are sweet and respectful towards each other
3. Conducting Student Interviews
On the first day of school students have a shape taped under their chairs (apple, rocket, etc.). They match their shape to someone else's in the class. The students walk around the soccer field interviewing their partners. While being interviewed, the students have a chance to become acquainted to the field we use for PE. The students tend to feel more comfortable and relaxed in the outdoor setting. We return to the classroom and each pair introduces each other to the class. Students have to describe three interesting facts they've learned about their partner.
4. Conducting a Teacher Interview
I pass out cards that have facts about me on them. I ask the students a question about myself. For example, I will ask “Who thinks they have the card with the name of my dog?” The student with the card that only reads “Domino” will stand up and say the answer. The fun part about this is that the students don’t know the answers. If they think they know the answer they stand up and read the answer on the card. Sometimes the response is funny because they are the answers to different questions — we all have a laugh together, which is a great way to bond as a class from the very beginning.
5. Answering Questionnaires
Students walk around the room with clipboards and a questionnaire asking students different questions. Afterwards we come together and share our responses. Students take the questionnaires home as a reminder of the first day of school. Throughout the year I will use that information to discuss graphing during math.
6. Playing Bingo
Students are given a blank bingo card with the class list and five other important staff members' names (principal, nurse, other 3rd grade teachers, etc.). They write the names on random squares on the bingo card. Then I call out names of students or faculty members until someone wins bingo. The first few winners get a free book from a Scholastic Book Club order.
7. Connecting a TEAM 16 Puzzle
Since we're in room 16, my class adopts the name "TEAM 16" for the year. I draw “TEAM 16” on a poster board. Then, I cut out pieces of different sizes. I give each student a piece to decorate with words and images that represent them. Students share the pieces, explaining how and why they decorated theirs a certain way. Then we glue the puzzle pieces together to form TEAM 16.
8. Summer Souvenirs
I read How I Spent My Summer Vacation as an introduction to this assignment. Students bring in a “souvenir” that represents something they did during the summer. The souvenir can be an artifact, map, drawing, or postcard. I display the souvenirs students share during the first week on the back counter. Although, sometimes students bring in a family member visiting as their souvenir! | <urn:uuid:81586382-29ed-4de2-b983-285d351ee83d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/8-ways-welcome-students | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00131-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955484 | 898 | 3.421875 | 3 |
The new Google Chrome OS has been getting a lot of attention recently. In short, it will be a light weight operating system for netbooks that rely on applications residing in the cloud, such as Google Docs. Nothing gets installed or updated on your machine. It's the complete opposite of traditional operating systems such as Windows.
So why is this such a big deal?
As Sundar Pichai, vice president of product management for Google has stated, "Every capability you want today [in native applications], in the future it will be written as a web application." The future of applications will be in the cloud. You're currently already using the cloud when you use web-based applications such as Gmail for email or Flickr to store photos. This is just the beginning as high profile applications like Microsoft Office are slowly migrating to the cloud as well.
By using applications online, you'll be able to access information anywhere from any device that has access to the internet. Dependency issues on specific machines at work or home will be a thing of the past. From an infrastructure point, the cloud can also be beneficial in areas such as cost, collaboration, maintenance and flexibility. However, these benefits also draw issues and concerns regarding the privacy and security of your data, since it is no longer locally managed and in your control.
As other applications and ideas continue to evolve in the cloud, the web will become an even more integral part of our daily lives. It will be interesting to see how Chrome OS will be adopted. It may not be the end all solution, but it's certainly heading toward the right direction of how we will be interacting with content and accessing information in the future. | <urn:uuid:602e29c9-06d4-4af6-903a-9f75508b4593> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.takadesigns.com/blog/2009/11/24/googles-chrome-os-is-the-direction-of-the-future/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952971 | 340 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Four months after the conflict in Gaza, we report from UNRWA’s health centre in Jabalia, northern Gaza, on disturbing post-traumatic stress figures from UNRWA’s Health Department.
4 March 2013
Every night, three-year-old Mohammed Saleh covers his ears with his tiny hands and screams until his body becomes as hard as wood. He hardly sleeps, wets the bed, and finds it hard to concentrate.
He is in a state of permanent anxiety, and has become hostile to family and friends. Read more about Mohammed (external link)
Thirty-year-old Amira from Jabalia refugee camp had only been married for a month when her husband was killed in the November conflict. Pregnant, she goes to his grave every day and weeps. She believes he can hear her. She lives in the hope that he is still alive.
A mother who struggled to conceive two babies lost them both during the November conflict, in one air strike, as they lay in bed next to her husband, who was badly injured. Her counsellor says she has lost the will to live.
These vignettes show the human stories behind mental health figures recently unveiled by UNRWA’s Health Department. The statistics show levels of psychological trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in the Gaza Strip have doubled, compared before and after the fighting in November.
Of those patients treated by UNRWA for PTSD, 42 per cent are under the age of nine. In one health centre alone, the incidence of miscarriages has risen; from one to two per week before the war, to five to seven per week after the event.
Mental health treatment is one of a range of basic health services offered by UNRWA to some 1.2 million Palestine refugees in Gaza.
Mental health counselling is offered in all 21 UNRWA clinics in Gaza, with many cases referred to a specialised team of counsellors by regular UNRWA health workers, who number over 1,200 in Gaza.
Jabalia health centre is UNRWA‘s largest clinic in Gaza, served by 18 doctors and 25 nurses.
Read and watch more stories from UNRWA‘s Jabalia health centre
Browse a photo gallery of staff and patients | <urn:uuid:b6f27275-5188-4bc5-acac-dd831516c710> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.unrwa.org/newsroom/features/mind-blowing-four-months-after-conflict-gaza-mental-health-crisis | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977204 | 478 | 2.6875 | 3 |
MB Comment: When directly questioned about vaccines and autism, this neurologist is evasive. She obviously doesn’t want to end up like Wakefield — lynched by pharmaceutical industry puppets. However, this extended interview goes way beyond the edited version that appeared in the PBS video. This PBS series has set a new standard for autism media coverage. Parents who care about the health of their children now see reputable scientific sources citing environmental causes of autism — including vaccines.
Autism Now: Dr. Martha Herbert Extended Interview
Below is an extended transcript excerpt from the Autism Now series, edited for length, relevance and clarity, with Dr. Martha Herbert, professor of neurology at Harvard Medical School …
ROBERT MACNEIL: How do you explain the hostility in a lot of the medical community to the treatments that parents of autistic children are using to treat these biomedical conditions? …
DR. MARTHA HERBERT: … medical doctors are trained to believe that drugs are more efficacious than remedies like diet. There’s a strong prejudice against diet and nutritional interventions … But if you think of the brain as being affected by the whole body, then when you affect the body, you can affect the brain. And that’s the rationale of what the parents are doing. The parents are doing, in my view, systems biology.
ROBERT MACNEIL: Could there be a subset of children with a genetic predisposition to have a toxic reaction to vaccines that, for the rest of the children, have no adverse affect?
DR. MARTHA HERBERT: I think it’s possible that you could have a genetic subgroup. You also might have an immune subgroup …
ROBERT MACNEIL: Is our wonderful science implicated in creating such changes in the environment that it could be, in part, responsible for creating autism?
DR. MARTHA HERBERT: Yes. I think our science has created changes in the environment that go beyond the capacity of our bodies and our planet to cope. And when you’re pushed past the point of coping, you pull back into systems that you can handle. Everybody gets repetitive and they do the same thing over and over again when they’re stressed. If you look at an autistic child, person, narrowing their field, it’s a stress response.
But our cells are stressed, too. Everything is stressed. We have too many chemicals coming in; we have too much information coming in, much of it pointless. And so I think we’ve created a glut of new chemicals, information and quick fixes that are not optimal. And people are caving. They’re not handling it. And the autistic children are caving really young and really dramatically …
I mean, it’s bad enough that there’s a controversy about vaccines; imagine if there’s a controversy about antibiotics. I mean – and look at where we’re putting so much antibiotic into the food supply for the farm animals. And then it gets into the water and into our…
ROBERT MACNEIL: And hormones.
DR. MARTHA HERBERT: Yeah. So all of these things, they are confusing to the body. I think we’re confusing the signaling systems. We’re confusing the information properties of our bodies and our brains.
I mean, in the past, we didn’t have a concept that there were information systems that you could confuse.
ROBERT MACNEIL: I’m particularly interested in this, and it would be easy to take it too far – this idea that we have so dramatically changed the environment. I’ve read numbers like 12,000 new chemicals that have been introduced – maybe it’s many more than that — into all the various aspects of life, from the farm to food to some that are known to be neurotoxic, like fire-retardant chemicals in sofa cushions and that sort of thing, which are required. And their toxicity was discovered because California passed one of the most progressive fire-retardant laws in the country.
DR. MARTHA HERBERT: My choice has been that I think we need to look at the environmental factors in relation to how the body is vulnerable to them. | <urn:uuid:a50c063d-56cd-4f3f-a3d2-f291d1ef0928> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://therefusers.com/refusers-newsroom/pbs-autism-now-series-dr-martha-herbert-extended-interview/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00107-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949081 | 892 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Researchers Develop Algae Bioengineered To Produce Hydrogen
- May 26, 2011 1:04 PM EST
- [num] Comments
Scientists are working on ways to make hydrogen a more plentiful fuel source, and the answer may just lie with algae, which can be bioengineered to produce the substance.
While many forms of algae are able to turn sunlight into hydrogen, they don't do so in great amounts, and instead focus on creating compounds like sugar that are imperative for their survival. This has made it difficult for researchers to successfully produce large amounts of algae-created hydrogen without killing them.
But that may have changed, as a team at MIT has developed an enzyme that increases hydrogen production by 400 percent and suppresses the algae's need to create sugar, all without killing the creatures. It's not yet a commercially viable option, but it's on its way.
"It's one step closer to an industrial process," researcher Shuguang Zhang told Wired. "First, you have to understand the science."
Zhang says it's simply "a matter of time and money." | <urn:uuid:12bd7b0f-0bd7-407c-871b-052499e4b4e5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://goodcleantech.pcmag.com/science/278248-researchers-develop-algae-bioengineered-to-produce-hydrogen | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00105-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964791 | 224 | 3.1875 | 3 |
A reader recently asked how can a food list 0 grams of trans fat on the Nutrition Facts panel and still have partially hydrogenated vegetable oil listed in the ingredients. Are they not the same?
The answer is yes: trans fat is the same as partially hydrogenated vegetable oil. Trans fats are made by adding hydrogen atoms to vegetable oil through a process called hydrogenation. The “trans” refers to the positioning of these hydrogen atoms on different sides of the carbon atom backbone. “Partially” hydrogenated refers to the fact that the carbon backbone of the vegetable oil is not fully saturated with hydrogen atoms. If it was fully saturated with hydrogen atoms, then it might be called saturated fat depending on the chemical bonds of the carbon atoms.
Why do companies do this? By changing the chemical structure of vegetable oil to a partially hydrogenated one, the flavor and shelf life of this oil or fat is improved. That’s why so many flavorful products such as cookies and chips can sit on a gas station stand for months at a time without losing their flavor and form.
The downside is that trans fat is very bad for your cholesterol levels. (See my blog from July 26, 2006 entitled: Trans fatty acids: What’s the Worry?) It raises bad LDL levels and lowers good HDL levels. High intake of trans fat has been associated with an increase risk of heart attack.
Why then can a food have trans fat yet still list 0 grams of content on its food label? To answer that, we only need to look as far as the federal government, for only could the federal government come up with such a logical rule.
On July 11, 2003, the Food and Drug Administration ruled that by January 1, 2006, the amount of trans fat in a serving of food must be listed on a separate line under the total fat section on the Nutrition Facts panel. There are several scenarios in which a food may contain trans fat and yet the amount may be reported as 0 grams or not even listed at all in this Nutrition Facts panel.
The food per serving contains less than 0.5 grams of total fat (all fat combined). The manufacturer is not required to report total fat content let alone its % breakdown. A footnote should appear stating that the food is "not a significant source of trans fat."
The food per serving contains more than 0.5 grams of total fat and thus total fat is listed with its % breakdown of saturated and unsaturated fat. But, the amount of trans fat per serving is less than 0.5 grams. The label may then read 0 grams of trans fat. (You do the math?!) The ingredients label, however, must list partially hydrogenated vegetable oil or “shortening” if there is still some trans fat in the food.
The food product was already in distribution prior to January 1, 2006, and therefore was not required to have trans fat listed separately in the Nutrition Facts panel.
- The food product was distributed after January 1, 2006, but the manufacturer received an extension allowing it to utilize pre-existing Nutrition Facts labels that do not list trans fat. The manufacturer has to apply for this extension, and it must be approved by the FDA.
Just a few final comments about trans fat and the Nutrition Facts panel. If the food contains some trans fat, albeit a very small amount, it should appear in the ingredients as partially hydrogenated vegetable oil or shortening. When trans fat is listed on the Nutrition Facts panel, you won’t see a % daily value listed with it. That’s because there is no recommended amount of trans fat in a daily diet since trans fat in general is bad for you. So, it’s not recommended that you eat it.
- The food per serving contains less than 0.5 grams of total fat (all fat combined). The manufacturer is not required to report total fat content let alone its % breakdown. A footnote should appear stating that the food is "not a significant source of trans fat."
However, eliminating all trans fat from your diet is impractical and extremely difficult since many foods that contain trans fat also contain essential nutrients.
Published On: May 04, 2007 | <urn:uuid:9de42d75-63c3-4f1c-abb6-0ca6bdb5ddf0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.healthcentral.com/cholesterol/c/59/9197/trans-fat | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959189 | 855 | 3.265625 | 3 |
October 21, 2011
In this experiment the percent of iron in an unknown sample will be determined by using a redox titration and then compared to a different method. A primary standard which in this case is ferrous ammonium sulfate will be used to standardize potassium dichromate. The standardized potassium dichromate will then be used to titrate the unknown iron sample using the indicator p-diphenylamine sulfonate.
The standardized potassium dichromate which has a concentration around 0.017 M is then titrated into the unknown iron sample which is dissolved in deionized water. The unknown sample is titrated to its end point using the indicator p-diphenylamine sulfonate, the acid mixture helps to make the end point sharper which would make it more accurately and more easily determined. The equation of the reaction taking place is:
6 Fe2+ + Cr2O72- +14 H+ --------> 6 Fe3+ + 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O
This equation can be used to convert moles of the dichromate ion to moles of the unknown iron to determine the percent of iron contained in the sample.
To prepare the acid mixture add 12.5 mL of both concentrated phosphoric acid and sulfuric acid to 500 mL of deionized water and mix well. To prepare the potassium dichromate solution dissolve about 1.25 g of potassium dichromate in deionized water and dilute to 250 mL.
To standardize the potassium dichromate weigh out about 0.5 g of ferrous ammonium sulfate, hexahydrate into a 250 mL flask and dissolve in 50 mL of deionized water and mix for two minutes. Then add 50 mL of the acid mixture previously made and add three to four drops of p-diphenylamine sulfonate indicator to the solution. Then titrate with the potassium dichromate until a change in color from green to purple occurs. Repeat these steps for three more trials. To titrate the unknown sample of Fe weigh out about 0.5 g of the unknown into a 250 mL flask and dissolve the sample... | <urn:uuid:14be8640-b749-465e-a405-f9f0058f9c6b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.studymode.com/essays/Redox-Titration-Lab-Report-828136.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00079-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.865955 | 444 | 3.5 | 4 |
Home > Health Library > Laser Resurfacing
Laser resurfacing is a treatment to improve the look of the skin. It uses a
laser to send out brief pulses of high-energy light. This light is absorbed by water and substances in the skin called chromophores. The
light is changed into heat energy. The heat then destroys (vaporizes) thin
sections of skin, layer by layer. As the wounded area heals, new skin grows to
replace the damaged skin that was removed during the laser treatment. Some
lasers only tighten the skin by heating it but do not destroy the skin.
The CO2 (carbon dioxide) laser is the most common type of laser used for
resurfacing. Erbium lasers are also used often.
In most cases, laser resurfacing is very precise and causes little
damage to the surrounding skin and tissue. It is done most often on the face,
but it may be done on skin in other areas of the body. It's usually not done on the hands, neck, and
chest. The skin in these areas does not heal as well as it
does in other areas. It tends to thicken and scar as a result of the laser
treatment. But some surgeons may treat the neck using a lower-energy
Newer methods of laser resurfacing cause fewer problems
and have faster recovery times. These methods include:
The areas to be treated are cleaned
and marked with a pen. A
nerve block with a local anesthetic is usually used to numb the area
before treatment. You may also get medicine to
help you relax. If your whole face is going to be treated, you may need
pain relievers, sedation, or stronger anesthesia. (In some cases,
general anesthesia is used.) You
may need to wear goggles to prevent eye damage by the laser. And wet towels
will be placed around the area to absorb excess laser pulses.
laser is passed over the skin, sending out pulses. Each pulse lasts less than a
millisecond. Between passes with the laser, the skin will be wiped with water
or a saltwater solution. This is done to cool the skin and remove tissue that the laser has
destroyed. The number of passes needed depends on how large the area is and
what type of skin is being treated. Thin skin around the eyes, for instance,
needs very few passes with the laser. Thicker skin or skin with more severe
lesions will need more passes.
