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Any type of loan whether payday loans, home loans, cash advance loans, personal loans, cash loans are considered as current liability. In relation to loans, the phrase current liability is used to denote the amount which would have to be paid to pay off the loan entirely on an immediate basis. Many financial institutions include clauses in their loan agreements which ensure that any borrower paying the loan off early is subject to a penalty fee. This compensates the lender to some degree for the profit which would have been made had the borrower continued to make interest payments over the natural lifetime of the loan. Should these penalty fees be payable on early repayment of a loan, they should not be included in the calculation of current liability.
The current liability on a loan is usually significantly less than the total amount the borrower would have to pay if he or she continued to make only instalment payments on the loan and allowed it to run to its natural term. This is because of the interest which the lender is charging on the debt as the loan term runs. If the loan is paid off early, this interest need not be paid, allowing the borrower to achieve significant savings.
The current liability is usually marked on loan statements sent to borrowers under the heading “payoff amount”.
Banks are the most fundamental of all financial institutions, providing most of the core financial services needed by individuals and companies alike. At root, they are repositories for money. People and companies hold their money in bank accounts for safe-keeping, the ease and convenience with which it can be used in transactions, and because it can earn interest. Banks offer a number of account types, primarily current accounts, where the money is readily accessible but attracts only a low rate of interest, and savings accounts, where a slight delay may be involved before the money can be used but where positive balances attract a higher rate of interest.
Although banks have a physical presence in the real world, on streets and in shopping centres, increasingly fewer and fewer of their customers are ever setting foot in the bank’s offices. Most banks now allow their accounts to be managed online and ATM machines allow customers to gain immediate access to their money at all hours. Secret passwords help ensure that the person accessing the account online is the account’s rightful owner, and PIN numbers do the same for ATM transactions.
Besides bank accounts, most banks offer a wide range of financial services, including personal loans, mortgages, and, in some cases, even insurance products. ADT security is the U.S based company which provides security solutions to the banks and financial instutions in america. They are most professional and reliable name amongst the bank security systems developers.
A middle class working person can fell into economic crisis if he has to face unexpected expenses and challenges. This unexpected expenses may be telephone/mobile/electricity bills, accident or injury, vehicle accident or loan installments. The middle class working person gets in trouble because he is having no better cash assets on hand and is getting paid every month or week from the owing company. These middle class people has to live limited life due to limited income and thus their all expenses are planned according to the income. The best solution for them is to get cash advance loan upon facing economic crisis due to unexpected expenses. However the person should look at all options before getting a payday loan as there are pro’s and con’s involed too. The payday loan can help you avoid late fees on your payments and can stop your service from getting halted. The only setback i see is the charged interested rate on payday loans, which is normally around 400% APR.
Cash advance loans are also reffered as payday loans. This payday loans are structured in a way so that the borrower’s unexpected expenses can be met before his forthcoming pay day. The best lending company comes to my mind is payday one. Payday One is a lending company which is state licensed cash advances company since the year 2002. They offer great rate guarantee, and have a quick 24hr turnaround. One can apply to payday one online from home or office, no matter where you are. And the great thing is that the payday one is having no problem with your low credit score. In my understanding it is the only company which advices clients about using a payday loan or not, i believe this is very transpernt and trustworthy thing in the corporate world.
Loan deferment occurs when the borrower temporarily stops making repayments on the loan with the full agreement of the lending institution. It is most often found in relation to student loans. Nowadays loans are easily available for higher education, executive education and executive education programs which are available in universities like caltech. Many students borrow in order to finance their courses of study at institutions of higher learning. With the skills and qualifications they acquire there, they expect to be able to earn higher incomes later in their lives. Therefore, the investment in their education seems worthwhile.
Unlike most loans, student loans are not usually repayable right away. The creditor understands that students may not be in a position to repay for some years. The circumstances under which repayments should take place and should not take place, therefore, have to be determined in advance. Some student loans permit students to defer their repayment until they are earning incomes of a sufficiently high level. This may be set at an absolute level or as a percentage of average earnings in the country generally. Some loan agreements permit students to defer repayment of their loans if they go on to postgraduate education, or to a career in the military. In addition, many student loan agreements permit students or former students to apply for deferment if they are experiencing economic hardship.
Well today we know world’s economy is slow down and many people affected with this slow down. It means that their planning are also going disturbed now and people who have higher debts on their head will face problems and it is very difficult for them to manage their debts. But there is a solution for them to use Debt Management services to manage their debts. A debt management programme is an unofficial way of communicating, between yourself and your creditors, regarding lower payments. You can find many expert services provide but I would suggest using ThriftyScot.co.uk. ThriftyScot.co.uk is one the popular service provider in UK. For all debt management questions contact their debt team for advice and help who offer free, no obligation solutions.
There are some key advantages to debt managements are:
You only make one monthly payment and this is split between all your debts.
All contact between creditors and yourself is handled by the debt management company.
You pay an amount that you can realistically afford but if your circumstances change this can be adjusted.
You will not receive any late payment fees because all transactions go through the debt management programme, and they may be able to adjust or stop any interest on your debts.
Ideal for people with with debts of less than £15,000
They also advice some points about loans. You can go for Personal loans as Personal loans are loans that are designed to be used for any purpose and are available on a secured or an unsecured basis depending on your needs, preferences, and circumstances. You can also Compare Loans on their website by filling simple form and you will get all information which you want. You can have two types of loans one is secured and other is unsecured one. An Unsecured loan is a loan which are those often available via traditional high street lenders, is available to those living with friends or family and those renting a property as well as to homeowners that prefer not to take out a secured loan. You can also find lot’s informative post to understand various terms and also use some tips too. | <urn:uuid:c7ad7cb6-9ab5-43b6-a705-a29c25b2e7c3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.finance-help-guide.com/tag/loan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00069-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9736 | 1,574 | 2.921875 | 3 |
The conversion factor for weight units grams to ounces (oz) is 0.0352739619. For troy ounces, it is 0.0321507466. To find out how many ounces in a gram, multiply by the conversion factor or simply use the converter below.
1 Gram = 0.0352739619 Ounce
1 Gram = 0.0321507466 Troy Ounce
Gram is a commonly used metric system unit of mass. It is one thousandth (1/1000) of the metric system base unit, kilogram. The abbreviation is "g".
Ounce is a mass unit in imperial and U.S. customary measurement systems. The international avoirdupois oz is commonly used in everyday life, whereas the troy ounce is used for the measurement of precious metals, gold, silver etc. The abbreviation is "oz".
For ounces to grams converter, please go to ounces to grams
For other weight units conversion, please go to Weight Conversion | <urn:uuid:c7d61929-339d-49b0-8f55-2818a00de06e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.asknumbers.com/GramsToOuncesConversion.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00153-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.824954 | 210 | 2.5625 | 3 |
The Vikings were a seafaring people from the late eighth to early 11th century who established a name for themselves as traders, explorers and warriors. They discovered the Americas long before Columbus and could be found as far east as the distant reaches of Russia. While these people are often attributed as savages raiding the more civilized nations for treasure and women, the motives and culture of the Viking people are much more diverse. These raiders also facilitated many changes throughout the lands from economics to warfare.
The Viking Age
Many historians commonly associate the term “Viking” to the Scandinavian term vikingr, a word for “pirate.” However, the term is meant to reference oversea expeditions, and was used as a verb by the Scandinavian people for when the men traditionally took time out of their summers to go “a Viking.” While many would believe these expeditions entailed the raiding of monasteries and cities along the coast, many expeditions were actually with the goal of trade and enlisting as foreign mercenaries.
The Viking Age references the earliest recorded raid in the 790s until the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. During this time, the reach of the Scandinavian people extended to all corners of northern Europe, and many other nations found Vikings raiding their coasts. The farthest reported records of Vikings were in Baghdad for the trading of goods like fur, tusks and seal fat.
A Viking raid on the monks of Lindisfarne, a small island located off the northeast coast of England, marked the start of the Viking migration from Scandinavia in 793. This location was a well-known abbey of learning, famous throughout the continent for the knowledgeable monks and its extensive library. During this raid, monks were killed, thrown into the sea or taken as slaves along with many treasures of the church, and the library itself razed. This single event set the stage for how Vikings would be perceived throughout the Viking Age: savage warriors with no respect for religion or appreciation for learning.
In the years that followed the initial raid, coastal villages, monasteries and even cities found themselves besieged by these sea-based foreign intruders. Due to the frequency of sea attacks, many developments were made in developing fortifications in the forms of walled-in harbors and sea-facing stone walls, defenses that proved to be quite effective at deterring raids.
The reason behind these attacks is a topic of debate among academics, though the reasons often stem from such things as the Christian persecution and forced baptism of pagans to reduced agricultural outputs in the Scandinavian region. Many more documented reasons might have prompted these people to leave their cold and harsh homes to seek out the means to survive elsewhere. Yet, despite how unforgiving their homeland may have been, most Vikings still returned to their homeland at the end of each season with treasure, slaves and goods to survive yet another winter.
New World Expeditions
The Vikings set up colonies on the west coast of Greenland during the 10th century. The Viking sagas tell of journeys they undertook from these Greenland colonies to the New World. They mention places named "Helluland" (widely believed to be Baffin Island), "Markland" (widely believed to be Labrador) and "Vinland" (a more mysterious location which some archaeologists believe could be Newfoundland).
At present the only confirmed Viking site in the New World is located at L'anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland. That site was excavated in the 1960s. Additionally there are three possible Viking sites that archaeologists have recently excavated in Canada. Two of the possible sites are located in Newfoundland while a third site is located on Baffin Island in the Canadian Arctic.
One possible Viking site is located at Point Rosee in southern Newfoundland; at the site, archaeologists found a possible bog iron roasting hearth beside a structure made with turf. Another possible Viking site is located at Sop's arm in Newfoundland and includes a series of "pitfalls" that would have been used to trap large animals such as caribou. These pitfalls are arranged in a straight line, and archaeologists believe that the Vikings could have driven the animals toward these pitfalls where the animals could have been trapped and killed. At the third possible Viking site, located at Nanook on Baffin Island, researchers found artifacts that may have been used in metal production and the remains of a structure that may have been built by the Vikings.
Many modern perceptions of Vikings found their origins through Catholic propaganda. Upon the sacking of multiple Christian facilities and the loss of countless relics and treasures, the Catholic ministry sought to dehumanize them. Until Queen Victoria’s rule of Britain, the Vikings were still portrayed as a violent and barbaric people. During the 19th and 20th centuries, perceptions changed to the point where Vikings were glamorized as noble savages with horned helmets, a proud culture and a feared prowess in battle.
With regards to the more popular Viking myths created through these misperceptions, the following are proven to be clearly false according to historical record:
1. Vikings wore horned helmets
Vikings traditionally went bareheaded or wore simple leather and metal-frame helmets with the occasional face guard. The idea behind horned helmets came about from the Viking revival during Victoria’s reign.
2. They were filthy and unkempt
Archaeologists find evidence on a regular basis of combs, spoons and other grooming utensils that indicate the Viking people were very keen on maintaining personal hygiene.
3. They spent all their time raiding and warring
While raiding proved an excellent source of income, many of the Vikings held farms back in their homeland that their wives maintained during Viking season. When the men returned home from a raid, they resumed their normal routine of farming.
4. Vikings were a unified army
Due to the difficult geographic location, the Scandinavian people were very spread out to conserve limited farmland. In addition, the penetration of Christianity caused many great divisions among the people still worshipping the traditional Nordic pantheon, further emphasizing the divided nature of the people.
5. They were large and heavily muscled
Due to the short summer seasons, growing crops was difficult and resources were always scarce. As a result, many of the Scandinavian people were much smaller than commonly depicted due to limited food sources.
While the living conditions in Scandinavian regions were certainly harsh and made a hard people, many Vikings suffered from the scarcity of resources and the people set up their homes over great distances with no real unified leadership. During the Viking Age, the Scandinavian people were able to make a stronger push to the outside worlds and create a reputation for themselves beyond simple barbarism. While some Vikings were driven with the lust for riches, many sought more peaceful economic relationships with the surrounding nations. | <urn:uuid:753c28c7-de2c-4ec1-b074-60e94729d32c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.livescience.com/32087-viking-history-facts-myths.html?cmpid=514627 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00071-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978178 | 1,395 | 4.125 | 4 |
The National Academy of Sciences has issued the third version of its book “Science, Evolution and Creationism,” in which it makes an effort to reconcile belief in god with acceptance of evolution.
The book, available to purchace from the National Academies Press, in very short form in this brochure from the NAS, or free in its entirety as a PDF file (if you sign in to the web site), makes the following points:
- The Theory of Evolution Has Been Repeatedly Tested and Confirmed
- Creationism Does Not Belong in the Science Classroom
- Science and Religion Offer Different Ways of Understanding the World
From a NAS press release:
Despite the overwhelming evidence supporting evolution, opponents have repeatedly tried to introduce nonscientific views into public school science classes through the teaching of various forms of creationism or intelligent design. In 2005, a federal judge in Dover, Pennsylvania, concluded that the teaching of intelligent design is unconstitutional because it is based on religious conviction, not science (Kitzmiller et al. v. Dover Area School District). NAS and IOM strongly maintain that only scientifically based explanations and evidence for the diversity of life should be included in public school science courses. “Teaching creationist ideas in science class confuses students about what constitutes science and what does not,” the committee stated.
“As SCIENCE, EVOLUTION, AND CREATIONISM makes clear, the evidence for evolution can be fully compatible with religious faith. Science and religion are different ways of understanding the world. Needlessly placing them in opposition reduces the potential of each to contribute to a better future,” the book says.
SCIENCE, EVOLUTION, AND CREATIONISM is the third edition of a publication first issued in 1984 and updated in 1999. The current book was published jointly by the National Academy of Sciences and Institute of Medicine, and written by a committee chaired by Francisco Ayala, Donald Bren Professor of Biological Sciences, department of ecology and evolutionary biology, University of California, Irvine, and author of several books on science and religion. A committee roster follows.
There is coverage of the book here at the NYT. | <urn:uuid:4a60c83a-4645-4447-a432-bfafa6f44c6f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://scienceblogs.com/gregladen/2008/01/04/nas-religion-and-science-are-c/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947081 | 443 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Copyright © 2007 by"Jim McCulloch"
All Rights reserved
Oxford - Cambridge Boat Race
The Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race is a competition between teams of eight from the two oldest universities in England and takes place every year in late March or early April. Oxford row in Dark Blues and Cambridge in Light Blues
The Oxford Cambridge Boat race or the Varsity Boat Race, started life of as a simple challenge between two college friends Charles Merivale, who was studying at Cambridge, and his schoolfriend Charles Wordsworth from Oxford. If you think Charles’s name sound familiar you are right, he was the nephew of William Wordsworth the famous English poet.
This race took place in June 1829 at Henley on Thames and this first race was won by Oxford. In 1839 the race was moved to London, and took place between Westminster and Putney. The original race was so popular that the people of Henley decided to hold their own event and that is now known as the Henley Royal Regatta.
The race continued to be held at Westminster until 1845 when it was moved to the current location, which is Westminster to Putney. This race has continued every year since then with the exception of war years.
The race was pretty evenly won by both teams until 1861, when Oxford started a long run of wins that was to last nine years. The longest winning streak was by Cambridge and they were the champions for 13 years between 1924 and 1936.
The Boat Race is said to be the toughest Eight Boat race in the world and is much tougher than Olympic races. The reasons for this are that it is over a longer distance four and a quarter miles as opposed to Olympic course at a third of that. Another reason for its legendary toughness is that it is on open water in any kind of weather that London wishes to throw at it.
There has been some cases of one or other of the boats sinking due to the heavy waves coming in to the boat. In 1912 both boats sank due to heavy waves and the race was restarted the following day with Oxford winning the rerun.
The war years were to interrupt the running of the race and it was not held between 1912 and 1919 for the First World War and 1940 and 1945 for the Second War.
The race was to be a male dominated sport until 1981 when Oxford named Sue Brown as the first ever female cox.
There was even a film made of the Boar race and this was named “True Blue”. This film came about as a result of a controversy in 1987 when some of the Oxford crew mutinied against the then Selection president over the policy of selection. Despite this problem Oxford still beat Cambridge in that years race.
Over the years there has been numerous “Clashes” between the two universities. A “Clash” is when the oars of both boats hit each other. In 2001 an Oarsman lost his oar due to a clash and the race had to be re-started.
The race starts from two stake boats moored so that the competitors' bows are in line with the University Stone on the south bank. The winner of the toss has the choice of station.
If this information has whet your appetite and you want to learn more please use the following links.
The Boat Race Official Site
Photographs from Wikipedia
Possibly The Most Dramatic Boat Race Ever
Drama abounded in the 2012 Xchanging Boat Race.
A protester swam across the front of the boats causing the race to be halted until the person was apprehended and whisked away.
After the restart the two boats came extremely close together and despite warnings from the Umpire the boats clashed and an Oxford oar was broken. This of course caused Oxford to be all but reduced to seven rowers and allowed Cambridge to pull well ahead.
At the end of the Race one of the Oxford rowers had to be removed from the boat and rushed to hospital. He is said to be stable and recovering.
What a race, no end to the drama. After the race was over Oxford filed a complaint, however the Umpire pointed out that he had warned Oxford that they were not on station and thefore declared the race a win to Cambridge.
This year, due to the events in the race, there was no prizegiving ceremony.
The 2010 Xchanging Boat Race Report
Crazy Protester almost is beheaded by Oxford's Blades.
Daughters of the British Empire in Tennessee | <urn:uuid:b0a14a46-5f8c-4516-abd8-e60b292bb459> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dbeintennessee.com/Boat_Race.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00141-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.981592 | 924 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Article by John Miller
What is Shoulder Tendonitis?
(aliases: tendinitis, tendinopathy)
Shoulder tendonitis (or tendinitis) is an inflammation injury to the tendons of your shoulder's rotator cuff. Because inflammation is not always present in injuries to the shoulder tendons, this group of injuries are medically known as a rotator cuff tendinopathy or tendinopathies.
What Causes Shoulder Tendonitis?
The most common cause of shoulder tendonitis is repeated microtrauma to the rotator cuff tendons rather than a specific one-off trauma.
Rotator Cuff Impingement, where your rotator cuff tendon impacts against the acromion bone, should not occur during normal shoulder function. However, when repeated shoulder impingement occurs, your rotator cuff tendon becomes inflamed and swollen, a condition called shoulder tendonitis.
Shoulder bursitis commonly occurs in combination with rotator cuff tendonitis.
What are the Symptoms of Shoulder Tendonitis?
Shoulder tendonitis commonly has the following symptoms:
How is Shoulder Tendonitis Diagnosed?
Your physiotherapist or sports doctor will suspect shoulder tendonitis based on your symptom history and some clinical tests.
An ultrasound scan is the preferred method of investigating a shoulder tendonitis and associated injuries such as shoulder bursitis.
X-rays do not identify shoulder tendonitis but can be useful to identify if bone spur encroachment (see picture) into the subacromial space is causing your tendonitis.
What the Prognosis for Shoulder Tendonitis?
Shoulder tendonitis is a progressive disorder that often co-exists with shoulder bursitis or bicipital tendonitis and can deteriorate into calcific tendonitis or rotator cuff tears, which may require surgery, with neglect or poor treatment.
The good news is that most shoulder tendonitis is reversible and very successfully treated.
Due to shoulder impingement being the primary cause of your shoulder tendonitis it is vital to thoroughly assess and correct your shoulder biomechanics to prevent future shoulder impingement episodes and subsequent rotator cuff tendonitis.
Your shoulder physiotherapist is an expert in shoulder assessment and biomechanical correction. For more advice, please consult your physiotherapist.
Shoulder Tendonitis Treatment
Researchers have concluded that there are essentially 7 stages that need to be covered to effectively rehabilitate shoulder tendonitis and prevent recurrence. These are:
Phase 1 - Early Injury Protection: Pain Relief & Anti-inflammatory Tips
As with most soft tissue injuries the initial treatment is Rest, Ice, and Support.
In the early phase you’ll most likely be unable to fully lift your arm or sleep comfortably. Our first aim is to provide you with some active rest from pain-provoking postures and movements. This means that you should stop doing the movement or activity that provoked the shoulder pain in the first place and avoid doing anything that causes pain in your shoulder.
Ice is a simple and effective modality to reduce your pain and swelling. Please apply for 20-30 minutes each 2 to 4 hours during the initial phase or when you notice that your injury is warm or hot.
Anti-inflammatory medication (if tolerated) and natural substances eg arnica may help reduce your pain and swelling. However, it is best to avoid anti-inflammatory drugs during the initial 48 to 72 hours when they may encourage additional bleeding. Most people can tolerate paracetamol as a pain reducing medication.
To support and protect your tendon injury, you may need to be wear a sling or have your shoulder taped to provide pain relief. In some cases it may mean that you need to sleep relatively upright or with pillow support. Your physiotherapist will guide you.
Your physiotherapist will guide you and utilise a range of pain relieving techniques including joint mobilisations, massage, acupuncture or dry needling to assist you during this pain-full phase.
Phase 2: Regain Full Range of Motion
If you protect your injured shoulder tendons appropriately the injured tissues will heal. Inflammed structures eg (tendonitis, bursitis) will settle when protected from additional damage.
Shoulder tendonitis may take several weeks to heal while we await Mother Nature to form and mature the new scar tissue, which takes at least six weeks. During this time period you should be aiming to optimally remould your scar tissue to prevent a poorly formed scar that may become lumpy or potentially re-tear in the future.
It is important to lengthen and orientate your healing scar tissue via joint mobilisations, massage, muscle stretches, and light active-assisted and active exercises. Researchers have concluded that physiotherapist-assisted joint mobilisations will improve your range of motion quicker and, in the long-term, improve your functional outcome.
In most cases, you will also have developed short or long-term protective tightness of your joint capsule (usually posterior) and some compensatory muscles. These structures need to be stretched to allow normal movement.
Signs that your have full soft tissue extensibility includes being able to move your shoulder through a full range of motion. In the early stage, this may need to be passively (by someone else) eg your physiotherapist. As you improve you will be able to do this under your own muscle power.
Your physiotherapist will guide you.
Phase 3: Restore Scapular Control
Your shoulder blade (scapula) is the base of your shoulder and arm movements. Your shoulder blade has a vital role as the main dynamically stable base plate that attaches your arm to your chest wall.
Normal shoulder blade-shoulder movement - known as scapulohumeral rhythm - is required for a pain-free and powerful shoulder function. Researchers have identified poor scapulo-humeral rhythm as a major cause of rotator cuff impingement. Any deficiencies will be an important component of your rehabilitation.
Your physiotherapist is an expert in the assessment and correction of your scapulohumeral rhythm. They will be able to help you to correct you normal shoulder motion and provide you with scapular stabilisation exercises if necessary.
Phase 4: Restore Normal Neck-Scapulo-Thoracic-Shoulder Function
You may find it difficult to comprehend, but your neck and upper back (thoracic spine) are very important in the rehabilitation of shoulder pain and injury.
Neck or spine dysfunction can not only refer pain directly to your shoulder, but it can effect a nerve’s electrical energy supplying your muscles cause weakness. Painful spinal structures from poor posture or injury doesn’t provide your shoulder or scapular muscles with a solid pain-free base to act upon.
In most cases, especially chronic shoulders, some treatment directed at your neck or upper back will be required to ease your pain, improve your shoulder movement and stop pain or injury returning.
Your physiotherapist will assess your neck and thoracic spine and provide you with the necessary treatment as required.
Phase 5: Restore Rotator Cuff Strength and Function
Your rotator cuff is the most critical group of shoulder control and stability muscles. Among other roles, your rotator cuff maintains “centralisation” of your shoulder joint. In other words, it keeps the shoulder ball centred over the small glenoid socket. This prevent impingement and dislocation injuries.
Your rotator cuff also provides the subtle glides and slides of your shoulder’s ball joint on the glenoid socket to allow full shoulder movement.
It may seem odd that you don’t attempt to restore the strength of your rotator cuff until a later stage in the rehabilitation. However, if a tendon structure is injured we need to provide nature with an opportunity to undertake primary healing before we load the structures with resistance exercises.
Having said that, researchers have discovered the importance of strengthening the rotator cuff muscles in a successful shoulder tendonitis rehabilitation program. Your rotator cuff exercises need to be progressed in both load and position to accommodate for your specifically injured rotator cuff tendon(s) and whether or not you have a secondary condition such as bursitis.
Your physiotherapist will prescribe the most appropriate rotator cuff strengthening exercises for you.
Phase 6: Restore High Speed, Power, Proprioception & Agility
If your shoulder tendonitis has been caused by sport it is usually during high speed activities, which place enormous forces on your body (contractile and non-contractile), or repetitive actions.
In order to prevent a recurrence as you return to sport, your physiotherapist will guide you with exercises to address these important components of rehabilitation to both prevent a recurrence and improve your sporting performance.
Depending on what your sport or lifestyle entails, a speed, agility, proprioception and power program will be customised to prepares you for light sport-specific training.
Phase 7: Return to Sport or Work
Depending on the demands of your chosen sport or your job, you will require specific sport-specific or work-specific exercises and a progressed training regime to enable a safe and injury-free return to your chosen sport or employment.
Sports that involve overhead arm positions such as racquet sports, throwing, bowling or swimming have high incidences of shoulder tendonitis. Your technique should ideally be assessed by your shoulder physiotherapist and/or sports coach.
Your PhysioWorks physiotherapist will discuss your goals, time frames and training schedules with you to optimise you for a complete return to sport or work.
Work-related injuries will often require a discussion between your doctor, rehabilitation counsellor or employer.
The perfect outcome will have you performing at full speed, power, agility and function with the added knowledge that a through rehabilitation program has minimised your chance of future injury.
For more specific advice about your shoulder tendonitis, please contact your PhysioWorks physiotherapist.
Common Shoulder Tendonitis Treatment Options
FAQs about Rotator Cuff Tendonitis
Helpful Products for Rotator Cuff Tendonitis
Related Rotator Cuff Injuries
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Enter Details Below to Signup: | <urn:uuid:6a6f8e0e-6d11-4684-91bc-8dfe93d55617> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.physioworks.com.au/injuries-conditions-1/rotator-cuff-tendonitis | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00061-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.909566 | 2,124 | 2.9375 | 3 |
bring up (2)
Meaning: to raise a new topic for discussion, or to mention a particular subject or issue in a conversationSynonym: introduce, raise
- bring sth up You should bring that issue up in the next staff meeting.