The pulses from the
laser may sting or burn slightly. You may feel a snapping feeling against
your skin. In most cases, there is little or no bleeding. Severely
damaged skin is more likely to bleed. When the treatment is done, the area is covered
with a clean dressing or ointment.
Laser resurfacing is usually
done in a doctor's office or an
outpatient surgery center.
The time needed to heal and
recover after laser resurfacing depends on how big and deep the
treated area is. Someone who has the full face resurfaced, for example, will
take longer to recover than someone who has only a small area of skin
In most cases, the wounded area will be pink, tender, and
swollen for at least several days. Cold packs and
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs, such as
aspirin or ibuprofen) may help reduce swelling and pain. After the skin grows back, the skin will stay red for several weeks.
Proper care of
the treated area while the skin heals is very important.
If you are getting treatment around your mouth, you may get an antiviral drug called acyclovir to
prevent infection. Tell your doctor if you have had
cold sores in the past.
You will need several follow-up
visits to your doctor. The doctor will keep track of how well the skin heals and regrows. He or she will also watch for and treat early signs of infection or other
Laser resurfacing may be used to
remove or improve the look of:
People with lighter skin who do not get a lot of sun
exposure after the procedure tend to have the best results. People with darker
skin may benefit from laser resurfacing, but their skin may not heal as
You may not be a good candidate for laser resurfacing if
There are many things that can affect the short-term and long-term
results of laser resurfacing. These include your skin type, the health of
your skin, how much experience your doctor has, the type of laser used, and your
lifestyle after the treatment. Some types of skin problems or defects respond
better to laser resurfacing than others. People with lighter skin who limit
their time in the sun after treatment tend to have better results than those
with darker skin and those who keep spending lots of time in the sun.
In general, laser resurfacing tends to have good results with
fairly low risks.
The long-term results of laser treatment may not be seen
for several months.
Side effects and risks of laser resurfacing may
Laser resurfacing first injures or
wounds the skin and then destroys the top layers. You need to prepare yourself
for how your skin will look after treatment and throughout the
healing process. It is also very important for you to follow your doctor's instructions on caring for your skin after the treatment. This will help you avoid
infection and help your skin heal.
Be sure that your doctor
knows what you hope to achieve. And make sure that you know what results you
can expect. Even with realistic expectations, you may not see
results for several weeks or months after the treatment. And you may need more
than one treatment to get the results you want.
After laser resurfacing, you will
need to wear sunscreen every day and avoid the sun as much as you can.
New skin is more likely to be damaged and change color from sunlight.
chemical peel, and dermabrasion are the most common techniques to improve the texture and look of the skin. These techniques use
different methods, but they have basically the same effect on the skin. They
destroy and remove the upper layers of skin to allow the skin to regrow.
No one technique is better than the others. When done by
an experienced surgeon, laser resurfacing may be slightly more precise than
chemical peels or dermabrasion. But the choice of technique is based on the
site you want to treat, your skin type and condition, the doctor's experience,
your preferences, and other things. Some people may get the best results by
using more than one technique.
Complete the surgery information form (PDF)(What is a PDF document?) to help you prepare for this surgery.
Tanzi EL, Alster TS (2008). Skin resurfacing: Ablative lasers, chemical peels, and dermabrasion. In K Wolff et al., eds., Fitzpatrick's Dermatology in General Medicine, 7th ed., vol. 2, pp. 2364–2371. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical.
ByHealthwise StaffPrimary Medical ReviewerAnne C. Poinier, MD - Internal MedicineAdam Husney, MD - Family MedicineSpecialist Medical ReviewerKeith A. Denkler, MD - Plastic Surgery
Current as ofJune 11, 2015
Current as of:
June 11, 2015
Anne C. Poinier, MD - Internal Medicine & Adam Husney, MD - Family Medicine & Keith A. Denkler, MD - Plastic Surgery
To learn more about Healthwise, visit Healthwise.org.
© 1995-2015 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.
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Join Our Social Network | <urn:uuid:4d9d6043-f71b-4e34-9e99-c05f0181c3a2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.jaxhealth.com/health-library/document-viewer/?id=aa63498 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919494 | 1,688 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Marine Carotenoids: Powerful Antioxidant Found Useful for Most Common Cause of Death
August 29, 2011
- Antioxidant properties in marine carotenoids may help prevent cancer and inflammatory disease
- Astaxanthin and fucoxanthin are the two major marine carotenoids
- Resveratrol, another antioxidant, may help regenerate a damaged heart
A new study on marine carotenoids – nutritive properties of marine plants – shows that two carotenoids in particular, astaxanthin and fucoxanthin, have strong antioxidant properties, and possible anti-cancer effects. According to Marine Drugs:
"They are substances with very special and remarkable properties that no other groups of substances possess and that form the basis of their many, varied functions and actions in all kinds of living organisms. ... The potential role of these carotenoids as dietary anti-oxidants has been suggested to be one of the main mechanisms for their preventive effects against cancer and inflammatory diseases."
Scientists have found yet another positive property in another antioxidant, resveratrol, a chemical compound found in certain plants like grapes, blueberries and cranberries. In a study published in the Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, scientists reported that cardiac stem cells treated with resveratrol in mice helped cardiac function that lasted several months, and improved heart cell regeneration. | <urn:uuid:02b72590-2f5a-4e43-949b-d0659605fe3c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2011/08/29/powerful-antioxidant-found-useful-for-most-common-cause-of-death.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00110-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.901518 | 283 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Consider the plots of the functions and in Figure P16.67. Refer to Figure P16.67 in the textbook.
From the Figure P16.67, obtain the mathematical representation of the function as follows:
Similarly, obtain the function by applying distance formula to the coordinates in the plot shown in the following Figure 1.
The distance formula is ,
Obtain the value of the function in the region .Calculate the straight line equation of the line having its end points as and .Substitute the value for,for ,for and for in the distance formula.
Since in the plot the ordinate represents and the abscissa is represents , rewrite the equation by substituting for and for . | <urn:uuid:3e950b86-5f29-4e07-a544-7c34d82ffc12> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/homework-help/electric-circuits-fundamentals-0th-edition-chapter-16-problem-67p-solution-9780195136135 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.886741 | 146 | 3.859375 | 4 |
Ever wondered what kind of a child Jesus was? Well, The First Gospel of the Infancy of Jesus Christ tells us that Jesus was part healer, part genius, part brat. It starts out with some interesting stories about what happened to the holy family in Egypt (following Herod’s edict to kill all boys age 2 and under), and then goes on to tell that Jesus often miraculously killed adults and children that ticked him off. This gospel has some interesting stories, and some really weird stories—definitely not the sort of Jesus most Christians would expect to see.
The gospel was translated into English and published by Professor Henry Pike in 1697 in Cambridge. It dates to at least the 3rd century. The gospel is a Gnostic gospel, so the portrayals of Jesus are quite different than traditional Christians would expect to see. Frankly, some of the things in this gospel are just plain weird.
Here is a summary of some of the more unusual stories in this gospel. (For more details, see a longer version of this post.)
- Even in the cradle Jesus could talk and proclaims that he is the Son of God to Mary.
- Following his circumcision, either the foreskin or the navel string was saved in an alabaster box by a druggist. Years later, this ointment was used to anoint him when Mary (the sinner) cleaned his feet with her hair. (This story has a high yuck factor.)
- Swaddling clothes are given to the Wise Men, followers of the Zoroastrian religion. Zoroastrians have a holy fire, and toss the swaddling clothes into the fire. The clothes do not burn, and the Wise Men rejoice.
- The holy family escapes to Egypt following Herod’s decree. Soon after their arrival in Egypt, some of Jesus swaddling clothes fall on a possessed boy. At that moment, demons fly out of the boy’s mouth and he is cured.
- A man is turned into a mule by a sorcerer. The man’s sisters tell Mary, who puts the baby Jesus on the back of the mule. Instantly, the mule turns back into a man.
- While travelling through Egpyt, Joseph and Mary travel through a place known for robbers. Two robbers (Titus and Damachus) discuss robbing the holy family, but Titus asks Damachus not to rob them. Jesus and Mary prophesy that these two robbers will hang on the cross with Jesus in 30 years, and Titus will go into paradise before Jesus.
- Following Herod’s death, the holy family returns to Israel. Two wives of a man fight over child. One woman tries to kill son of other woman. Mary prophecies that the evil wife will die. She falls in a well.
- Leprous woman is healed by washing in Christ’s bathwater. Leprous princess is healed by same method.
- The child Judas Iscariot (possessed by the devil and has a reputation for biting) tries to bite Jesus. He can’t succeed, but instead hits Jesus. Jesus heals Judas of the devil.
- Seven year old Jesus plays with other boys, and makes clay animals. Jesus causes the animals to walk, fly, and eat. The boys tell their parents, who warn that Jesus is a sorcerer.
- Jesus is apparently a bit of a vandal, and throws a bunch of linens at a shop in the fire. The store owner is upset, so Jesus retrieves them from the fire unharmed.
- Joseph spends 2 years making a throne for the king of Jerusalem. It is too small, so Jesus miraculously enlarges the throne.
- Jesus plays hide and seek with some boys. Some women throw the boys into a furnace, but Jesus transforms them into baby goats—kids. Then Jesus transforms them back into boys, unharmed by the furnace.
- A serpent bites Simon the Canaanite as a boy. Jesus causes the serpent to suck back the poison, and then the serpent bursts. Simon is cured.
- James is bitten by viper and cured. Jesus is accused of throwing boy off roof. Jesus causes dead boy to live and the boy acquits Jesus.
- Jesus makes some clay sparrows near in a fish-pool on the Sabbath. Then Jesus causes the sparrows to fly. The son of Hanani the Jew chastises Jesus for doing this on the Sabbath, and destroys the fish-pool. Jesus prophecies that the boy will vanish like the fish-pool, and the child dies immediately.
- Jesus is sent to school to learn the alphabet, but teaches the schoolmaster. When a second teacher asks Jesus the alphabet, Jesus asks a question. The teacher raises his hand to whip Jesus for insubordination, and then falls dead.
- At 12 years old, Jesus teaches in the temple about astronomy and many other subjects.
- Jesus begins concealing his miracles. He is baptized at age 30.
So what do you make of these stories? Obviously, some of these are a bit outlandish–humans are turned into animals and back; Jesus kills people that ticked him off. Jesus seems a bit capricious in some of these stories.
There are some strange stories in the New Testament as well. What do you make of some of the more outlandish stories in the New Testament–Jesus walking on water, turning water to wine? Do you think these more accepted New Testament stories could be just as outlandish as the stories in this gospel? | <urn:uuid:dabfd833-86ff-4174-90e7-12c413ec3c73> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wheatandtares.org/1901/stories-of-jesus-childhood/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00062-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951867 | 1,152 | 2.6875 | 3 |
What are the fingers?
The human finger is a flexible, long and thin extension of the hand commonly referred to as the digits. The fingers on the hands correspond to the toes of the feet. Humans have five fingers on each hand and a significant feature in humans is the opposable thumb. Apart from the flexibility of the human fingers which make it such a useful appendage of the hand, there is also a high concentration of receptors in the finger which means it is also an important sense organ.
Anatomy of the fingers
The human finger is mainly a bony structure with multiple joints giving it strength and flexibility. A digit includes the hand bones but these bones are not separated into individual appendages like a finger. Instead it is contained within a single structure – the hand. Tendons attached to muscles within the hand and forearm are responsible for the different movements of the fingers.
The five fingers include :
- 1st finger – thumb (polex)
- 2nd finger – index finger (digitus secundus manus)
- 3rd finger – middle finger (digitus medius)
- 4th finger – ring finger (digitus annularis)
- 5th finger – little finger / pinky (digitus minimus manus)
There are two surfaces of the fingers :
- Palmar surface (front of the hand) continuous with the palms of the hand.
- Dorsal surface (back of the hand) containing the fingernails at the tips.
The finger bones are known as phalanges (singular ~ phalanx). There are 14 phalanges on each hand. All the fingers have 3 phalanges except the thumb which has 2 phalanges. Each phalanx in a finger is named according to its location :
- Proximal phalanx is the first finger bone lying next to the palm.
- Intermediate phalanx is the middle finger bone which is absent in the thumb.
- Distal phalanx is the last finger bone lying furthest away from the hand.
The hand bones are known as the metacarpals and correspond to the phalanges – the first metacarpal articulates with the proximal phalanx of the first finger.
Each phalanx has three parts – the base, shaft and head. The base of each phalanx articulates with the head of the preceding phalanx, except for the proximal phalanges (first finger bones) which articulate with the head of the metcaarpals (hand bones). The enlarged end of each phalanx (finger bone) being either the base or head is known as the knuckle bone.
There are two types of finger joints, all of which are commonly referred to as knuckle joints :
- between the finger bones – interphalangeal joints (finger-finger joint)
- between the hand bones and first finger bones – metacarpophalangeal joints (hand-finger joint)
There are two interphalangeal joints (IP joints) on each finger, except for the thumb which has one.
- The first IP joint between the proximal and intermediate phalanges is known as the proximal interphalageal joint (PIP joint).
- The second IP joint between the intermediate and distal phalanges is known as the distal interphalangeal joint (DIP joint).
There is only one metacarpophalangeal joint (MCP joint) which lies between the proximal phalanx and metacarpal (hand bone). The ends of the bones involved in the joint is lined with articular cartilage. Synovial membranes line the joint and a tough capsule surrounds the joint.
Muscles and Movements
The muscles that control the movement of the fingers are located in the forearm and hand. Tendons running from these muscles attach to various points on the finger bones. When the muscle contracts, the tendon is pulled and the finger moves at the respective joint. Therefore these muscles, although not in the finger, should be discussed briefly.
There are two ways in which the muscles controlling the fingers can be classified. The first is by location.
- Intrinsic muscles which are located in the hand. There are three groups – thenar and hypothenar, interossei and lumbrical muscles.
- Extrinsic muscles which are located in the forearm. There are two groups – extensors and flexors.
The other classification of these muscles is by the movement of the fingers.
- Flexion of the fingers where the fingers move towards the palm. The muscle groups responsible are the thenar and hypothenar (intrinsic) and the flexors in the forearm (extrinsic).
- Extension of the fingers where the fingers straighten out by moving away from the palm. The muscle groups responsible are the interossei and lumbrical muscles (intrinsic) and the extensors in the forearm (extrinsic). Volar ligaments over the palmar side of the IP joints prevents hyperextension.
Other movements like abduction where the fingers fan out, away from the middle finger, and adduction where the fingers move in towards the middle finger, are also controlled by certain intrinsic and extrinsic muscles. Circumduction is when the finger moves in a circular manner.
Nerves of the Fingers
Nerves send signals from the brain to the muscles (motor nerves) causing it to contract or from receptors in the fingers to the brain (sensory nerves) to enable the different sensations. The motor nerves supplying the muscles controlling the fingers is not discussed here since these muscles are located in the hand and forearm. It involves the median, ulnar and radial nerves.
The skin of the fingers are supplied by different nerves as follows :
- Median nerve – palmar surface, tips and nail beds of the thumb, index, middle and half of the ring fingers.
- Ulnar nerve – palmar and dorsal (back of the hand) surface of the other half of the ring finger and the little finger.
- Radial nerve – dorsal surface (excluding the tips) of the thumb, index, middle and half of the ring fingers and web between thumb and index fingers. | <urn:uuid:da7c9eea-5ce5-4cf8-8cbf-f637a8608cf5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.healthhype.com/finger-anatomy-bones-joints-muscle-movements-and-nerves.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00051-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929802 | 1,305 | 4 | 4 |
Reading "Polyphasic Sleep: Facts and Myths (Dr Piotr Wozniak)", it is pointed out that infant humans do undergo polyphasic sleep. As this is where most of our development is obviously done, I do not know where I can further proceed with the question about how it would affect development? Perhaps the issue is more how it would effect the day to day performance of a developed individual? If this is the case then it is suggested by Dr Wozniak that this is likely to be highly disruptive to the individual
Those well-defined effects of natural sleep affecting stimuli on sleep patterns lead to an instant conclusion: the claim that humans can adapt to any sleeping pattern is false. A sudden shift in the schedule, as in shift work, may lead to a catastrophic disruption of sleep control mechanisms. 25% of North American population may work in variants of shift schedule. Many shift workers never adapt to shifts in sleep patterns. At times, they work partly in conditions of harmful disconnect from their body clock, and return to restful sleep once their shift returns to their preferred timing. At worst, the constant shift of the working hours results in a loss of synchrony between various physiological variables and the worker never gets any quality sleep. This propels an individual on a straight path to a volley of health problems...
It appears that polyphasic sleep encounters the precisely same problems as seen in jet lag or shift-work. Human body clock is not adapted to sleeping in patterns other than monophasic or biphasic sleep.
It would therefore seem that polyphasic sleep is certainly detrimental to health, if not development.
However studies into cognitive performance resulting from differing sleep patterns run by Dr Claudio Stampi (Published ISBN 0-8176-3462-2), he concluded that polyphasic sleep was more efficient than monophasic sleep. Therefore it may be possible that polyphasic sleep patterns have no detrimental effect on development.
Individuals sleeping for 30 minutes every four hours, for a daily total of only 3 hours of sleep, performed better and were more alert, compared to when they had 3 hours of uninterrupted sleep
There are a couple of theories mentioned in the above book (beginning pg 5) which support the development of monophasic sleep as evolution rather than a social convention:
- Polyphasic sleep is regularly seen in smaller mammals that have very high metabolic rates, requiring them to spend most of their time foraging or hunting. Therefore a long sleep would be highly impractical for them as they would wake without the energy required to hunt their next meal. Humans do not have this need as they are larger and do not require such regular meals.
- Monophasic sleep would be beneficial for the early human hunter gatherer as our eyes are not well adapted to see at night. Therefore any time spent not using the daylight is wasted and any time without the light is not nearly as useful. This makes it more beneficial to sleep for an extended period when the sun is down.
I am sure that social factors would have an effect, however I would imagine the evolutionary pressures to be more significant.
I really would recommend the book (http://sleepwarrior.com/Claudio_Stampi_-_Why_We_Nap.pdf) if you have not yet encountered it as I found it very informative and packed with references to studies that you may find helpful. | <urn:uuid:2c4f7912-1761-401d-9576-2f67c1ea1c90> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/319/effects-of-polyphasic-vs-monophasic-sleep-in-humans/366 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00005-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956098 | 698 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Editor’s note: This is the first in an occasional series of reflective posts about social media use in support of messages for the national health observances.
April 10, 2014 marked the second annual National Youth HIV & AIDS Awareness Day (NYHAAD), a day of action to put young people at the center of the conversation around HIV in our country, highlighting both the impact of HIV & AIDS on young people and their role in responding to the epidemic. Today we reflect on the use of Twitter, Facebook and infographics around NYHAAD.
Meeting Young People Where They Are
In preparation for NYHAAD, Advocates for Youth recognized that efforts had to be driven by young people, and recruited 17 Youth Ambassadors across the country to share their stories, illustrating the impact of HIV on young people and the barriers they face in seeking the information, testing, and treatment they need. The work of the Ambassadors exceeded our expectations, and their action resulted in blog posts, events nationwide, and proclamations of NYHAAD by the mayors of Gainesville, Florida, and Seattle, Washington.
Over the years, Advocates for Youth has learned that you have to meet young people where they are, and social media is an invaluable tool in reaching young people and elevating youth activism. Wesley Eugene Dixon, a NYHAAD Youth Ambassador and student at Yale University explained that “new forms of media empower young people to insert their voices in conversations that they have historically been left out of.”
Social Media Tools for NYHAAD
Advocates for Youth also utilized the official hashtag- #NYHAAD on Facebook and Twitter to ensure coordination between activism nationwide. Using a hashtag tracking tool called TweetReach , Advocates for Youth measured the reach of the hashtag and learned that it reached over 9 million people on April 10th alone, and over 13 million throughout April 2014. The campaign toolkit was another invaluable tool in enabling youth activists to join the movement wherever they were. The toolkit ensured that activists nationwide stood as unified front with shared messages and included sample tweets, infographics and more. “It takes the online village to build success and capacity in our messaging and movements towards youth executing control over their sexual health and to thwart new HIV infections.” explained Edric Figueroa, a NYHAAD Youth Ambassador from Seattle, Washington.
In addition to Facebook and Twitter posts, we designed several infographics to highlight the key messages of NYHAAD and the unique ways youth are impacted by HIV. These infographics reached nearly 36,000 people and were shared over 600 times. “We’re able to listen, learn, and ask questions about the state of youth HIV activism in a way that is unfathomable in a world without pervasive use of social media,” says Dixon, who coordinated a panel of young people for a Huffington Post Live segment, which he felt “demonstrates the ways in which youth work to curate conversations about issues that matter to them.”
Young people use social media to share their beliefs and values, to communicate and argue with and to support one another, to follow current events, and to organize. How are you using social media to reach, engage, and empower young people? | <urn:uuid:4b6342c2-6646-49cf-8898-0d44c3712950> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.aids.gov/2014/07/reflections-on-social-media-communication-national-youth-hiv-aids-awareness-day-2014.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953216 | 666 | 2.75 | 3 |
What Else Can I Do to Conserve?
In addition to using your Sprinkler Times online program or smartphone app, here are a few other tips to help you conserve water.
Turn off the Faucet
When washing dishes, cutting vegetables, brushing our teeth, or waiting for the shower to warm up, we tend to let the faucet run, wasting gallons of water with each of these simple activities.
Quickly Repair Leaky Faucets
Even a small drip can turn into a huge waste of water if ignored for too long. Depending on their location, some leaks can go unnoticed for months. To prevent this, keep an eye out for any unexplained spikes in your water bill. A single leaky faucet can waste hundreds of gallons a year.
Spread the Word
Your conservation efforts will make a difference, but the best contribution we can make is to educate others in our community about this issue, and give them the tools to prevent it from worsening.
In Unquenchable: America’s Water Crisis And What To Do About It, author Robert Glennon provides us with some startling facts about the depleting water supply in the United States.
Consider the following events that have occurred since 2007:
- Colorado farmers watched their crops wither because of a lack of irrigation water
- Atlanta, Georgia, came within three months of running out, so it banned watering lawns, washing cars, and filling swimming pools
- Orme, Tennessee, did run out and was forced to truck water in from Alabama
- Scientists at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography predicted that Lake Mead, which supplies water to Los Angeles and Phoenix, could dry up by 2021
- Hundreds of workers lost their jobs at Bowater, a South Carolina paper company, because low river flows prevented the plant from discharging its wastewater
- Lack of adequate water prompted the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to rebuff Southern Nuclear Operating Company’s request to build two new reactors in Georgia
- Water shortages caused California farmers to cut the tops off hundreds of healthy, mature avocado trees in a desperate attempt to keep them alive
- Lake Superior, the earth’s largest freshwater body, was too shallow to float fully loaded cargo ships | <urn:uuid:1abf9f29-6c0f-427b-aa5a-c41533ec0339> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sprinklertimes.com/conservation/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00004-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933432 | 456 | 3.0625 | 3 |
Chinese New Year coloring pages make great mouse practice activities
for toddlers, preschool, and elementary children. They can
also be used with beginning readers. If children are unable
to read the sentence that goes with the coloring page, have
them click on each word to hear the sentence. This activity
reinforces reading skills. Most Chinese New Year coloring pages
come with a selection of sentences.
Check out our literacy
ideas on how to use our coloring page readers. Our Chinese
New Year coloring pages are literacy builders, too!
All of our Chinese New Year coloring page readers print crisp
and clean. To print your Chinese New Year coloring page reader,
follow the directions on the specific page you want to print
by clicking on the printer icon that says "Full Page Print."
Check out all our Chinese New Year Thematic Unit Activities - learn about the Chinese Zodiac, find craft ideas, Chinese proverbs, interactive games, Chinese recipes, Chinese games, scrambler puzzles, short stories, printable worksheets, word jumbles, word searches, poems and interactive games and a children's thematic book list.. | <urn:uuid:4b9c06fd-d70d-41ee-a90c-2b0bfe31b223> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.apples4theteacher.com/coloring-pages/chinese-new-year/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00010-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.84898 | 233 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Eye-Tracking Helps Teachers Plan Strategies for Autistic Kids
A new study demonstrates the use of eye-tracking technology as a way to improve social services to children with autism spectrum disorders.
Emory University School of Medicine researchers used the eye-tracking methodology to measure the relationship between cognitive and social disability in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The technique also informs researchers on the ability of children with ASD to pay attention to social interactions.
Katherine Rice and colleagues have published the study in the Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. The study is the largest to date to observe children with ASD watching scenes of social interaction.
One hundred thirty-five children, 109 with autism and 26 without, all approximately 10 years old, participated in the study.
Researchers tracked eye movements as the children were shown movie scenes of school-age children in age-appropriate social situations.
One set of analyses focused on the differences between children with ASD and typically developing children, by closely matching a subset of those with ASD to typically developing peers on IQ, gender and age.
A second set of analyses focused on measures that quantify the broad spectrum of adaptive and maladaptive behavior in ASD by analyzing variation across all 109 ASD participants.
Investigators discovered children with autism were less likely than typically developing peers to look at other people’s eyes and faces, and were more likely to fixate on bodies and inanimate objects.
The results also revealed the varying ways in which children with autism use the information they observe. For the entire group of children with ASD, increased observation of inanimate objects rather than people was associated with more severe social disability.
However, for some subsets of the autism spectrum, such as highly verbal children with ASD, whose verbal IQs were larger than their nonverbal IQs, increased looking at others people’s mouths was associated with less disability.
Researchers say the findings will help caregivers have a broad picture of the capabilities of a particular child.
“These results help us tease apart some of the vast heterogeneity of the autism spectrum,” said Rice. “For some children, atypical looking patterns may be serving as a compensatory strategy; but for others, these patterns are clearly associated with maladaptive behaviors.
“Objective, quantitative measures of social disability help us to identify these subsets in a data-driven manner.”
Nauert PhD, R. (2015). Eye-Tracking Helps Teachers Plan Strategies for Autistic Kids. Psych Central. Retrieved on June 25, 2016, from http://psychcentral.com/news/2012/02/28/eye-tracking-helps-teachers-plan-strategies-for-autistic-kids/35347.html | <urn:uuid:f02e2bbc-9b53-4b24-8cbb-cd6d9cc56018> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://psychcentral.com/news/2012/02/28/eye-tracking-helps-teachers-plan-strategies-for-autistic-kids/35347.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945919 | 570 | 3.609375 | 4 |
A complex, fairly sophisticated Mayan culture lived in the highlands of El Salvador in the third century. The violent eruption at Ilopango destroyed the land for a 60 mile (100 km) radius around the volcano. Thousands of people died. Excavations, like the one in this photo, are providing new insights into Mayan culture. The eruption ended the presence of Mayan society in the highlands. Large numbers of refugees fled to lowland areas in Guatemala and Belize. A major trade route was abandon. Rulers at Tikal gained control of commerce. Photograph copyrighted and provided by Steve O'Meara of Volcano Watch International.
The main volcanoes in the Central American arc in El Salvador.
Golombek, M.P., and Carr, M.J., 1978, Tidal triggering of seismic and volcanic phenomena during the 1879-1880 eruption of Islas Quemadas volcano in El Salvador, central America: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 3, p. 299-307.
Hart, W.J.E., and Steen-Mcintyre, V., 1983, Tierra Blanca Joven tephra from the AD 260 eruption of Ilopango caldera, in Sheets, P.D., ed., Archeology and Volcanism in Central America: Austin, University of Texas Press, p. 14-34.
McClelland, L., Simkin, T., Summers, M., Nielsen, E., and Stein, T.C., 1989, Global Volcanism 1975-1985: Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 655 p.
Sheets, P.D., 1979, Maya recovery from volcanic disasters, Ilopango and Ceren: Archaeology, v. 32, p. 32-42.
Sheets, P.D., 1979, Environmental and cultural effects of the Ilopango eruption in Central America, in Sheets, P.D., ed., Archeology and Volcanism in Central America: Austin, University of Texas Press, p. 14-34.
Simkin, T., and Siebert, L., 1994, Volcanoes of the World: Geoscience Press, Tucson, Arizona, 349 p.
Images of Volcanoes To VolcanoWorld | <urn:uuid:f5a9673a-42c9-4dc5-9e57-fa13c4a21fcd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/oldroot/volcanoes/volc_images/south_america/el_salvador/ilopango.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.788629 | 480 | 3.59375 | 4 |
Sizing Up Oil on Alaska’s North Slope
Kenneth J. Bird and David W. Houseknecht
North Slope by the numbers Print Exclusive
Northern Alaska and the adjacent shelf of the Arctic Ocean make up a petroleum province the size of California that extends from the Canadian border on the east to the Russian maritime border on the west, and northward from the Brooks Range to the edge of the continental shelf. All lands north of the Brooks Range drainage divide are referred to as the North Slope. The vast, sweeping vistas characteristic of this region are made more dramatic by the absence of trees. The spectacular mountain scenery of the Brooks Range is bordered on the north by tundra-covered foothills that pass northward into a lake-dotted coastal plain, with the largest expanse of Arctic fens (a distinct type of wetland) and thaw lakes in the world.
Alaskan North Slope exploratory wells operate only during the winter, using ice roads and pads. To develop petroleum resources, engineers had to build an infrastructure that would not disrupt the region’s permafrost. Photograph is by U.S. Bureau of Land Management.
This beautiful country is also one of the most oil-productive regions in the United States, having produced about 15 billion barrels of oil over the past 30 years. From first oil production in 1977, it has typically accounted for about 20 percent of U.S. domestic production. Even after 60 years of exploration, this region remains a lightly explored frontier with petroleum potential that accounts for about 44 percent of U.S. undiscovered oil resources and 36 percent of the nation’s undiscovered conventional gas resources.
To date, about 65 individual oil and gas accumulations have been discovered on the North Slope, but only 25 have been developed into producing fields. The others generally are considered not to be economic to develop, owing to distance from infrastructure, small size or absence of a gas transportation system.
Although oil exploration in northern Alaska began in the early 20th century, it was not until the discovery of the Prudhoe Bay field in 1968 that the true potential of this region was realized. As the largest oil field in North America, Prudhoe Bay has been the centerpiece and driver of oil development in northern Alaska and has had — and continues to have — significant economic and social consequences for Alaskans and the United States.
Before the partial shutdown of the Prudhoe Bay oil field in August for pipeline corrosion problems, about 900,000 barrels of oil per day were being produced on the North Slope. The partial shutdown temporarily reduced production by about 200,000 barrels per day.
Now, exploration interests continue within and well beyond the Prudhoe Bay region, as the United States tries to find more domestic sources of energy. The future of this region as a supplier of the nation’s petroleum depends on finding significant new oil and gas accumulations, which in turn depends on policy decisions related to land access, exploration and development practices, and continued technological advances, including a natural gas pipeline transportation system.
Creating the oil
During the following 65 million years, the continental margin slowly pulled apart, as northern Alaska rifted away from North America. Eventually, northern Alaska became a relatively small but separate tectonic plate, the Arctic Alaska microplate, bordered on the north and the south by oceans. Sediments deposited during this episode are dominantly marine mudstone with local sand bodies, some of which have become petroleum reservoir rocks.
During the final tectonic episode, which dates from about 150 million years ago to the present, the southern margin of the Arctic Alaska microplate collided with island arcs and other plate fragments. The collisions produced a rising tectonic highland, which was the ancestral Brooks Range. The growing mountain range was bordered on the north by a relatively deep basin, which accumulated great amounts of sediments shed from the mountains. The basin, known as a foreland basin, was asymmetric; it was deeper in the south and shallower in the north.
As the sea advanced during each tectonic episode, organic carbon-rich mud stones, the petroleum source rocks, were deposited. Burial of these source rocks beneath the thick foreland-basin deposits that accumulated during the past approximately 120 million years provided the heat necessary to generate petroleum.
Key elements in the petroleum geology of this region are the axis of the foreland basin beneath the foothills — the region where deep burial and heating of the source rocks led to generation of oil and gas — and the Barrow Arch, a region of significant oil and gas accumulation located beneath the northern coast. A third key element is a widely distributed erosional surface, or regional unconformity, as young as 135 million years old that marks an episode of uplift and erosion, followed by later subsidence and burial. This unconformity is believed to have provided a pathway along which oil from multiple source rocks migrated to several important reservoirs.
Many oil accumulations on the Barrow Arch are believed to be mixtures of oils derived from as many as three different source rocks. Most of the known accumulations are in broad arch-like features (structural traps) or similar features modified by erosional unconformities (structural-stratigraphic traps) during formation of the Barrow Arch.
As a result of these processes, virtually all petroleum production on the North Slope is from a 160-kilometer-long coastal area that lies above the Barrow Arch and is centered at Prudhoe Bay. These accumulations are estimated to hold remaining reserves of nearly 7 billion barrels of oil and more than 35 trillion cubic feet of gas.
Recent estimates by the U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Minerals Management Service of total mean volume of undiscovered, technically recoverable resources for northern Alaska are more than 50 billion barrels of liquid petroleum and 200 trillion cubic feet of gas. These amounts are estimated to be distributed equally between the federal offshore and the combined state onshore and offshore areas.