- bring up sth When travelling in a foreign country, you shouldn't bring up topics like religion or politics.
Nouns often used as objects with bring up (2): topic, subject, issue, matter, point
While she was in the meeting, Judy brought up
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Contributor: Matt Errey | <urn:uuid:c84d48f8-9b40-465d-b1ed-0f2f79b1a4d2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.englishclub.com/ref/esl/Phrasal_Verbs/B/bring_up_2__2110.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923834 | 126 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Knowing how much garden soil to buy to fill your planter box requires that you calculate the cubic feet that it can hold. This is the same math formula as calculating the volume of the planter box. With help from a calculator, this is not a complex math problem. Use feet as your measurement to make this calculation since most bags of soil are sold in cubic feet measurements.
Measure the length of the planter box with a tape measure. This is the longest edge of the planter box. Record this number on a piece of paper.
Measure the width of the planter box with a tape measure and write it down. The width is the shorter edge of the planter box.
Measure the depth of the planter box. This is the height from the bottom of where the soil will go to about 2 inches from the top. You don't want to fill the planter to the very top since plant roots will take up some of the volume. If you are adding stones or rocks to the bottom for drainage, then measure from the top of this layer. Again, write the number down.
Determine the volume of your planter box by multiplying the width by the length by the depth. For example, if you have a length of 5 feet, a width of 4 feet and a depth of 2 feet, the volume would be 40 cubic feet (5 x 4 x 2 = 40). This is the amount of dirt you will need to fill your raised planter box. This would equal 20 bags of soil sold in bags containing 2 cubic feet of dirt each.
Things You Will Need
- Measuring tape
- Divide the volume by 27 if you need to calculate the amount in cubic yards. | <urn:uuid:d28fe769-811b-4996-a9b9-f91fcbfec3db> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://homeguides.sfgate.com/calculate-much-soil-needed-raised-bed-planter-box-45155.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00165-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923395 | 349 | 3.03125 | 3 |
( Originally Published 1933 )
Beebread, Star Flower
This unusually pretty annual is native to Europe and North Africa and, like its relatives, the anchusas and mertensias, has flowers which reflect the deep blue of the southern skies with an underglow of pink, which, in the white borage, appears as a blush under the creamy surface. The whole plant is covered with bristly hairs.
Root. The root is single, like a taproot with rootlets growing out from it.
Stem. The stems rise up eighteen inches to two feet.
Leaf. The leaves are oval, rough, and hairy, with somewhat fluted margins. Ibn Baithar says they are shaped like ox tongues. The longest ones measure from four to six inches, and they grow smaller as they ascend the stems.
Flower. The flowers are borne in leafy clusters at the tips of the stems which bend way over so that their faces are hidden unless the plants are high on a bank, or hanging over a wall. They have a starry look; the five-pointed petals alternate with five slenderly tipped green sepals. The petals rise into a whitish-lavender crown in the center. Inside of this raised circle are purple filaments with white anthers, and within this circle is another set of stamens with black anthers. The two sets of stamens form a cone and the whole face of the flower makes a pretty pattern. The corolla lifts, whole, right out of the calyx.
Seed. The seeds are large, rough, ridged, blackish, and their base is like the base of a cone.
Variety. The blue-flowered borage is the type. There is a white-flowered variety with lighter green stems and leaves, and dark brown filaments. There are red- and violet-flowered ones, too, but so far these have eluded my diligent searching. The several plants together must make a lovely combination of color.
HISTORY AND LEGEND
The Crusaders are said to have introduced borage into Europe. Its Arabic name is abu-raj, which means, "father of sweet." The old verse, "I, borage, bring courage" comes from the Latin saying, "Ego borago gaudia semper ago."
Ibn Baithar said that borage drunk in wine made one jolly, and cooked with honey it cured hoarseness of the windpipe and larynx, and that the burnt leaves of borage were good for the sore mouths of children.
As a medicine some said it was cooling, and others that it was hot. It was given in slow fevers, presumably for its cooling properties, and on the other hand administered in cold wine as a cordial and bracer to the spirits, and above all to stimulate courage.
Quintinye grew it in Louis IV's garden and it is one of the plants mentioned by Peter Martyr as planted on Isabella Island by the companions of Columbus. It came to the American colonies quite early, but is not on John Josselyn's list.
It was grown as a bee forage.
Food. In olden days the flowers were candied as a sweetmeat and flavored cordials. The leaves have a certain mucilaginous quality and when cooked lose their bristliness and become like a dark green spinach. Most of us, however, will not get too excited over the prospect of a new spinach. The flower sprays and leafy tops were, and still are, steeped in cold drinks such as claret cup, negus, and cool tankards to which they impart a cucumbery flavor.
Separated from their calyces the corollas can be floated in cold drinks as one would maraschino cherries, and also can be used to garnish salads.
Borage flowers quickly after sowing and likes a dry, sunny exposure. It might be sown at intervals during the summer to keep a succession of bloom. It should not be sown too closely, and when the plants are up a few inches, if they are too thick, they can be thinned out. Borage can be transplanted. If the flowers are cut off the plants continue to bloom, although the stems become coarser.
It is so pretty it rightly belongs in the flower garden, and it possesses the virtue of being a good cut flower, keeping well indoors in water.
Borage is grown from seed, which keeps its vitality a long time. | <urn:uuid:c07cd4c2-b134-4f58-aabc-9e62739e8c68> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oldandsold.com/articles25/herb-gardening-20.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00113-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968262 | 953 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Location: Microfilm E 444 S52
Scope: Typewritten transcripts of oral interviews conducted with former slaves by the Federal Writers' Project, 1936-1938. Two thousand former slaves were interviewed about their families and childhood, their work as slaves, clothing and food, education, impressions of their masters, leisure and recreation, illnesses and medical care, and their impressions of Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis. They were also asked what they remembered of emancipation, the Civil War, and the Ku Klux Klan.
The microfilm collection also includes the appraisal sheets and interview evaluations with more information on the methodology and goals of the Federal Writer’s Project.
These same transcripts are available in print under the same title (General Collection E 444 F27) as well as in The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography , ed. by George P. Rawick (General Collection E 444 A45) and at Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers' Project 1936-1938, a site with the Library of Congress' American Memory Project. Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers' Project 1936-1938 also has photographs. Some of the transcripts and photographs are available at American Slave Narratives: An Online Anthology, from the University of Virginia.
How to search the collection:
The Slave Narratives microfilm collection is arranged by states. At the beginning of each state is a list of the the people interviewed in that state. The Slave Narratives: Appraisal Sheets is also arranged by state, but doesn't have a list of the people interviewed in the state. The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography has a Comprehensive Name Index (General Collection E 444 A522 1997). Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers' Project 1936-1938 can be searched by keyword, subject state and narrator (person interviewed). American Slave Narratives: An Online Anthology has an alphabetical list of the people who were interviewed.
For more information about this subject in our Library Catalog, check out
Time Period: 19th Century 20th Century
Subject keywords: African American Studies | <urn:uuid:9a3c61be-ef97-4c22-baff-b6ef1591f223> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://library.truman.edu/microforms/slave_narratives.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938137 | 436 | 2.75 | 3 |
For decades, religion was effectively ignored by practitioners and researchers concerned with development and humanitarian aid – secularist biases in conceptualising development combined with essentialist conceptions of religion as inherently conservative and reactionary left no room for religion. In fact, religion was, according to the sociologist Kurt Alan ver Beek (2000), ‘a development taboo’. He had scanned three of the most prominent journals on development and humanitarian aid in the period 1982 to 1998, finding only few references to the topic and no single articles in which religion was the main topic. In the same study, he also reviewed the policies of a number of major development agencies and NGOs, concluding that none of them had any policies on religion or spirituality.
However, in recent years, the taboo has been broken. In fact, some would even say that religion has become fashionable. Religion is on the agenda of several major donors and NGOs, just like an increasing number of researchers have taken an interest in the topic, witnessed by a wide range of conferences, seminars, articles, reports and books dealing with the topic. There are a number of reasons for this ‘religious turn’ among scholars and practitioners dealing with development and humanitarian aid.
First, events and phenomena testifying to the continued importance of religion in public life have questioned both the secularisation thesis as well as the modernisation theory often laying the ground for these assumptions. Religion has not disappeared; instead it has become even more visible, witnessed in e.g. the 1979 Iranian revolution, the emergence of the Evangelical right as a political force in the United States, the role of the Catholic church in the democratic transitions in Eastern Europe, and the growth of the Pentecostal movement in Latin America, and finally, 9.11. and the emergence of militant Islamism, to mention only a few examples.
Second, there has been a dramatic increase in the number and visibility of religious organizations involved in development and humanitarian aid, or faith-based organizations (FBOs) as they are often called. Naturally, religious organizations are not a new invention; throughout history, Catholic hospitals, Islamic foundations and Buddhist monasteries, among many others, have provided aid to the poor. However, in recent years, contemporary religious organizations such as NGOs, charities and community associations seem to have achieved particular prominence. In the US, for instance, government funding for FBOs has almost doubled from 10.5 percent in 2001 to 19.9 percent in 2005. Likewise, some of the largest international NGOs are religious (World Vision alone has an annual budget of 1.6 billion US dollars), Muslim NGOs are on the rise, and locally, religious associations and community organizations are often some of the most important service providers. In Sub-Saharan Africa, for instance, the World Bank estimates that as much as fifty percent of all health and education services are provided by FBOs.
Third, the failures of the structural adjustment programmes in the 1980s and 1990s prompted a surge of criticism from NGOs, grassroots movements and religious organizations, accusing the World Bank and other major actors for promoting a narrow economic conception of development. This resulted in a shift away from state and market-led approaches to a broader and more holistic conception of development, focusing on ‘civil society’, ‘human development’ and ‘participation’. This ‘opening of the development space’ facilitated the inclusion not only of mainstream NGOs, but also religious organizations as legitimate actors in the field of development and humanitarian aid. Later, the World Bank’s own study Voices of the Poor (2000) further cemented the importance of religious organizations by concluding that many poor people had more confidence in religious organizations than in government or secular organizations.
These, as well as other, trends and events have prompted a reconceptualisation of aid discourses and practices, encompassing, among other things, a greater recognition of religion and religious organizations as important and indispensable factors in development and humanitarian aid. As noted above, the increasing interest in the role of religion in development and humanitarian aid has shown in the establishment of various initiatives to strengthen cooperation with religious organizations, including e.g. the Dutch Knowledge Forum for Religion and Development Policy, established in collaboration between NGOs, researchers and the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs; the World Bank’s Development Dialogue on Values and Ethics; and the UK Department for International Development’s recent seminar series Faith and Development, hosted in cooperation with the Tony Blair Foundation, Islamic Relief, World Vision and Oxfam.
Parallel to such practitioner-oriented initiatives, among scholars studying development and humanitarian aid a new strand of research is emerging, focusing on religious organizations and their role in processes of development and humanitarian aid. Birmingham University in Britain, for instance, recently finalized a five-year research programme titled Religions and Development, financed by DFID. Berkley Center for Religion, Peace and World Affairs also hosts a research programme on Religion and Global Development, headed by Katherine Marshall, one of the pioneers of the field and heavily involved in the World Faiths Development Dialogue, which was established in the 1998 by then World Bank President James Wolfensohn and then Arch Bishop of Canterbury, Lord Carey of Clifton, and is now a part of the research programme. Some of the studies of religious organizations are highly normative, presenting them as tools to deconstruct and criticise current development discourses. Based on selected case studies, scholars argue that religious organizations can – and should – play a vital role in development and humanitarian aid, presenting alternative visions of solidarity, justice and social change and guaranteeing a more holistic, people-centered kind of development than the kind promoted by dominant neo-liberal approaches. Other studies attempt to take a more theoretically grounded approach, presenting general discussions of the relationship between religious organizations and development and humanitarian aid. Scholars in this vein typically focus on the elaboration of theoretical frameworks for approaching religious organizations; typologies for classifying religious NGOs; or discussions of the (in)compatibility between religious theologies and theories of development and humanitarian aid. Finally, a number of analyses explore the relationship between religious organizations and development through case studies of individual organizations. The majority of these studies are anthropological analyses of organizations involved in development and humanitarian aid, exploring the role of religion in organizational discourses, practices and structures. Others are more sociologically oriented, investigating the actions and relations of religious organizations in society.
Thus, religious organizations have become the object of a burgeoning literature, shedding light on a variety of different topics related to religious organizations and their involvement in development and humanitarian aid activities. However, there are still large gaps in this literature. Most importantly, research tends to focus on individual religious organizations and their involvement in processes of development and humanitarian aid – whether as selective evidence to support normative claims of the superiority of religious organizations, as anecdotal illustrations to theoretical frameworks on religion and development, or (in a few cases) as anthropological and sociological case studies. There is very little knowledge about the religious organizations as a group: What distinguishes them from other organizations? What characterises them as a group? And does it even make sense to consider them as a group? These questions lie at the heart of the study of religious organizations, providing the foundation upon which this field of inquiry rests. Thus, there is a need for more systematic, broad-based surveys of religious NGOs, providing empirical data and giving an overview of the field of religious organizations.
The present article attempts to contribute to filling this gap in the existing literature by providing a survey of a particular kind of religious organizations, namely international NGOs engaged in development and humanitarian aid. Based on systematic investigations of a large number of international religious NGOs, the analysis explores different dimensions of this group of organizations, asking questions such as: Who are these organizations? What are their goals? How do they organise? What do they do? Who do they cooperate with? And, most importantly, what role does their religious identity play in this?
International religious NGOs in the UN system
According to the Union of International Associations, there are approx. 33,500 international NGOs in the world. Of these, the majority are involved in activities related to development and humanitarian aid, broadly understood as including education, microfinance, relief, environmental issues, and human rights. Many NGOs involved in development and humanitarian aid have applied for and been granted consultative status at the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) in the United Nations (UN). Article 71 of UN’s Charter gives the council authority to ”make suitable arrangements for consultation with non-governmental organizations which are concerned with matters within its competence”, i.e. matters related to international economic and social development. Consultative status grants the organizations the possibility to participate in a range of UN meetings and conferences as well as to publish written (and in some cases oral) statements during these meetings and conferences, thus functioning as a way for organizations to gain influence at the UN.
Of the 3,183 NGOs with consultative status at ECOSOC, 320 can be characterised as religious (see below for a definition of what it means to be religious). It is this group of organizations that make up the object of study of the present analysis. The fact that they have been granted consultative status at ECOSOC means that these organizations are in one way or another engaged in activities related to development and humanitarian aid, and as such can be considered international development and humanitarian NGOs. Furthermore, as a major actor in international development and humanitarian aid, the UN must be assumed to attract a broad range of development NGOs, thus ensuring some degree of scope and variation in the analysis. However, this choice of focus naturally presents some limitations. Some NGOs chose not to work with the UN for ideological reasons, while others simply do not have the economic or human resources required to apply for consultative status and actively participate in the activities of ECOSOC. There is, in other words, a risk that UN-critical and resource-less NGOs are excluded from the analysis. The analysis of the religious NGOs with consultative status at ECOSOC should therefore not be seen as a general analysis of all religious NGOs involved in international development, representative of the entire field, but rather as an analysis of a specific (albeit rather large) sub-group of religious NGOs within the group of international religious NGOs.
Analysis of religious NGOs
My analysis of the religious NGOs at the UN is structured on a basic model for analysis of NGOs (table 1). Unlike many other approaches to the analysis of NGOs, the model reflects a multidimensional understanding of NGOs, simultaneously emphasising substance and function, internal self-understanding and external descriptions, organization and context. The model divides the analysis into four parts, each shedding light on different dimensions of the organization. The orientation dimension takes its point of departure in the NGO’s self-understanding, describing the goals, motivation and methods of the organization. The purpose of this part of the analysis is to understand which goals the NGO has, what motivates the organization to pursue these goals and how it plans to achieve them – in other words, how the NGO understands its own function. The organization dimension, on the other hand, focuses on the substantial characteristics of the NGO, including aspects such as age, size and origin. In this part of the analysis, point of departure is the factual, external description of the NGO’s organizational features. The third dimension – the positioning dimension – deals with the relational aspects of the NGO’s work and identity. Based on both external and internal descriptions, the analysis explores the positioning of the NGO in relation to other actors, including the state, market institutions and other actors in civil society, thus shifting focus from the organization itself to the context in which it works. Finally, the fourth dimension – religiosity – includes at once factual information regarding the organization’s religious affiliation, as well as more intangible questions regarding the role and significance of the organization’s religiosity, understood to be potentially relevant not only to specific aspects of the NGOs’ work and identity, but to all aspects. The model’s division of the religious dimension into two reflects these two differing meanings of religiosity; in the vertical column, the organization’s religious affiliation; and in the horisontal row, the potential influence of the religious dimension on the remaining dimensions. In the following, this model will provide the structuring guidelines for the analysis of religious NGOs with consultative status at ECOSOC. Due to lack of access, however, the analysis will not include systematic considerations as to the financial aspect of the organizations.
Table 1: Model for analysis of religious NGOs
|Religiosity The influence of religion on other dimensions|
Spread, size and origin
Target group, membership, representation
Relations to state institutions
Relations to market institutions
Relations to other NGOs and civil society organizations
Relations to other relevant actors
The analysis presented here builds on a detailed study of the 320 organizations, based on a survey of material written by and about the different religious NGOs, including the organizations’ own websites, brochures, text books, articles and books about the organizations and, in a few cases, personal correspondence with representatives from the organizations. Rather than minutely repeating all findings of this study, the present analysis is an attempt at sketching selected tendencies and characteristics within the group and proposing directions for future research.
As mentioned above, in the model for analysis, organizational religiosity refers to two different aspects – namely the examination of the NGOs’ religious affiliation, and the exploration of the influence of the organization’s religiosity on other aspects the organization. Whereas the latter requires more qualitative considerations throughout the whole analysis, the former can be answered through quantitative, factual investigations.
Building on organizational self-understanding, the analysis defines religious NGOs as NGOs that describe and understand themselves as religious, referring in their name, activities, mission statements or elsewhere to religious traditions, values and ideas. Based on this definition, a survey of all NGOs with consultative status at ECOSOC shows that of a total of 3,183 organizations, 320, or 10.1 per cent, consider themselves religious. As is indicated in table 2, Christian NGOs make up the majority of organizations, while both Muslim, Hindu and Buddhist NGOs are grossly underrepresented compared to the number of adherents to Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism worldwide.
Table 2: Religious affiliation
|Religious affiliation||Number of organizations||Percentage of all religious NGOs|
|Other religions||6||1.9 %|
As noted above, the orientation dimension refers to aspects such as the goals, work areas, motivation and methods of the organizations, describing the ways in which they understand their own purpose and function.
Mission and motivation</h2
For most of the religious NGOs, religion plays an important role as motivating factor, often expressed in their mission statements, outlining the overall purpose of the NGOs and describing the underlying values and principles. Thus, a survey of the 320 organizations’ mission statements shows that the vast majority mentions religion as a source of motivation and inspiration. The Christian NGO World Vision is a good example of this: “World Vision is an international partnership of Christians whose mission is to follow our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ in working with the poor and oppressed to promote human transformation, seek justice and bear witness to the good news of the Kingdom of God.” Focus on the Family is another: ”[Our mission is] to cooperate with the Holy Spirit in disseminating the Gospel of Jesus Christ to as many people as possible, and, specifically, to accomplish that objective by helping to preserve traditional values and the institution of the family.” Non-Christian NGOs display similar traits in their mission statements. Many Muslim NGOs refer to quotes from the Qur’an as well as sayings and stories of the Prophet Muhammad, expressing the religious duty to help people in need. For instance, on its website, the Kuwaiti organization International Islamic Charitable Organization states that it has “the desire to implement the message of Islamic brotherhood as referred to in the Prophet’s hadith, ‘The relationship of the believer with another believer is like (the bricks of) a building, each strengthens the other.’” Likewise, most Buddhist, Hindu and Jewish NGOs mention religious values and ideas in their mission statements. Thus, whereas non-religious NGOs tend to find their motivation in rights-oriented conceptions of justice, religious NGOs are often motivated by conceptions of a divine justice and man’s duty to work for the realisation of this. Religious discourses have, through the articulation of absolute moral structures and a positioning of the NGO within these structures, a great potential for functioning precisely as a motivating factor for collective actors.
This religiously grounded motivation does not necessarily result in religiously defined fields of work or goals. The United Methodist Church, for instance, argues for the establishment of an international criminal court from a religiously based conception of justice. The church explains its participation in such activities through a biblical motivation, as expressed in a resolution formulated by the United Methodist General Board of Church and Society: ”You shall not render an unjust judgement; you shall not be partial to the poor or defer to the great: with justice you shall judge your neighbour (Leviticus, 19:15)”.
Goals and fields of work
As organizations involved in issues of social and economic development, most of the religious NGOs formulate their goals within fields of work such as environmental protection, social justice, humanitarian aid, education and culture. However, by virtue of their religiosity, they also introduce a new field of work – namely religious promotion, understood here as a broad range of activities related to strengthening or promotion of religion (most often one’s own, but sometimes religion more generally). For the sake of argument we might therefore, although somewhat simplistically, divide the goals and fields of work of the religious NGOs into two, namely secular and religious. That environmental protection, social justice, humanitarian aid, education, culture and similar fields of work are characterised as secular does not mean that one cannot take a religious approach to working in these fields, but merely that they are not in and of themselves necessarily religious.
Among the religious NGOs, the largest group of NGOs (47 per cent) focuses solely on secular fields of work and goals, while few (almost 14 per cent) focus solely on religious promotion. A substantial number of organizations (almost 39 per cent), however, focuses on both secular fields and goals and on religious promotion (see table below). Some maintain a strict division between the two kinds of work, such as Conference of European Churches that divides its work into different programmes – theological dialogue belongs to one programme, women’s rights to another. For others, religious and secular goals are not mutually excluding, but closely connected. Thus, the promotion of Buddhist values and ideas may for some NGOs be intimately related to working for environmental changes, just like the building of mosques for others simultaneously serves to strengthen local community and spread the message of Islam.
Table 3: Goals and fields of work
|Goals and fields of work||Percentage of all religious NGOs|
|Culture and recreation, education, health, social services, environment, development and infrastructure, law, defense and politics||47.3 %|
|Religious promotion||13.9 %|
|Both categories||38.8 %|
Within the group of NGOs focusing simultaneously on religious promotion and secular fields of work and goals, Christian organizations are slightly overrepresented (75 per cent), while they are underrepresented in the group of organizations solely focusing on religious promotion (50 per cent). In this group, on the other hand, the spiritual organizations are slightly overrepresented (10 per cent), thus reflecting a tendency among these organizations to focus on otherworldly issues.
Just like the goals and fields of work, the concrete methods that religious NGOs use to achieve these goals can be divided into secular and religious; secular methods referring here to methods such as implementation of projects, research, conferences, lobbying, and advocacy, and religious methods to prayer, mission, religious education and theological studies. Again, it is important to underline that secular methods can be used to obtain religious goals, just like religious methods can be used to obtain secular goals. Thus, the distinction does not refer to the ultimate purpose of these methods, but merely to their design.
On an overall level, there seems to be no difference between NGOs from different religious affiliations – it is, for instance, not possible to distinguish between the methods used by Christian NGOs and the methods used by Muslim NGOs. Two-thirds of the organizations do not make use of religious methods at all. The majority of these are organizations that do not focus on religious goals or fields of work, e.g. Catholic Relief Services and Christian Children’s Fund. Among the organizations that focus on both religious and secular goals and fields of work, however, a relatively large part of the NGOs use religious methods. It is hardly a surprise that organizations focused on religious promotion would use religious methods to further this goal. But there are also some organizations that use religious methods to achieve secularly formulated goals. An example is Jubilee Debt Campaign, a movement consisting in non-religious as well as religious NGOs and with a so-called secular goal, namely global debt relief to the world’s poor countries. In 2003, Jubilee Debt Campaign introduced the World Debt Day, which has been celebrated every year since then. One of the initiatives related to this event has been the development of material to be used in religious ceremonies on the day, and on the movement’s website, one can find Christian, Muslim, and Jewish suggestions as to prayers and other worship activities. One of the prayers sounded like this:
Let us pray for rulers and heads of governments and of all international organizations, that they might strive ever more for a worldwide solidarity which assures the dignity due to people and peoples, attacking the very roots of injustice and suffering; and that they might implement effective measures to lighten the crushing debt of poorer nations.
The prayer is here seen as a legitimate method for achieving a secularly formulated goal – a good example of how religious NGOs do not necessarily see any contrast between religious methods and non-religious goals.
While the orientation dimension focused on the functional aspects of the NGOs, the organization dimension turns on their substantial characteristics, based on factual, external descriptions and including aspects such as age, size and origin.
Introduced in the 1940s, the NGO concept as such is relatively young, and many therefore assume that the organizations it refers to are also young. And for non-religious NGOs this might in fact be true. Thus, e.g. Scholte points to the fact that less than 10 per cent of international organizations are established before 1960. An examination of the age of religious NGOs, however, shows a different picture: Almost 50 per cent of the religious NGOs are established before 1950, the majority of these (25 per cent) in the period between 1926 and 1950. Most of the oldest NGOs are Christian, a large part of these established before 1900, while the Jewish NGOs are established in the period 1901-1950, and almost all Muslim NGOs after 1976. It is thus mainly due to the Christian NGOs that we find the great difference in age between non-religious and religious NGOs, while Muslim and to a certain degree Jewish NGOs reflect the same tendencies as non-religious NGOs.
Spread, size and origins
Most international NGOs have their origin and headquarters in Western Europe and North America, a tendency which is reflected among the religious NGOs at the UN. An examination of their origin shows that 75 per cent of the NGOs are from the North, while only 23 per cent are from the South. At the same time, measured by their age and geographical spread, the Northern NGOs are the largest and most well-established NGOs. While the group of NGOs from the South presents an overweight of regional NGOs, the group of Northern NGOs is dominated by more international NGOs. This situation is no different from the general NGO situation; far the most NGOs, whether they are religious or non-religious, are from the North. Thus, with regard to geographic spread and origin, there is nothing that separates religious and non-religious NGOs. There are, however, great internal differences between the different religious organizations. Whereas the Christian and Jewish NGOs are often found within the group of international NGOs from the North, the Muslim, Buddhist and Hindu NGOs are typically more regionally oriented NGOs from the South.
As has been hinted at above, there is nothing that indicates that religious NGOs take a particular organizational form or shape. On the contrary, they – like NGOs in general – come in all kinds of shapes and forms, including more than 50 different kinds of organizational types. Internally among the religious NGOs, the differences in structure sometimes cut across religious divides. Thus, while the Protestant NGOs are often decentrally organised, the Catholic NGOs are often based on hierarchical structures, centering the authority in one person. However, as pointed out by Hall (2001:81), the Catholic Church is a complex system, at once containing a variety of different structures. Thus, for instance the Catholic orders are much more decentrally organised than other Catholic organizations, and share similarities with many Jewish NGOs, often based on what Berger describes as a loose central coordinating structure.
These differences in structure in the group of religious NGOs mirror the differences found among non-religious NGOs, and as such, it is not possible to distinguish religious NGOs from other kinds of NGOs. However, there is one structural aspect that presents potential differences between the two groups, namely that of formal attachment to or affiliation with established religious structures and institutions. Within the group of Christian NGOs, for instance, 25 per cent are in some way or another formally attached to religious structures or institutions. An example of this is the NGO Adventist Development and Relief Agency, established by the Seventh-day Adventist Church and as such considered an integrated part of the church. Another example is the World Council of Churches, an umbrella organization for more than 340 churches in over 100 countries.
Members and target groups
In relation to members and donors, the religious identity of the organizations plays an important role. Many organizations define their membership base in religious terms – the Baptist World Alliance, for instance, talks of ‘member churches’. Other organizations are not membership-based, but find their donors primarily among a religiously defined constituency. Thus, on their websites, many Muslim organizations advertise for the possibility of paying the Islamic tax, zakat, through their organization, just like they use religious quotes to encourage people to donate, thereby implicitly addressing a religious audience. However, when it comes to target groups, or beneficiaries as they are often called, the majority of NGOs promote a much more universalist and inclusive approach, claiming to provide aid without regard to religious affiliation, often justifying this approach in religious terms. An example is the British NGO Islamic Relief, on its website stating that the organization is dedicated to alleviating the poverty and suffering of the world’s poorest people, regardless of race, religion or gender, and supplementing this statement with a quote from the Qur’an (5:32): “Whoever saved a life, it would be as if he saved the life of all mankind.” A few organizations are more exclusivist and particularistic, focusing primarily or solely on religiously defined constituencies. An example of this is the International Islamic Charitable Organization, another Muslim NGO. On its website, the organization states that “IICO was founded to meet the increasing urgent needs of poor societies especially in Moslem (sic) countries where poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, diseases, famine, and other difficult situations are persisting.” In this aspect, there does not seem to be any major differences between the various religious groups – universalist and particularist approaches can be found among all kinds of religious NGOs. Instead, Hall suggests that the difference lies elsewhere; namely in the theology of the organization. According to him, theologically conservative NGOs tend to be exclusivist, while theologically progressive organizations are more inclusivist in their definition of target groups.
Regardless of whether they direct their work exclusively at religiously defined beneficiaries or take a more universalist approach, religious NGOs tend to focus more on religious groups, communities and individuals than non-religious NGOs do, paying more attention to problems related to religion, such as the persecution of religious minorities and other violations of the freedom of religion. For instance, when comparing the statements produced by religious NGOs and non-religious NGOs to four different ECOSOC sessions, we find that 38 per cent of the statements brought up by religious NGOs are related to religion, while only 16 per cent of statements by non-religious NGOs are. At the same time, however, there are certain conflicts that some religious NGOs do not see – either because they cannot or because they do not want to see them. For instance, many religious NGOs seem to view gender-related problems as at best irrelevant, at worst a threat to their religious integrity, often choosing to either ignore such problems or to directly oppose their solution, something we will take a closer look at in the following section.
Whereas the two previous dimensions focused on aspects such as structure, organization, functions and purpose, the third dimension, that of positioning, centres on the NGOs in their context, exploring the relations they enter into with other actors. Here it is particularly relevant to study their relations to the UN; to the member states of the UN, and to other NGOs, be they religious or non-religious.
Relations to the United Nations
The NGOs’ relations to the UN are expressed through a range of different activities, including lobbying, implementation of projects and monitoring. Some activities, such as lobbying, often take place at a global level, in relation to the UN headquarters and global conferences, while implementation of projects and monitoring are activities that take place at a national level, often as individual partnerships between specific NGOs and UN organs such as UNICEF, UNDP and UNHCR. Such national level partnerships are pragmatic by nature and often characterised by a high degree of consensus and a will to cooperate on both sides. This is true for religious as well as non-religious NGOs, but there are certain aspects of the religious NGOs that mean that these can present certain strengths for this particular type of partnership. For instance, as some of the oldest international NGOs, the religious NGOs often have a thorough historical knowledge of the areas in which they work and they are solidly anchored in the local population, partly due to their connections to established religious structures.
On the global level, however, the religious connection can result in great tensions between the UN and religious NGOs. Here, it is about principled and political discussions rather than practical consensus-seeking, and as representatives of ‘absolute truths’ religious NGOs have great potential for being difficult partners in negotiations. Whereas at national level the different UN organs are free to choose their partners according to the degree of consensus encountered, at the global level the institution is compelled to include also strongly critical NGOs. Especially right-wing Christian NGOs from USA are critical of the UN, but a few Muslim and Jewish NGOs support this criticism, as expressed by a Muslim NGO in the following:
The Saudi-based Muslim World League was the only Muslim organization to send a delegation to the Beijing Conference to set forth clear Islamic opposition to voluntary abortion and coercive family-planning programmes, and to challenge the secular, materialist premises upon which the [UN] initiative and its working document are based.
Many of these religious NGOs do not feel that they have good possibilities for cooperation with the UN system. Austin Ruse, president of the Catholic Family and Human Rights Institute, points out that whereas progressive NGOs have good possibilities for influencing the system due to overlapping attitudes with many UN organs and staff, it is more difficult for conservative NGOs: ”We find that most of our friends are in the developing world within the General Assembly, and we have very few friends in the UN bureaucracy”. This suggests a conflict, not only between the UN and certain religious NGOs, but between these NGOs and other NGOs whose attitudes to a higher degree match those of the UN organs and staff.
Relations to states
Many of the NGOs that are critical towards the UN find their partners among states supporting their views, just like NGOs generally seek to establish partnerships with states that are ready to fight for specific causes. These partnerships do not always follow national categories – some NGOs have close cooperation with the states of their origin, while others are in open conflict with ‘their’ state. In relation specifically to religious NGOs, an interesting topic is the relation between religious NGOs and states that in one way or another also express a strong religious connection, in particular Israel, the Vatican State and some Muslim-majority states. Do religious NGOs prefer cooperation with such states over more secularly oriented states?
The relation between Israel and the Jewish NGOs within the UN system has to be seen in the context of the UN’s relations with Israel. Despite the determining role of the UN in the creation of Israel, the relationship has been marked by conflicts. Not until 2000 was Israel (provisionally) included in one of the UN regional groupings, a precondition for membership of the Security Council and other major UN organs. Also, the state has been subject to more investigations than any other member state. Finally, the 1975 resolution declaring Zionism a form of racism has been a source for continuous controversy. The resolution was annulled in 1991, but the equation between Zionism and racism continues to be a topic of heated discussion within the UN system. While some Jewish NGOs are ambivalent in their relation to the Israeli state and its politics, most do seem to express some degree of sympathy, formulated partly as a support to the country’s Palestine policy, partly as a critique of the UN treatment of Israel. Even the most progressive Jewish NGOs do not directly oppose or criticise the Israeli state. However, primarily conservative NGOs have entered into cooperation with Israel.
The relation to the Vatican State is even more deeply marked by internal division. Many religious NGOs support the Vatican State as the sole authentic voice of Catholicism. In addition to this, a great number of Catholic NGOs also have a formal relation to the Vatican State, since they have been officially recognised by the Vatican. But other Christian NGOs also cooperate with the Vatican State and consider its presence at the UN as a guarantee for the upholding of religious values. Austin Ruse, for instance, says that ”[t]he Holy See provides a kind of moral leadership that, really, nobody else has at the United Nations”. Likewise, many Muslim countries and NGOs have cooperated with the Vatican State in relation to specific topics such as abortion, women’s rights and homosexuals’ rights. An example of this is the rejection of the resolution on discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, introduced by Brazil in March 2004. Opposition from the Vatican State and the OIC was massive and they succeed in convincing the 53 members of the Human Rights Commission to vote against it. There were even rumours that the OIC had threatened to mobilise trade sanctions. At the same time, however, a large group of Catholic NGOs are highly critical towards the Vatican State’s special status at the UN and its pronounced conservative attitude towards women’s rights. As a consequence, a group consisting of more than 800 NGOs, lead by Catholics for a Free Choice, has launched the campaign See Change with the purpose of substituting the Vatican State’s current status as ‘non-member state with permanent observer status’ with a more humble status as NGO. As stated on the website of the campaign:
NGO status would allow the Holy See to continue to advocate for its positions, but without the benefit of a special platform for its views. Seeking NGO status for the Holy See is not anti-Catholic – indeed, it would protect the rights of all religions at the UN and the right of the institutional Catholic Church to be heard and appreciated as a religious body, not as a quasi-governmental entity.
Neither support to Israel nor to the Vatican State seems to be determined by religious affiliation, but rather by political attitudes towards women’s rights and Palestine.
The relationship between Muslim states, such as Iran, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, and Muslim NGOs is somewhat harder to characterise since the Muslim states do not make up a homogenous group. Some NGOs have close cooperation with certain Muslim states, whereas others are in conflict with these. There are a number of NGOs who have formal or informal connections to Muslim states. Often, Muslim NGOs will cooperate informally with Muslim states on specific issues, including e.g. Palestine, women’s rights or freedom of speech, as was seen recently in relation to Durban II. An example of more formal NGO-state cooperation is the partnership between the interstate organization, Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), and a number of Muslim NGOs, including the Kuwaiti International Islamic Charitable Organization, enjoying observer status at the OIC and receiving occasional funding from the organization’s various funds. Likewise, the Saudi Arabian International Islamic Relief Organization is part of the semi-governmental umbrella organization Muslim World League, and as such, must be expected to be closely related to the Saudi government. A final, far more problematic, example of NGO-state relations is the NGO World Islamic Call Society, which by many has been accused of being a so-called front organization for the leader of Libya, Muammar Ghadaffi. Naturally, such close relations between state and NGOs is not a unique Muslim phenomenon – examples hereof can be found among Christian, Jewish, Buddhist and Hindu organizations as well among non-religious organizations.
Relations to other NGOs
While there is very little established cooperation between religious NGOs from the same religious group, there are quite a few examples of cross-religious cooperation and partnerships, often including non-religious NGOs. Thus, cooperation seems to cut across the divides between religious and non-religious NGOs as well as between different religious groups. Instead, the divides between so-called progressive and conservative organizations seems to be a defining factor in structuring the relations between NGOs.
An illustrative example of this divide is the UN conference on women, Beijing + Five, in 2000, which was marked by severe conflicts between on the one side right-wing Christian NGOs from USA, often in cooperation with politically conservative Catholic and Muslim NGOs; and on the other side politically left-wing, or progressive, NGOs, non-religious as well as religious. The progressive wing was organised in, among others, the NGO network WomenAction 2000, consisting in both non-religious and religious NGOs. Of religious NGOs in this network can be mentioned Catholics for a Free Choice and Ecumenical Women 2000+. The conservative wing was dominated by four North American NGOs, the World Family Policy Center, the Howard Center, the Catholic Family and Human Rights Institute and the Family Research Center, all conservative evangelicals. But certain Muslim and Catholic NGOs also played an important role. Thus, asked who had been the strongest ally of the coalition in the UN, Austin Ruse answered: “The Muslims have been true blue. They are undivided and strong enough stand up to the pressure of the U.S. and UN. We have also gotten good support from Latin America but some Latin countries have fought us all the way. The only consistent support has come from the Muslims.”
The turning point for the conflict was the question of women’s and homosexuals’ rights – by the conservative wing understood as a direct attack on a God given traditional family structure and therefore ungodly, and by the progressive wing understood as (possibly god given) human rights. Even during preparations to the Beijing Plus Five conference, there were tensions between the conservative and progressive NGOs. In December 1999, Austin Ruse sent a letter to members of the conservative pro-family network through the news bulletin Friday Fax. In this he strongly condemns the so-called ’radical feminists’ and their attempts to promote abortion and other anti-family values such as rights of homosexuals and reproductive rights in general. The letter ends with an almost Messianic call to like-minded NGOs to participate in the conference with the purpose to fight these progressive forces:
We must rise to this challenge! You personally are needed in New York, even if you have never done this before / We will accredit you / We will train you / We will give you assignments in many different areas, like directly lobbying diplomats / This will be the experience of a lifetime / You will work alongside Catholics, Evangelicals, Jews, Muslim, Mormons. We are the children of Abraham arising to fight for faith and family / You are being called right now!
The tensions increased during the conference. The network WomenAction 2000 published during the conference daily newsletters with information on different activities. In one of these newsletters is mentioned that “On Tuesday the lesbian caucus facilitated a panel discussion on sexuality and human rights […] The tension was tangible as many people noticed men in robes, women and men holding bibles and wearing ambiguous buttons. After days of reports of intimidation, people were unsure of what to expect.” Other articles refer to problems of surveillance, conscious misquoting of statements in the right-wing newsletter Vivant as well as ”harassing phone calls”. Furthermore, the progressive NGOs accused the conservative NGOs for signing up an excessive number of representatives from each organization in attempts to surpass the progressive wing if not in the number of participating NGOs then in the number of participating individuals. Seven conservative anti-feminist groups had thus signed up more than 350 individuals to the conference, among these 30 from the organization Franciscan Friars of the Renewal. The conservative NGOs also tell of discriminating behaviour from the opponents:
During a meeting of the Linkage Caucus at Beijing+5 40 pro-lifers attended out of more than 200. Maria Giovine explains that ’every time one of us tried to speak we were shouted down. They would begin chanting that we were bought and sold by the Vatican’. At the same meeting Maurice McBride, a conservative lawyer from Virginia, tried to speak and was also drowned out. A witness said the radical feminists ’laughed at him and booed.’
Or as Peter Smith, UN lobbyist for International Right to Life Federation, says: “The other side believes the UN is their own private playground. They have never wanted us here and will do practically anything to keep us out, including using lies and physical intimidation. The fact is that we are outnumbered and outspent here. We have no choice but to follow all the rules and be as polite as we can be.” However, despite this alleged discrimination of conservative NGOs, they – and their allies among conservative Muslim and Catholic states – won what they considered to be great victories during the conference. The final document did not contain any references to homosexuals’ rights or abortion, and progressive states and NGOs had to fight to even maintain the language from the original 1995 Beijing document.
Conclusions and suggestions for future research
The main purpose of the present analysis was to give a systematic, empirically based overview of a group of religious organizations involved in development activities, thereby contributing to a more nuanced understanding of religious organizations. Focusing religious NGOs in the UN system as the objects of my analysis, I have sought to provide a thorough description of these actors, discussing various dimensions of their work and identity. This included the orientation of the NGOs, their organization, their positioning within the context in which they act, and finally the significance of their religious connection to these other dimensions. As such, the analysis has first and foremost provided us with empirical examples of a group of religious NGOs. At the same time, however, it has directed attention towards a range of conditions particular to this group of actors, opening up for new research fields. One issue encouraging further research is the fact that Muslim NGOs are severely underrepresented within the group of religious NGOs with consultative status at the UN (and among international religious NGOs in general). This raises a number of questions, relevant to our understanding of international NGOs and the role of religion in these organizations. Is the apparent lack of international Muslim NGOs a sign that Muslims tend to organise in other ways than Western-style NGOs? Or does it have to do with the fact that many Muslims live under highly authoritarian regimes, making it difficult for them to organise freely? Or do international Muslim NGOs exist, but avoid cooperation with the UN, finding alternative venues for international cooperation?
Another interesting topic for future research is the divide between progressive and conservative religious NGOs. As the analysis has shown, this divide often seems to be of greater importance to the NGOs’ positioning within global civil society than the divide between religious and non-religious NGOs. A way of approaching this topic could be to analyse religious NGOs’ attitudes towards a range of global problems such as the international criminal court, women’s rights, homosexuals’ rights, and human rights in general. Such an analysis might furthermore contribute to a deconstruction of the conception of religious actors as immanently conservative. As this analysis has shown, the group of religious NGOs includes so-called progressives as well as conservatives.
Apart from presenting new research fields, the analysis has provided us with an idea of what role religion plays for the religious NGOs, and it has sketched important differences internally among these organizations as well as between religious and non-religious NGOs. The analysis has demonstrated that the religious NGOs are a heterogeneous group of conservatives and progressives, international and regional, small and big, old and young. Some religious NGOs focus solely on non-religiously defined work areas, whereas others see religious promotion as their most important work area. Some are eager supporters of the values of the UN and work hard to promote these; others see the Declaration of Human Rights as blasphemy and do what they can to change it. Some direct their work solely towards religiously defined members and target groups, while others include non-religious people and people of other religions in their work. These groupings do not always follow religious divides but go across these and each other.
This does not mean that there are no differences between religious and non-religious NGOs, however. Based on their religiosity, religious NGOs sometimes introduce alternative ways of orienting, organising and positioning themselves. They can be manifested in a myriad of different ways, and nothing indicates that they can be interpreted as solely positive or negative for development. The question of thematic focus illustrates this ambivalence. On one hand, their religiosity often means that these NGOs pay special attention to religiously related problems which are often overlooked by non-religious NGOs. On the other hand, it is precisely their religiosity that means that some NGOs are unwilling to deal with certain sensitive problems, in particular problems related to gender equality and women’s rights. Another example is the importance of religion as motivating factor. We know that for almost all religious NGOs, religiosity plays a crucial role as motivation, but we cannot generalise about the ways in which this motivation is put in use. Finally, the long history of many of these organizations and their connections to religious institutions might on one hand facilitate and strengthen their relationship to local communities, giving them a unique knowledge of the context and providing them with possibilities for building on already established relationships of trust. On the other hand, such pre-established sympathies might make it difficult for religious NGOs to enter local communities in an open and un-biased manner, and to avoid being part of local conflicts between different religious groups.
In other words, the religious aspect is indeed significant but it is a significance that is continuously expressed in widely differing ways and with widely differing consequences. In itself, religiosity is not necessarily a characteristic that tells us anything about the person or organization possessing it. If we want to understand religious organizations we cannot merely characterise them as religious, based on a prejudiced conception of the significance of religion, and leave it at that. Instead we have to examine how, when and why these actors are religious. As Knox rightly puts it: “Religion at the UN will be what religious groups and the UN make of it. In other words, religion at the UN is no different from religion anywhere else in the world.”
Marie Juul Petersen is a PhD student in sociology of religion at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark. Her current research focuses on international Muslim NGOs and their ideologies of aid.
Kurt Alan Ver Beek, ’Spirituality: a development taboo’, Development in Practice, vol. 10, no. 1 (2000), p. 31.
Emil de Kadt, ’Should God play a role in development’, Journal of International Development, vol. 21, no. 6 (2009).
See Ben Jones and Marie Juul Petersen, ’Religion and Development: A Review of the Literature’, forthcoming, for a discussion of the research field of religion and development as well as the reasons for its emergence.
See José Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994)
See e.g. Jacob Neusner and Bruce Chilton (eds.), Altruism in the World’s Religions (Washington D.C: Georgetown University Press, 2005)
Rick James, ‘What is Distinctive about FBOs?’, INTRAC, Praxis Paper no. 22 (2009), p.5
See e.g. Marie Juul Petersen, ’Islamizing Aid: Transnational Muslim NGOs After 9.11.’, Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Non-Profit Organizations, forthcoming (2011).
James, ‘What is Distinctive about FBOs?’, p. 7.
Duncan McDuie-Ra and John A. Rees (2008), ‘Religious actors, civil society and the development agenda: the dynamics of inclusion and exclusion’, Arts Papers and Journal Articles, University of Notre Dame Australia, p. 2
See Deepa Narayan et al, Voices of the Poor (Washington D.C: World Bank, 2000).
For further information about the Dutch Knowledge Forum for Religion and Development Policy, see www.religie-en-ontwikkeling.nl. For the Development Dialogue on Values and Ethics, www.worldbank.org; and for the seminar series Faith and Development, www.tonyblairfaithfoundation.org.
See www.rad.bham.ac.uk for information on the Birmingham research programme; and http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/programs for information on Berkley’s programme and on the World Faiths Development Dialogue.
E.g. Katherine Marshall and Lucy Keough, Mind, Heart, and Soul in the Fight against Poverty (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 2004) and Wendy Tyndale, Visions of Development. Faith-Based Initiatives (Aldershot: Ashgate 2006).
E.g. Severine Deneulin and Masooda Bano, Religion in Development. Rewriting the Secular Script (London: Zed Books 2009); Jeffrey Haynes, Religion and Development. Conflict or Cooperation? (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan 2007); Jenny Lunn, ‘The Role of Religion, Spirituality and Faith in Development. A critical theory approach’, Third World Quarterly vol. 30, no. 5 (2009); Leah Selinger, ‘The Forgotten Factor: The Uneasy Relationship between Religion and Development’, Social Compass vol. 51, no. 4 (2004).
E.g. Gerard Clarke, ‘Faith Matters. Faith-Based Organisations, Civil Society and International Development’, Journal of International Development vol. 18 (2006); Gerard Clarke and Michael Jennings Development, Civil Society and Faith-Based Organizations (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan 2008); Ronald J. Sider and Heidi Rolland Unruh, ‘Typology of Religious Characteristics of Social Service and Educational Organizations and Programs’, Voluntary Sector Quarterly vol. 33 no. 1 (2004).
E.g. Stephen J. Plant, ‘International Development and Belief in Progress’, Journal of International Development vol. 21 (2009); Emma Tomalin, ‘Religion and a Rights-Based Approach to Development’, Progress in Development Studies vol. 6, no. 2 (2006).
E.g. Erica Bornstein, The Spirit of Development. Protestant NGOs, Morality, and Economics in Zimbabwe (Stanford: Stanford University Press 2005); Tamsin Bradley, ‘Does Compassion Bring Results? A critical Perspective on Faith and Development’, Culture and Religion, vol. 6, no. 3 (2005)
E.g. Christopher Candland, ‘Faith as Social Capital: Religion and Community Development in Southern Asia’, Policy Sciences vol. 33, no. 3 (2001); Janine Clark, Islam, Charity, and Activism. Middle-Class Networks and Social Welfare in Egypt, Jordan, and Yemen (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press 2004); Mayke Kaag, ‘Transnational Islamic NGOs in Chad: Islamic Solidarity in the Age of Neoliberalism’, Africa Today vol. 54, no. 3 (2009).
Exceptions are Julia Berger, ‘Religious Non-governmental Organizations: An Exploratory Analysis’, Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, vol.14, no. 1 (2003) and John Boli and David V. Brewington, ‘Religious Organizations’ in Peter Beyer and Lori Beaman, eds., Religion, Globalization and Culture (Leiden and Boston: Brill 2007), pp.203-231. However, while both provide in-depth descriptions of organizational and structural aspects of religious NGOs, they deal only sporadically with the role of religion in this.
Boli and Brewington, ‘Religious Organizations’, p. 207.
United Nations Charter, chapter X, Article 71, available at: http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter10.shtml (accessed May 2010)
For discussions of the role of NGOs in the UN system, see Peter Willetts, ed., The Conscience of the World: The Influence of Non-Governmental Organizations in the UN System (Hurst & Company, London 1996).
The category ’other religions’ includes, among others, Baha’i, Shinto religion, Zoroastrian religion and indigenous peoples’ religions.
Faith and Ethics Caucus for an International Criminal Court, Information Packet for Faith-Based Organizations (American NGO Coalition for the International Criminal Court 2002), p. 9, available at: www.amicc.org/docs/Faith_info_packet.pdf (accessed December 2004)
Jan Aart Scholte, ‘Global Civil Society: Changing the World?’, Centre for the Study of Globalisation and Regionalisation, Working Paper No. 31/99, (1999), p. 13, available at: www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/csgr/research/workingpapers/1999 (accessed December 2004).
Berger, ‘Religious Non-governmental Organizations: An Exploratory Analysis’, p. 27.
Ibid. p. 28.
Organizations with formal relations to religious structures are often some of the oldest NGOs.
Peter Dobkin Hall, ‘Historical Perspectives on Religion, Government and Social Welfare in America’, in Andrew Walsh, ed., Can Charitable Choice Work? Covering Religion’s Impact on Urban Affairs and Social Services (Hartford: Leonard E. Greenberg Center for the Study of Religion in Public Life, Trinity College 2001), p. 82.
This analysis was based on statements produced in relation to annual sessions in the Human Rights Commission, the Sub Commission for Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, the Commission for Social Development and the Commission for the Status of Women, 2001-2003.
Anisa Abd el Fattah, ‘UN Family Planning Agency launches another war front in Central Asia region’, Muslimedia International (2002), available at: www.muslimedia.com/archives/special02/centr-family.htm (accessed December 2004).
Cf.Geoffrey Knox, ed., Religion and Public Policy at the UN (Illinois: Park Ridge Center 2002), p. 28.
Ibid., p. 20.
Ibid., p. 24.
Betsy Pisik, ‘Homosexual rights resolution withdrawn at United Nations’, Washington Times, 30.03. (2004), available at: www.washingtontimes.com/world/20040330-120645-4241r.htm (accessed December 2004).
Clare MacDonnell, ‘A Catholic Voice in the Wilderness of the UN’, interview with Austin Ruse, Catholic Herald (2000), available at: www.catholicherald.com/articles/00articles/ruse.htm (accessed December 2004).
Knox, Religion and Public Policy at the UN, p. 9.
Knox, Religion and Public Policy at the UN, p. 50)
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Here’s a story of weaving from real to digital 3D and back again, of past and future coming together via a web of experts around the globe. It’s a story of creating an exact replica of a curated artifact and transporting this piece of history from a South American desert to a museum on Washington, D.C.’s National Mall, all without touching it or risking damage.