Producing at Prudhoe
From a depth of more than 2.5 kilometers (9,000 feet) and a temperature of more than 90 degrees Celsius (200 degrees Fahrenheit), the original hydrocarbon column extended upward about 300 meters and consisted of 120 vertical meters of oil overlain by 180 vertical meters of natural gas, the so-called gas cap. The main reservoir is a 250-million-year-old sandstone and conglomerate deposited by southward-flowing streams that fed into a shallow sea during the first tectonic episode. Remarkably, the greatest accumulation of sand and gravel coincided with the hydrocarbon trap that formed in the same place, but 150 million years later. This coincidence is a key reason the Prudhoe Bay accumulation is so large.
Reservoir properties in Prudhoe are excellent, averaging about 20 percent porosity with high permeability. Some early production wells flowed at rates of as much as 30,000 barrels of oil per day — comparable to Middle East production rates. The familiar pump jacks observed in many U.S. oil fields are not required because the oil flows to the surface under natural pressure.
Analysis of the geologic development of the Prudhoe Bay oil accumulation indicates it was nearly twice as large 40 million years ago. But regional tectonic events starting 40 million to 35 million years ago shifted the oil westward, reducing the height of the trap and causing oil to leak upward along faults into younger sandstone reservoirs.
These younger reservoirs currently host multibillion-barrel accumulations of heavy (low viscosity) oil, which is difficult to extract. These deposits have been the subject of considerable study and pilot projects. Several of them are now being produced using innovative production techniques.
Shaping a community
Once the magnitude of the Prudhoe Bay oil accumulation was ascertained, the problem became how to get the oil to markets several thousand miles away. Several transportation schemes were proposed, including a railroad with tank cars, icebreaker oil tankers that would follow the Northwest Passage across northern Canada and then to East Coast markets, and a pipeline. At least two pipeline routes were proposed: The current route south of Prudhoe Bay and a route eastward from Prudhoe Bay across the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and into Canada.
The final choice was a 122-centimeter-diameter, 1,300-kilometer-long pipeline that carries oil to a shipping terminal at Valdez in southern Alaska, and from there the oil is shipped by tanker to various West Coast ports. It took four years to resolve pipeline right-of-way issues and to redesign the pipeline in response to critics.
Ultimately, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971 settled native claims to the land across which the pipeline would cross. In this act, Congress chose a corporate model that created 12 regional native-operated corporations with oversight of 44 million acres of land and $962 million in compensation (see story, page 30). The act prohibited claims within a pipeline right of way and led to the establishment of the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation and numerous village corporations. It also led to the founding of the North Slope Borough, which includes all of northern Alaska. The Borough collects taxes on oil and gas facilities, and is responsible for education and other services for about 7,500 residents concentrated in eight communities.
After settling the native claims, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) was a second legal hurdle. The Arab oil embargo in 1973, however, led to diminished pipeline opposition and passage of the Trans-Alaskan Pipeline Authorization Act that barred further review on the basis of NEPA.
Still, a three-year technical review process indicated that the original buried-pipeline design was vulnerable to failure by thawing permafrost and by earthquakes. It mandated a redesign in which about half of the pipeline is elevated to minimize these risks. The original $900 million estimated cost of the pipeline rose to $8 billion. The haul road that parallels the pipeline, the Dalton Highway, was opened to the public in 1995 and now provides public access to this region.
Now, proposed construction of a natural gas pipeline is facing similar challenges, with three plans currently under consideration that follow different paths through Alaska (see story, page 18). The known North Slope gas reserves (35 trillion cubic feet) would last about 21 years under proposed production rates. The United States presently consumes about 22 trillion cubic feet per year, and the North Slope gas would provide about 1.5 trillion cubic feet per year, or 7 percent of current U.S. consumption.
With a proposed capacity to transport 4.5 billion cubic feet of gas per day, a gas transportation system would spur long-dormant exploration for natural gas. Additional discoveries of oil and gas would likely occur, and would thus extend the life of the oil pipeline.
Permafrost must be maintained in its natural frozen condition to avoid surface melting, which would result in destructive settling of roads, buildings and other structures. Thus, roadways are elevated on thick gravel berms, pipelines are elevated on pilings, heated buildings are elevated on pilings above gravel work pads, and closely spaced production wells are cooled by refrigeration equipment to preserve the supporting permafrost.
Motivated to save money and reduce environmental impact, industry has significantly improved exploration and production practices over the years. For example, seismic surveys and exploratory drilling are conducted only in the wintertime, when the ground is frozen and snow-covered. And 3-D seismic surveying improves the chance of finding oil and may result in fewer exploratory wells. Exploratory well locations are reached by ice roads or by large rubber-tired vehicles (Rolligons), and wells are drilled from ice pads. When the ice melts, little evidence remains of the activity other than compressed tundra.
Wells also are now drilled with less toxic drilling mud, reserve pits have been eliminated, and wastes, such as drilling mud and drill cuttings, are disposed of by underground injection. Once a commercial oil accumulation is found, production facilities are constructed on gravel pads. The number of pads and their sizes have been dramatically reduced by slant, or “directional,” drilling of extended-reach and multi-lateral wells, as well as by spacing wells closer together on the surface.
An oft-cited example of technological improvement is the development in the late 1990s of the Alpine oil pool that covers about 20,000 acres in the subsurface. On the surface, it is being developed from only two production pads connected by a 4.8-kilometer-long gravel road and airstrip that together cover about 100 acres. The Alpine field and its pipeline represent a roadless development.
Recent technological developments include a lightweight “truckable” drill rig that can drill more exploratory wells in a winter season than a conventional drill rig, and an onshore drill rig mounted on a platform that eliminates the need for an ice pad. Development of an offshore oil discovery from an onshore surface location is proposed by directional drilling up to 16 kilometers (farther than the current world record), thus eliminating the need for offshore production islands and connecting causeways.
Production from other fields has slowed, but not reversed the decline in northern Alaska’s total production, which is predominantly from Prudhoe Bay. In 2005, production was about 900,000 barrels per day and accounted for 17 percent of domestic production, or about 7 percent of overall U.S. oil consumption. Several developments have stimulated a renewed intensity in leasing and exploration activity, however, including new discoveries, new exploration and production technologies, evolving industry demographics, rising oil and natural gas prices, and the anticipation that northern Alaska natural gas resources may become economic and marketable through a planned pipeline.
Until recently, increased activity was focused mostly on Alaska state lands and waters of the central North Slope located between the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska (NPRA) on the west and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge on the east. Exploration in these areas has led to the discovery of mostly oil in relatively large traps similar to that at the Prudhoe Bay field, as opposed to smaller, more subtle traps.
The 1994 discovery of 500 million barrels of oil at Alpine field — one of the largest U.S. discoveries in the last quarter century — and success at nearby Tarn field (more than 100 million barrels of oil) stimulated interest in exploration for stratigraphic traps. These accumulations are located about 80 kilometers west of Prudhoe Bay. As a result, exploration during the past decade has progressed westward and southward from the main productive fairway into areas where new fields may be discovered. These discoveries prompted renewed interest and government leasing in the NPRA.
Despite this renewed interest, however, the future of North Slope petroleum could be as short as 20 years. Without new commercial oil discoveries and improved production rates, it is projected that the 300,000 barrel-per-day minimum economic threshold of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System will be reached in 2025. Its future could be considerably longer, however. The certainty of a natural gas pipeline, for example, would spur more exploration and hopefully additional gas and oil discoveries, which together with gas production, would assure a longer petroleum future for Northern Alaska.
Bird is a research geologist with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Energy Program, in Menlo Park, Calif. E-mail: email@example.com. Houseknecht is also a research geologist with the USGS Energy Program, located in Reston, Va. E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:189153c4-f51b-411f-8b75-7efba2bba6ba> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.geotimes.org/nov06/feature_NorthSlope.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00052-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956859 | 3,223 | 3.21875 | 3 |
Elementary Statistics Using Excel:
stars based on
1 user reviews.
KEY BENEFIT: Elementary Statistics Using Excel, Fourth Edition, offers a complete introduction to basic statistics, featuring extensive instruction on the use of Excel spreadsheets for data analysis. Extensive Excel® instructions are provided along with typical displays of results, as well as information about Excel's limitations and alternative approaches to problem-solving. Real data in many examples help readers see the prevalence of statistics in the real world.
KEY TOPICS: Introduction to Statistics; Summarizing and Graphing Data; Statistics for Describing, Exploring, and Comparing Data; Probability; Probability Distributions; Normal Probability Distributions; Estimates and Sample Sizes; Hypothesis Testing; Inferences from Two Samples; Correlation and Regression; Multinomial Experiments and Contingency Tables; Analysis of Variance; Nonparametric Statistics; Statistical Process Control; Projects, Procedures, Perspectives
MARKET: for all readers interested in statistics
-Extensive Excel instruction offers detailed explanations of techniques for performing statistical analysis in Excel. 122 screenshots ensure that readers never miss a step. Technology Icons point out exercises that use Excel, and Excel Projects are included among the variety of end-of-chapter features.
-Real data are infused throughout the entire text. Triola is known for keeping his text very up-to-date and for including real data wherever possible so that students recognize the statistics in their everyday lives.
-The flexible organization allows instructors to cover the basics of correlation and regression early in the course if they wish, and scale coverage of probability as needed to address their unique course needs.
-Extensive practice opportunities and review tools appear at the end of every chapter, and include the following items.
-An increased emphasis on interpreting results, rather than simply obtaining answers, helps students develop statistical literacy and, where appropriate, arrive at practical conclusions. Worked examples in the text model this approach.
-Chapter-opening problems use real data to engage students, while chapter overviews clearly state each chapter's objectives.
-Flowcharts throughout the text simplify and clarify complex concepts and procedures.
-MyStatLab is available for Triola’s text for those who use online homework, quizzes and tests in their course. This is a way to encourage students to practice without needing to grade work by hand.
Mario F. Triola is a Professor Emeritus of Mathematics at Dutchess Community College, where he has taught statistics for over 30 years. Marty is the author of Essentials of Statistics, Elementary Statistics Using Excel, Elementary Statistics Using the Graphing Calculator, and he is a co-author of Biostatistics for the Biological and Health Sciences, Statistical Reasoning for Everyday Life and Business Statistics. He has written several manuals and workbooks for technology supporting statistics education. Outside of the classroom, Marty has been a speaker at many conferences and colleges. His consulting work includes the design of casino slot machines and fishing rods, and he has worked with attorneys in determining probabilities in paternity lawsuits, identifying salary inequities based on gender, analyzing disputed election results, analyzing medical data, and analyzing medical school surveys. Marty has testified as an expert witness in New York State Supreme Court. The Text and Academic Authors Association has awarded Mario F. Triola a "Texty" for Excellence for his work on Elementary Statistics. | <urn:uuid:4a95516b-8e43-4205-a4ee-cecdd35c7b01> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ecampus.com/elementary-statistics-using-excel-4th/bk/9780321564962 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00121-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923974 | 698 | 3.234375 | 3 |
[CLJ-945] clojure.string/capitalize can give wrong result if first char is supplementary Created: 05/Mar/12 Updated: 01/Mar/13 Resolved: 01/Mar/13
|Affects Version/s:||Release 1.2, Release 1.3, Release 1.4|
|Fix Version/s:||Release 1.5|
|Patch:||Code and Test|
When the first unicode code point of a string is supplementary (i.e. requires two 16-bit Java chars to represent in UTF-16), and that first code point is changed by converting it to upper case, clojure.string/capitalize gives the wrong answer.
|Comment by Rich Hickey [ 20/Jul/12 7:43 AM ]|
Isn't this a Java bug?
|Comment by Andy Fingerhut [ 20/Jul/12 12:36 PM ]|
If using UTF-16 to encode Unicode strings, and making every UTF-16 code unit (i.e. Java char) individually indexable as a separate entity in strings, is such a bad design choice that you consider it a bug, then yes, this is a Java bug (and a bug in all the other systems that use UTF-16 in this way).
clojure.string/capitalize isn't using some Java capitalization method that has a bug, though. By calling (.toUpperCase (subs s 0 1)) it is not giving enough information to .toUpperCase for any implementation, Java or otherwise, to do the job correctly. It is analogous to calling toupper on the least significant 4 bits of the ASCII encoding of a letter and expecting it to return the correct answer. | <urn:uuid:44eb26da-eaad-4cd2-b4fd-da6dbd3796fd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://dev.clojure.org/jira/si/jira.issueviews:issue-html/CLJ-945/CLJ-945.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00092-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.778984 | 365 | 2.609375 | 3 |
On this day in labor history, Jan. 7, 1939, radical labor activist Tom Mooney, accused of a murder by bombing in San Francisco, was pardoned and freed after 22 years in San Quentin. During his time in prison, labor, socialist, communist, and other activists campaigned worldwide to free him.
Mooney was once a member of the Industrial Workers of the World, but later associated with the Socialist Party and the Communist Party. During the Seattle General Strike of 1919, where the city was idled the city for five days, IWW leaders hoped it would spread into a nationwide general strike demanding freedom for Mooney and other labor frame-up victim Warren K. Billings.
Mooney was tried and convicted for the Preparedness Day bombing, July 22, 1916 in San Francisco. Mooney had been tipped off to threats that preceded the parade and pushed resolutions through his union, the Iron Molders, and the San Francisco Central Labor Council and the Building Trades Council warning that agents provocateurs might attempt to blacken the labor movement by causing a disturbance at the parade. Ten deaths and forty injuries resulted from the explosion in the midst of the Preparedness Day parade.
Police held Mooney incommunicado and without counsel for six days, during which time they attempted to interrogate him. Mooney declined to speak, invoking his right to counsel some forty-one times. At the grand jury proceedings, both Mooney and Billings were still without counsel, and were not permitted to shave or clean up before appearing before the grand jury. The defendants refused to testify in protest of having been denied counsel. After the grand jury returned an indictment, Tom and Rena Mooney, Billings, Israel Weinberg, and Ed Nolan were charged with murder. The show trial that followed was conducted in a lynch mob atmosphere, and featured several witnesses whose testimony was allegedly coached by the prosecutors. Charles Fickert, the district attorney, and the police discounted the testimony of witnesses whose descriptions did not fit Mooney and Billings, or whose description of the bombing did not support the DA's theory that Mooney had planted a suitcase bomb. Mooney and Billings eventually retained a well-known San Francisco criminal attorney, Maxwell McNutt, as their defense counsel.
In a set of trials, Billings was tried first in September 1916 and was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment. Tom Mooney was tried in January 1917 and was convicted and sentenced to hang. Rena Mooney and Weinberg were both acquitted, and Nolan was never brought to trial but released two months after Tom Mooney's conviction.
Due to worldwide agitation, from Mexico City to Petrograd in the Soviet Union, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson became involved. Without informing Mooney's defense committee, Wilson telegraphed California Governor William Stephens asking him to commute Mooney's sentence to life imprisonment, or at least stay the impending execution.
Years later, a Mediation Commission set up by Wilson found no clear evidence of his guilt, and his death sentence was commuted. By 1939, evidence of perjury and false testimony at the trial had become overwhelming. California Governor Culbert Olson pardoned both men. Ansel Adams wrote about meeting Thomas Mooney in his autobiography. Adams was a young boy at the Panama-Pacific International Exhibition, where Mooney was working. Adams later wrote, "In my memory he is a kind and gentle man." Other artists were inspired by the campaign to Free Tom Mooney, including Woody Guthrie.
Oklahoma mine disaster
Also on this day in labor history, a massive mine explosion left nearly 100 dead in Krebs, Oklahoma, in 1892. The disaster, the worst mining catastrophe in Oklahoma's history, was mainly due to the mine owner's emphasis on profits over safety.
Southeastern Oklahoma was a prime location for mining at the turn of the 19th century. Much of the land belonged to Native Americans and thus was exempt from U.S. federal government laws and regulations. Although the mining company's indifferent attitude toward safety was well-known, there were more than enough immigrants in the area willing to work in the dangerous conditions at the Krebs mine, where most miners were of Italian and Russian descent.
The Osage Coal & Mining Company's No. 11 mine was notorious for its poor conditions. This led to a high turnover of workers, and the company routinely hired unskilled labor, providing little in the way of training to get them up to speed. This was true for even the most dangerous jobs, like handling explosives and munitions.
In the early evening of January 7, several hundred workers were mining the No. 11 mine when an inexperienced worker accidentally set off a stash of explosives. Approximately 100 miners were burned or buried in the explosion. Another 150 workers suffered serious injuries. Nearly every household in Krebs was directly affected by the tragedy.
It wasn't until 2002 that the victims of the Krebs mining disaster were honored by a memorial built at the site of the old mine.