Imagine the sight when a construction crew exposed a few dusty bones in Chile’s Atacama Desert as they cleared ground to widen the Pan-American Highway. It was 2010, and by the time paleontologists had completely excavated the site, they’d discovered more than 40 whale fossils, believed to be 6 to 9 million years old. The site was called Cerro Ballena, or “whale hill.”
Smithsonian Institute paleontologist Dr. Nick Pyenson and his South American colleagues had to work quickly. Vibrations from the adjacent highway threatened the exposed fossils, not to mention the imminent layer of pavement that would soon blanket the site. Thus, it was vital that he and the team quickly unearth and document as many specimens as possible.
So he enlisted the help of Smithsonian X 3D’s Vince Rossi and Adam Metallo, who quickly made the trip to Chile. Vince and Adam worked night and day for five days to 3D scan as many fossils as possible and capture essential data about the site before the fossils were moved. In this respect they were able to forever preserve a site that is no longer in existence, so that experts and novices alike can always go back to the original discovery. You can see some of the 3D models here.
But it would have been a shame to stop there. After all, the beauty of 3D printing is that you can rebuild exact replicas anytime, anywhere. So 3D Systems volunteered to 3D print one of the most complete Cerro Ballena fossils — whale fossil MPC 677 — for display in the National Museum of Natural History. This project was only a small part of our multi-year agreement with the Smithsonian Institution to provide 3D printing services and support their organization-wide effort to strengthen collections and exhibit accessibility.
Once finished, the replica of MPC 677 would be the largest 3D printed fossil in the world. At the same time, we hoped it would be a material reminder of just how useful 3D printing can be in archival, research, and historical applications. Think about it: If you can locally reproduce artifacts, then you can enable hands-on learning for museum visitors, provide new outreach opportunities for students in remote locations, and allow researchers to study fossils from around the world.
Preparing something that massive for 3D printing is no simple task. It required some of our company’s brightest minds, a little learning on the job, a lot of patience, and a couple of crossed fingers. We decided early that the best way to create the fossil, for portability and printability, was to divide it into a series of tiles and assemble the tiles to create the final piece. Using Geomagic Studio to manipulate the scan data, we started by scaling down the model to about 60 percent of its original size. This prehistoric mammal was a rorqual whale, the largest group of baleen whales, which also includes today’s humpback, fin, and blue whales. So we had do bring it down in size to accommodate the space.
Next, we prepared the data — the mesh contained about 30 million polygons — and then sectioned it into 40 tiles for printing. The final size for the completed fossil was to be approximately 20 feet by 8 feet.
The first effort of its kind, the project took time in the early stages. We had to design the tiles to fit together; find a material that was strong, light, and resistant to warping; and make sure the junctions were as uniform as possible. Finally, in early 2014 we sent the final STL files to our Seattle production facility for printing in one of our powder bed 3D printers.
The printing took a month or so — printing one or two tiles per day — and the next step was to put the puzzle together. So we shipped all 40 tiles to Virginia, where the scenic experts at 3rd Dimension transformed the white 3D prints into fossilized bone and sand.
Pretty amazing how far some joint compound, paint, adhesive, and faux sand can go in the right hands. Not only did they make it look authentic, they also mounted it on a steel frame and prepared it for moving and installation.
On May 22, 2014, Capital Museum Exhibits’ installers opened the truck to reveal the finished fossil. The Smithsonian staff was all grins — giddy even — like they’d discovered the fossil all over again. People from all over the museum came to see the installation; this event was the talk of the day. After more than a year, and a long journey into the digital word, the largest 3D printed fossil went up on the wall of the Q?rius theater in the National Museum of Natural History.
Imagine a child’s face — amazed like those who first discovered Cerro Ballena — when she sees the 3D-printed fossil for the first time. Expressions like it could pop up around the globe as museums print their own fossils in house, making exhibits like this both interactive and boundless in availability.
I’m proud to be a part of something that produces such happiness, not limited to paleontologists or engineers but inclusive of everyone. For all the strides in manufacturing that 3D printing is making, we can’t forget about the true wonder it drums up in us all. This true facsimile of a prehistoric whale, hanging on a wall in Washington, D.C., while the original lay in storage in Chile, is a treasure from the past in two places at once. | <urn:uuid:cef18bf6-4405-4dc8-9a1b-4ea85bed3294> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://makezine.com/2014/07/17/the-first-museum-quality-3d-printed-whale-fossil/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00102-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956904 | 1,227 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Cordillera Administrative Region (Filipino: Rehiyong Pampangasiwaan ng Cordillera), designated as CAR, is a region in the Philippines in the island of Luzon. The only landlocked region in the country, it is bordered by the Ilocos Region in the west and southwest, and by the Cagayan Valley on the north, east, and southeast.
During the Spanish occupation of the Philippines, Christianization and eventual subjugation of the mountain region proved difficult for the Spanish colonial government. Several comandancias were established by the Spanish colonial government in strategic areas of the mountain region. Among them were Amburayan, Cabugaoan, Kayapa, Quiangan, Itaves, Apayaos, Lepanto, Benguet, Bontoc, Banaue, and Tiagan.
On August 18, 1908 during the American regime, Mountain Province was established by the Philippine Commission with the enactment of Act No. 1876. Ifugao, which was part of Nueva Vizcaya province, and the former Spanish comandancias of Amburayan, Apayao, Benguet, Bontoc, Kalinga and Lepanto, were annexed to the newly created province as sub-provinces. Amburayan was later abolished in 1920 and its corresponding territories were transferred to the provinces of Ilocos Sur and La Union. Lepanto was also reduced in size and its towns were integrated into the sub-provinces of Bontoc and Benguet, and to the province of Ilocos Sur.
On June 18, 1966, Republic Act No. 4695 was enacted to split Mountain Province and create four separate and independent provinces namely Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga-Apayao, and Mountain Province. Ifugao and Kalinga-Apayao were placed under the jurisdiction of the Cagayan Valley region, with Benguet and Mountain Province placed under the Ilocos Region.
Creation of the region
On July 15, 1987, President Corazon C. Aquino issued Executive Order 220 which created the Cordillera Administrative Region. The provinces of Abra, Benguet and Mountain Province (of the Ilocos Region), and Ifugao and Kalinga-Apayao (of the Cagayan Valley) were annexed as part of the newly created region.
On February 14, 1995, Kalinga-Apayao, one of the five provinces of the region was split into two separate and independent provinces of Apayao and Kalinga with the enactment of Republic Act No. 7878.
Several attempts at legalizing autonomy in the Cordillera region have failed in two separate plebiscites. An affirmative vote for the law on regional autonomy is a precondition by the 1987 Philippine Constitution to give the region autonomy in self-governance much like the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao in southern Philippines. The first law Republic Act No. 6766, took effect on October 23, 1989 but failed to muster a majority vote in the plebiscite on January 30, 1990. The second law, Republic Act No. 8438 passed by Congress of the Philippines on December 22, 1997, also failed to pass the approval of the Cordillera peoples in a region-wide referendum on March 7, 1998.
At present, a third organic act of the Cordillera is in the offing supported by the Cordillera Regional Development Council.
In September 2000, the municipal council of Itogon, Benguet, withdrew support for the San Roque Dam project. The project had met a lot of resistance, because of the reported failure of its proponents to update its Environmental Certificate of Compliance (ECC) and to submit a watershed management plan required for a project of that magnitude. The San Roque Dam was to become one of the biggest dams in the world and would threaten the living environment of the Igorot.
The CPA, in co-operation with other organizations, had highly resisted this project and thus booked a little victory. However, in May 2001, president Arroyo declared that the San Roque Dam project would continue anyway because it had already started and therefore was difficult to stop. At the same time she promised to not sacrifice the environment, to resettle the people who will lose their houses, to compensate other people, and to initiate no other large-scale irrigation projects in the future. Time will prove whether she will keep that promise.
In December 2000, the Supreme Court of the Philippines dismissed a petition that questioned the constitutional legality of the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act (IPRA), and act which came into existence in 1997 giving the peoples of the Cordillera decisive influence over the establishment of foreign mining companies. In this act, ownership over the lands was regarded as communal, rather than individual and thus coincided more with the view on ownership of the Igorot. The IPRA was totally different in tone than the 1995 Mining Code.
Without consulting the Cordillera people, this code gave companies the freedom to devastate tribal lands, allowed 100% foreign ownership, and gave companies the right to displace and resettle people within their concessionary areas. Some influential people filed a lawsuit with the Supreme Court against the IPRA, because it contradicted with the Mining Code and would therefore be unlawful. The fact that the Supreme Court had to dismiss the petition, because the vote had been 7-7, could be understood as another victory of the CPA.
In February 2001, President Arroyo spoke with officials from the Cordillera Administrative Region, and promised to start rebuilding the infrastructure and offered the Cordillera people financial assistance for development projects. Some people were surprised when they discovered that Arroyo spoke fluent Ilocano, the lingua franca in northern parts of Luzon. | <urn:uuid:5a8cf1c8-d7aa-45bb-8973-e040f13a20a1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.werelate.org/wiki/Place:Cordillera_Administrative%2C_Philippines | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96729 | 1,206 | 2.953125 | 3 |
I was pleased that the class (self-reported) that they had all read the material. I tried too many PRS questions (6) and didn't leave enough time to explain the answers. I will try reducing it to 3 or 4 questions next time and allow more time for discussion and explaining concepts on the blackboard.
Please go back and think about some of the answers to the PRS questions (they are inserted into the web page thermo notes).
" Please show the graphs after every PRS evaluation and tell the class when the answers are being graded." Unless otherwise noted, all the PRS responses in my lectures will be graded on participation only. Regarding showing the graphs, I will try to do this in all circumstances where appropriate.
Responses to 'Muddiest Part of the Lecture Cards'
1)What is the justification for two properties defining a state? (5 students) It is an empirical fact for pure substances. It does require that the system be steady or quasi-steady (slowly varying) so that one unique state can be defined (versus it being different in different parts of the system). All of you have worked with the model for ideal gases p=rRT: if you know p and T, you can find r, etc. Thus knowing two properties, fully defines the thermodynamic state of the system.
2) How does 30% of the fuel energy actually move the airplane? It ends up as friction losses but what is the intermediary? -- and related questions (7 students) The fuel energy is used to (eventually) accelerate the gases leaving the engine. If the gases leave at a higher velocity than they came in, a reaction force results (thrust!). This thrust acts in opposition to all the drag forces on the aircraft. The drag forces are related to viscous dissipation around the aircraft (you will learn much more about this in Fluids) which goes to heating the air. The sound energy emitted is very, very small compared to the thermal and kinetic energy.
3) For the airplane problem, how do we know that the atmosphere heats relatively more than the airplane? (3 students) Certainly the frictional forces around the aircraft heat the structure (to the extreme for a re-entry vehicle). However, much of the viscous dissipation happens in the air that is just off the surface of the vehicle and thus it is less effective in heating the body. Good question.
4) What is specific volume? (13 students) I had incorrectly assumed that this was a familiar parameter for everyone. Specific volume is the volume per unit mass (e.g. how much space one kilogram takes up). Its units are m3/kg. Note that it is the reciprocal of density (kg/m3) which is mass per unit volume. It is often more convenient to work with specific volume than with volume itself.
5) The experiment with the metal and the plastic containers was unclear: (6 students) The experiment was designed to reinforce the requirements for thermodynamic equilibrium: thermal equilibrium and mechanical equilibrium. The plastic bottle continued to bounce (thus taking longer to reach mechanical equilibrium). It is also likely that it would take longer to reach thermal equilibrium because metal has a higher thermal conductivity than plastic.
6) The engine p-v diagram question was the muddiest part. (17 students) This problem was designed to illustrate the importance of understanding the thermodynamic path that a system (in this case a chunk of air) follows in various energy conversion devices. We will spend much more time with this concept as we proceed with the thermodynamics lectures, so if it was a little unclear at this stage that is okay. In sum, the air enters the engine and is compressed (note how the area that the gas flows through gets smaller and smaller). During this process the pressure and temperature of the gas increase and the specific volume decreases. In the combustor, energy is added to the gas at constant pressure (this isn't something you are expected to know off hand--but the problem was set up so that there were several other clues to what the correct answer was). This causes the gas to expand (increasing the specific volume). Downstream from the combustor, the gas is expanded through a turbine (note the increase in the area of the flow path) further increasing the specific volume. Energy is extracted to drive the compressor. During this process the pressure and temperature decrease. At the exit of the engine the pressure is the same as the inlet, but the temperature is higher and consequently the specific volume is higher (pv=RT).
7) I am a bit confused about the nature of energy conversion, I guess we'll get to that more later. (1 student) Yes we will. Hang on for a few lectures.
8) Whenever the energy is transferred into kinetic energy, does that mean the energy was converted to heat? (1 student) No, not necessarily. Think of dropping a rock. The potential energy is converted into kinetic energy as the rock falls. Conversion to thermal energy doesn't happen until the rock hits something. Or for a second example, think of an ideal pendulum--kinetic and potential energy are traded back and forth on every swing.
9) What was the equation next to the airplane on the board? (1 student). It was the equation for overall propulsion system efficiency as described in the Breguet Range Equation notes.
10) What is the difference between questions 3 and 4? (1 student). One asked what you think will happen (without seeing the experiment). The other asked what you think happened (after seeing the experiment).
11) Better define the difference between useful work and waste heat (1 student). We will talk more about this later, but in short, anytime I have a temperature difference (say I have a hot body and a cold body) there exists the possiblity of extracting work from it. Alternatively, I could arrange it so I get no work out of it (e.g. put the hot body, next to the cold body and let the thermal energy flow from one to another without extracting useful work). The high temperature gases that exit a gas turbine engine are not used for anything, thus they can be considered to carry waste heat.
12) Unsure of differences between power and energy (1 student). Power is a rate of energy flow (J/s versus J). Take a look at a physics text to see lots of examples, and discussions.
13) No clear thermodynamic equilibrium definition (1 student). As noted above, I was too rushed. I should have written this (and a few others things) on the board. Please see the notes and the text. If these don't clear it up for you, let me know.
14) The explanation of how to do the homework (1 student).
15) Altoids are curiously strong mints (1 student).
16) No mud (9 students). GOOD! | <urn:uuid:a3a3fba2-d488-417c-a799-f599f53794bc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/16/16.unified/thermoF03/mud/T1mud.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00120-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952658 | 1,426 | 3.28125 | 3 |
Abhidhamma View:Understanding; Khandha
[Presented by Dr.Tep Sastri @ sariputtadhamma/JTN]
The series of presentations (excerpts) from the Visuddhimagga from now to the end will come from Part III of the book (Visuddhimagga The Path of Purification).
Vism. p. 431-443 (A. UNDERSTANDING) :
2. (i) WHAT IS UNDERSTANDING? Understanding (pa~n~naa) is of many sorts and has various aspects. An answer that attempted to explain it all would accomplish neither its intention nor its purpose, and would, besides, lead to distraction; so we shall confine ourselves to the kind intended here, which is understanding consisting in insight knowledge associated with profitable consciousness.
3. (ii) IN WHAT SENSE IS IT UNDERSTANDING? It is understanding (pa~n~naa) in the sense of act of understanding (pajaanana). What is this act of understanding? It is knowing (jaanana) in a particular mode separate from the modes of perceiving (sa~njaanana) and cognizing (vijaanana). For though the state of knowing(jaanana-bhaava) is equally present in perception (sa~n~naa), in consciousness (vi~n~naa.na), and in understanding (pa~n~naa), nevertheless perception is only the mere perceiving of an object as, say, blue or yellow; it cannot bring about the penetration of its characteristics as impermanent, painful, and not-self.
Consciousness knows the objects as blue or yellow, and it brings about the penetration of its characteristics, but it cannot bring about, by endeavouring, the manifestation of the [supramundane] path. Understanding knows the object in the way already stated, it brings about the penetration of the characteristics, and it brings about, by endeavouring, the manifestation of the path.
[Note 1] Abhidhamma definitions very commonly make use of the Pali forms of verbal nouns, here instanced by pa~n~naa (understanding = state of understanding) and pajaanana (understanding = act of understanding), both from the verb pajaanaati (he understands). English does not always, as in this case, distinguish between the two. Similarly, for example, from the verb socati (he sorrows) we find soka (sorrow, state of sorrowing) and socana (sorrowing, act of sorrowing), and here the English differentiates.
[Note 2] "In arisings of consciousness with two root-causes [i.e. with non-greed and nonhate but without non-delusion], or without root-cause, understanding does not occur" (Vism-mh.t 432). "Just as pleasure is not invariably inseparable from happiness, so perception and consciousness are not invariably inseparable from understanding. But just as happiness is invariably inseparable from pleasure, so understanding is invariably inseparable from perception and consciousness" (Vism-mh.t 432).
6. However, it is not always to be found where perception and consciousness are. But when it is, it is not disconnected from those states. And because it cannot be taken as disconnected thus: "This is perception, this is consciousness, this is understanding," its difference is consequently subtle and hard to see. Hence the venerable Naagasena said: "A difficult thing, O King, has been done by the Blessed One."—"What, venerable Naagasena, is the difficult thing that has been done by the Blessed One?"—"The difficult thing, O King, done by the Blessed One was the defining of the immaterial states of consciousness and its concomitants, which occur with a single object, and which he declared thus: `This is contact, this is feeling, this is perception, this is volition, this is consciousness'" (Mil 87).
7. (iii) WHAT ARE ITS CHARACTERISTIC, FUNCTION, MANIFESTATION AND PROXIMATE CAUSE?
Understanding has the characteristic of penetrating the individual essences of states. Its function is to abolish the darkness of delusion, which conceals the individual essences of states. It is manifested as non-delusion. Because of the words, "One who is concentrated knows and sees correctly" (A V 3), its proximate cause is concentration.
8. (iv) HOW MANY KINDS OF UNDERSTANDING ARE THERE?
1. Firstly, as having the characteristic of penetrating the individual essences of states, it is of one kind.
2. As mundane and supramundane it is of two kinds.
3. Likewise as subject to cankers and free from cankers, and so on,
4. As the defining of mentality and of materiality,
5. As accompanied by joy or by equanimity,
6. As the planes of seeing and of development.
7. It is of three kinds as consisting in what is reasoned, consisting in what is learnt (heard), and consisting in development.
8. Likewise as having a limited, exalted, or measureless object,
9. As skill in improvement, detriment, and means,
10. As interpreting the internal, and so on.
11. It is of four kinds as knowledge of the four truths,
12. And as the four discriminations.
32. (v) HOW IS IT DEVELOPED? Now, the five things classed as aggregates, bases, elements, faculties, truths, dependent origination, etc., are the soil of this understanding, and the [first] two purifications, namely, purification of virtue and purification of consciousness, are its roots, while the five purifications, namely, purification of view, purification by overcoming doubt, purification by knowledge and vision of what is the path and what is not the path, purification by knowledge and vision of the way, and purification by knowledge and vision, are the trunk. Consequently, one who is perfecting these should first fortify his knowledge by learning and questioning about those things that are the "soil" after he has perfected the two purifications that are the "roots," then he can develop the five purifications that are the "trunk." This is in brief.
Love Buddha's dhamma, | <urn:uuid:b765140c-799c-4775-a71b-fbfa5c567ee4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dhammawheel.com/viewtopic.php?f=18&p=210704 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00131-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943964 | 1,365 | 2.515625 | 3 |
The art or practice of supposedly interpreting a person’s character or predicting their future by examining the palm of their hand.
- Ancient Egyptians, Sumerians and Babylonians have also been hailed as the originators of palm-reading.
- She claimed to able to diagnose medical conditions by palm-reading.
- The temples are run like mini theme parks where faux monks are more interested in asking visitors to part with cash for trinkets and palm-reading.
For editors and proofreaders
Definition of palm-reading in:
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed. | <urn:uuid:3dec9195-a216-4b4d-ae49-5406f4b74c4a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/american_english/palm-reading | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00081-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916797 | 140 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Signing: The french fries sign looks like you are holding a french fry and dipping it in two tubs of sauce. Take your thumb and index finger on your dominant hand and touch them together, then pivoting from your wrist move your hand to the left and then the right.
Usage: Most babies are very interested in the words associated with different foods. Somehow they very quickly learn words associated with favored treats like french fries, even if they are only exposed to the food and the sign a few times. Why can’t they pick up on putting their toys away, or algebra so quickly!
Learning favorite foods like french fries also gives baby a way to tell you what they want instead of throwing a tantrum. Even if you don’t accommodate the request, just acknowledging it and making baby feel heard will reduce frustration.
Flash Card: Click the link to view the French Fries Baby Sign Language Flash Card. The flash cards are printable and available in both U.S. Letter and A4 sizes. | <urn:uuid:4aef70a5-902c-4c8d-b182-ea71e504e3e6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.babysignlanguage.com/dictionary/f/french_fries/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951353 | 209 | 3.125 | 3 |
There are a lot of junky books out there, but every now and then, an unknown gem comes my way and makes me very thankful that I get to review books on occasion! An Environmental Guide from A to Z by Tim Magner (Green Sugar Press 2009) is just such a book.
Typical A-B-C- books are usually geared towards babies and toddlers and often leave older readers and adults cold. This book is a happy exception.
Picture an A-B-C book for older children with each letter representing an environmental or nature-related concept or important person. Each word is fully explained in easy to understand terms and is beautifully illustrated by Aubri Vincent-Barwood. “D is for Darwin,” “F is for Fossil Fuels, “ “I is for the Inuit Eskimos,” “R is for Reduce and Reuse.”
Each letter also has a “Did you know?” section with an interesting fact or two related to the topic. For example, in the “B is for Bees and Insects” section: “A bee’s buzz comes from their wings flapping 200 times per second!”
I even learned a few things: “Q is for Vo Quy,” “L is for Paolo Lugari” (read the book for more information) or “the average ‘piece of food’ travels 1,500 miles before it reaches your mouth….” How about: “with solar panels, Germany has nearly cut their use of coal in half” and “Denmark gets more than 20% of its electrical power from wind farms.” I love it when I find a well-written childrens’ book that actually also teaches me a thing or two.
Perhaps my favorite part of the book is that it doesn’t just limit itself to teaching facts, ideas and concepts, but it also asks questions encouraging children to think about their own lives. Each letter has at least one little oak leaf with questions on it, or sometimes activity ideas. “What’s the biggest tree in your neighborhood? How old is it?” Many of these questions will encourage kids to get outside: “Watching the animals in your neighborhood, can you see how they are built to survive?”
If you are looking for an informative and interesting book that teaches about the environment and “green living” without being preachy, then I encourage you to take a look at An Environmental Guide from A to Z. Many thanks to Tim for sending me a copy. This is a review copy that will remain on our shelf to be enjoyed for a long time to come! | <urn:uuid:9d14a9e8-568f-42e9-8742-ce967e72495e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://unplugyourkids.com/2010/11/16/environmental-guide-from-a-to-z/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00043-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96994 | 571 | 2.796875 | 3 |
By Thomas J. Walker
Why leave unmarked the famous place
Where Washington once led
His little band of valiant men,
Unclothed, unshod, unfed,
To brave the river’s icy snares
That this great nation live,
And yet in memory of the deed,
No meed or honour give?
Save for the name, a moss-clad stone
No shaft, nor columns rise;
And yet no spot in our fair land
Is more immortalized!
Is not the greatness of the past,
The Crossing’s cherished fame,
Enough to build a monument
All worthy of the name?
Our country’s might wealth grows on,
The millions mount apace,
Yet not a copper, not a flag,
To designate the place.
Oh, countrymen, this long neglect
Is dead, I hope for aye.
Buy up the land, lay out the walks,
Our country’s own alway!
HOPEWELL TOWNSHIP — Gen. George Washington’s crossing of a choppy Delaware River on Christmas night in 1776 has been immortalized in paint, stories and countless history books. Part of a tactical maneuver to surprise and overwhelm Hessians hunkered down in Trenton, the Christmas crossing and subsequent victory at the Battle of Trenton was a a pivotal turning point for the Revolutionary War and a Continental Army that was fading fast after a series of humiliating defeats.
“It’s a compelling, dramatic story, 2,400 men crossing an ice-filled river on a stormy night. It makes for a great story. You can’t fabricate a better one,” said Washington Crossing State Park historian Clay Craighead.
But there’s a lesser-known tale involving Washington’s historic crossing, one that helped bring about the very existence of the state park. For more than a century after the crossing, there was little evidence anything noteworthy had ever happened on the banks of the river near Titusville. No park existed, and only a small stone marker mentioned the significance of the military maneuver.
With a poem 129 words long, a Lambertville merchant named T.J. Walker set out to change that. One hundred years ago today, the Trenton Evening Times ran “Washington’s Crossing,” the poem Walker wrote that helped ignite a growing movement to create a state park at the site.
Sandwiched between ads for a pharmacy and a man’s suit sale, the poem bemoaned the lack of tribute paid to the Washington Crossing area.
“Is not the greatness of the past/ The Crossing’s cherished fame/ enough to build a monument/ all worthy of the name?” Walker’s poem asked.
Three days before the poem’s publication, the Legislature had introduced a bill setting aside money to buy land around the crossing in anticipation of creating a state park. A lack of funding meant passage of the bill was uncertain, though, despite years of lobbying from groups like the Trenton Knights of Columbus, Daughters of the American Revolution and Patriot Order Sons of America.
Walker’s widely read poem gave new publicity to the cause. The Patriot Order distributed thousands of copies, taking special care to send one to each legislator.
Within weeks, the bill was signed, and $25,000 was appropriated to buy the first piece of farmland that would become a 3,000-acre parks system.
“This poem had a very significant impact on the creation of the park,” said Peter Osborne, a Pennsylvania historian who is writing a book about the park’s history. “I can’t say the poem is what did it all because there were a lot of people, a lot of powerful people, working on this, but the poem came at the right time to get things moving along.”
Little is known about Walker, who happened to be a British ex-patriot.
He lived and owned a shop in Lambertville, but Osborne said it’s unknown if he was able to bask in the park’s eventual success.
Still, his passion helped fuel the creation not only of the New Jersey site, but also the park established on the Pennsylvania side of the crossing around the same time.
By the late 1920s, more than $100,000 had been spent acquiring land along what is now Route 29 and Washington Crossing-Pennington Road.
Fields, woods, a nature center, visitors center and the Johnson Ferry House now attract joggers, hikers and picnickers, but its historical significance continues to be a huge draw.