Photo: Demonstrators demand the release of Tom Mooney and Warren Billings in San Francisco in 1931. (San Francisco History Center, SF Public Library/via foundsf.org) | <urn:uuid:d84d20e9-3b79-4d67-9f88-108763510864> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://peoplesworld.org/today-in-labor-history-labor-radical-tom-mooney-freed/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00142-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977993 | 1,059 | 2.5625 | 3 |
In coal mining, firedamp is a flammable and explosive gas emitted by coal seams. It is composed mostly of methane (natural gas, CH4) but also contains some hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide, and occasionally a little ethane. Firedamp has caused many disastrous pit explosions; it is detectable with a Davy lamp (after Humphry Davy), the flame of which elongates when the gas is present.
Related category• INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
Home • About • Copyright © The Worlds of David Darling • Encyclopedia of Alternative Energy • Contact | <urn:uuid:11e8abe2-7a6d-4e7b-80da-a3795b9f75af> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/F/firedamp.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.903216 | 118 | 3.125 | 3 |
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SARAH FERGUSON, PRESENTER: In Yokohama, Japan today the United Nations released its latest report on the impacts of climate change, its first in seven years.
Opening the event, the chairman of the International Panel on Climate Change asked this question: "Why should the world pay attention to this report?" His answer; "Nobody on this planet is going to be untouched by the impacts of climate change."
In an effort to galvanize local debate, the IPCC has broken down specific risks right across the world. For Australia, the report predicts with a high level of confidence the decline of the Great Barrier Reef, flooding and widespread damage to coastal areas from rising seas.
Professor Chris Field from Carnegie Institute in the US is one of the two lead authors. He describes the knowledge contained in this report as the top of a gigantic pyramid of scientific knowledge.
Professor Field joins us from the IPCC conference in Yokohama where he's been much in demand all day.
Chris Field, thank you very much for speaking to 7.30.
CHRIS FIELD, INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE: Thank you, Sarah.
SARAH FERGUSON: Now, seven years have passed since the last report of this kind. What are the scientists telling us now about the changes to the climate that have already occurred, those changes - the real-time effects?
CHRIS FIELD: Thanks very much. Let me start out by saying that the IPCC is not trying to galvanise public opinion, the IPCC is trying to provide a unbiased picture of what we know and what we don't know about impacts, adaptation and vulnerability to climate change. And what we know is that we have seen consequences of the climate changes that have already occurred that are widespread and substantial. We've seen these consequences impacts that have been attributed to climate change on every continent and in the oceans from the equator to the poles and from the coast to the mountains. We've seen impacts on food systems, on economic systems and on human societies.
SARAH FERGUSON: Let's talk about those food systems because this is one of the key elements in this work, that is, the threat to food security. And you say that it's already happening. That's confusing for some people because they hear that yields at the same time are still rising. Where are those threats being seen and where will they continue to be seen?
CHRIS FIELD: The agricultural enterprise worldwide since the 1960s has been one of the tremendous success stories of the 20th Century. Year-on-year, yields have increased by something like two per cent. But they've been increasing by less than that recently, and based on a number of very careful, thorough statistical analyses, researchers are now able to see that for at least two of the world's major food crops, wheat and maize, the increases in yields year-on-year have slowed, partly as a consequence of climate change.
SARAH FERGUSON: And is that something that is universally observable? Are we talking about very specific areas where those crops are being grown - and only some of them, I mean?
CHRIS FIELD: So the drag, the anchoring effect of climate change in making it more and more difficult to increase yields is something we're seeing at the global basis. I'm sure there are some places where there are still yield increases, but there are other places that are offsetting those where yields are decreasing. This idea that we're seeing slower-than-expected yield increases is emerging at the global scale.
SARAH FERGUSON: But we're not just talking about - this isn't any longer about modelling; this is about already-observable facts?
CHRIS FIELD: Absolutely. That's one of the really different things about this report than what the IPCC has said in the past. The impacts of changes that have already occurred are widespread and consequential.
SARAH FERGUSON: There is an element of localism. I take your point about it not being a galvanising instrument, but at the same time, you have broken down the effects. In Australia we're looking particularly at permanent damage to our Reef - our reefs, in fact, not just one reef. What happens here if the warming that is currently locked in continues?
CHRIS FIELD: Well, warm water coral reefs are one of the world's ecosystems that's most threatened and especially threatened by the combination of a warming climate and acidification of the ocean waters. Acidification occurs as an unavoidable consequence of an increase in the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere. And there's clear evidence, summarised in the report, about how the combination of high temperature and increased acidification creates overall impacts that tend to be more serious than just the sum of the parts. It's one of the key risk areas and many of the simulations indicate that we could see widespread loss of warm water coral reef ecosystems by the middle of this century.
SARAH FERGUSON: One of the things you had to live through with the last report was one particular error in relation to melting in the Himalayas. That must've been a very - how frustrating in fact was that for you in terms of communicating the things you were trying to communicate?
CHRIS FIELD: The IPCC is an amazing enterprise. It involves the direct work of hundreds of scientists who are interacting with thousands of colleagues around the world to do the best job they can do to distil the scientific information into the most understandable, most useful threads for policymakers. And it is really difficult to make sure that no errors at all creep into a report. The Himalayan Glacier error was unavoidable, but it was really serious and we've tried to double check and triple check and quadruple check everything in this report. We're really confident that we've provided information that is robust and useable.
SARAH FERGUSON: Just to stay with the critics for a brief moment, the press, including myself, have woken up to the comments of Richard Tol, who I think started saying last year that in his view the risks were being overstated and he asked for his name to be withdrawn. Is it true that the risks as he stated them, his views, were ignored?
CHRIS FIELD: Richard is an author of the report. He's one of the co-ordinating lead authors of the chapter on key economic sectors and services and he was up on the podium just yesterday explaining the findings in his chapter to the collected group of all the world's governments. You know, the IPCC does a really good job of representing the considered evaluation of the entire scientific community. It doesn't represent the opinions of any individual and I can tell you with confidence that every individual thinks the report would be better if it put more emphasis on his or her own research. The idea is that we have a process that brings together all the scientific information to create an accurate picture of what we know and what we don't know. Every individual will have a personal interpretation that's somewhat different, but the real value of the IPCC is being able to present a comprehensive, community-wide overview of the things we know.
SARAH FERGUSON: And just briefly, 'cause we're nearly out of time, but in terms of the next couple of years and what lies ahead, how critical is making decisions, comprehensive global decisions in those two years? Briefly, if you would.
CHRIS FIELD: You know, what the report concludes is that the risks of climate change are much greater on a pathway with continued high emissions than they are on a pathway with ambitious investment in decreasing greenhouse gas emissions. The way the report characterised it is that the risks of impacts that are severe, pervasive and irreversible is much greater if we stay on a path of continued high emissions.
SARAH FERGUSON: I appreciate, Dr Field, on such a busy day, you taking the time to talk to Australia. We have of course a great interest in the subject. Thank you.
CHRIS FIELD: Pleasure to speak with you. Thank you. | <urn:uuid:a3c3cf94-dbd8-4c2d-8026-67a8b3376640> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mobile.abc.net.au/news/2014-03-31/climate-change-effects-already-widespread-and/5357628?pfm=sm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00099-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970581 | 1,688 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Arkansas Annual Temperatures and Records
Avg High Temp
Avg Low Temp
Avg Annual Temp
|Avg # days => 90F||Avg # days <= 32F||Record High Temp||Record Low Temp|
Arkansas Temperature Records
- Hottest temperature ever recorded: 120 F, Ozark, northwest Arkansas, 8/10/1936
- Coldest temperature ever recorded: -29 F, Pond, northeast Arkansas, 2/13/1905
- Hottest city ranked by highest average annual temperature: Texarkana, southwest Arkansas, 64.6 F
- Coldest city ranked by lowest average annual temperature: Mammoth Spring, northern Arkansas, 56.7 F
- Little Rock, Arkansas endured its hottest summer ever in 2010, with an average temperature from
June - August of 85.8 F (average is 80.7). The city broke the all-time record for most consecutive
days equal to or above 90 degrees with 60 days, beating the previous record of 57 set in 1980. 117 total
days equal to or above 90 F from June - August was also an all-time record.
- During the summer of 1936, The United States endured its worst heat wave on record. Ozark, Arkansas
exceeded 100 F every day from August 3 - 23.
Average temperatures show little variation over the state of Arkansas. Temperatures vary more from northwest to southeast in the winter rather than in the summer. Maximum temperatures exceed 100 degrees Fahrenheit (° F) at times, especially during July and August and particularly at valley stations in the highlands. The winters are short, but cold periods do occur. In the northern part of the State, temperatures of 0° F or lower occasionally occur in January and February and 0 F has also been recorded along the southern border.
averages and extremes, precipitation and temperature data for all U.S.
states and Top 10
U.S. climate extremes
Data source: National Climatic Data Center | <urn:uuid:166e8859-04bd-4eaa-bdf2-a17ca4f3a233> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://coolweather.net/statetemperature/arkansas_temperature.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.887828 | 405 | 2.703125 | 3 |
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As a facilitator, you bring three things to your practice: knowledge, skills, and Self.
Knowledge is a grounding in and working familiarity with the body of theory, research, concepts, and models pertaining to the field of group facilitation. This is the knowledge we gain from books, journals, conversations, dialogues, seminars, and other forms of study and learning.
Skills are the practiced ability to act on, carry out, and support the actions and interventions prescribed by the theory that is in our knowledge base. This involves things like listening, presenting, observing, sensing, supporting, challenging, and diagnosing. Skills are developed through experiential learning; apprenticeships; and practice, practice, practice.
The Self is everything we are -- our beliefs, values, and life experiences as they become manifest in our attitudes, needs, and motives. In all of life, and especially in group facilitation, our Self determines our ability to use our knowledge and skills.
Of these three, the Self is the most important. No matter how much we know or how hard we practice, if we are blocked in applying the knowledge and skills we have developed it will adversely impact our performance as facilitators. Conversely, there are people who, because of who they are, have a seemingly natural talent for helping a group achieve results even without the theory, even the first time they get in front of a group.
Use your presence to set a mood and tone for the meeting. If you are calm, the group will be calm. If you are hopeful, the group will be hopeful. If you are choiceful about when to intervene and what process to use and getting the group to agree to process issues, the group will be mindful of process. If you trust, the group will be trustworthy. If you play mind games, the group will play mind games. If you look for hidden meanings and subterfuges, they will be there. But if you are very clear in your communications and take the statements of others at their face value, they will begin to communicate clearly as well. | <urn:uuid:f626f406-f760-4e97-882c-ae77ac0d03e5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.unctv.org/content/bemorediverse/ownintervention | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393093.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00051-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94713 | 458 | 2.890625 | 3 |
For Immediate Release
Office of the Press Secretary
January 16, 2004
Religious Freedom Day, 2004
By the President of the United States of America
America is a land of many faiths, and the right to religious freedom is a foundation of our Nation. On Religious Freedom Day, Americans acknowledge the centrality of their faith and reaffirm that the great strength of our country is the heart and soul of our citizens.
Religious Freedom Day celebrates the passage of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom on January 16, 1786. Thomas Jefferson, drafter of the legislation, considered it one of his three greatest accomplishments, along with writing the Declaration of Independence and founding the University of Virginia. Recognizing the importance of faith to our people, our Founding Fathers guaranteed religious freedom in the Constitution.
Protecting our religious freedom requires the vigilance of the American people and of government at all levels. Within my Administration, the Department of Justice is acting to protect religious freedom, including prosecuting those who attack people or places of worship because of religious affiliation. The Depart-ment of Education has issued new guidelines that allow students to engage in constitutionally protected religious activity in public schools. These guidelines protect, for example, students' rights to say a prayer before meals in the cafeteria, to gather with other students before school to pray, and to engage in other expressions of personal faith.
Through my Faith-Based and Community Initiative, my Administration continues to encourage the essential work of faith-based and community organizations. Governments can and should support effective social services, including those provided by religious people and organizations. When government gives that support, it is important that faith-based institutions not be forced to change their religious character. In December 2002, I signed an Executive Order to end discrimination against faith-based organizations in the Federal grants process. In September 2003, in implementing this order, my Administration eliminated many of the barriers that have kept faith-based charities from partnering with the Federal Government to help Americans in need. Six Federal agencies have proposed or finalized new regulations to ensure that no organization or beneficiary will be discriminated against in a Federally funded social service program on the basis of religion.
NOW, THEREFORE, I, GEORGE W. BUSH, President of the United States of America, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and laws of the United States, do hereby proclaim January 16, 2004, as Religious Freedom Day. I urge all Americans to reflect on the blessings of our religious freedom and to observe this day through appropriate events and activities in homes, schools, and places of worship.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand this sixteenth day of January, in the year of our Lord two thousand four, and of the Independence of the United States of America the two hundred and twenty-eighth.
GEORGE W. BUSH
# # # | <urn:uuid:210efb2b-875f-4f46-b901-909fa0d70bd8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2004/01/print/20040116-15.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00031-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946694 | 586 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Occurrence records accessible through GBIF now present richer information following the release of a new version of the GBIF portal.
Users of the portal can access many more fields of information in the detailed occurrence record pages. This has been made possible thanks to the new distributed technologies recently adopted by GBIF, allowing use of multiple servers.
Previous versions of the portal displayed only about 30 of the 150 terms from the Darwin Core standard, whereas visitors to the portal can now access other details made available by the publisher. These include information such as sampling methodology, collectors’ names and field notes.
As an example, an occurrence record of a Plum fruited yew published by the Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh, provides in-depth notes of the habitat in which the plant was collected in Chile. Another page related to a record of a lichen specimen from a Kansas herbarium includes the recorders’ names and information about the soil conditions and other information on the location where the specimen was collected.
Downloads of these newly ‘widened’ occurrences contain all published information on each of the records.
A much-requested feature over the past year has been the ability to search occurrences by type status. Types refer to physical specimens kept in a museum or herbarium to which the name of that organism is formally attached. This information is therefore of critical importance to taxonomic researchers. The filter is now available on the occurrence search page, and allows queries such as the records designated as a Holotype.
The release is the first of a two-stage process to improve information available via the GBIF portal. The next release of the portal in the coming weeks will enable users to view images, and access audio and video files associated with occurrence records.
For more information please contact: | <urn:uuid:594fbd69-6292-4adf-b9f1-7bb9e47a4a4a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gbif.org/page/3076 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923067 | 368 | 2.578125 | 3 |
October 30, 2003: A mysterious arc of light found behind a distant cluster of galaxies has turned out to be the biggest, brightest, and hottest star-forming region ever seen in space. The so-called Lynx arc is 1 million times brighter than the well-known Orion Nebula, a nearby prototypical star-birth region visible with small telescopes. The newly identified super-cluster contains a million blue-white stars that are twice as hot as similar stars in our Milky Way galaxy. It is a rarely seen example of the early days of the universe where furious firestorms of star birth blazed across the skies. The spectacular cluster's opulence is dimmed when seen from Earth only because it is 12 billion light-years away.See the rest:
The super star-birth region is 12 billion light-years away. It is very faint as seen from Earth. Astronomers only came across the megacluster because its image was brightened and magnified as the light traveled toward Earth.
On its way to Earth the star-birth region's light passed near a foreground cluster of galaxies 5.4 billion light-years away. The gravity of the cluster bent and brightened the image, just like the lens in a magnifying glass does.
There are no such regions in our Milky Way or in nearby observable galaxies. The largest known star-birth clusters in our galaxy are the Arches clusters in the galactic center, the Carina Nebula in the constellation Fornax, and the 30 Doradus cluster in the Large Magellanic Cloud. These clusters contain only hundreds or thousands of super-hot stars, so they are a fraction of the size of this megacluster.
Analysis of the color and of the intensity of light coming from the megacluster offers clues. The light started out as ultraviolet light from the hottest stars and was stretched to red light. The hotter a star is, the bluer it is, and the more massive it is. So, these are the most massive stars seen in the universe.
It was easier to make stars over 100 times the mass of our Sun in the early universe. These early generation stars were made almost purely of primordial hydrogen and helium. There were fewer heavier elements in the early universe because they had not been cooked up in stars. Heavier elements help cool a cloud to contract and form a star. A lot more gas was needed to build stars when there were fewer heavier elements. Many of the stars turned out to be hundreds of times as massive as our Sun.
The megacluster's stars would have exploded in a crescendo of about a million supernova explosions. The heavier elements created by these stars were blasted back into space. Some of this material may have formed second-generation stars. The megacluster's surviving stars may have coalesced with other clusters to form the earliest galaxies. | <urn:uuid:01e1edd0-528d-48fc-95d8-6a879b2ffb5d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2003/32 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956072 | 583 | 3.96875 | 4 |
Issue Date: March 28, 2016 | Web Date: March 25, 2016
Carbon dioxide hydrogenated to methanol on large scale
Manufacturers generally produce methanol, a key chemical building block and fuel, from petroleum-derived syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Direct hydrogenation of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide would be a more efficient and environmentally sustainable route to methanol. But practical catalysts capable of making this reaction happen on an industrial scale have been unavailable.