“The reason this park exists is for what took place here,” Craighead said.
Contact Erin Duffy at (609) 989-5723 or email@example.com. | <urn:uuid:1c0d4b10-d3f8-482c-9e4f-97fc7f9b10a5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nj.com/mercer/index.ssf/2012/01/lambertville_poet_sparked_a_re.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00198-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93832 | 1,020 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Identify and use evidence from Macbeth to create a persuasive paper.
Evaluate your progress on the essay.
On a clean sheet of paper, write the folowing:
1) The thesis of your paper
2) The two strongest pieces of evidence
3) Your weakest piece of evidence
Then, answer the following questions:
4) What are you most concerned about with your paper?
5) What are you most proud of with your paper?
#1) "Does Your Essay Do the Following?" Activity. The following statements and questions are a reminder of SOME of the many things you must keep in mind for your paper.
Does Your Essay do the Following?
a) Always answer the prompt? Does the paper ever get philosophical or off topic?
b) Use both quotes and paraphrasing to refer to specific details in the play?
c) Use proper MLA citations of parahprases and quotes?
d) Present original insights? In other words, insights NOT presented by the commentaries in the book or by Mrs. Alexander in class?
e) When using insights from class or the commentaries, are you using original words to convey the ideas?
f) Present evidence and insights that span the entire play?
#2) For the rest of the class period, get into groups according to your essay prompt. In those groups, discuss your ideas in order to collect information and debate arguments for your essay.
Identify and analyze similarities and differences between two examples of monologues by Shakespeare that use the stage as an extended metaphor for life.
Examine and evaluate a visual representation of the stages of life in "All the world's a stage."
Create a monologue using at least one metaphor for life.
Look at the images of the "Seven Stages of Man" stained-glass window that visually represent the stages addressed in the "All the world's a stage" soliloquy. Click http://www.folger.edu/template.cfm?cid=1321 to view the images. Click on three different images from the window, and evaluate how each represents the content of the soliloquy describing that stage. Write at least two sentences for each of the three images you choose.
1) Teacher collects and returns the graphic organizer homework during bellwork.
2) Class engages in a Socratic dialogue on the similarities and differences in the outlook on life in the two Shakesperean monologues.
3) Write your own short monologue of six lines using a metaphor for life. Be sure that your monologue clearly uses a metaphor, and make sure to include details that demonstrate your attitudes toward the meaning of life. Post your six lines to the Discussion Board on www.turnitin.com no later than Thursday 3/8 at 5:00 p.m.
Identify context, speaker, and significance for excerpts from scenes of Macbeth.
Take a quiz on Act V of Macbeth.
Publish an analysis that connects yourself to a character in Macbeth, using the class Discussion Board on www.turnitin.com.
3rd, 4th, & 5th ONLY: Read aloud and discuss plot development, themes, and characterization in the final scene of Macbeth.
No written bellwork today.
1) 3rd, 4th, & 5th ONLY: Sign up for play roles. Group discussion leader places pausing lines on the board and leads group reading and discussion of Act V, Scene 8.
2) Students take quiz.
3) Find your Quote activity: Think back on the events of Macbeth. Which character do you most identify with? Look back at the dialogue of the character. Find a quote spoken by that character that makes you think that the two of you have something in common. Explain what the quote means and how the character's words relate to you. Submit your responses on the Discussion Board of www.turnitin.com. Your submission must include the following: Identify the character, type the quote with MLA citation, paraphrase the quote, explain how the quote relates to you, and explain what you have in common with the character. Your submission is DUE to the proper Discussion Board at www.turnitin.com no later than 5:00 p.m. Thursday, March 8.
4) Context, Speaker, and Significance quotes HOMEWORK: As a part of your review for the upcoming unit exam, you must be able to identify and analyze several important quotes from Macbeth. Below you will find a download entitled "Context - Speaker - Significance" that includes the directions for this assignment. (DUE at the beginning of class on Friday, March 9).
Identify context, speaker, and significance for excerpts from scenes from Act III of Macbeth in a jigsaw group activity as a part of the unit review.
Get into "Home Groups" for a jigsaw activity according to the verbal instructions provided by Mrs. Alexander.
1) Jigsaw activity to identify the speaker, context, and significance of excerpts from Act III of the play. These five excerpts are to be included in the quotes assigned yesterday when reviewing for the unit test.
III, i, 1-10 (“Thou has it now . . . no more”)
III, ii, 11-12 (“Things without . . . done is done”)
III, ii, 19-22 (“Better be . . . restless ecstasy”)
III, iii, 18-21 (“Who did strike . . . how much is done”)
III, iv, 136-138 (“I am in blood . . . as go o’er”)
2) Students continue this activity for Act I quotes from list assigned yesterday.
3) Students list four important plot points from each act to prepare for an upcoming activity.
Identify context, speaker, and significance for excerpts from scenes from Act V of Macbeth in a jigsaw group activity as a part of the unit review.
Review and respond to analysis of personal connections to the play by fellow students using an electronic discussion board. (Replies DUE no later than Sunday, March 11th by 6:00 p.m.)
Get into the Home Groups from yesterday. Divide the excerpts among the members of the group, and we will begin the jigsaw activity.
1) Jigsaw activity for speaker, context, and significance of quotes from Act V in preparation for unit exam.
2) In some classes only: Student presentation and discussion of context and significance for four quotes from the unit review list.
3) HOMEWORK: Review posts on the "Find Your Macbeth Quote" Discussion Board on www.turnitin.com, and reply to no fewer than two of the posts. Be sure that your comments are productive, appropriate, thoughtful, and insightful. Replies are DUE no later than Sunday, March 11th by 6:00 p.m. | <urn:uuid:3fd4c6b6-fb31-4810-a2d1-ccec9b44d4ab> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://sites.google.com/a/sahuarita.net/talexander/q3-wk10-mar-5-9 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916843 | 1,469 | 3.828125 | 4 |
Hsuan-tsang traveled between AD 627-643. His detailed account provides the first reliable information about distant countries, terrain and customs. He traveled over land, along the Silk Road west toward India. However, the further west he traveled it became increasingly difficult to cross desert and mountain ranges. Of the Taklamaken desert he reports: "As I approached China's extreme outpost at the edge of the Desert of Lop, I was caught by the Chinese army. Not having a travel permit, they wanted to send me to Tun-huang to stay at the monastery there. However, I answered 'If you insist on detaining me I will allow you to take my life, but I will not take a single step backwards in the direction of China'."
The officer himself a Buddhist, let him pass. In order to avoid the next outpost, he left the main foot-track and made a detour, which brought him to a place 'so wild that no vestige of life coult be found there. There is neither bird, nor four-legged beasts, neither water nor pasture'. At the point of final exhaustion his only companion, his horse, turned of in another direction, following its animal instinct, and led him to a place where there was water and pasture. His life was saved. Few days later he arrived at Turfan, where he stayed for some time. The king of Turfan enchanted by the monk's knowledge of the sacred Buddha books, refused to let him leave, only reluctantly relenting when Hsuan-tsang threatened a hunger strike. Thus, Hsuan-tsang had peaceable conquered to royal will. The king gave him letters of introduction the rulers of the oases along the way, thereby providing the assistance that made his pilgrimage successful.
Traveling through Samarkand (today's Tukestan) he describes that "...this great imperial city is surrounded by a wall, about seven miles in circumference, which governs a powerful state. This is a rich land, where the treasures of distant countries accumulate, where there are powerful horses and skilled artisans, and the climate is most pleasant."
Fifteen years later Hsuan-tsang reappeared on the northern side of the Great Mountains again, but this time with his face turned toward China. He was aware of the dangers between Khotan and Tun-huang---the Taklamakan desert. He comments: "...a desert of drifting sand without water of vegetation, burring hot and the hound of poisonous fiends and imps. There is no road, and travelers in coming and going have only to look for the deserted bones of man and beast as there guide". Hsuan-tsang crossed the dread waste of desert safely, reaching Tun-huang and deposited his precious manuscripts in the monastic library at the caves of the Thousand Buddhas.
(Return of Xuanzang with the Buddhist Scriptures, Silk scroll at Dunhuang) His detailed travel accounts from the Silk Roads provides reliable information about distant countries whose terrain and customs had been known, at that time, in only the sketchiest way. In later centuries he was immortalized as a saint and his journey popularized in fables and vernacular literature. However, for the historian and explorer he contributed a precise and colorful account of the many countries along the Silk Road.
Note: During the Sui (589-618) and the Tang (618-906) dynasties, the Chinese Buddhist schools were sophisticated, and the monasteries were numerous, rich and powerful. | <urn:uuid:48957aae-89a1-4fa2-80d2-8d2832e6ae23> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.silk-road.com/artl/hsuantsang.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972019 | 729 | 3 | 3 |
Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC
Several large, thick plumes of desert dust (brownish pixels) were blowing from Egypt and Libya northward over the Mediterranean Sea, on January 12, 2003. The Greek island of Crete is partially obscured by the dust in the upper left of this scene. The island of Cyprus is in the upper right of this image, just to the east of the dust plume. Roughly in the center, the Nile Delta fans out in green against the surrounding desert. Southeast of the island of Cyprus, snow dusts the mountains in Lebanon. The image from January 6 shows clear skies over the region. These true-color images were acquired by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) aboard the Aqua and Terra satellites.
Note: Often times, due to the size, browsers have a difficult time opening and displaying images. If you experiece an error when clicking on an image link, please try directly downloading the image (using a right click, save as method) to view it locally. | <urn:uuid:04cae8de-02eb-41da-85b7-c6e9986fcdc7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=64144 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00180-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915812 | 220 | 3.359375 | 3 |
The snipe eel, known to science as Nemichthys scolopaceus, is a rather peculiar looking fish. It has a long body, up to five feet in length, and resembles a long piece of ribbon or string with a large bulbous head at one end. Its thin body has earned its the nickname, threadfish. Because of its long, bird-like beak, it is sometimes referred to as the deep sea duck. The snipe eel has more vertebrae in its long body than any other animal on Earth. Its spine contains about 750 vertebrae. Its body is so slender that it is actually 75 times as long as it is wide. In spite of the extreme length o fits body, it weighs only a few ounces. Its posterior is so narrow that its ends as a small filament. The snipe eel's anus is actually located on its throat.
The snipe eel's upper and lower jaws are extremely long and curve away from each other at the tips. This means that they don't meet when the eel closes its mouth. These curved jaws help the eel to catch its food. The jaws are covered with tiny hooked teeth that help capture tiny shrimp and other crustaceans. As the eel swims along with its mouth open, tiny backward-pointing teeth snag the antenna of the shrimp. The shrimp is then worked towards the inside of the mouth and eaten. As is the case with many deep sea species, the snipe eel has proportionally large eyes for its body size. These large eyes help it to gather what little light that manages to penetrate the darkness of the deep sea. The color of the bodyranges from dark brown to gray with fins that are nearly black. The males differ from the females in that as they grow older, their jaws shorten and they lose their teeth. Because of this difference, researchers originally thought that the males and females were actually from different species.
Very little is known about the reproductive habits of the snipe eel. What is known is that after the eggs are laid by the female, they are fertilized externally by the male. The eggs are buoyant and will float in the water until they hatch. Once hatched, the tiny larvae are shaped like leaves. They will actually shrink in size somewhat before growing larger and becoming adults. It is believed that snipe eels are semelparous, meaning that they mate once and then die immediately. They are thought to have a life span in the wild of about ten years.
The snipe eel is a mid-water fish that is found in open waters at depths of between 300 and 6,000 feet (between 90 and 1,800 meters). The depth varies with latitude. Snipe eels are found in shallower waters at higher latitudes and deeper waters at lower latitudes. Most of what we know about this animal comes from specimens that are caught in fishing trawls. Snipe eels can be found in all of the world's oceans in temperate and tropical regions. | <urn:uuid:82ea6b8b-773d-4689-b574-384ff9a79916> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.seasky.org/deep-sea/snipe-eel.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00089-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974147 | 625 | 3.6875 | 4 |
Nellie Taylor Ross was elected governor of Wyoming on Nov. 4, 1924. She was the first woman ever elected to a governorship.
Wyoming was also the first state to grant women the right to vote and the first state to allow women to serve on juries.
After breaking a glass ceiling in Wyoming, Taylor Ross went on to break another. In 1933 she became the first woman to be appointed director of the United States Mint, a job she would hold for 20 years.
Also on Nov. 4, in 1933, some 3,000 dairy farmers demonstrated in Neillsville, Wisconsin. The demonstration eventually lead to the freeing of the jailed leaders of a milk strike over the unfair low prices set by the owners of the large dairy plants.
Civil disobedience actions included the dumping of milk on public roads, lying down in front of trains carrying milk and blocking production at cheese plants. Several cheese plants were blown up with dynamite, but no one was hurt.
A third event on Nov. 4, 1996, involved a big victory by the Steelworkers.
After struggling more than two years, 6,000 members of the Steelworkers union at Bridgestone/Firestone won a settlement in which strikers replaced by scabs got their original jobs back. The strike was forced upon the workers when management demanded that the workers accept 12-hour shifts.
The famous populist humorist, Will Rogers, was also born on Nov. 4, 1879 in Oologah, Indian Territory (now Oklahoma). He was the author of many famous quotes, perhaps one of the most memorable: "I belong to no organized party. I am a Democrat."
Photo: Nellie Taylor Ross. Wikimedia Commons, public domain. | <urn:uuid:e084ebfd-a83f-4ceb-9762-e132e26a5d0d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://peoplesworld.org/today-in-labor-history-first-woman-elected-governor-in-u-s/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00012-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975896 | 353 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Call Now (877) 767-2407Monday, June 27, 2016
Be Ready For Tropical Storms
By the RestorationSOS Educational Staff
Every year, for most of the six months between June and November, all eyes turn to the sea, watching as any number of tropical depressions stir up. Some of these become tropical storms, and some of those may turn into hurricanes. Others may simply flail about for a few days before blowing themselves out without ever amounting to anything.
Once one of these events reaches tropical storm status, then there is the possibility for trouble. With maximum sustained winds of up to 73 mph, tropical storms are fully capable of causing widespread damage, power outages, injury, and death. It is tropical storm status where the government weather services begin assigning names to the various storms.
Much of the damage caused by tropical storms is due to heavy rainfall. In 1998, Tropical Storm Charlie dumped more than 17 inches of rain on parts of Texas, forcing people from their homes and causing six deaths. In 2011, Tropical Storm Lee came along behind Hurricane Irene, affecting many of the same areas, and causing even further damage and injuries.
What You Should Know about Tropical Storms
Tropical storms may also cause a high storm surge as they come ashore, which can be devastating to low lying areas. Tornadoes may also be produced out of the heavy wind rotation that is an integral part of these storms.
Tropical storms aren't known for their seriously injuring people or causing deaths, but they are potentially lethal. One of the deadliest was Tropical Storm Washi that swept through the Philippines, killing more than 700 people in December of 2011.
Tropical storms depend on warm moist air to power them, and as such, they lose much of their strength once they make landfall. Cooler water may also weaken the storms and slow them down.
Tropical storm watches are issued whenever conditions are ripe for the formation of such a storm within a 36-hour period. Tropical storm warnings are issued once a storm has formed and is within 24 hours of the warning area. Warnings should be heeded promptly, with residents taking shelter and appropriate safety precautions. Coastal evacuation may be recommended and storm shelters may be opened to provide refuge for those fleeing the storm's path.
Once the storm has passed, do not return home until given permission to do so by local authorities, and even then, be careful. Watch for downed power lines or flooded out areas and avoid them. If your home or business is damaged, verify that it is structurally sound before going in. If you didnít turn off the utilities before you left, do so now and do it at their source.
It will take time to recover from a storm of this magnitude, so condition yourself you remain patient as the repair and restoration procedure works itself out.
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speak with us now! | <urn:uuid:e03e7686-0958-40d5-ab09-81f35f0bef50> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.restorationsos.com/education/natural-disasters/tropical-storms/be-ready-for-tropical-storms.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955674 | 608 | 3.1875 | 3 |
There are 4 to 8 vehicle collisions with large animals every hour in Canada.1
Roughly 384 motorists are injured in collisions with wild animals each year in British Columbia.2
There were 783 collisions with moose in Newfoundland in 2010.3
In Ontario, 1 out of every 17 vehicle collisions involves a wild animal.4
Reduce your collision risk
Pay attention to the landscape you’re driving through. Studies show that areas with roadside vegetation and places where creeks intersect with roads are at high risk for accidents. Long, straight stretches also pose a high risk because drivers tend to speed up on them.
Be especially careful if you are on a motorcycle. While only 2% of deer–car collisions result in human fatalities, 85% of deer–motorcycle collisions involve human fatalities.5
Avoid driving at dawn, dusk and night, when wildlife activity is at its peak.
To swerve or not to swerve?
Upon seeing a wild animal on or near the road, brake firmly, but don’t swerve. Sound your horn in a series of short bursts to frighten the animal away. If you can slow down with control, steer around the animal, but stay on the road.
If a collision is unavoidable, angle your vehicle to skim the animal, rather than hit it head-on. Move your vehicle off the road, and call your local road authority to remove the animal. Don’t approach an injured animal, as it could hurt you or itself.
Remember, wearing your seatbelt is one of the best ways to prevent injury in any collision.
Source: Wildlife Collision Prevention Program.
1Wildlife Collision Prevention Program, 2012.
2This figure is a mathematical average, obtained from past records of the Insurance Corporation of British Columbia.
3Royal Newfoundland Constabulary
4Ontario Ministry of Transportation, Watch for Wildlife, 2012.
5Defenders of Wildlife, Watch Out for Wildlife, 2012. | <urn:uuid:e05699c8-953a-4f3f-b300-6474e7039b6f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://getintheknow.ibc.ca/Blog/2012/June-2012/Driving-with-wildlife-in-mind.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00145-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921618 | 406 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Speed Boating with N
Emergent Literacy Design
Rationale: This lesson will help children identify /n/, the phoneme represented by N.
b Students will learn to recognize /n/ in spoken words by learning a meaningful
representation (speed boating) and the letter symbol N, practice finding /n/ in words,
and apply phoneme awareness with /n/ in phonetic cue reading by distinguishing
rhyming words from beginning letters.
Materials: Primary paper and pencil; chart with "Nick���s nanny napped all night";
drawing paper and crayons; (My N Book); word cards
with NOSE, NAP, NET, NIP, NINE and NAT; assessment worksheet identifying
pictures with /n/ (http://www.kidzone.ws/kindergarten/n-begins2.htm)
Procedures: 1. Say: Our written language is a secret code. The tricky part is
learning what letters stand for���the mouth moves we make as we say words. Today
we're going to work on spotting the mouth move /n/. We spell /n/ with letter N. /n/
makes the sound that a speed boat makes.
2. Let's pretend drive a speed boat, /n/, /n/, /n/. [Pantomime steering a speed boat] Notice
where your tongue is? (Touching the roof of your mouth and back of your front teeth). When we say /n/, we blow air
through your nose.
3. Let me show you how to find /n/ in the word nest. I'm going to stretch nest out in
super slow motion and listen for my speed boat. Nnn-e-e-ss-t. Slower: Nnn-e-e-e-sss-t
There it was! I felt my tongue touch the rough of my mouth and the back of my front teeth. I can feel the speed boat /n/.
4. Let's try a tongue twister [on chart]. " Nick���s nanny napped all night." Everybody
say it three times together. Now say it again, and this time, stretch the /n/ at the
beginning of the words. "Nnnick���s nnnanny nnnapped all nnnight.��� Try it again, and
this time break /n/ off the word: "/n/ ick���s /n/ anny /n/ apped all /n/ ight /
5. [Have students take out primary paper and pencil]. We use letter N to spell /n/.
Capital N starts at the rooftop and comes straight down. Then put your pencil back at the point you started your N, except make a slanted line away from the first line all the way to the sidewalk. Come back up to the roof with a straight line. Now lets make a lowercase n. Start at the fence and draw a straight line down to the sidewalk. Then start at the fence and make one hump down to the sidewalk. I want to see everybody's n. After Iput a smile on it, I want you to make nine more just like it.
6. Call on students to answer and tell how they knew: Do you hear /n/ in nap or
play? nip or tuck? mean or nice? sun or mad? team or ton? Say: Let's see if you can spot
the mouth move /n/ in some words. Drive your speed boat if you hear /n/: The, near,
fun, far, nap, nail, pink, niece, put, sun.
7. Say: "Let's look at an ���My N Book.��� It tells us about a boy named Nick who gets in trouble with his nanny. Can you guess why he gets into trouble?" Read ���My N Book���, drawing out /N/. Ask children if they can think of other words with /n/. Ask them to write a silly sentence using 2 words that begin with N. Then have each student illustrate their sentence and share it with the class. Display their work.
8. Show NAP and model how to decide if it is nap or map: The N tells me to drive a speed boat, /n/, so this word is nnn-ap, nap. You try some: NOT: not or cot? Neck: neck
or peck? NOW: cow or now? NET: net or pet? CAN: cat or can?
9. For assessment, distribute the worksheet. Students are to complete the partial
spellings and color the pictures that begin with N. Call students individually to read
the phonetic cue words from step #8.
Reference: Byrne, B., & Fielding-Barnsley, R. (1990). Acquiring the alphabetic principle: A case for teaching recognition of phoneme identity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 805-812.l
Return to the Realizations index: http://www.auburn.edu/academic/education/reading_genie/realizations.html | <urn:uuid:6a09d367-14a8-42d4-8781-e3bd673340bc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.auburn.edu/academic/education/reading_genie/realizations/simpsonel.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.880007 | 1,082 | 4.0625 | 4 |
Allergy Relief in Humid Climates
March 01, 2002
Dust mites are a problem in new homes in humid climates. What keeps them away?
The increasing incidence of allergy and asthma, particularly among children, is a worldwide concern. About 20% of the general population suffer from allergies, and about 5% suffer from asthma.Among children the percentage of allergy sufferers is even higher. Since most of us stay indoors more than 90% of the time, the air quality in buildings is of paramount importance in maintaining respiratory health. Energy-efficient buildings with tight building envelopes may make for poor indoor air quality—yet allergy-resistant houses must be airtight,well insulated, and well ventilated. One cannot control and filter the ventilation air unless the house is airtight, nor can one maintain a positive pressure. Cold spots and cold floors may be present in houses that are poorly insulated. High local relative humidity (RH) hastens the formation of molds on these cold surfaces and is conducive to the breeding and proliferation of dust mites. So energy-efficient construction is a prerequisite for fighting dust mites, but it is not sufficient in and of itself. Allergens and Irritants The major allergens found in homes today are environmental tobacco smoke and dust mite ...
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The Home Energy Online articles are for personal use only and may not be printed for distribution. For permission to reprint, please send an e-mail to email@example.com. | <urn:uuid:bf8d1ea5-0223-4572-ad64-b08fec328fc5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://homeenergy.org/show/article/nav/indoorairquality/page/5/id/271 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00125-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.913514 | 340 | 2.8125 | 3 |
7 Reasons Why Untreated Strep Throat Is Dangerous
Strep throat is dangerous throat infection caused by streptococcal bacteria and must be treated with a full course of antibiotics for strep throat diligently to avoid major health complications mentioned below. A high dose of probiotic treatment following the antibiotic course is highly recommended by some health professionals to restore good bacteria balance in the intestinal tract.
Here are the top reasons why untreated strep throat is so dangerous:
1. Tonsillitis is a case of inflamed tonsils when small pockets of pus, also called white spots on tonsils, cover the surface of tonsils and can even lead to a chronic case of tonsillitis. In the case of persistent strep throats or chronic tonsillitis, a tonsillectomy could be advised to a patient. Be advised that adult tonsillectomy recovery is far more complicated and takes more time than children’s.
2. Rheumatic fever is a rare inflammatory condition that usually develops in about 4-6 weeks following a case of untreated strep throat or strep throat that was not properly treated. Rheumatic fever can cause permanent damage to the heart valves and also manifest itself in joint pains and affect central nervous system.
3. Acute sinusitis can follow a case of untreated strep throat when the inflammation settles in one of the four pairs of sinus cavities and causes a lot of pressure, severe sinus headaches and greenish-yellow discharge.
4. Ear infection can be an aftermath of the strep throat that was not treated correctly and result in severe earache, drainage, high fever and even loss of hearing.
5. Another serious outcome of untreated strep throat is glomerulonephritis or kidney failure disease when kidneys lose their ability to filter liquids and remove body toxins.
6. Scarlet fever, also know as scarlatina, is another serious complication of the strep infection which manifests itself by rapidly spreading rash all over the body.
7. Surprisingly, obsessive compulsive disorder, when a patient experiences a series of compulsive repetitive actions like hand washing, excessive worrying and speaking, nervous tics and involuntary limb movements, can develop following a case of untreated strep throat.
Though very rare, the untreated strep throat infection can result in very serious complications and cause life-threatening conditions if left undiagnosed. | <urn:uuid:5a28160a-72b6-4725-a1be-9b6bdf1ce5ab> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.healtharticles101.com/7-reasons-why-untreated-strep-throat-is-dangerous/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926111 | 488 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Both the Allies and the Axis began regrouping and preparing for the next stage of the Tunisian campaign as soon as Rommel had abandoned the February offensive. The Allies intended to press all Axis forces inside a firmly held cordon in the narrow northeastern corner of Tunisia, isolate them from Europe, and then split them into segments for piecemeal destruction. Operations to constrict the enemy within the limited bridgehead would consist of two major phases. First, the British Eighth Army (Gen. Sir Bernard Montgomery) would push northward along the coast through the Gabès narrows and central Tunisia beyond Souse. Second, Allied engineers would construct new airfields and reconstruct captured enemy airfields close to the new front so that increasing Allied air power could be used against the enemy with full effect in the final stage of the campaign.
The British Eighth Army's drive northward would be the main Allied effort in its first phase. The British First Army when it had regrouped was expected to engage only in small holding attacks along the northern front and, of course, to hold onto its avenues of approach to Tunis and Bizerte. The U.S. II Corps in central Tunisia would during this phase also play only an auxiliary role. While the Eighth Army attacked the Mareth and Chott Positions near Gabès, the II Corps was expected, by carefully timed, well prepared, and suitably controlled attacks, to seize dominating positions along the enemy's line of communications. These restricted operations would not only absorb enemy reserves which could otherwise be used against the British Eighth Army but would also, in the army group commander's judgment, advance the training of II Corps, increase its self-confidence, and improve its morale. He had no intention of employing II Corps to cut the enemy's line of communications by thrusting beyond the Eastern Dorsal onto the coastal plain, but only to threaten such action and thus attract enemy reserves to engage in defensive measures. The Eighth Army's attack on the Mareth Position would begin in the middle of March. The auxiliary operations in central Tunisia were adjusted to that schedule.1
Reorganizing the Allied Command
When General Alexander arrived in Algiers on 15 February to confer with the Commander in Chief, Allied Force, arrangements for his headquarters at Constantine were completed, his responsibilities defined, and his directive prepared.2 Headquarters, 18 Army Group, assumed principally those responsibilities previously discharged at AFHQ relating to the control of operations.
By close liaison, special staff visits, and a system of observation (called PHANTOM) and reporting over direct radio channels from the subordinate units in the field to army group headquarters, it undertook to achieve the necessary co-ordination between ground, air, and sea activities in the Tunisian area. Tactical air support was to be centrally controlled through air commanders with each British army and with II Corps, all under the higher command of the Headquarters, Northwest African Tactical Air Force. A naval liaison officer at 18 Army Group headquarters would furnish advice on naval problems to the ground commanders.
In Algiers, G-3, AFHQ, kept in close communication with General Alexander's command, and sent liaison officers on frequent visits. Army group controlled and coordinated the collection of intelligence by both the First and Eighth Armies, and by means of its own supplementary efforts was able to make full and accurate estimates of the Axis order of battle. General summaries and reports of interrogations of prisoners of war went directly to G-2, AFHQ, from forward collection agencies, with army group disseminating the resulting analyses. British troop training fell under its control but that of American troops was reserved for G-3, AFHQ. Logistical support, including transportation, remained outside the army group's province. Only the control over level of supply and assignment of priorities in delivery was exercised by army group.
Although it was an Allied headquarters with a certain number of American officers, 18 Army Group was predominantly British. At first most of its officers consisted of staff members of General Alexander's earlier command brought by airplane from Cairo. It was organized on British staff lines, with a list of about 70 at the outset, and over 100 before the end of March. The preparations for 18 Army Group's activation involved the removal of Headquarters, British First Army, from Constantine, to Laverdure, about 110 miles farther east, and closing of the AFHQ advanced command post at Constantine. The 18 Army Group occupied offices and billets thus vacated, and was ready for activation about 12 February, waiting only for the commanding general's arrival.3 His chief of staff was Maj. Gen. Sir Richard L. McCreery. Brig. L. C. Holmes was in charge of operations, and an American, Brig. Gen. William C. Crane, was his deputy.
On 8 March the 18 Army Group began by active direction in the forward areas to supplement the planning and co-ordination which it had hitherto undertaken.4 Although the regrouping which followed Rommel's retreat to the Eastern Dorsal had not yet been completed, the pattern was already apparent. The three headquarters directly subordinate to General Alexander were British First Army, U.S. II Corps, and British Eighth Army. The chain of command was to be in the form shown on the accompanying chart. The French XIX Corps' front was narrowed while most French troops were being rearmed and
Allied Command Relationships in the Mediterranean
trained, and General Koeltz remained under General Anderson's command.
General Alexander's survey of the Tunisian front and of his principal subordinates resulted in a decision to retain General Anderson, whom he then regarded as a sound soldier. His estimate of the performance by the U.S. II Corps commander during the recent battle was unfavorable, and he welcomed the possibility of a change for the better at that headquarters. The command of II Corps in future weeks had to be exercised by someone in whom Alexander had confidence and who, in turn, could claim the confidence of the American division commanders. Both General Ryder, whose 168th Infantry had been so badly affected by Fredendall's orders for its employment at Sidi Bou Zid, and General Ward, whose relief General Fredendall had proposed during the battle, lacked confidence in Fredendall's leadership, which they deemed responsible for assigning tasks and then prescribing both means and methods ill-adapted to their accomplishment; Fredendall, moreover, had precipitated a choice between himself and Ward, if either was to be retained. After an attempt at Headquarters, II Corps, at Djebel Kouif on 3 March to diagnose the state of the U.S. 1st Armored Division had revealed how much life and substance remained, and after General Alexander's estimate of General Fredendall had been taken into account, General Eisenhower determined to bring in a new corps commander, a conclusion in which he was confirmed by the information that his chief of staff, General Smith, his special representative, Maj. Gen. Omar N. Bradley, his former deputy chief of staff at the Advance Command Post, AFHQ, General Truscott, and his G-3, General Rooks, were able to furnish.
Maj. Gen. George S. Patton, Jr., whom General Eisenhower selected, was brought to Tunisia from I Armored Corps in Morocco to participate in operations for which he had been thirsting. He took command of II Corps on 6 March, bringing with him a new chief of staff, Brig. Gen. Hugh J. Gaffey, and other staff officers in case of need. His service in Tunisia was to be an interruption in his planning and preparation to command the American troops in the forthcoming invasion of Sicily. Most of his I Armored Corps staff officers were not required in Tunisia. General Bradley was designated to succeed him as soon as operations in southern Tunisia were completed, and was made deputy corps commander until Patton's retirement from Tunisia. This change was the major modification of the chain of command in the Allied Force.5
General Eisenhower's instructions to Patton defined his immediate task as the rehabilitation of the American forces in II Corps with all possible speed in order to make an attack already directed by 18 Army Group. Intensive training, re-equipping, reorganization, and application of all lessons thus far learned, and careful planning of the logistics of the attack, were to come first, along with an effort to instill in American forces a spirit of genuine partnership with the British forces. Patton was advised to train all combat forces, rather than engineers alone, in detection and removal of mines and in the proper use of mines for defensive purposes. He was also advised to
LT. GEN. GEORGE S. PATTON, JR., and General Eisenhower conferring at beginning of II Corps offensive, Tunisia, 16 March 1943.
demonstrate the fact that the 37-mm. antitank gun could knock out the German Mark IV tank with the latest ammunition. Eisenhower, with Patton's well-known personal courage in mind, then remarked, "I want you as a Corps commander, not as a casualty." And, he added: "You must not retain for one instant any man in a responsible position where you have become doubtful of his ability to do the job. . . . This matter frequently calls for more courage than any other thing you will have to do, but I expect you to be perfectly cold-blooded about it. . . . I will give you the best available replacement or stand by any arrangement you want to make."6
General Eisenhower's staff received a new G-2, a position held by a British officer in view of the extensive use of British sources of information in the Mediterranean. The change was prompted by the fact that excessive reliance on one type of intelligence leading to a misinterpretation of the enemy's intentions had contributed to the setback at Sidi Bou Zid. Brig. Kenneth D. W. Strong, a former British military attaché in Berlin, was sent from the United Kingdom by General Brooke to relieve Brig. Eric E. Mockler-Ferryman at Algiers.7
Ground Forces Reorganize
The reorganization of Allied ground forces was intended to include the formation of reserves at each level of command. The arrival in Tunisia of British 9 Corps headquarters and troops (Lt. Gen. Sir John Crocker), to be followed during March and early April by the British 1st and 4th Divisions, would facilitate the creation of reserves. But in the interval before their arrival, the policy was incompatible with current battle requirements and with the principle of keeping divisions intact, and was also hampered in execution by the process of sorting out all units into national sectors. General Alexander ordered the transfer into 18 Army Group reserve of Headquarters, British 9 Corps, British 6th Armoured Division, and British 78th Division. The scheduled shift was delayed to meet General Anderson's needs for infantry with which to push the enemy back from the hills north of Medjez el Bab, but by 12 March the reserve was established. General Keightley's 6th Armoured Division then passed under General Crocker's command and resumed the process of refitting with Sherman tanks, a process beginning when the enemy attacked at Sidi Bou Zid. First Army was forced to do without substantial reserves for the next six weeks, and required British 5 Corps to dispose its troops subject to a possible need to send reinforcements to the sector of French XIX Corps. Under the plan of 12 February, 18 Army Group had contemplated thinning out the front line in order to obtain reserves. Early in March they expected that the Allied front would be shortened by British Eighth Army's northward progress, enabling one American division then to be shifted from the extreme southern part of the U.S. II Corps area to the extreme north of British 5 Corps zone. The remainder of the II Corps would sideslip northward perhaps as far as the Pichon˝Maktar highway, while the French XIX Corps moved northward as far as the
Pont-du-Fahs˝Bou Arada road and its immediate approaches from the north.8
After the completion of the February battles, the Allied main line of resistance extended from Cap Serrat to El Ma el Abiod, running east of Sidi Nsir, Medjez el Bab, Bou Arada, Djebel Bargou (1266), Djebel Serdj (1357), Kesra, Sbiba gap, Djebel Semmama (1356), and Djebel Chambi (1544). It covered the lateral road from Djebel Abiod to Bédja, a great advantage to British 5 Corps, and the approaches to the plain of Tunis along either side of the Medjerda river. The front covered main gaps in the Western Dorsal from Maktar to Sbiba, and thence to the southwestern extremity of the mountain chain. (Map 13) The main landing fields in the Medjerda valley, the air landing grounds between Le Kef and Thala, and the airfields near Tébessa were protected, but the Thélepte airfields were left open to the enemy and were to be recaptured, if necessary, as a preliminary step in the forthcoming Allied offensive.
British 5 Corps (46th, 78th, and 6th Armoured Divisions) held the front from Cap Serrat to the mountains north of the Rebaa Oulad Yahia valley, and included within its zone Le Kef and Souk Ahras.
French XIX Corps, commanded by General Koeltz with headquarters at Djerissa, defended the next zone to the south. It comprised Divisions Mathenet and Welvert, with eight regiments of French infantry, two groups of Tabors, and the British 36 Brigade (reinforced). Its front extended into the mountains at a point northeast of Sbiba. The U.S. II Corps held the remainder of the front. The 34th Division, reassigned to II Corps, held the northeast sector and the 1st Infantry Division (after 27 February, the 9th Infantry Division), the southwest sector. Nearer Tébessa, the 1st Armored Division (and beginning 28 February, the 1st Infantry Division) prepared for the forthcoming offensive. Headquarters, II Corps, was at Djebel Kouif.9
The American divisions in II Corps required a certain amount of strengthening and reorganization. General Ryder's 34th Division needed to reorganize and rehabilitate the 168th Infantry, which had lost its commanding officer (Col. Thomas D. Drake) and much of its strength near Sidi Bou Zid. Col. Frederic B. Butler, from G-3, II Corps, became its new commander. General Ryder also sought the restitution to the 133d Infantry of its 2d Battalion, which was still being used in the AFHQ security detachment at Algiers, and requested thirty-six 105-mm. howitzers to replace the badly worn 25-pounder guns of the division artillery. The 9th Division, which was moving east under command of Maj. Gen. Manton S. Eddy during the Kasserine battles, lacked one of its regiments, the 39th Infantry. The 39th had been scattered since the Allied landings, doing guard duty along the line of communications, or at the Biskra airdrome, or fighting in Central Tunisia. The division had not yet fought as a unit and
Situation in Tunisia
26 February 1943
remained in need of seasoning. The 1st Armored Division required replacement of severe losses in men and matériel. Furthermore, General Ward and others deemed this division too large. Its current core--six battalions of tanks, three of armored infantry, and three of armored artillery--was sufficiently large to invite endless detachment of units, and perhaps too cumbersome for the most efficient employment. Any such major change on the eve of the Allied attack was considered imprudent, but the problem was eventually met by modifying the table of organization. General Allen's 1st Infantry Division needed to recover from French XIX Corps the elements of the 26th Infantry still under General Koeltz's command while the rest of the division was concentrating for its first action as a division in Tunisia.10
The new commander of the II Corps attempted to transmit to his entire command the aggressive spirit with which he himself was animated, and to expedite preparations for the forthcoming attack. General Patton drove his principal subordinates and moved with restless energy throughout this area. His regime substituted military decorum for all traces of casualness, and required "spit and polish" as a preventive against carelessness. Some of Patton's methods to stamp his personal leadership on the entire II Corps seemed trivial to those on whom they were imposed. Changes which some might attribute to Patton's methods were perhaps also traceable to the lessons learned by troops in combat. The II Corps matured, working at its job, looking ahead more than it looked back, and needing more than anything else successes to boost its morale.11
The New Allied Air Command
Almost simultaneously with the activation of 18 Army Group late on 19 February, a new system of control over Allied aviation came into effect. At Algiers, the Mediterranean Air Command under Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder began to function on 18 February, having at its disposal the Twelfth Air Force and Royal Air Force (RAF) Eastern Air Command, the Ninth Air Force, and three RAF commands--Middle East, Malta, and Gibraltar. These components were grouped by areas into the Middle East Air Command, Malta Air Command, and Northwest African Air Forces. The last of these was reorganized into functional organizations. General Spaatz, its commander, maintained an administrative echelon of his headquarters in Algiers but kept his operations headquarters at Constantine and made it a combined organization of American and British officers. The Northwest African Strategic Air Forces headquarters under General Doolittle controlled bombers and their fighter escorts from airfields near Constantine. The U.S. XII Bomber Command and two squadrons of British Wellington bombers continued to furnish the main long-range bombing strength. The Northwest African Tactical Air Force fell under command of Air Marshal Sir Arthur Coningham, who assumed control over the Allied Air Support Command (with General Kuter as deputy) a day or two before its redesignation, and established a combined operations headquarters adjacent to the new location of
Headquarters, First Army, at Laverdure.12 There General Alexander set up the advanced command post of 18 Army Group and shared facilities in a way which contributed to the maximum effectiveness of the Tactical Air Force, on the one hand, and the fullest use of First Army's resources on the other.13
Future collaboration between ground and air elements of the Allied Force was to benefit from the proximity of the respective commanders, but its fundamental basis was their past association in the Egyptian-Libyan desert, where they had together tested a successful doctrine of air support. Air Marshal Coningham controlled the U.S. XII Air Support Command and RAF 242d Group from the first, and resumed control over the Western Desert Air Force after it was transferred on 21 February to Northwest African Air Forces. These air commands were married to the major ground commands: XII Air Support Command with U.S. II Corps, RAF 242d Group with British First Army, and Western Desert Air Force with Eighth Army, as heretofore. So much for organization. What mattered far more than the fact of marriage was the nature of the marriage contract. The doctrine developed in the Western Desert of close union between air and ground forces had an eloquent and determined practitioner in the new commander of Northwest African Tactical Air Force.
The fundamental premises of the new program to be applied in Tunisia were that ground troops would benefit most from a lasting Allied supremacy over the enemy air force and that, in view of the limited Allied resources in air power, no operational air unit should remain unemployed, or be sent to a minor target. In accordance with these premises, control over tactical air units had to be centralized and missions had to be assigned to them by a commander fully conversant with their capabilities under varying military conditions, and thus able to determine priorities among competing projects. With such an arrangement, the offensive use of Allied air promised results cumulative in their value for Allied ground and air elements alike. Air umbrellas over ground troops were henceforth to be abandoned in favor of strikes on the bases from which enemy flights originated. The bombers making these strikes would be escorted by the fighter planes which might otherwise have put in hours of protective cover over ground troops without damaging the enemy.14 To summarize, the reorganization of 19-20 February 1943 was destined, through use of the ground-air doctrines tested in Libya, to promote by painful but inexorable steps the achievement of Allied air supremacy in Tunisia.15
In addition to the Northwest African Strategic and Tactical Air Forces, General
Spaatz's command included the Coastal Air Forces (controlled from Algiers in conjunction with the headquarters of the Naval Commander in Chief, Mediterranean), the Training Command, the Air Forces Service Command, and a Photographic Reconnaissance Wing.
The new air organization, particularly the Tactical Air Force, set about preparing airfields at sites appropriate for the expected pattern of ground operations, and establishing a radar warning and control system with which to apply new principles of air support. The mountains seriously impaired the effectiveness of radar, while the lack of telephonic communication between dispersed installations was likewise a handicap. Radio communication had to make up for the deficiencies in wire lines.
By 11 March, an outline plan of air operations in three successive phases was ready. Headquarters, 18 Army Group, and Tactical Air Force were then encamped near Aïn Beïda, from which they could cooperate during the imminent operations at the Mareth Position. The XII Air Support Command and RAF 242d Group were expected to make successive shifts onto new or improved airfields nearer the coast. A tactical bomber force of light and medium bombers was assembled and organized in the vicinity of Canrobert, northwest of Aïn Beïda. The XII Air Support Command prepared to concentrate at Thélepte, where the existing fields, once reoccupied, would be improved and supplemented, and like that at Youks-les-Bains, would be stocked with enough matériel to provide a surplus for the Western Desert Air Force's use when it came north. The airfields at Kalaa Djerda and Sbeïtla were to be improved, the former for the use of bombers. The Western Desert Air Force was expected to devote itself independently to supporting British Eighth Army in the main action. XII Air Support Command and RAF 242d Group were to assail the enemy air forces, carry out tactical reconnaissance, and assist night bombing on the line of communications.
Once Gafsa had been taken by the U.S. II Corps, and while the British Eighth Army was closing in on Gřbes, a second phase of air operations was envisaged in the air outline plan of 11 March. It would have two aspects. A shift eastward and northeastward by those engaged in airfield construction, radar erection, and supply would be paralleled by interference with the Axis air movement up the coast. In this phase, the operations of XII Air Support Command and Western Desert Air Force would have to be co-ordinated, and the latter would find airfields and supplies ready for it near Gafsa and at Thélepte. Preparations would be completed for the use during the final stage of airfields in the area from Souk el Arba and Souk el Khemis to Le Kef, Le Sers, and Thibar. (See Map VI.)
Air Marshal Coningham held a commanders' conference at Canrobert on 12 March at which it was agreed that once the battle for the Mareth Position had begun, XII Air Support Command and RAF 242d Group would attempt round-the-clock strikes on enemy airfields near Gabès. Western Desert Air Force might thus retain air supremacy over the battle area with lighter opposition and with greater capacity to engage ground targets in co-ordination with the Army elements. As the day for the initial Allied operations arrived, intermittent bad weather reduced the number of air strikes on enemy landing fields. They were begun on 13 March and taken up from time
to time by units of the Strategic Air Force as well as the Tactical Air Force.16
Allied Preparations in the Communications Zone
Like the forward area, the rear was reorganized and strengthened for the resumption of the Allied offensive in March. The accumulation of forces preparing for the eventual invasion of Sicily augmented the total number of military personnel with a corresponding increase in the complexity of the agencies which supervised and supported combat troops. Algiers in particular was crowded with American and British personnel in addition to members of the French civil and military establishments. The process of Allied military build-up in Algiers had begun long before the planning for March. AFHQ filled up the Hotel St. Georges, the Hotel Alexandra, and other buildings which were converted to office space, and spilled over into several other buildings; it also occupied several hundred different officer billets. The troops assigned or attached to the headquarters command, and other units quartered temporarily in the vicinity of Algiers, added to the Allied military traffic. Antiaircraft batteries and smoke projector units, car and truck companies, military police, signal communications, postal and radio censorship units, and the workers engaged in servicing records--all the varied and extensive aspects of the modern great army headquarters contributed to the Allied military population in Algiers in ever-increasing numbers.
The North African Theater of Operations, U.S. Army (NATOUSA), was activated at Algiers on 4 February 1943, to handle the administrative concerns of the growing American Army forces in the area, matters which were not properly a subject for Allied action. At first, like the commanding general, most of its military personnel doubled as both Allied Force and theater officers. Later, when some whole sections of AFHQ were transferred to comparable staff sections of NATOUSA, the total strength of the staffs in Algiers was still unaffected. But in the course of time, largely as a result of a determination to undertake more and more projects, the total grew. A substantial number of the units of AFHQ were operational rather than supervisory agencies. They pursued their projects with great energy, intent on doing everything possible to make them succeed. By April, AFHQ exceeded 2,000 officers and enlisted men, illustrating how military, like civil administrative establishments, tend to grow and rarely to dwindle.17
The supply organization in the communications zone with which to meet the requirements of the March offensive was created during the preceding month. Brig. Gen. Everett S. Hughes, who had been engaged in ETOUSA on the logistical problems connected with Operation TORCH, arrived on 12 February in Algiers to be deputy theater commander and commanding general of the communications zone. An Eastern Base Section at Constantine to supply the requirements of U.S. II Corps was constituted on 13 February under command of Col. Arthur W. Pence and opened on 27 February. With the Atlantic Base Section
at Casablanca and the Mediterranean Base Section at Oran, the Eastern Base Section came under the direct control of General Larkin as Commanding General, Services of Supply, NATOUSA. The flow of matériel to General Patton's corps was to occur within the broader pattern of Allied buildup for the operations in Tunisia, the campaign being planned for Sicily, and perhaps additional undertakings in the Mediterranean. Supplies for II Corps had to be forwarded in a manner minimizing interference with the British Line of Communication to First Army, which in January had passed to the control of AFHQ from Headquarters, First Army.
Maj. Gen. J. G. W. Clark (Br.), commanding No. 1 Line of Communications Area from headquarters at Sétif, with sub-areas at Algiers, Bougie, Philippeville, Bône, Constantine, and Souk Ahras, reported to Maj. Gen. Humfrey Gale (Br.), Chief Administrative Officer, AFHQ.18 With the three American base sections and the coordinating Headquarters, Services of Supply, NATOUSA, reporting to the deputy theater commander while the British Line of Communication reported to the chief administrative officer, and with a separation of American and British maintenance impossible, and indeed in many respects undesirable, the problems were met as they arose by steady co-operation between Generals Hughes and Gale. The disproportionately low ratio of service to combat troops with which the early operations in Northwest Africa had been undertaken was raised during the first four months of 1943.19
Allied plans in outline for logistical support were sketched at AFHQ on 27 February in a conference over which the chief administrative officer, General Gale, presided, and at which Maj. Gen. C. H. Miller (Br.) of 18 Army Group described the prospects. First Army's supply base would be at Bône, while II Corps would draw on the new Eastern Base Section at Constantine.20 Each army would be responsible for deliveries forward of these advanced bases. While First Army would maintain the air elements in its northern area, Line of Communication, Third Area Service Command, near Constantine would supply those in the southern sector and along the Constantine˝Tébessa axis. In addition to the motor transport allotted to each army and for AFHQ reserve, a special reserve for British Eighth Army was to be accumulated in the Constantine area on a scale to be determined by 18 Army Group. Participation by British troops and air units in operations to the south would be assisted by stocking gasoline and ammunition at accessible points. The principal maintenance center for tanks was to be at Le Kroub, near
UNLOADING P-38 FIGHTER PLANES, for the French Army, Casablanca, 13 April 1943. Note Arab helpers on the dock.
Constantine, with facilities at Bône for servicing Churchill tanks.21
By March, the expansion of Allied logistical support which had been envisaged since the end of December began to reflect the result of the arrangements then made. The main ports of Casablanca and Oran, and the satellite ports near them, stepped up their operations. The Sixth Port of Embarkation (Mobile) at Casablanca and the Third Port of Embarkation (Mobile) at Oran were reinforced by two and three port battalions, respectively. Each port employed several hundred Arab laborers on the docks
and also contracted with French companies to assist in unloading operations. For the Eastern Base Section at Constantine, the port of Philippeville was made available. It was dredged to a twenty-two-foot depth, which permitted four partially loaded Liberty ships and two coasters to discharge cargo simultaneously; the port was equipped with cranes, hoists, and other cargo-handling machinery which expedited the unloading process.22 On occasion, LST's could run from Oran to Philippeville with replacement tanks which then went on transporters over the road to the vicinity of Tébessa. For the operations in April, the deeper port of Bône was also to be shared with the British Line of Communication and was greatly increased in cargo-receiving capacity. But in March, the 91,000 tons which passed through Philippeville in addition to that brought by rail and highway from the west met the requirements of the U.S. II Corps and the XII Air Support Command, and made possible the accumulation of reserves on which the British Eighth Army could shortly draw.23
Railroad and highway transportation across French North Africa were both greatly expanded by March through the work of engineers and the Transportation Corps, U.S. Army. A very large requisition for railroad rolling stock which was made when the Allied drive on Tunis failed in December began to be filled in March, by which time managing and operating personnel for this equipment had also arrived. Before the end of April, forty-three trains, averaging over 10,700 tons daily, were passing through Constantine toward the combat zone.24
Expanded highway transport was essential for the accumulation of matériel for the Allied campaigns of the spring. A special convoy arriving on 6-7 March brought more than 4,500 two-and-one-half-ton trucks into Casablanca and Oran.25 Other convoys brought more than 2,000 per month. Great assembly plants processed the twin-unit-packed crates of trucks. Companies and battalions of truck drivers to operate them were combed out of various units. One battalion which was formed in the Casablanca area had its trucks loaded with high-priority cargo, and, within a week of arrival, started in convoy to Ouled Rahmoun about 1,000 miles away. The battalion arrived there on 23 March with an excellent record. Road maintenance, traffic control posts and stations, and good organization stepped up highway traffic until, late in March, the average number of vehicles reaching Orléansville daily eastwardbound was 600; in the area of the Eastern Base Section, some 1,500 trucks and 4,500 troops were supplementing the railroad. From Ouled Rahmoun and Bône to Tébessa, the daily transportation then came to 500 tons or more.26 Clearing the ports
and railroad terminals and conveying supplies from depots to dumps required the service of hundreds of trucks in addition to those used in the longer convoys. Including local hauling, the Eastern Base Section recorded movement in April of a total of 51,541 truck loads amounting to almost 84,000 tons.27
While the vast bulk of overland traffic was eastward bound, salvaged matériel began to flow back for reconditioning and repair. At Oran and Casablanca, the outward-bound cargo transports were loaded with French North African products such as cork and phosphates, or with scrap iron, until their return loads were almost half as heavy as those which they had brought.