Scientists had shown earlier that indium oxide catalyzes the direct hydrogenation of CO2 to CH3OH on a lab scale. Javier Pérez-Ramírez of ETH Zurich and coworkers now demonstrate that zirconium oxide-supported In2O3 catalyzes the process under conditions similar to those required for industrial production (Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2016, DOI: 10.1002/anie.201600943).
The supported catalyst can convert CO2 and H2 to CH3OH over at least 1,000 hours of continuous use and outperforms most other hydrogenation catalysts. The researchers proved experimentally that oxygen vacancies on the catalyst surface make the reaction possible—a mechanism predicted by theoretical calculations from a team led by Qingfeng Ge of Southern Illinois University and Tianjin University (ACS Catal. 2013, DOI: 10.1021/cs400132a).
The ETH Zurich group optimized the reaction by adding CO to the starting materials and varying the temperature, both of which tuned the number of vacancies. The technique is “a long-sought breakthrough with the potential to realize continuous CO2 conversion to methanol on a commercial scale,” Ge says.
Pérez-Ramírez and coworkers have filed patent applications on the technology in collaboration with French energy firm Total, which has started pilot studies of the process.
- Chemical & Engineering News
- ISSN 0009-2347
- Copyright © American Chemical Society | <urn:uuid:c3438748-b6be-4933-8431-dde27156c306> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cen.acs.org/articles/94/i13/Carbon-dioxide-hydrogenated-methanol-large.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.89252 | 408 | 2.734375 | 3 |
MOTHER EARTH READERS share observations about a recent calving article, discussing the problems with hip-lock, pulling the calf during delivery, and general information on bovine labor.
DARYL ANN KYLE:
Eleanor Wrigley's "Report from Alberta, Canada" (MOTHER EARTH NEWS NO.
31) mentioned the problem of "hip-lock" in calving. May I
offer a suggestion gleaned from a dairy farmer for
whom I milked cows? He kept Holsteins and was breeding a
lot of the heifers to exotic beef sires. Now, granted, a
Holstein heifer is pretty big as heifers go, but the calves
were still large enough to cause trouble during birth . . .
One day my dairyman boss told me the following: The average
cow's pelvis is not equally wide and deep, and many
hip-locked calves will slip out easily if their bodies can
be turned 90 degrees. This method also helps alleviate the
damage to the hips of the calf which is often caused by
forceful pulling . Although I didn't deliver any
of the young myself, 1 often watched my employer as he used
the above procedure with good success.
Eleanor's suggestion that a cow be bred for offspring of
the correct size is surely the safest way to an easy
delivery. Problems can, however, arise with any first-calf
heifer — including the homesteader's cherished
milker-to-be — and the technique of turning the
hiplocked fetus is easy and safe for the beginner.
(Incidentally, readers who are raising their own cattle can
surely benefit by the use of artificial insemination. Sires
are of the highest quality, fees are reasonable, and
inseminators are readily available in rural areas. Ask your
county extension agent for help in locating this service.)
Once a calf is safely born, MOTHER's children may wish to
preserve its mother's beneficial colostrum ("first milk")
for the young animal's use instead of eating it themselves.
The colostrurn may be refrigerated for a week or more, or
frozen and kept for months . . . and it's wise to have a
few quarts in the freezer in case your calf gets sick.
Small amounts of this vital food mixed with water will
often bring dramatic improvement. The same frozen supply is
equally handy for starting lambs that are orphaned at
Colostrum can also be pickled. Find a large plastic or
unchipped enamel container or crock, put what you don't
feed of the first three milkings into the bowl, and let the
accumulation stand at room temperature. It will sour and
begin to smell like yeast dough (don't use it until this
point is reached). The thickened fluid can then be stored
in a cool — not freezing — place. At feeding time,
mix one part pickled colostrum and one part hot water to
make warm milk.
By the way, my father has fed pigs skim milk clabbered with
yogurt starter and swears by it. He just sets out a barrel,
puts in milk and a bit of yogurt, and then adds fresh milk
daily. The bacteria change over the course of time with
this method, so every now and then he starts fresh with a
new yogurt culture (from store or home). We're going to
prepare the same food for chickens with our extra skim milk
as soon as our beautiful cow Ida calves. (We admit to
hoping for twin heifers . . . nothing like optimism!)
Speaking of chickens . . . experience has taught me that
feeding them whey without additional water gives the poor
birds diarrhea. And if you use a heat lamp in the henhouse
to encourage laying in cold weather — as Eleanor
describes — try a red one. Our flock has a lengthened
day through a timed white light, but the red heat lamp
stays on all the time during chilly periods and egg
production has remained steady all winter.
Eleanor Wrigley's "Report from Alberta, Canada" (MOTHER EARTH NEWS NO.
31) is discouraging enough to deter even the most eager
homesteader front obtaining a cow, because of the "calving
problem". This is all wrong, since in the vast majority of
cases human interference is not necessary or even wise.
Most often, when correct presentation is evidenced, the
worst thing one can do is intervene and probably botch up a
Modern methods of "assistance" during bovine labor are
analogous to hospital delivery of human babies by knocking
the mother cold and yanking out the child with forceps. If
you don't concur with the latter, then why practice the
former on your innocent four-footed companion ?
Patience is a virtue in calving, just as it is in human
delivery. Precipitous action can only lead to tragedy.
The first stage of bovine labor (dilation of the cervix)
generally takes up to six hours or more, while the second
stage (expulsive) occupies up to another six hours. The
time span from the moment the feet appear at the vulva to
the emergence of the tongue and subsequently the nose will
seem interminable if you don't know that it's quite normal.
Give the cow a chance to deliver her own baby.
As for the calf-puller, it not only looks like something
left over from a medieval torture chamber . . . it is. It
should be banned from the face of the earth. Farmers have a
way of attaching the instrument to the calf the moment its
legs appear at the vulva and then literally ripping the
young out of the mother, doing irreparable damage to the
cow by tearing her cervix.
True cases of hip-lock are probably much rarer than is
imagined. Breeding a heifer to a Charolais or Friesian
(Holstein) bull is one of its causes.
When hip-lock does occur, force is completely
contraindicated. Simply rolling the cow onto her back and
over to her opposite side, and then offering gentle
assistance, will bring about delivery in around 50 percent
of such cases. Another form of aid consists of rotating the
calf on its own axis to effect its release. If nothing
works and a vet is available, he might have to cut up the
calf within the cow (embryotomy) to save the latter's life.
The solution is never a matter of "just a little more
There is only one circumstance in which more than a single
strong person should pull on a calf to deliver it. That
exception is a posterior presentation . . . and even then
it's not necessary to panic and start yanking immediately.
Not until full cervical dilation is effected should gentle
pulling, one leg at a time, be undertaken. When the entire
hind end of the calf is outside the vulva, get those strong
onlookers to help you . . . and quickly. The umbilical cord
will rupture at this point and you have 30 to 40 seconds to
deliver a live baby. You can't hurt the mother because the
widest part of the fetus is already through the cervix and
In cases other than posterior presentation, the umbilical
cord rarely ruptures before the calf's head is well outside
the vulva . . . provided that steady, brute, outside force
has not been used. Thus the best way to protect both
mother's and offspring's life is not by speed or strength,
but by an educated policy of non- or limited interference.
Within reason, there is no need to muddle in on bovine
labor.. . any more than you would deny a woman her right to
natural delivery. If you're convinced by Lester D.
Hazzell's Commonsense Childbirth, then you'll find
equal satisfaction in Calving the Cow and Care
of the Calf by the TV Vet (this letter owes everything
to him). It's the best book I've ever read on the subject
and includes hundreds of marvelous photographs: normal
calving, Caesarean section, etc. This work — by one of
England's top vets — is available for about $7.50 from
Farming Press Ltd., Suffolk, England.
I've read the chapter from Farming for
Self-Sufficiency reprinted in MOTHER EARTH NEWS NO. 27, and would
like to add some important points to remember when a cow is
calving . . . a very beautiful occasion, but also very
One of the first signs that a cow is about to give birth is
a dropping in of the sides of the tail just above the
pelvis. Labor should then begin, and the water
bag — which lubricates and cushions mother and young
before and during delivery — should appear shortly
thereafter. (You'll know what it is as soon as you see it.)
Should two hours pass after the early signs without the
appearance of the water bag or any indication of calving,
it's time to find out what's wrong. A cow which is let go
much longer than that becomes exhausted and also exhausts
the calf. If the mother is too worn out to continue with
the birth process, you may lose both her and her baby.
"Diving in" — as the Seymours describe — to correct
a wrong presentation is insane unless you know exactly what
to do and how to do it. If you happen to scratch or damage
the uterus with your hand or one of the calf's feet, your
cow might not be able to calve anymore . . . and could
possibly die. A veterinarian should he called, if possible,
to straighten things out. Yes, that costs money, but it's a
heck of a lot less expensive than a dead or injured animal.
When pulling a calf, always apply the force more downward
than backward or straight out. The fetus must follow the
direction of the birth canal, or a broken back could
result. (The drawing will show you what I mean.) Remember
also to pull one foreleg ahead of the other so that the
shoulders move through the pelvis separately rather than
both at the same time.
Once the cow begins to calve with your assistance, keep
pulling constantly and firmly. If you stop, the calf's hips
will sometimes (not always) become lodged in the pelvis...
and "hip-lock" is a difficult situation to remedy.
This may sound like a lot to remember, but all the things
I've mentioned are worth knowing if you have to use them
even once. Of course — as John and Sally say — if
you don't breed a heifer too young or too small, and if
she's properly fed and not fat, there should be no
difficulty in calving.
It's also good to know that an injection of vitamins A, D,
and E (3 cc when the calf is one day old) gives the newborn
a real boost against infection and disease.
The above information was gained by watching 150 calves
being born and assisting in at least 50 births over a
period of three months. I hope it helps someone. | <urn:uuid:2a665afb-a847-45d5-9787-0b8f8d9a9f8b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.motherearthnews.com/homesteading-and-livestock/calving-hip-lock-bovine-labor-zmaz75mjzgoe.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940483 | 2,436 | 2.609375 | 3 |
The indicators in this report are based on information drawn from a variety of independent data sources, including national surveys of students, teachers, principals, and postsecondary institutions, and data collection from federal departments and agencies, including the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the National Center for Education Statistics, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Office of Postsecondary Education, the Office for Civil Rights, and the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Each data source has an independent sample design, data collection method, and questionnaire design or is the result of a universe data collection. Universe data collections include a census of all known entities in a specific universe (e.g., all deaths occurring on school property). Readers should be cautious when comparing data from different sources. Differences in sampling procedures, populations, time periods, and question phrasing can all affect the comparability of results. For example, some questions from different surveys may appear the same, but were asked of different populations of students (e.g., students ages 12–18 or students in grades 9–12); in different years; about experiences that occurred within different periods of time (e.g., in the past 30 days or during the past 12 months); or at different locations (e.g., in school or anywhere).
Findings described in this report with comparative language (e.g., higher, lower, increase, and decrease) are statistically significant at the .05 level. The primary test procedure used in this report was Student's t statistic, which tests the difference between two sample estimates. The t test formula was not adjusted for multiple comparisons. Estimates displayed in the text, figures, and tables are rounded from original estimates, not from a series of rounding.
The following is a description of data sources, accuracy of estimates, and statistical procedures used in this report. | <urn:uuid:2c554547-d778-4f41-8f07-1139ff10e29f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://nces.ed.gov/programs/crimeindicators/technotes.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00105-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93061 | 377 | 2.578125 | 3 |
The purpose of a battery is to
store energy and release it at the appropriate time in a controlled
manner. In this section we examine the discharge under different C-rates
and evaluate the depth to which a battery can safely be discharged. We
also observe how deep discharges affect battery life.
What is C-rate?
The charge and discharge
current of a battery is measured in C-rate. Most portable batteries are
rated at 1C. This means that a 1000mAh battery would provide 1000mA for
one hour if discharged at 1C rate. The same battery discharged at 0.5C
would provide 500mA for two hours. At 2C, the 1000mAh battery would
deliver 2000mA for 30 minutes. 1C is often referred to as a one-hour
discharge; a 0.5C would be a two-hour, and a 0.1C a 10-hour discharge.
The capacity of a battery is commonly measured with a battery analyzer.
If the analyzer's capacity readout is displayed in percentage of the
nominal rating, 100% is shown if a 1000mAh battery can provide this
current for one hour. If the battery only lasts for 30 minutes before
cut-off, 50% is indicated. A new battery sometimes provides more than
When discharging a battery
with a battery analyzer that allows the setting of different discharge
C-rates, a higher capacity reading is observed if the battery is
discharged at a lower C-rate and vice versa. By discharging the 1000mAh
battery at 2C, or 2000mA, the analyzer is scaled to derive the full
capacity in 30 minutes. Theoretically, the capacity reading should be
the same as with a slower discharge, since the identical amount of
energy is dispensed, only over a shorter time. Due to internal energy
losses and a voltage drop that causes the battery to reach the low-end
voltage cut-off sooner, the capacity reading may be lowered to 95%.
Discharging the same battery at 0.5C, or 500mA over two hours may
increase the capacity reading to about 105%. The discrepancy in capacity
readings with different C-rates is related to the internal resistance of
One battery that does not
perform well at a 1C discharge rate is the portable sealed lead-acid. To
obtain a reasonably good capacity reading, manufacturers commonly rate
these batteries at 0.05C or 20 hour discharge. Even at this slow
discharge rate, a 100% capacity is hard to attain. To compensate for
different readings at various discharge currents, manufacturers offer a
capacity offset. Applying the offset to correct the capacity readout
does not improve battery performance; it merely adjusts the capacity
calculation if discharged at a higher or lower C-rate than specified.
batteries are electronically protected against high load currents.
Depending on battery type, the discharge is limited to between 1C and
2C. This protection makes the lithium ion unsuitable for biomedical
equipment and power tools demanding high inrush currents.
Depth of discharge
end-of-discharge voltage for nickel-based batteries is 1V/cell. At that
voltage level, roughly 99% of the energy is spent and the voltage starts
to drop rapidly if the discharge continued. Discharging beyond the
cut-off voltage must be avoided, especially under heavy load.
Since the cells in a
battery pack cannot be perfectly matched, a negative voltage potential,
also known as cell reversal, will occur across a weaker cell if the
discharge is allowed to continue uncontrolled. The more cells that are
connected in series, the greater the likelihood of cell reversal
Nickel-cadmium can tolerate
some cell reversal, which is typically about 0.2V. During that time, the
polarity of the positive electrode is reversed. Such a condition can
only be sustained for a brief moment because hydrogen evolution on the
positive electrode leads to pressure build-up and possible cell venting.
If the cell is pushed further into voltage reversal, the polarity of
both electrodes is being reversed and the cell produces an electrical
short. Such a fault cannot be corrected.
Some battery analyzers
apply a secondary discharge (recondition) that discharges the battery
voltage to a very low voltage cut-off point. These instruments control
the discharge current to assure that the maximum allowable current,
while in sub-discharge range, does not exceed a safe limit. Should cell
reversal develop, the current would be low enough not to cause damage.
Cell breakdown through recondition is possible on a weak or aged pack.
If the battery is
discharged at a rate higher than 1C, the end-of-discharge point of a
nickel-based battery is typically lowered to 0.9V/cell. This compensates
for the voltage drop induced by the internal resistance of the cells,
wiring, protection devices and contacts. A lower cut-off point also
produces better capacity readings when discharging a battery at cold
Among battery chemistries,
nickel-cadmium is least affected by repeated full discharge cycles.
Several thousand charge/discharge cycles are possible. This is why
nickel-cadmium performs well on power tools and two-way radios that are
in constant use. nickel-metal-hydride is less durable in respect to
repeated deep cycling.
discharges to 3.0V/cell. The spinel and coke versions can be discharged
to 2.5V/cell to gain a few extra percentage points. Since the equipment
manufacturers do not specify the battery type, most equipment is
designed for a 3-volt cut-off.
A discharge below 2.5V/cell
may put the battery's protection circuit to sleep, preventing a recharge
with a regular charger. These batteries can be restored with the Boost
program available on the Cadex C7000 Series battery analyzers.
Some lithium-ion batteries
feature an ultra-low voltage cut-off that permanently disconnects the
pack if a cell dips below 1.5V. A very deep discharge may cause the
formation of copper shunt, which can lead to a partial or total
electrical short. The same occurs if the cell is driven into negative
polarity and is kept in that state for a while.
Manufacturers rate the
lithium-ion battery at an 80% depth of discharge. Repeated full (100%)
discharges would lower the specified cycle count. It is therefore
recommended to charge lithium-ion more often rather than letting it
discharge down too low. Periodic full discharges are not needed because
lithium-ion is not affected by memory.
end-of-discharge voltage for lead-acid is 1.75V/cell. The discharge does
not follow the preferred flat curve of nickel and lithium-based
chemistries. Instead, Lead-acid has a gradual voltage drop with a rapid
drop towards the end of discharge.