Substantial numbers of the personnel brought to French North Africa in the spring troop convoys came there to prepare for the invasion of Sicily or to join the U.S. Fifth Army. Much of the matériel being unloaded at the ports in March was intended to remain in Morocco and western Algeria, either to be used by troops in the communications zone or to sustain the French and native civilian population. Even so, the volume of supplies which kept arriving at Casablanca, Oran, and the ports near them dwarfed the total which was reaching Tunisia from the northeast to support the Axis forces.28 It was apparent by the end of March that in Tunisia the Americans alone were being supplied at a higher rate than all the Axis forces there.29 Before the Allied offensive in March, replacement depots ("repple-depples") were established near Oran and Casablanca with a total capacity exceeding 11,000.30
Preparations by the French
The rearmament of the French under Giraud to which the President had agreed in principle at Anfa, and which had required much subsequent negotiation, began to take form while the Allied forces in Tunisia reorganized. The main problem was that of cargo space and convoying, although other difficulties also had to be overcome. In accordance with a supplementary understanding, a special convoy of fifteen ships loaded with matériel for the French was to be en route from the United States by the time the Allies began their March offensive in southern Tunisia. Ten more ships would be sent later.
The weapons and equipment to arrive in April would, when distributed to French units, make ready two infantry divisions, two armored regiments, three tank destroyer battalions, three reconnaissance battalions, twelve antiaircraft battalions (40-mm.), and ten truck companies. Beginning a little later, American planes would start arriving at the rate of 60 per month until they reached a total exceeding 200 fighters, dive bombers, and transports. Training of aerial gunners could commence in April and of pilots in June, at the rate of 100 for each of the first two months and 50 per month thereafter. Within French North Africa, training in the operation and maintenance of American
matériel would begin before these shipments arrived.
This program was considerably slower and smaller than the one Giraud had anticipated after sampling the President's buoyant encouragement in January at Casablanca. The curtailment actually resulted from the many competing claims upon American munitions and upon Allied shipping, but Giraud was encouraged to believe that by more liberal administrative policies in French North Africa he could expedite the rate at which American arms would be delivered to his forces. Although Giraud may indeed have suffered some loss in prestige from the dragging pace of French rearmament, his political difficulties arose mainly from his disdain for such questions, his belief both that the fundamental objective of military success over the Axis powers transcended all other considerations, and that any attention which he had to give to politics constituted an intrusion on his concern with more important affairs. He leaned heavily on French political advisers and his political decisions were subjected to the close scrutiny of the Allied commander in chief, such scrutiny being exercised with the aid of Mr. Robert Murphy and Mr. Harold Macmillan. The consistent position of the Allied leadership was that conditions of political tranquillity conducive to immediate military advantage must be maintained, and that these conditions should, if possible, be made to prevail without forfeiting French unity or general future support by the French when the main Allied effort would be made on the soil of Continental Europe.31
Giraud was finally persuaded, after himself sensing political opinion in the French armed forces under his control, that unity on any terms acceptable to General de Gaulle could not be soon achieved. He therefore proceeded to revamp his government while reconstructing the French Army with American arms. On 6 February and 14 March 1943, under Allied guidance, he announced the termination of Darlan's Imperial Council of provincial governors and of all the fictitious ties with Vichy. He himself assumed complete power over all civil and military authorities in French North and French West Africa. He declared that he would be advised by a War Committee in which the former members of the Imperial Council would be joined by other Frenchmen. Political prisoners and refugees were to be released from detention at once. Organizations of Vichy origin, like the Service d'Ordre Légionnaire, were to be suppressed. Administrative councils representing French and native groups would be formed to advise and assist the governors of all colonies and municipalities. He instigated a trip to London by one of de Gaulle's leading adherents in Algiers, Professor René Capitant, to furnish the Fighting French leader with a trustworthy, first-hand report of conditions. Giraud became increasingly receptive to liberal advice, including that from M. Jean Monnet, who went from the United States to assist him in Algiers. On the eve of the Allied offensive, he thus had taken a considerable step away from an authoritarian attitude toward French political republicanism, and had also opened negotiations through General Catroux for a merger with the Fighting French in London.32
Table of Contents ** Previous Chapter (24) * Next Chapter (26)
1. Alexander, "The African Campaign."
2. (1) Note of War Room Mtg, 22 Jan 43. AFHQ G-3 Ops 58/2.1, Micro Job 10C. Reel 188D. (2) AFHQ Opn Memo 30 (rev.), 18 Feb 43. (3) Dir, 17 Feb 43, printed in Alexander, "The African Campaign." App. B, pp. 885-86.
3. (1) 18 A Gp Staff Appointments List, 27 Feb 43 and Mar 43. AFHQ Micro Job 10A, Reel 6C. (2) History of Allied Force Headquarters and Headquarters NATOUSA, December 1942-December 1943, Pt. II, pp. 110-16, 324-26. DRB AGO. (3) Memo, G-3 AFHQ for CofS AFHQ, 30 Jan 43, sub: A Gp Hq. AFHQ Micro Job 10A, Reel 6C. (4) Alexander, "The African Campaign." (5) Intervs, Alexander with Mathews, 10-15 Jan 49. In private possession.
4. First Army Opn Instruc 20, 7 Mar 43. DRB AGO.
5. (1) Intervs, Alexander with Mathews, 10-15 Jan 49. (2) CinC AF Diary, 1-5 Mar 43. (3) Msg 4267, Eisenhower to Marshall, 4 Mar 43; Msg 4580, Eisenhower to Marshall, 5 Mar 43; Msg 3471, Marshall to Eisenhower, 8 Mar 43. Smith Papers. (4) Gen Ward, Personal Diary, 1-5 Mar 43. In private possession. (5) Omar N. Bradley, A Soldier's Story (New York, 1951), pp. 41-48.
6. CinC AF Diary, 7 Mar 43, Bk. V, pp. 270-71.
7. (1) Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe, p. 147. (2) CinC AF Diary, 20 Feb 43, Bk. V, p. A-236. (3) Msg 1977, FREEDOM to TROOPERS, 20 Feb 43; Msg6 5014, TROOPERS to FREEDOM, 20 Feb 43. ETOUSA Incoming and Outgoing Cbls, Kansas City Rcds Ctr.
8. (1) 18 A Gp Opn Instruc 6, 6 Mar 43, supplied by Cabinet Office, London. (2) First Army Opn Instruc 19-22, 24 Feb˝8 Mar 43. DRB AGO. (3) Msg, USFOR to FREEDOM, 2135, 26 Feb 43. ETOUSA Outgoing Cables, Kansas City Rcds Ctr.
9. (1) First Army Opn Instruc 19, 24 Feb 43. DRB AGO. (2) First Army Sitrep 123, 28 Feb 43; 18 A Gp Cositrep 7, 26 Feb 43. AFHQ CofS Cable Log. (3) DMC Jnl, 28 Feb 43. (4) By 17 March French XIX Corps had a strength which approximated 53,800, including British units in the corps troops. See 18 A Gp SD 1, 17 Mar 43. AFHQ Joint Rearmament Committee 370/001, and also in AFHQ G˝3 (Ops) 37/13, Micro Job 10C, Reel 15 7F.
10. (1) Msg 1233, Adv AFHQ (Truscott) to AFHQ (Eisenhower), 1 Mar 43. AFHQ CofS Cable Log. (2) Ltr, Truscott to Ward, 2 Mar 43. In private possession.
11. Bradley, A Soldier's Story, pp. 44-45.
12. On 19 February he announced that he had instructed all his command "to cease defensive operations involving cover for troops except in special circumstances and with his approval." Offensive action to maximum capacity should replace such use. Msg AI 24, Allied ASC 18 A Gp to First Army et al., 19 Feb 43. AFHQ CofS Cable Log.
13. (1) Intervs, Alexander with Mathews, 10-15 Jan 49. (2) Craven and Cate, The Army Air Forces, II, 161-64. (3) Info supplied by Air Ministry, London.
14. FM 31-35, Air-Ground Operations, 9 Apr 42.
15. (1) Craven and Cate, The Army Air Forces, II, 136-37, 164-65. (2) See also Col. Kent Roberts Greenfield, Army Ground Forces and the Air-Ground Battle Team, Including Organic Light Aviation, AGF Hist Sec, Study 35, 1948, pp. 1-5, which shows how far Army Air Forces doctrine had already gone toward integrating the effort of air and ground forces by 9 April 1942.
16. (1) Craven and Cate, The Army Air Forces, II, 167-75. (2) Info supplied by Air Ministry, London.
17. (1) Hist of AFHQ and NATOUSA, Pt. II. pp. 240-45. (2) General Eisenhower's directive as theater commander is Message ZRH-2624, AGWAR to FREEDOM, 20 February 1943. OPD Msg Ctr File.
18. (1) Hist of AFHQ and NATOUSA, Pt. II, pp. 175-76, 215-17. (2) Trans Sec EBS NATOUSA Hist Rcds, 22 Feb˝30 Apr 43. OCT HB. (3) Col. Creswell G. Blakeney, ed., Logistical History of NATOUSA-MTOUSA, 11 August 1942 to 30 November 1945 (Naples, Italy, 1946), p. 23.
19. The problem remained difficult at Casablanca at the time of a visit by the Assistant Secretary of War, John McCloy. McCloy reported this situation in a memo for Maj. Gen. Wilhelm D. Styer, 22 March 1943. General Handy's comments are found in his memo for the Commanding General, Army Service Forces (Attention: General Styer), 27 March, subject: Report of the Assistant Secretary of War on conditions in Casablanca. OPD 381 Africa (1-27-43), Sec 2, Item 89.
20. U.S. II Corps was under First Army until 2400, 8 Mar 42, thereafter under 18 Army Group. Info supplied by the British Cabinet Office, London.
21. (1) Notes of AFHQ Log Plans Sec Mtg (signed by Lt Col J. C. Dalton), 27 Feb 43, dated 1 Mar 43, sub: Admin policy for development of adv opns base in Tunisia. OCMH. (2) 18 A Gp Admin Instruc 1, 4 Mar 43, supplied by Cabinet Office, London. (3) Plans in late January set the daily tonnage estimated for the troops in Tunisia as follows:
1-15 March 16-30 March Total 3,675 4,205 First Armya 1,900 2,380 Twelfth Air Forceb 1,155 1,205 Line of Communicationc 620 620 a Including U.S. and French forces under First Army command and RAF in First Army area.
b East of Algiers.
c Including RAF not in First Army area and French forces on line of communication
Source: Memo, CofS AFHQ for CG First Army, 29 Jan 43. sub: Orgn and prep for renewal of offensive. AFHQ G-3 Ops 58/2.1, Micro Job 1OC. Reel 188D.
22. Trans Sec EBS NATOUSA, 22 Feb˝30 Apr 43, pp. 7-8. OCT HB.
23. Ibid., p. 22, citing rpt of Maj Arthur G. Siegle, OCT, 9 Apr 43.
24. (1) Memo, Brig Gen Carl R. Gray, Jr., for Deputy Chief of Trans NATOUSA, 1 May 43, cited in H. H. Dunham, U.S. Army Transportation and the Conquest of North Africa, 1942-1943, Hist Unit OCT, Jan 45, p. 208. (2) Bykofsky and Larson, The Transportation Corps: Operations Overseas.
25. Memo, Lt Col Edwin C. Greiner for Brig Gen Robert H. Wylie, 3 Feb 43, sub: Cargo for UGS 5-A; Memo, Gen Wylie for Gen Styer, 25 Feb 43, sub: Cargo shipped on UGS 5½. OCT HB.
26. (1) Trans Sec EBS NATOUSA Hist Rcds. 22 Feb˝30 Apr 43, p. 12. (2) Dunham, U.S. Army Transportation and the Conquest of North Africa, 1942˝1943. Hist Unit OCT, Jan 45, pp. 263, 266, 268.
27. Ibid., p. 269.
28. In March, 146,000 tons were discharged in Moroccan ports and 220,000 tons in Oran, Arzew, and Mostaganem. Chiefly by reshipment, 91,000 tons came into Philippeville.
29. Eastern Base Section was getting 1,000 tons per day by truck alone into Tébessa, Axis importations in March came to less than 29,267 tons. No account is taken in this comparison of what the British First and Eighth Armies were then obtaining. (See Appendix B.)
30. Maj Gen William H. Simpson, Obsr's Rpt, 27 May 43. AGF 319.1/58.
31. (1) CinC AF Diary, Bk. V, pp. A-258-59. (2) Giraud, Un seul but: la victoire, p. 121. (3) Msg, FREEDOM (Murphy) to AGWAR (Hull), 13 Dec 42. AFHQ Micro Job 24, Reel 78D.
32. Georges Catroux, Dans la bataille de Méditerrnée; Égypte, Levant, Afrique du Nord, 1940-1944 (Paris, 1949), pp. 325-30, 340-49. | <urn:uuid:dd07b8ab-a907-4fa5-9b8f-8970870b3eed> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-MTO-NWA/USA-MTO-NWA-25.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00046-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965698 | 10,233 | 3.09375 | 3 |
The American liverwort specialist Rudolf Schuster has presented arguments as to why the Southern Hemisphere's liverwort flora is much more varied and interesting than that of the Northern Hemisphere. Pages 3-7 of the book listed in the next Reference button present a short version of his arguments. This website page will summarize that printed short version.
In the Northern Hemisphere the super-continent of Laurasia split into North America and Eurasia which are relatively close today (the Bering Strait and the North Atlantic being minor gaps) and were closer in geologically recent times. East-west winds could carry propagules and maintain at least sporadic gene flow between distant populations. By contrast the Southern Hemisphere has had a more complex geological history, dominated by the break-up of Gondwana. That break-up saw Antarctica, Africa, India, Australasia and South America eventually move far apart from each other. Highly significant in that break up was the virtual extinction of all Antarctic life. Antarctica had been the central area in Gondwana. There was no equivalent loss in the Northern Hemisphere. Once the separation between the surviving, ice-free Gondwanan remnants was great enough, gene flow between the different continents became very difficult. From that stage the bryophytes in the different Gondwanan continents evolved largely independently of each other.
The movements and collisions of the various tectonic plates also saw the creation of imposing mountain ranges such as the Andes, the Himalaya and the mountainous spine of the island of New Guinea. Such mountain ranges created a great variety of new habitats between sea level and the alpine summits with striking differences in temperature and moisture levels. The Andes were particularly significant because of their great north-south extent, from chilly Tierra del Fuego to the heat of the tropics. Schuster writes that such mountain building:
He goes on to note that liverwort diversity cannot be measured by numbers of species, but that numbers of genera are significant. he noted 30 endemic liverwort genera for New Zealand, with its relatively young mountains, but only one for Africa, older and many times larger. Schuster argues that:
In the old Appalachian mountains of the USA there are about 250 liverwort species, with perhaps 4 or 5 endemic species, but no endemic genera.
Finally, as well as creating new habitats, tectonically unstable areas seem to provide places where ancient liverworts seem more likely to survive so that Schuster's final sentence in a 1983 paper is: | <urn:uuid:149dff1e-8fca-46d0-9cc7-2d1c8776917b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/case-studies/southern-diversity.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955946 | 516 | 3.796875 | 4 |
Tail chasing, also known as whirling, can be funny or even troublesome to the viewer, depending on the age of the dog and whether the dog chases its tail to excess. Tail chasing is a natural behavior that is common among the young of predators. Unlike prey species, predators can spend time playing because they do not have to worry that another animal will try to eat them while they are playing.
It is a common behavior for puppies and dogs to chase their tail. It is normal for puppies to chase their tails when they are very young. Some puppies, when in a new home without their littermates, will chase their tail around because there is not a puppy with which it can play. Some observers comment that it is as though the puppy does not know that its tail is attached to itself as it chases its tail around.
It is not so normal when adult dogs chase their tail. For an adult dog, there can be several causes of the tail chasing episodes. The cause for the tail chasing could be physical, neurological, behavioral or a combination of these causes.
Physical causes for tail chasing include fleas, worms or irritated anal sacs. Another cause could be psychomotor epilepsy or other seizure condition. There are also neurological causes for tail chasing associated with the balance of dopamine in the dog’s body.
When a dog chases its tail to excess for no apparent reason, it is considered a dog compulsive disorder. Some dogs will chase their tail and even chew at themselves. It is thought that 2% of the dog population has a dog compulsive disorder.
Causes for tail chasing without a reason include too much confinement or restriction of the dog’s behavior. In some extreme cases, a dog will chase its tail until it is exhausted, sleep a short time to get up and chase its tail again.
Tail chasing may also be done by dogs that are normal without any physical, neurological or behavioral problems. Tail chasing is prevalent in some lines of terrier breeds, although all breeds of dogs will chase their tails.
Puppies will quit chasing their tail, as they get older. If your adult dog is chasing its tail, it is important that you understand why it is happening. It could be a signal that there is a problem. | <urn:uuid:fee8956f-3818-4492-8fb9-852910fd6f7d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sarahsdogs.com/qa/why-do-dogs-chase-their-tails/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00117-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973187 | 466 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Radioactive smoke? Russia wildfires rage near Chernobyl
Greenpeace says Russia wildfires are spreading across six provinces that were heavily contaminated by the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. One Russian official accused Greenpeace of 'panic-mongering.'
Moscow — The cloud of toxic smog that has blanketed Moscow for weeks lifted dramatically on Wednesday, but environmental experts point out that much of Russia is still aflame. And they warn there is a new threat of radioactive smoke from forest fires raging near the site of the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear meltdown.
Some experts worry that clearing air over Moscow will trigger a rapid drop in official interest in the very real emergency that's still gripping large parts of Russia, and they say it does not bode well for long-term cleanup and prevention prospects.
"It seems like Russian politics is based on one single calculus: How does this affect Moscow?" says Vladimir Slivyak, cochair of Ecodefense, a Moscow-based grassroots environmental group. "They're already saying it was just a once-in-a-thousand-year accident, and declaring that it's over. But it's not over."
On Tuesday, the environmental group Greenpeace Russia published a map based on satellite images, that shows wildfires still spreading across wide regions of southwest Russia, including six provinces that were heavily contaminated by long-lasting radioactive fallout during the disaster 24 years ago.
Russian officials have denied the existence of the fires, and Russia's chief medical officer Gennady Onishenko accused Greenpeace of "panic-mongering," but the organization insists that its conclusion is based on solid evidence and official sources.
Russia's state forestry service, Roslesozashchita, admitted in a statement posted on its website Wednesday that, as of Aug. 6, there were 28 forest fires covering about 270 hectares burning in the Bryansk region alone, which is considered the most radioactively contaminated part of Russia.
"We're not talking about a repeat of the Chernobyl catastrophe, but the danger is not insignificant either," says Vladimir Chuprov, head of Greenpeace Russia's energy program. "The worst scenario is the continuing spread of radioactive particles through the area. The danger is first of all to firefighters and local people, but the contamination can spread with smoke to new areas."
When the Chernobyl reactor melted down, the resulting steam explosion poured atomic radiation equal to 100 Hiroshima bombs into the air, much of which settled on surrounding regions of Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus. Though the immediate Chernobyl zone is not currently menaced, environmentalists say dozens of fires have spread around contaminated Russian regions, including Bryansk, Kaluga, Tula, Oryol, and Ryazan.
Official suppression of information
Some add that they are almost as worried about the official wall of denial as they are by the dangers posed by the ongoing fires.
"Our authorities have reacted to this in much the same way Soviet leaders did when Chernobyl erupted: They suppressed the truth and just kept repeating that there is no problem," says Mr. Slivyak. "When I heard (chief medical officer) Onishenko say, 'Everything's OK' in the affected regions, it just took me back to Soviet times. We have plenty of evidence that it's not all OK. This is not the way to deal with bad news."
For weeks Russian officials also played down the dangers of the toxic haze that settled over Moscow, offering citizens little more than empty reassurances, say critics.
"In an eerie way, bureaucrats issued standard, sterile phrases that citizens should protect themselves from the smog by wearing face masks that are saturated with water, avoid jogging in the morning, and to stay home," said an editorial in the Moscow business daily Vedomosti on Wednesday. "Perhaps the calmest of all Moscow officials was Mayor Yury Luzhkov, who spent most of the smog-filled days on vacation in Europe, although he swears that he was in full control of the situation."
Putin takes charge
Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin took a different tack, rushing from one stricken place to the next, and holding heavily-televised meetings in which he dramatically upbraided lax local officials and promised rapid and generous state assistance for the fire victims.
On Tuesday, Mr. Putin literally took to the air, as copilot of a Be-200 amphibious fire-fighting aircraft (see video here) that scooped water from a lake and dropped it onto two forest fires.
"This is Putin's personal style, he likes to show that he's everywhere, that he can do anything," says Alexei Mukhin, director of the independent Center for Political Information in Moscow." And all indications show that this works. Russians feel reassured to have such a leader, and they miss Putin as president. You can see it in their eyes."
In the past decade Putin has been shown on TV taking the controls of a nuclear submarine, flying in an Su-25 fighter plane and co-piloting a Tu-160 supersonic bomber.
But a spate of recent public opinion polls suggest that the heat wave and its fallout may have exacted a political toll on all Russian leaders, including Putin.
A survey released this week by the state-run VTsIOM agency showed President Dmitry Medvedev's approval rating dipping from 44 percent in January to 39 percent in August; Putin's fell from 53 percent to 47 percent in the same period.
Another poll, by the state-connected Public Opinion Foundation, found Mr. Medvedev plunged from 62 percent to 52 percent in the past 8 months. In the same time, Putin's popularity slumped from 69 percent to 61 percent, one of his worst showings ever. | <urn:uuid:5e7c3873-408a-421f-b400-de2adc8ec137> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2010/0811/Radioactive-smoke-Russia-wildfires-rage-near-Chernobyl | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00014-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964838 | 1,168 | 2.625 | 3 |
This is not your father’s Ethernet.
Bell Labs, a subsidiary of Lucent Technologies, has been able to sustain a 100-Gbit signal transmission rate over a long distance, the company reported at this week’s Optical Fibers in Communications conference in Anaheim, Calif. The actual figure was 107 GBits a second, but who’s quibbling? That’s still a fantastic result, considering that it was also a long-distance transmission, exceeding 400 kilometers in physical distance.
The result was achieved using dispersion-compensated fiber and Raman amps and ten-channel electronic multiplexing. An integrated optical equalizer single-chip IC was employed to do the virtual heavy lifting.
The goal, of course, is to forever better transmission speeds while holding the data speed and quality over long distances. After all, you can have an extremely fast connection, but if you can’t hold that connection past your office building or your city block or your town, then why bother? The folks at Bell Labs have done their part, putting together this super-fast signal and sending it through virtual carrier waves over a distance that promises better and wider usability in the future. Once the signal is able to be sustained, it’s only a matter of time and distance before such speed-of-light transmissions are run-of-the-mill. | <urn:uuid:33899a8a-7d6c-41a1-a224-18bd92eb38a2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mobilemag.com/2006/03/10/lucent-achieves-100-gbitss-long-distance-transmission/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00112-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932864 | 284 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Brackets, Rocket, Air-to-Surface, HVAR
These brackets were used to hold a training version of the HVAR (High Velocity Aircraft Rocket), also called the Holy Moses. It was an effective air-to-surface missile. The U.S. Navy used it against land and sea targets in the European and Pacific theaters in World War II and during the Korean War. Carried by such Navy airplanes as the F4U Corsair, HVARs also equipped some Army Air Forces aircraft. About a million rockets were produced.
The U.S. Marine Corps transferred these brackets to the Smithsonian along with the HVAR rocket to which they were attached.
Transferred from the U.S. Marine Corps
- Country of Origin
- United States of America
- Koppers Co., Inc.
- CRAFT-Missiles & Rocket Parts
- 14 1/4" x 5 3/8" x 1 1/2" | <urn:uuid:e154d6c7-1185-458c-a8c8-1148793d834e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://airandspace.si.edu/collections/artifact.cfm?id=A19820115001 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397111.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00129-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957865 | 200 | 2.75 | 3 |
NASA is working to improve how satellites predict rainfall so it can better predict flooding, and the agency is bring the experiments to Iowa.
Workers will test how well satellites measure precipitation from space. They plan to conduct the testing in northeastern Iowa from May 1 to June 15.
"We're trying to figure out how well our satellites estimate rainfall," said Walt Petersen, a NASA scientist working on the project. "This study is unique in that it takes space-borne observations, it takes ground-based observations, and it brings those things into a modeling framework that should further our ability to predict flooding."
The field tests are a partnership between NASA and the Iowa Flood Center at the University of Iowa. The center improves monitoring of stream and river heights to develop better flood maps.
The experiments will use satellites passing Iowa and a network of ground instruments including rain gauges to measure soil moisture, temperatures as well as raindrop number, size and shape. Radar will be used to help measure the rain as it falls, researchers said.
"Here in Iowa, we have basins of varied sizes that are well instrumented compared to some other parts of the country," said Krajewski.
Researchers said that's one reason that NASA chose Iowa for its field campaign. | <urn:uuid:4f26c55f-3bca-4d4e-afa3-ed28dfdb0e72> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://m.kcci.com/what-are-nasa-researchers-testing-in-iowa/19958976 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955569 | 255 | 3.34375 | 3 |
Frequency converters are used to change the frequency and magnitude of the constant grid voltage to a variable load voltage. Frequency converters are especially used in variable frequency AC motor drives.
Figure 1 shows the behavior of an induction motor with several motor input voltages. The bold blue curve represents the electrical torque as a function of rotor speed when the motor is connected directly to a constant supply network. The blue portion of the torque curve shows the nominal load region (-1…+1 [T/TN]), which is very steep, resulting in low slip and power losses. Similar motor torque behavior with other motor input frequencies can be achieved by feeding the induction motor with a frequency converter and keeping the ratio of the magnitude and frequency of the motor voltage constant. As a result, the shape of the torque curve remains unchanged below the nominal speed (constant-flux region -1…+1 [n/nN]). In the field weakening region the motor voltage is at its maximum and kept constant, resulting in the torque curves being flattened.Fig. 1. Operation principle of the frequency converter fed induction motor.
Frequency converters can be classified according to their DC circuit structure to voltage-source (Fig. 4), current-source (Fig. 3) and direct converters (Fig. 2). With a voltage-source converter the variable frequency and magnitude output voltage is produced by pulse-width modulating (PWM) the fixed DC voltage, whereas with a current-source converter the output voltage is produced by modulating the fixed DC current. With a direct frequency converter the variable output voltage is formed directly by modulating the constant input voltage. At low voltage applications (<1000 V) the voltage-source topology is mainly used.
Fig. 2. Main circuit of the direct converter
Fig. 3 Main circuit of the current-source converter
Fig. 4 shows a typical voltage source frequency converter structure where a constant DC voltage is formed by using an input diode rectifier. The output voltage with variable frequency and magnitude is produced by pulse-width modulating the inverter bridge. In more sophisticated frequency converters the input diode bridge can be replaced with a PWM bridge enabling a higher DC voltage, reactive power control, nearly sinusoidal supply network currents and regenerative operation of the inverter.