The cycle life of sealed
lead-acid is directly related to the depth of discharge. The typical
number of discharge/charge cycles at 25ºC with respect to the
depth of discharge is:
150 - 200 cycles with 100%
depth of discharge (full discharge)
400 - 500 cycles with 50%
depth of discharge (partial discharge)
1000 and more cycles with
30% depth of discharge (shallow discharge)
The lead-acid battery should not be discharged beyond 1.75V per cell,
nor should it be stored in a discharged state. The cells of a discharged
lead-acid sulfate, a condition that renders the battery useless if left
in that state for a few days. Always keep the open terminal voltage at
2.10V and higher.
What constitutes a
There are no standard
definitions that constitute a discharge cycle. Smart batteries that keep
track of discharge cycles commonly use a depth-of-discharge of 70% to
define a discharge cycle. Anything less than 70% does not count. The
reason of the cycle count is to estimate the end-of-battery life.
A battery often receives
many short discharges with subsequent recharges. With the smart battery,
these cycles do not count because they stress the battery very little.
On satellites, the depth-of-discharge is only about 10%. Such minute
discharge cycles put the least amount of stress on the batteries in
space. With shallow discharges, however, nickel-based batteries require
a periodic deep discharge to eliminate memory.
Lithium and lead-based
batteries do not require a periodic full discharge. In fact, it is
better not to discharge them too deeply but charge them more often.
Using a larger battery is one way to reduce the stress on a battery. | <urn:uuid:235c8aa5-2e4e-4425-bd39-134bdcf9a2e0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.caplamp.org/Knowledge/Discharge_methods.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00002-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.88218 | 1,884 | 3.84375 | 4 |
- Prayer and Worship
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- About USCCB
We are one human family whatever our national, racial, ethnic, economic, and ideological differences. We are our brothers’ and sisters’ keepers, wherever they may be. Loving our neighbor has global dimensions in a shrinking world. At the core of the virtue of solidarity is the pursuit of justice and peace. Pope Paul VI taught that “if you want peace, work for justice.”1 The Gospel calls us to be peacemakers. Our love for all our sisters and brothers demands that we promote peace in a world surrounded by violence and conflict.
God blessed Israel so that all nations would be blessed through it.
Living in right relationship with others brings peace.
Peace be with you! For the sake of the Lord, I will seek your good.
Blessed are the peacemakers, they will be called children of God.
Be reconciled to one another before coming to the altar.
Living rightly means to love one another.
1 Corinthians 12:12-26
If one member of Christ’s body suffers, all suffer. If one member is honored, all rejoice.
Above all, clothe yourself with love and let the peace of Christ reign in your hearts.
[Solidarity] is not a feeling of vague compassion or shallow
distress at the misfortunes of so many people, both near and far. On
the contrary, it is a firm and persevering determination to commit
oneself to the common good; that is to say, to the good of all and of
each individual, because we are all really responsible for all. On Social Concern (Sollicitudo rei Socialis), #38
At another level, the roots of the contradiction between the solemn affirmation of human rights and their tragic denial in practice lies in a notion of freedom which exalts the isolated individual in an absolute way, and gives no place to solidarity, to openness to others and service of them. . . It is precisely in this sense that Cain's answer to the Lord's question: "Where is Abel your brother?" can be interpreted: "I do not know; am I my brother's keeper?" (Gen 4:9). Yes, every man is his "brother's keeper", because God entrusts us to one another. The Gospel of Life (Evangelium Vitae), #19
We have to move from our devotion to independence, through an understanding of interdependence, to a commitment to human solidarity. That challenge must find its realization in the kind of community we build among us. Love implies concern for all - especially the poor - and a continued search for those social and economic structures that permit everyone to share in a community that is a part of a redeemed creation (Rom 8:21-23). Economic Justice for All, #365
Interdependence must be transformed into solidarity, based upon the principle that the goods of creation are meant for all. That which human industry produces through the processing of raw materials, with the contribution of work, must serve equally for the good of all. . . On Social Concern (Sollicitudo rei Socialis),#39
To love someone is to desire that person’s good and to take effective steps to secure it. Besides the good of the individual, there is the good that is linked to living in society: the common good. It is the good of “all of us”, made up of individuals, families and intermediate groups who together constitute society. … To desire the common good and strive towards it is a requirement of justice and charity. Charity in Truth (Caritas in Veritate), #7
The solidarity which binds all men together as members of a common family makes it impossible for wealthy nations to look with indifference upon the hunger, misery and poverty of other nations whose citizens are unable to enjoy even elementary human rights. The nations of the world are becoming more and more dependent on one another and it will not be possible to preserve a lasting peace so long as glaring economic and social imbalances persist. On Christianity and Social Progress (Mater et Magistra), #157
It is good for people to realize that purchasing is always a moral — and not simply economic — act. Hence the consumer has a specific social responsibility, which goes hand-in- hand with the social responsibility of the enterprise. Consumers should be continually educated regarding their daily role, which can be exercised with respect for moral principles without diminishing the intrinsic economic rationality of the act of purchasing… It can be helpful to promote new ways of marketing products from deprived areas of the world, so as to guarantee their producers a decent return. Charity in Truth (Caritas in Veritate), #66
By accepting this message, you will be leaving the website of the
United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. This link is provided
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States Conference of Catholic Bishops assumes no responsibility for,
nor does it necessarily endorse, the website, its content, or | <urn:uuid:ff9c6bad-b228-4759-8a9c-5f33f490ef62> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://usccb.org/beliefs-and-teachings/what-we-believe/catholic-social-teaching/solidarity.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00041-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.936849 | 1,059 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Construction of NPP is not a significant risk for the environment and safety of the population; as compared with the total risks, its contribution is very low. The topic of nuclear accidents is however closely followed by the media because its consequences generally hit a larger number of people at once, just like a transport aircraft accident. In the case of statistical representation of the number of deaths per GWh produced, nuclear energy is however not more dangerous than other forms of energy production and industrial activity.
The risk of any human industrial activity can never be excluded 100%. The objective is to minimize these potential risks.
Nuclear energy is carefully monitored and controlled above-standard as compared with other human activities, which may also lead to loss of human life.
Accidents at the nuclear power plants at Three Mile Island (USA, 1979), Chernobyl (USSR, 1986), Fukushima (Japan, 2011) became the impetus for the introduction of additional technical and organizational safety measures focused on increasing safety for the population. The Fukushima NPP withstood spontaneous forces that were not counted on at the time of its design. In connection with the radiation, the accident in Fukushima is not directly associated with even a single loss of life; all the reactors were shut down automatically. The impacts rather concern the mental condition of the evacuated persons.
In the nuclear energy sector, the blocks currently represent the Best Available Techniques (BAT). These are the newest NPP projects that unlike the previous generations manifest higher technological, safety and economic parameters.
Current power plants that are ranked in the generation II category form the backbone of world's nuclear energy and their technical condition usually makes it possible to extend operations beyond the initial project assumptions. More than half the blocks comprise type PWR light-water reactors (which include the VVER blocks built in the former Czechoslovak Socialist Republic and continue in operation in the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic). The power plants currently use the best available techniques based on proven generation II technical solutions with a number of evolutionary elements. The major differences as compared with the 2nd generation are:
- standardised design that shortens the licensing period for the individual power plants, the essential investment costs and construction time,
- simplified, but at the same time, safer and more robust design that allows easier operation and increasing operating reserves,
- higher availability (90% and above), higher net efficiency (up to 37%) and longer service life (minimum 60 years),
- lower accident risk with substantial damage to the reactor core (substantially below 10-5/year),
- higher resistance to external impacts,
- allowance for higher spending of the fuel (higher fuel utilisation of up to 70 GWd/tU) and reduction of the potential volume of generated waste,
- extension of the time the fuel remains in the reactor core by usage of burnable absorbers (by up to 24 months).
By improvement of existing systems (e.g. higher pressure resistance of the containment building, usage of dual containment for higher protection against circulation in containment and external impacts) the probability of melting of the nuclear core and massive leak has been reduced by at least one stage as compared with generation II reactors. At the same time, the hypothetical impacts of accidents on the environment have been reduced.
Primary safety target
New nuclear power plants will be designed to ensure compliance with basic safety objectives in line with the latest requirements of the International Atomic Energy Agency IAEA. The fundamental safety objective is to protect people, society and the environment against the adverse effects of ionizing radiation.
The fundamental safety objectives will be considered in all phases of the nuclear facility, i.e. planning, siting, design, production, construction, commissioning, operation through retirement, including the transport of radioactive materials and radioactive waste management.
Primary safety requirements
Nuclear power will be implemented in accordance with the legislation of the Czech Republic as well as the current internationally recognized safety requirements relevant to nuclear technology. The mandatory requirements are as follows:
- The laws and implementing legislation of the Czech Republic, including international treaties and conventions to which the Czech Republic is a party.
- Safety Standards of the IAEA (at the level of basic safety principles and safety requirements of the IAEA SF-1, IAEA SSR) and WENRA safety requirements.
For a new nuclear power source the following radiological criteria, which are based on the most advanced WENRA, IAEA and ICRP requirements, among other things, shall apply:
- during normal and abnormal operation of a new nuclear power plant, the authorized limits for emission of radionuclides into the environment shall not be exceeded; for a representative person, the optimisation dose limit that relates to radiation from the discharges of all operated blocks in one location,
- no event during which the core does not melt will lead to the release of radionuclides requiring the safeguard measures of sheltering, iodine prophylaxis and evacuation of residents anywhere in the vicinity of the new nuclear power plant,
- for a postulated accident with core melting, such design measures shall be taken so that evacuation of the immediate vicinity is not necessary and long-term restrictions in food consumption need not be implemented; accidents with core melting, which could lead to early or large leaks shall be practically excluded. | <urn:uuid:791c80ac-d3ad-4e1a-8860-332bef655575> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cez.cz/en/power-plants-and-environment/nuclear-power-plants/temelin/potential-completion-of-the-temelin-nuclear-power-plant/safety.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00159-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938611 | 1,081 | 3.453125 | 3 |
SCIENCE IN THE NEWS DAILY
In Study, Drug Delays Worsening of Breast Cancer, With Fewer Side Effects
from the New York Times (Registration Required)
CHICAGO -- A drug that delivers a powerful poison to tumors without some of the side effects of traditional treatments can delay the worsening of breast cancer and also appears to substantially prolong lives, according to results of a study presented here [the American Society of Clinical Oncology] Saturday.
Besides representing an advance in treating breast cancer, the success in the clinical trial validates an idea that is now being pursued by numerous pharmaceutical companies to treat various types of cancer in a way that delivers drugs to cancerous cells while sparing healthy ones.
"We've envisioned a world where cancer treatment would kill the cancer and not hurt the patient," Dr. Kimberly L. Blackwell, a professor of medicine at the Duke Cancer Institute and the lead investigator in the trial, said in an interview. "And this drug does that." | <urn:uuid:40ba5e11-6f12-4629-96e1-5029fcde6d16> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.americanscientist.org/science/id.15747,content.true,css.print/science.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397696.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9335 | 201 | 2.65625 | 3 |
pay » play
Spotted in the wild:
- He who plays the piper calls the tune: The future of university finance (policyexchange.org.uk)
- The ethics are really guided by the idiom of “he who plays the piper calls the tune.” This is power disguised under good intentions. (link)
- [Daniel arap] Moi said the adage “he who plays the piper calls the tune” mirrors exactly the relationship between developed and developing countries. (link)
- SHOULD HE WHO PLAYS THE PIPER ALWAYS CALL THE TUNE? (African Financing Review)
Analyzed or reported by:
- Ken Lakritz (on this site)
The proverb “He who pays the piper calls the tune” or variants with _play_ substituted for _pay_ are sometimes used in ways the sense of which is not immediately clear:
* Once a private corporation screws up they have to play the piper and watch their corporation sink like the Titanic.(link)
* As I once played the piper I must now pay the count
So saida to Moyhammlet and marhaba to your Mount!
(James Joyce, Finnegan’s Wake)
* iTUNES: HE WHO PLAYS THE PIPER MAKES A LOSS (link)
On the shift in meaning the saying has undergone, an excerpt from the essay _Should He Who Pays the Piper Call the Tune?_ by Margaret Atkins (footnote omitted):
> The simple phrase ‘pay the piper’ predates the longer version by some centuries. It was used simply to mean ‘bear the cost’, with no reference at all to controlling the piper’s playing. Thus the Earl of Chesterfield, writing to his son about his hopes for peace in Europe, said, ‘The other powers cannot well dance, when neither France nor the maritime powers can, as they used to do, pay the piper’. In other words, war is unlikely, because no one will foot the bill. This usage remains alongside others right into the late twentieth century. Even when the phrase ‘call the tune’ or ‘choose the tune’ is added, the resulting proverb is not, at first, used to control the piper, but rather to emphasise the rights of the payer as against others who might be enjoying the piper’s playing. Mr Evan Spicer, for example, argued, in a debate on the constitution of a public water authority for London, that as London ratepayers were paying for the water supply their council should have full control of it, rather than share control with the chairmen of outside councils: ‘Londoners had paid the piper and should choose the tune’.
_Play the piper_ is also used to refer to an act of enticing unsuspecting victims and leading them into danger, as in the folk tale of the Pied Piper of Hamelin. German has the idiom _nach jemands Pfeife tanzen_, to dance to someone’s pipe, often understood to allude to this tale. | <urn:uuid:1caae012-9e8a-4bb9-ab4b-968bf9f4f7a8> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://eggcorns.lascribe.net/english/430/play/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00072-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948269 | 667 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Homebuyers intending to finance a home purchase with a Federal Housing Administration (FHA) loan may be surprised to learn that they won't be allowed to purchase a particular property because it doesn't meet FHA requirements. Why do these requirements exist, what are they and can they be remedied so that buyers can purchase the homes they want? (For more, check out Understanding FHA Home Loans.)
TUTORIAL: Mortgage Basics
Why the FHA Establishes Minimum Property Standards
When a homebuyer gets a mortgage, the property serves as collateral. In other words, if the borrower stops making the mortgage payments, the lender will eventually foreclose on the borrower and take possession of the house. The lender will then sell the house to get back as much of the money it lent as possible.
Requiring that the property meet minimum standards protects the lender. It means that the property should be easier to sell, and command a higher price if the lender has to foreclose. At the same time, a borrower is more likely to stay in a home that meets minimum standards, because he or she will not be burdened with expensive home repair bills from the start. Also, borrowers will try harder to make payments during difficult financial times if the home is a pleasant place to live.
Minimum Property Standards – What Are They?
According to the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), the FHA requires that the properties financed with its loan product meet the following minimum standards:
- Safety: The home should protect the health and safety of the occupants.
- Security: The home should protect the security of the property (as explained in the previous section).
- Soundness: The property should not have physical deficiencies or conditions affecting its structural integrity.
It then describes the conditions the property must meet to fulfill these requirements. An appraiser will observe the property's condition during the required property appraisal, and report the results on the FHA's appraisal form. (Property appraisals are one of many requirements buyers fulfill before settling on a deal, for more see Housing Deals That Fall Through.)
For single-family detached homes, the appraiser is required to use a form called the Uniform Residential Appraisal Report. The form asks the appraiser to describe the basic features of the property, such as: number of stories, year it was built, square footage, number of rooms and location. It also requires the appraiser to "describe the condition of the property (including needed repairs, deterioration, renovations, remodeling, etc.)" and asks, "Are there any physical deficiencies or adverse conditions that affect the livability, soundness or structural integrity of the property?" The condominium unit appraisal form is similar but has condo-specific questions about the common areas, homeowners association, number of owner-occupied units and so on.
The FHA does not require the repair of cosmetic or minor defects, deferred maintenance and normal wear if they do not affect the safety, security or soundness. The FHA says that examples of such problems include, but are not limited to, the following:
- Missing handrails
- Cracked or damaged exit doors that are otherwise operable
- Cracked window glass
- Defective paint surfaces in homes constructed post-1978
- Minor plumbing leaks (such as leaky faucets)
- Defective floor finish or covering (worn through the finish, badly soiled carpeting)
- Evidence of previous (non-active) wood destroying insect /organism damage where there is no evidence of unrepaired structural damage
- Rotten or worn out counter tops
- Damaged plaster, sheetrock or other wall and ceiling materials in homes constructed post-1978
- Poor workmanship
- Trip hazards (cracked or partially heaving sidewalks, poorly installed carpeting)
- Crawl space with debris and trash
- Lack of an all weather driveway surface
There are many areas where the FHA does require problems to be remedied in order for the sale to close. Here are some of the most common issues homebuyers are likely to face. (If you are buying a home, check out Top Tips For First-Time Home Buyers.)
Electrical and Heating
- The electrical box should not have any frayed or exposed wires.
- All habitable rooms must have a functioning heat source (except in a few select cities with mild winters).
Roofs and Attics
- The roofing must keep moisture out.
- The roofing must be expected to last for at least two more years.
- The appraiser must inspect the attic for evidence of possible roof problems.
- The roof cannot have more than three layers of roofing.
- If the inspection reveals the need for roof repairs and the roof already has three or more layers of roofing, the FHA requires a new roof.
The water heater must meet local building codes, and must convey with the property.
Hazards and Nuisances
A number of conditions fall under this category. They include, but are not limited to, the following:
- Contaminated soil
- Proximity to a hazardous waste site
- Oil and gas wells located on the property
- Heavy traffic
- Airport noise and hazards
- Other sources of excessive noise
- Proximity to something that could explode, like a high-pressure petroleum line
- Proximity to high-voltage power lines
- Proximity to a radio or TV transmission tower
The property must provide safe and adequate access for pedestrians and vehicles, and the street must have an all-weather surface so that emergency vehicles can access the property under any weather conditions.
Any defective structural conditions and any other conditions that could lead to future structural damage must be remedied before the property can be sold. These include defective construction, excessive dampness, leakage, decay, termite damage and continuing settlement. (For more tips on buying a home, read 10 Worst First-Time Homebuyer Mistakes.)
If an area of the home contains asbestos that appears to be damaged or deteriorating, the FHA requires further inspection by an asbestos professional.
The home must have a toilet, sink and shower. (This might sound silly, but you'd be surprised what people will take with them when they're foreclosed on.)
Anecdotal evidence suggests that the FHA requires properties to have working kitchen appliances, particularly a working stove. However, FHA documents do not mention any requirements regarding appliances.
This is not an exhaustive list. For additional information, consult the Department of Housing and Urban Development's Homeownership Center Reference Guide.
Homebuyer Remedies for Properties Below Minimum Standards
What's a homebuyer to do if they fall in love with a property that has one of these potentially deal-killing problems?
The first step should be to work with the seller. Ask them to make the needed repairs. If the seller can't afford to make any repairs, perhaps the purchase price can be increased so that the sellers will get their money back at closing. Usually, things work the other way around - if a property has significant problems, the buyers will request a lower price to compensate. However, if the property is already priced below the market or if the buyer wants it badly enough, raising the price to get the repairs completed and the transaction closed could be an option.
If the seller is the bank, they may not be willing to make any repairs. In this case, the deal is dead. The property will have to go to a cash buyer or a non-FHA buyer whose lender will allow them to buy the property in the present condition.
Many homebuyers will simply have to keep looking until they find a better property that will meet FHA standards. This can be frustrating, especially for buyers with limited funds and limited properties in their price range. Unfortunately, sometimes it is the only solution.
Some homebuyers may be able to get approved for a different loan product. A non-FHA loan may provide more leeway on what condition the property can be in, but the lender will still have its own requirements, so this is no guarantee. Another option is to apply for a FHA 203(k) loan, which allows the purchase of a fixer-upper with significant problems. (Learn more in An Introduction To The FHA 203(k) Loan and Applying For An FHA 203(k) Loan.)
FHA loans make it easier for borrowers to qualify for a mortgage, but they don't necessarily make it easier to buy a property. FHA borrowers who know what to expect when home shopping can restrict their search to properties that are likely to meet FHA guidelines, or at least avoid getting their hearts set on a fixer-upper property before having it appraised. | <urn:uuid:d6a4d2e7-dc74-4d00-a9c3-2e1c01936af7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.investopedia.com/articles/mortgages-real-estate/11/fha-minimum-property-standards.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00035-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.941766 | 1,818 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Artist Unknown (Mexican, 18th century),
Our Lady of Guadalupe
, 18th century
oil on copper, 16 7/8 x 12 7/8 in.; 42.9 x 32.7 cm
Gift of E. Kingman, 1957.113
Our Lady of Guadalupe is the most venerated religious image in Mexican culture. According to tradition, in 1531 the Virgin Mary twice appeared to an Indian named Juan Diego near Mexico City, instructing him to have the bishop of Mexico build a church at the spot. When presented to the bishop, roses that Juan Diego had been told to carry in his tilma (cloak) fell out and a miraculous image of the Virgin, clothed in the sun and standing on the moon, was found imprinted on the garment. This image, preserved in the Basilica of Guadalupe, became the model for countless copies, such as this one. | <urn:uuid:5c18d6cb-2e73-4db5-9194-42feddfd0eb9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.joslyn.org/collections-and-exhibitions/permanent-collections/latin-america/artist-unknown-our-lady-of-guadalupe/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00103-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.976915 | 190 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Grade ThreeVisual and Performing Arts: Music Content Standards.
1.0 ARTISTIC PERCEPTION
Processing, Analyzing, and Responding to Sensory Information Through the Language and Skills Unique to Music
Students read, notate, listen to, analyze, and describe music and other aural information, using the terminology of music.
Read and Notate Music
- 1.1 Read, write, and perform simple rhythmic patterns using eighth notes, quarter notes, half notes, dotted half notes, whole notes, and rests.
- 1.2 Read, write, and perform pentatonic patterns, using solfege.
Listen to, Analyze, and Describe Music
- 1.3 Identify melody, rhythm, harmony, and timbre in selected pieces of music when presented aurally.
- 1.4 Identify visually and aurally the four families of orchestral instruments and male and female adult voices.
- 1.5 Describe the way in which sound is produced on various instruments.
- 1.6 Identify simple musical forms (e.g., AABA, AABB, round).
2.0 CREATIVE EXPRESSION
Creating, Performing, and Participating in Music
Students apply vocal and instrumental musical skills in performing a varied repertoire of music. They compose and arrange music and improvise melodies, variations, and accompaniments, using digital/electronic technology when appropriate.
Apply Vocal and Instrumental Skills
- 2.1 Sing with accuracy in a developmentally appropriate range.
- 2.2 Sing age-appropriate songs from memory, including rounds, partner songs, and ostinatos.
- 2.3 Play rhythmic and melodic ostinatos on classroom instruments.
Compose, Arrange, and Improvise
- 2.4 Create short rhythmic and melodic phrases in question-and-answer form.
3.0 HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT
Understanding the Historical Contributions and Cultural Dimensions of Music
Students analyze the role of music in past and present cultures throughout the world, noting cultural diversity as it relates to music, musicians, and composers.
Role of Music
- 3.1 Identify the uses of music in various cultures and time periods.
Diversity of Music
- 3.2 Sing memorized songs from diverse cultures.
- 3.3 Play memorized songs from diverse cultures.
- 3.4 Identify differences and commonalities in music from various cultures.
4.0 AESTHETIC VALUING
Responding to, Analyzing, and Making Judgments About Works of Music
Students critically assess and derive meaning from works of music and the performance of musicians according to the elements of music, aesthetic qualities, and human responses.
Analyze and Critically Assess
- 4.1 Select and use specific criteria in making judgments about the quality of a musical performance.
- 4.2 Create developmentally appropriate movements to express pitch, tempo, form, and dynamics.
- 4.3 Describe how specific musical elements communicate particular ideas or moods in music.
5.0 CONNECTIONS, RELATIONSHIPS, APPLICATIONS
Connecting and Applying What Is Learned in Music to Learning in Other Art Forms and Subject Areas and to Careers
Students apply what they learn in music across subject areas. They develop competencies and creative skills in problem solving, communication, and management of time and resources that contribute to lifelong learning and career skills. They also learn about careers in and related to music.
Connections and Applications
- 5.1 Identify the use of similar elements in music and other art forms (e.g., form, pattern, rhythm).
Careers and Career-Related Skills
- 5.2 Identify what musicians and composers do to create music. | <urn:uuid:498f34ab-be6d-4b7b-9c9d-52d8f690d4bf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.cde.ca.gov/be/st/ss/mugrade3.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.868632 | 798 | 4.3125 | 4 |
Cracked (fissured) heels are deep splits in the skin on the rim of the heel. Cracked heels are seen more commonly in the winter months when the air is dry. Cracked heels can be deep enough to bleed and become infected. Cracked heels are more common in people who are moderately to severely obese and are seen equally in men and women. Cracked heels are common between the ages of 20-60 years of age.
The symptoms of cracked heels vary based upon the depth of the crack and the thickness of the surrounding callus. As the heel callus grows thicker, there is a greater tendency for the callus to split or fissure. Fissures can be quite painful, bleed and become infected.
Cracked heels form at the junction of the two types of skin, glabrous and hairy skin. Glabrous skin is the thicker skin found on the bottom of the foot. Hairy skin is on the top of the foot. Glabrous and hairy skin come together at the rim, or junction of the side and bottom of the heel. For most people, the rim is a smooth transition between these two types of skin. When excessive weight is carried on the feet, the rim of the heel becomes an abrupt turn caused by excessive load applied to the heel. This abrupt turn creates a mechanical stimulus and irritation of the skin which results in the formation of callus around the rim of the heel.
Heel fissures are formed by a unique mechanism that is very different from the manner in which most callus is formed. As an example, think of the pad of the heel being much like a water balloon. As the heel strikes the ground, the walls of the heel stretch much like a water balloon would when filled and set upon a flat surface. Tension occurs in the rim of the heel each time the heel strikes the ground. The skin reacts to this tension by forming callus. Repeated tension on the callus causes the callus to crack. This cycle of callus formation and potential cracking repeats itself with each step.
Cracks of the heel can become so deep and problematic that they bleed and become infected. Cracked heels can be particularly dangerous for those people who lack sensation in their feet such as diabetics.
Causes and contributing factors
Contributing factors for cracked heels include dry skin, obesity and diabetes. Flip-flops an open heel shoes also tend to be a contributing factor.
The differential diagnosis for cracked heels includes;
Heel fissures have no cure and therefore require ongoing care. Care may include periodic debridement with a safety razor, callus file or pumice stone. Softening the callus by soaking or following a shower may be helpful. Creams that contain softening agents such as lanolin, sal acid or urea help to soften thick heel fissures between debridements. Heel cushions can be used by day to redistribute the weight of the heel over a larger, softer surface area.
When to contact your doctor
Heel callus and cracked heels can usually be managed at home. If you develop deep cracks and require care, please be sure to consult your podiatrist or family doctor for debridement of callus and suggestions for care.
References are pending.
Author(s) and date
Competing Interests - None
Peer Reviewed - This article is peer reviewed by an open source editorial board. Your comments and suggestions to improve this paper are appreciated.
Cite this article as: Oster, Jeffrey. Cracked Heels. http://myfootshop.com/article/cracked-heels
Most recent article update: December 23, 2015.
Cracked Heels by Myfootshop.com is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported License. | <urn:uuid:8e58c2ce-5f48-4aca-a567-d9ca449a09fa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.myfootshop.com/article/cracked-heels | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00130-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92726 | 790 | 3.390625 | 3 |
|Date:||23 June 2014|
|Authors:||Ellen Greaves , Lindsey Macmillan and Luke Sibieta|
|Publisher:||Institute for Fiscal Studies|
The research for this report was carried out jointly with the Institute of Education.
Disadvantaged pupils have higher academic attainment in London than in other regions in England and have pulled even further ahead over the past decade, particularly in inner London. This has often been referred to as the ‘London effect’. In new IFS research published today, we show that this higher level and improvement in performance is unlikely to have been driven by improvements in secondary schools. Instead, we argue that the roots of the London effect lie much earlier, with rapid improvements in pupil performance in London’s primary schools in the late 1990s and early 2000s. | <urn:uuid:2754b651-4083-4a50-b75f-cf689e67f6c0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ifs.org.uk/publications/7246 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00192-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966391 | 173 | 2.546875 | 3 |
egrep is actually same as grep -E, it interpret PATTERN as an extended regular expression. Therefore ESCAPE ( \ ) is not needed for certain symbol.
ls is a common tool for listing file that matches the keyword.
Regular expression (RE) is a very important and useful to manipulating strings and text. In this example, I would like to introduce few RE symbols.
Asterisk ( * ) – This matches any number (including ZERO) of repeats of the character string.
This will return files with filename: file123, file1234, file 1223444.
Dot ( . ) – This will matches any one character, but except newline.
This will return files with filename: file1234q, file12345, but not file1234
Caret ( ^ ) – This indicate begin of line, but sometimes it indicate negative too.
Dollar Sign ( $ ) – This indicate end of line, but sometimes it indicate value of variable too.
If you want to grep “void” at the begin of lines, you do this:
egrep "^void" myhello.c
If you want to grep “)” at the end of lines, you do this:
egrep "\)" myhello.c
You need to put escape because “)” is a special symbol.
To filter out the blank lines, you do this:
grep -v "^$" mysetting.conf | <urn:uuid:1a5d0b3e-cf33-4f6b-b811-9a98ff5902bb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://linux.byexamples.com/archives/92/regular-expression-with-egrep-and-ls/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.862783 | 310 | 3.359375 | 3 |
Flashcards are great for memorizing. They break topics down into learnable chunks, develop random-access knowledge, and turn learning into a game with visual progress. Flashcards also make it easier for people to learn together, testing each other on concepts.
We’ve been teaching the kids in the study group using flashcards for multiplication facts, fractions, and the Greek alphabet. We also teach them how to use cognitive theory to improve learning–well, perhaps not in those words. For example, when J- wants to help her friends learn the Greek alphabet (having handily mastered recognition herself), we encouraged her to cycle through letters in small sets (5 to 7 characters at a time) instead of running through all the letters in one go. It’s the same technique we used when they were learning the multiplication table.
J- also shared the mnemonics she used to remember many of the Greek letters. For example, she described λ as “Lambda, like Mary had a little lamb, going down a hill.” They’re quickly developing in-jokes, too, like the way V- calls α Pisces, they call Μ big mu, and ω makes the kids laugh.
W- and I have our own flashcards: Dutch, in preparation for our upcoming trip, and Latin, because we’re learning that too. Electronic flashcards offer convenience, of course, but paper flashcards are so much more fun.
In this week’s study group, we plan to teach the kids about the Leitner system for flashcard efficiency. I found out about the Leitner system by reading the comments in the Emacs flashcard.el mode years ago, when I was learning Japanese. The Leitner system optimizes learning by reducing the repetitions for cards you know well and increasing the repetitions for cards you answer incorrectly. It works like this:
Start with your flashcards in one group (group 1). Review the cards in a group. If you answer a card correctly, move it to one group higher. If you answer a card incorrectly, move it back to group 1. Repeat with each group of cards. When you answer a card in group 5 correctly, you can archive the card until you want to do a general review again. This weeds out the cards that you can correctly answer five times in a row and lets you focus on the cards that you can’t consistently answer.
I think the Leitner system is really cool. It’s an elegant algorithm with a physical implementation. Neat! | <urn:uuid:eca9459b-c8d8-4a50-859f-868267c6cc10> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://sachachua.com/blog/2011/04/29/?bulk=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945995 | 535 | 3.71875 | 4 |
Every winter, like clockwork, the flu returns. It infects millions of us — nearly 5 to 20 percent of the U.S. population alone, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) [source: CDC].
The flu is a respiratory illness caused by the influenza virus. The flu is not the same as a cold, although they share many of the same symptoms. Flu symptoms can include any or all of the following:
- Body aches
- Runny nose and/or congestion
These symptoms, although uncomfortable, are generally not dangerous. But the flu also weakens the immune system, leaving it vulnerable to more serious infections. High-risk individuals in particular are susceptible to serious complications, such as:
- Bacterial pneumonia
- Sinus problems and ear infections (primarily in children)
- Worsening of preexisting conditions, such as asthma or diabetes
The flu may also be referred to as “strain A” or “strain B.” After the flu virus was first identified in the 1930s, scientists classified it into three different strains: A, B and C. Type A is the most common and most severe form of the flu. Type B is milder and less prevalent and type C viruses typically don’t cause large-scale epidemics.
The flu is highly contagious and it is spread primarily by coughing and sneezing (which people who have the flu tend to do a lot of). Every time you cough or sneeze, you release tiny droplets of fluid into the air. If some of those droplets land on the nose or mouth of a person standing nearby, that person is likely to get as sick as you are, usually within one to four days. You can also spread the virus if you touch something (like a doorknob or table) after you’ve sneezed or coughed into your hand.
If you have the flu, you’re not just contagious when you have symptoms. You can pass along the virus one day before you start sniffling and sneezing, and you can keep passing it along for seven days after you start sniffling and sneezing. Children can be contagious even beyond the seven days.
Avoiding the Flu
Experts say the best way to avoid catching the flu is to practice good hygiene during flu season. Here are a couple of tips:
- Wash your hands throughout the day with soap and warm water.
- Avoid anyone who is coughing or sneezing.
If you do get sick, you can avoid infecting others if you:
- Stay home until you’re feeling better.
- Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue whenever you cough or sneeze.
- If you have to sneeze or cough into your hands, wash them thoroughly afterward with warm water and soap.
We strongly urge our community to receive the flu shot every year to help in the prevention of spreading this virus. | <urn:uuid:ae048c40-2ec0-4005-bd1b-97ebc97a8f9a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cityofkaty.com/departments/fire-ems/office-of-emergency-management/influenza-flu/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945077 | 617 | 4.0625 | 4 |
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