Fig. 4. Main circuit of the commonly used voltage-source frequency converter.
Fig. 5a shows the operation of the inverter bridge with two different output voltages. The desired output voltage is achieved by changing the width and polarity of the output voltage pulses. The higher the instantaneous value of the output voltage, the wider the output voltage pulse needed. Although the output voltage contains a lot of high order harmonic voltages due to the PWM, the motor current is nearly
sinusoidal since the motor inductances filter out the high order current harmonics.
Fig. 5b shows the construction of negative voltage pulses, circled in Fig.5, during one PWM period. The graphic on the right shows the switching states of the phases and the resulting U-V voltage. The graphic on the left shows the space vector presentation of the eight switching states of the voltage-source converter. These switching vectors are commonly used to achieve PWM (vector modulation). The ‘+’ and ‘-’ signs mean that the phase is connected to the positive or negative rail of the DC link respectively.
Fig. 5a and 5b Operation of the voltage-source inverter with two different output voltage references and the principle of pulse width modulation. | <urn:uuid:c532d9a2-2d1f-4f73-af8b-dbcfe448a975> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.abb.com/product/ap/seitp322/9f10a1ecce40c4e7c125744b00273b98.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399106.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00170-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.848764 | 725 | 3.828125 | 4 |
Look at how magnesium reacts with oxygen:
The use of a gas jar full of oxygen can be used to combust other metals. This method can be used to compare different metals and their reactivity with oxygen by observing the reaction.
Metals that react with oxygen produce oxides as their products.
|Metal:||Observation:||Order of reactivity:||Product:|
|Sodium||Burns quickly with a bright yellow flame.||1st - most reactive.||Na2O, sodium peroxide - a yellow powder.|
|Magnesium||Burns with a brilliant white flame.||2nd.||MgO, magnesium oxide - a white ash.|
|Iron||Does not burn. Hot metal glows in oxygen and gives off yellow sparks.||3rd.||Fe203, iron oxide - an orange powder.|
|Copper||Does not burn. Metal eventually coats with a black layer.||4th - least reactive.||CuO, copper oxide - a black powder.|
Of course, other metals react with oxygen, some more than sodium, for example, potassium. Others, such as gold, do not react at all.
Some metals also react with water, but like their reaction with oxygen, they react in different ways. We can observe the reaction of metals and water by placing the metals in a trough of cold water.
Alternatively, we can observe the difference in reaction of metals using steam (hot water) instead of cold water.
The table below illustrates the observations taken when different metals are placed in water:
|Metal:||Reaction:||Order of reactivity:||Products:|
|Potassium||Violent reaction with cold water. Floats and catches fire.||1st - most reactive.||Potassium hydroxide, KOH and hydrogen gas.|
|Sodium||Very vigorous reaction with cold water. Floats. Can be lit with a lighted splint.||2nd.||Sodium hydroxide, NaOH and hydrogen gas.|
|Calcium||Less vigorous with cold water.||3rd.||Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 and hydrogen gas.|
|Magnesium||Very slow with cold water, but vigorous with steam.||4th.||Magnesium oxide, MgO and hydrogen gas.|
|Zinc||Quite slow with steam.||5th.||Zinc oxide, ZnO and hydrogen gas.|
|Iron||Slow with steam.||6th.||Iron oxide, Fe203 and hydrogen gas.|
|Copper||No reaction with steam.||7th - least reactive.|
Note: The first three in the table above produce hydroxides and the rest, if they react, produce oxides.
The production of the hydroxide (alkali) can be tested by adding universal indicator (UI) to the reaction vessel - UI changes from green to purple in the presence of these hydroxides.
To test for the release of hydrogen gas, place a lighted splint over the reacting metal - if it 'pops' then hydrogen is present.
In the case of potassium, this reaction produces enough heat to set alight the hydrogen gas itself.
Let's now look at the reaction between metals and acids to see if they can also help distinguish difference in reactivity.
|Metal:||Reaction with hydrochloric acid:||Order of reactivity:||Products:|
|Magnesium||Vigorously reacts with a stream of gas evolving.||1st - most reactive.||Magnesium chloride, MgCl2 and hydrogen gas.|
|Zinc||Quite slow reaction with a steady stream of gas evolving.||2nd.||Zinc chloride, ZnCl2 and hydrogen gas.|
|Iron||Slow reaction with a gentle stream of gas evolving.||3rd.||Iron chloride, FeCl2 and hydrogen gas.|
|Lead||Very slow and acid must be concentrated.||4th.||Lead chloride, PbCl2 and hydrogen gas.|
|Copper||No reaction.||5th - least reactive.|
If we compare the results of the reaction of metals with acid with those of the reactions with oxygen and water, we note that the same order of reactivity is repeated. | <urn:uuid:70e0b3d6-5fb9-4cb9-bb91-b26917cd83d9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.s-cool.co.uk/gcse/chemistry/metals-the-reactivity-series/revise-it/reactions-of-metals | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00054-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.857528 | 910 | 4.03125 | 4 |
Explain it in 60 seconds: Elementary particle physics
|Illustration: Sandbox Studio|
Physics has demonstrated that the everyday phenomena we experience are governed by universal principles applying at time and distance scales far beyond normal human experience. Elementary particle physics is one avenue of scientific inquiry into these principles. What rules govern energy, matter, space, and time at the most elementary levels? How are phenomena at the smallest and largest scales of time and distance connected?
To address these questions, particle physicists seek to isolate, create, and identify elementary interactions of the most basic constituents of the universe. One approach is to create a beam of elementary particles in an accelerator and to study the behavior of those particles–for instance, when they impinge upon a piece of material or when they collide with another beam of particles. Other experiments exploit naturally occurring particles, including those created in the sun or resulting from cosmic rays striking the earth's atmosphere. Some experiments involve studying ordinary materials in large quantities to discern rare phenomena or search for as-yet-unseen phenomena. All of these experiments rely on sophisticated detectors that employ a range of advanced technologies to measure and record particle properties.
Particle physicists also use results from ground- and space-based telescopes to study the elementary particles and the forces that govern their interactions. This latter category of experiments highlights the increasing importance of the intersection of particle physics, astronomy, astrophysics, and cosmology.
From Revealing the Hidden Nature of Space and Time: Charting the Course for Elementary Particle Physics (2006), Committee on Elementary Particle Physics in the 21st Century, National Research Council.
Click here to download the pdf version of this article.
Click here for the "Explain it in 60 seconds" archive. | <urn:uuid:aff58cda-52f0-4fdf-97cd-eb9676158c84> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/article/junejuly-2006/explain-it-in-60-seconds | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00200-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.888786 | 353 | 4.03125 | 4 |
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What is Ultrasonic Welding?
Ultrasonic plastic welding is the joining or reforming of thermoplastics through the use of heat generated from high-frequency mechanical motion. It is accomplished by converting high-frequency electrical energy into high-frequency mechanical motion. That mechanical motion, along with applied force, creates frictional heat at the plastic components' mating surfaces (joint area) so the plastic material will melt and form a molecular bond between the parts. The following drawings illustrate the basic principle of ultrasonic welding.
The basic principle of ultrasonic welding
Step 1 - Parts in fixture
The two thermoplastic parts to be assembled are placed together, one on top of the other, in a supportive nest called a fixture.
Step 2 - Horn contact
A titanium or aluminum component called a horn is brought into contact with the upper plastic part.
Step 3 - Pressure applied
A controlled pressure is applied to the parts, clamping them together against the fixture.
Step 4 - Weld time
The horn is vibrated vertically 20,000 (20 kHz) or 40,000 (40 kHz) times per second, at distances measured in thousandths of an inch (microns), for a predetermined amount of time called weld time. Through careful part design, this vibratory mechanical energy is directed to limited points of contact between the two parts.
The mechanical vibrations are transmitted through the thermoplastic materials to the joint interface to create frictional heat. When the temperature at the joint interface reaches the melting point, plastic melts and flows, and the vibration is stopped. This allows the melted plastic to begin cooling.
Step 5 - Hold time
The clamping force is maintained for a predetermined amount of time to allow the parts to fuse as the melted plastic cools and solidifies. This is known as hold time. (Note: Improved joint strength and hermeticity may be achieved by applying a higher force during the hold time. This is accomplished using dual pressure.)
Step 6 - Horn retracts
Once the melted plastic has solidified, the clamping force is removed and the horn is retracted. The two plastic parts are now joined as if molded together and are removed from the fixture as one part.
Plastics assembly is a fast, clean, efficient, and repeatable process that consumes very little energy. No solvents, adhesives, mechanical fasteners, or other consumables are required, and finished assemblies are strong and clean. | <urn:uuid:d639f130-efbe-42f9-aaa3-5349bbf6dbbb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.dukane.com/us/PPL_whatisUPA.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00021-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922474 | 535 | 3.28125 | 3 |
1. Rinsing your nose with salt water can help keep you healthy and ward off allergy symptoms.
2. Dogs can smell cancer and low blood sugar. A study showed that it is possible to train dogs to identify, based on breath samples, which patients had lung and breast cancer. For diabetics, the dogs can smell ketones in urine and on the breath when blood sugars are high. Dogs can pick up on other smells that humans can’t when glucose levels drop.
3. Researchers found that people who pass through an entryway near the kitchen tend to eat 15 percent more than those who use the front door.
4. You're more likely to have a heart attack on a Monday, or up to three days after you've been diagnosed with the flu or a respiratory tract infection.
5. You can't get a tan from your computer screen. The Computer Tan Web site was created as a hoax to raise awareness about skin cancer.
6. Obese people spend approximately $485 more on clothing, $828 on extra plane seats, and $36 more on gas each year than their thinner counterparts. An overweight driver burns about 18 additional gallons of gas a year.
7. Smokers are four times as likely to report feeling unrested after a night's sleep than nonsmokers. Smokers often experience withdrawal symptoms at night, thus causing periods of restlessness and waking.
8. Eating fruits and vegetables may help your body make its own aspirin. Benzoic acid, a natural substance in fruits and vegetables, causes people to produce their own salicylic acid, the key component that gives aspirin its anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving properties.
9. A 20-minute nap can improve your overall alertness, boost your mood, and increase productivity. In addition, your heart may reap benefits from napping -- a six-year study found that that men who took naps at least three times a week had a 37 percent lower risk of heart-related death.
10. Your kitchen sink is dirtier than your bathroom. There are typically more than 500,000 bacteria per square inch in its drain, and the faucet, basin, and sponge are crawling with germs as well.
11. Four out of five doctors in the UK don't work out enough. Heavy workloads, lack of time and poor motivation contributed to the lack of exercise.
12. Baking soda can whiten teeth, garlic can help treat athlete's foot, and honey can soothe a hangover.
13. Using a food diary can double your weight-loss efforts. Your food diary makes you accountable to yourself and provides you with clues on where the extra calories are sneaking in.
14. Regular exercise can lower a woman's cancer risk -- but only if she's getting enough sleep. The National Cancer Institute followed nearly 6,000 women for almost 10 years. Women in the top half of physical activity levels showed an approximate 20 percent reduction in cancer risk, but sleeping less than seven hours per night resulted in a decreased benefit.
15. Watching yourself run in a mirror can make a treadmill workout go by faster and feel easier.
16. Third-hand smoke -- the particles that cling to smokers' hair and clothing and linger in a room long after they've left -- is a cancer risk to young children and pets.
17. Walking against the wind, in the water, or while wearing a backpack burns about 50 more calories per hour than walking with no resistance. People who wear pedometers also tend to burn more calories and lose more weight.
18. Trained sexologists can infer a woman's orgasm history by observing the way she walks. In other news, men find women who wear red sexier than those who wear "cool" colors such as blue and green.
19. Foreign accent syndrome and exploding head syndrome are real (but very rare) medical conditions. A person with exploding head syndrome experiences a loud, indecipherable noise that seems to originate from inside their head.
20. Vitamins don't seem to help older women guard against cancer or heart disease.
21. Some men experience pain, headaches, or sneezing as a result of ejaculation. The increased activity in the nervous system during orgasm may be the culprit.
22. Germ-killing wipes can spread bacteria from one spot to another if you reuse them.
23. Oatmeal, citrus fruits, and honey can boost your sex drive and improve fertility. Oats produce a chemical that releases testosterone into the blood supply, vitamin C improves sperm count and motility, and vitamin B from honey helps your body use estrogen, a key factor in blood flow and arousal.
24. Twenty-nine percent of Americans say they have skipped filling a prescription due to the cost, and 23 percent use pill splitting as a way to save money.
25. Facebook may be good for your health; studies show that staying in touch with family and friends can ward off memory loss and help you live longer. | <urn:uuid:a515eac9-9446-4e14-b704-5ba37ae4ec3b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2009/05/05/25-things-you-probably-didnt-know-about-your-body-and-health.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00080-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950559 | 1,024 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Some provision must be made to supply the high-voltage direct current required to operate the plate circuits of the receiver. Since a steady DC voltage applied to a transformer will not induce a voltage in the secondary, a means must be provided to interrupt and alternately reverse the DC voltage in the primary winding. The vibrator will accomplish this. Refer to Figure 1 below.
How the Vibrator Works - At the starting position, current flows through the top half of the transformer primary to the vibrator coil. This causes the vibrator contacts to be attracted upwards, making the top contact. The top contact shorts out the vibrator coil, and causes a heavy current to flow through the top half of the primary winding. The de-energized vibrator coil allows the vibrator contacts to swing through the starting position, and make contact with the lower contact. This interrupts the current through the top half of the primary winding and causes a heavy current to flow through the bottom half of the primary winding, reversing the magnetic field. This also removes the short across the vibrator coil, allowing it to once again energize, attracting the contacts upward. This cycle repeats itself continuously. The constant reversal of the magnetic field induces an alternating current in the secondary of the transformer. The frequency of this alternating voltage is determined by the mechanical structure of the vibrator. See Figure 2 below.
The vibrator and transformer convert the 6-volt DC to a high-voltage alternating current. This is fed to a conventional rectifier and filter circuit to provide the B+ voltage for the radio set. See Figure 3 below.
Vibrator Hash - The making and breaking of current at the vibrator contacts are accompanied by sparking. The sparking decreases the life of the contacts and causes RF interference in the receiver. This interference is know as hash. Circuits must be provided for spark suppression and hash filtering.
C-3 in the diagram above is the buffer capacitor. It takes up the high-voltage surges that would otherwise result from the rapid magnetic changes taking place during the time the vibrator contacts are traveling between contacts. It also is effective in reducing sparking at the contacts. The capacitor and inductance of the transformer form an oscillating circuit, and for this reason it is important that this capacitor be replaced with one of the same value and voltage rating. Common values vary from .005 to .03 mfd.
Resistors R-1 and R-2 are connected across the vibrator contacts and are also effective in reducing sparking and hash. They form a discharge path for back electromotive force in the primary which would otherwise cause a heavier spark at the contact break. These resistors rarely give problems. Sometimes capacitors are used in place of the resistors.
The vibrator choke L-2 and C-3 form a hash filter to keep the hash from the vibrator out of the receiver filament lead.
Other methods for hash suppression are the total shielding of the vibrator and sometimes the power supply itself. The vibrator is shielding by being enclosed in a metal can. The entire power supply is often shielded by being enclosed in a metal compartment of the receiver assembly.
The Rectifier and Filter - The 6X5 tube is widely used as a rectifier in vibrator supplies with the 6Z4 and 84 types also used. Receivers using loctal type tubes may use a 7Y4.
The filter is the standard L-C filter circuit to smooth the rectifier output. It consists of the filter choke L-15 and electrolytic capacitors C-15 and C-16. In some receivers, the choke may be the speaker field coil. RF choke L-6 and C-6 form an RF filter for hash suppression in the B+ lead.
The Synchronous Vibrator Power Supply - The synchronous vibrator has an extra set of points that take the place of the rectifier tube. This acts as a mechanical rectifier. The circuit is shown in Figure 4 below. Both sets of contacts are mounted on the same vibrating reed and operate in sync, as indicated by the dashed line in the diagram. The second set of contacts at B cause the secondary current to always flow through the load in the same direction. In this manner, the contacts at B serve as a full-wave rectifier, eliminating the need for a rectifier tube.
In radio with a synchronous vibrator power supply, the polarity of the input voltage is important since it will determine the rectified output. Incorrect polarity will cause the rectified output to be minus. In a set with a non-synchronous vibrator power supply, the input polarity does not matter.
Troubles Common to Vibrators - Vibrators are subject to many ills. Shorts and overloads in the B circuit of the receiver place an abnormally heavy load on the vibrator. In addition, it is a mechanical component that is in constant motion, and deterioration due to wear is to be expected. The spring of the vibrating reed can lose its tension, the contact points wear, and sometimes become black and pitted and stick. Sometimes a defective vibrator can be repaired by filing the contact points. This means you must open the container and remove the vibrator unit. Use a burnishing tool to clean the points as anything else such as fine sandpaper or a file will remove the coating on the contacts. A weak vibrating reed or worn contacts may cause the vibrator not to start. A good 6-volt vibrator should start and run at 4-volts DC. It is advisable to fuse the A supply input; should the vibrator contacts stick, heavy current will be drawn that could cause damage to components.
There are solid state replacements available for non-synchronous vibrators. Antique Electronics Supply is one source of these units.
Troubles Common To The Buffer Capacitor - The buffer capacitor usually breaks down due to voltage overload. When this happens the radio is inoperative because of the absence of B+ voltage. Heavier than normal current will be drawn because of the short across the transformer secondary. A shorted buffer capacitor will be evident by measuring resistance from plate to plate of the rectifier tube. The capacitor should be replaced with one of the same capacity value and the same or higher voltage rating. The voltage ratings for buffer capacitors are in the 1600 volt range.
Troubles Common To The Rectifier Tube - Troubles with the rectifier tube are the same as in other AC operated receivers. Weak or no electron emission and open filament are the most common problems with rectifiers.
Troubles Common To The Filter Circuit - Filter chokes seldom give any problems. The electrolytic capacitors, however, can open, become leaky, or short. When replacing filter capacitors, it is important that the replacement has the same or higher voltage rating.
Trouble Common To The Power Switch - The power switch in vibrator power supply receivers is prone to give more trouble than in AC operated receivers. This is because the switch must break a heavier current, in the order of 3-6 amps, whereas the AC operated receiver must only break in the order of .3 to 1 amp. In addition, any slight resistance developed in the switch contacts of an AC operated receiver will be overridden by the 115 volts supply without any appreciable heating of the contact. The same circumstance in the low-voltage, high-current of the vibrator supply will cause considerable loss of power, heating and finally burning of the switch contacts.
Hash Suppression - Different receivers use various types of hash suppression methods. A breakdown of one or more of the hash suppression components can cause excessive hash in the set. When restoring a set it is advisable to replace all of the capacitors in the hash suppression circuits. Try to use values as close to the original as possible. Check all ground connections. Some ground connections may be established by chassis screws; some may be soldered directly to the chassis. Occasionally, a chassis rivet may be used for a ground connection. These should be cleaned and spot-soldered to the chassis. If excessive hash persists, try changing the rectifier tube or the vibrator, if another is available. If resistors are used across the vibrator contacts, check these for open or changed values.
Quick Check Of The Vibrator Power Supply
|Symptom||Incorrect check results||Check for|
|Receiver does not operate||No buzz from vibrator||Blown or defective fuse|
Burnt or inoperative switch
Defective or worn vibrator
|One or more tubes do|
Defective filament wiring
|B plus measures low or zero||Shorted buffer capacitor.|
Defective rectifier tube.
Short-circuited RF hash by-pass
capacitor in B plus lead.
Shorted filter capacitor.
Short in receiver portion
of B plus circuit.
|Power supply checks give|
|Trouble in the receiver stages|
|Receiver operation is weak||Low or erratic B voltage||Worn out vibrator.|
Weak rectifier tube.
Resistance in switch.
Incorrect capacity of buffer capacitor.
Component in receiver drawing
too much B current.
|Power supply checks give|
|Trouble in the receiver stages|
|Excessive hum||Open filter
Poor ground connections in receiver
|Excessive hash||Poor ground
Defective rectifier tube.
Open hash filter.
Incorrect buffer capacitor.
|Intermittent operation||Power supply checks give normal results||Worn-out vibrator which sometimes|
fails to start (check at 4 volts).
|Fuse blows repeatedly||Power supply checks give normal results||Vibrator with sticking points.|
Intermittent cathode to heater short
in rectifier tube
|Point to Point||6X5|
|Chassis to "A" supply hot lead||6|
|Chassis to center tap|
of transformer primary
|Chassis to rectifier plates||3 & 5||150-250 AC|
|Chassis to rectifier cathode||8||160-260|
|Chassis to B plus||150-250| | <urn:uuid:cd9ee37c-b903-446b-9ff6-99508b345ba2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.radioremembered.org/vpwrsup.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.891515 | 2,117 | 2.734375 | 3 |
An endoscopy is a procedure in which your doctor uses specialized instruments to view and operate on the internal organs and vessels of your body. It allows surgeons to view problems within your body without making large incisions.
A surgeon inserts an endoscope through a small cut, or an opening in the body such as the mouth. An endoscope is a flexible tube with an attached camera that allows your doctor to see. Your doctor can use forceps (tongs) and scissors on the endoscope to operate or remove tissue for biopsy.
Your doctor may order an endoscopy to visually examine an organ. An endoscope’s lighted camera allows your doctor to view potential problems without a large incision. A screen in the operating room lets the doctor see exactly what the endoscope sees.
Your doctor may suspect that an organ or specific area of your body is infected, damaged, or cancerous. In this case, your doctor may order an endoscopic biopsy. An endoscopic biopsy involves using forceps in an endoscope to remove a small sample of tissue. They will send the sample to a lab for testing.
Your doctor will review your symptoms, perform a physical examination, and possibly order some blood tests prior to an endoscopy. These tests will help your doctor gain a more accurate understanding of the possible cause of your symptoms. These tests may also help them determine if the problems can be treated without an endoscopy or surgery.
Your doctor will give you complete instructions on how to prepare for your endoscopy. Most types of endoscopy require you to fast for up to 12 hours before the procedure, but your doctor will clarify this. Your doctor may give you laxatives or enemas to use the night before the procedure to clear your system. This is common in procedures involving into the gastrointestinal tract through the anus.
Prior to the endoscopy, your doctor will do a physical examination and go over your complete medical history, including any prior surgeries. Be sure to tell your doctor about any medications you’re taking, including over-the-counter drugs and nutritional supplements, and also alert your doctor about any allergies you might have. You may need to stop taking certain medications if they might affect bleeding.
You may want to plan for someone else to drive you home after the procedure because you might not feel well from the anesthesia.
Endoscopies fall into categories, based on the area of the body that they investigate. The American Cancer Society (ACS) lists the following types of endoscopies:
- Arthroscopy is used to examine your joints. The scope is inserted through a small incision near the joint being examined.
- Bronchoscopy is used to examine your lungs. The scope is inserted into your nose or mouth.
- Colonoscopy is used to examine your colon. The scope is inserted through your anus.
- Cystoscopy is used to examine your bladder. The scope is inserted through your urethra, which is the hole through which you urinate.
- Enteroscopy is used to examine your small intestine. The scope is inserted through your mouth or anus.
- Hysteroscopy is used for the examining the inside of your uterus. The scope is inserted through your vagina.
- Laparoscopy is used to examine your abdominal or pelvic area. The scope is inserted through a small incision near the area that’s being examined.
- Laryngoscopy is used to examine your voice box, or larynx. The scope is inserted through your mouth or nostril.
- Mediastinoscopy is used to examine the area between the lungs called the “mediastinum.” The scope is inserted through an incision above your breastbone.
- Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy is used to examine your esophagus and upper intestinal tract. The scope is inserted through your mouth.
- Ureteroscopy is used to examine your ureter. The scope is inserted through your urethra.
Endoscopy has a much lower risk of bleeding and infection than open surgery. Still, endoscopy is a medical procedure, so it has some risk of bleeding, infection, and other rare complications such as:
- chest pain
- damage to your organs, including possible perforation
- persistent pain in the area of endoscopy
- redness and swelling at the incision site
The risks for each type depend on the location of the procedure and your own condition. For example, dark-colored stools, vomiting, and difficulty swallowing after a colonoscopy could indicate that something is wrong.
Ask your doctors about symptoms to look out for following your endoscopy.
Most endoscopies are outpatient procedures. This means you can go home the same day.
Your doctor will close incision wounds with stitches and properly bandage them immediately after the procedure. Your doctor will give you instructions on how to care for this wound on your own.
Some procedures, such as a colonoscopy, may leave you slightly uncomfortable. It may require some time to feel well enough to go about your daily business.
If your doctor suspects a cancerous growth, they’ll perform a biopsy during your endoscopy. The results will take a few days. Your doctor will discuss the results with you after they get them back from the laboratory. | <urn:uuid:1a5a371b-f003-4673-b61f-93bf2b2ecb82> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.healthline.com/health/endoscopy | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00023-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934664 | 1,116 | 3.1875 | 3 |
In an effort to raise funds to pay off debts and defend the vast new American territories won from the French in the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), the British government passes the Stamp Act on this day in 1765. The legislation levied a direct tax on all materials printed for commercial and legal use in the colonies, from newspapers and pamphlets to playing cards and dice.
Though the Stamp Act employed a strategy that was a common fundraising vehicle in England, it stirred a storm of protest in the colonies. The colonists had recently been hit with three major taxes: the Sugar Act (1764), which levied new duties on imports of textiles, wines, coffee and sugar; the Currency Act (1764), which caused a major decline in the value of the paper money used by colonists; and the Quartering Act (1765), which required colonists to provide food and lodging to British troops.
With the passing of the Stamp Act, the colonists’ grumbling finally became an articulated response to what they saw as the mother country’s attempt to undermine their economic strength and independence. They raised the issue of taxation without representation, and formed societies throughout the colonies to rally against the British government and nobles who sought to exploit the colonies as a source of revenue and raw materials. By October of that year, nine of the 13 colonies sent representatives to the Stamp Act Congress, at which the colonists drafted the “Declaration of Rights and Grievances,” a document that railed against the autocratic policies of the mercantilist British empire.
Realizing that it actually cost more to enforce the Stamp Act in the protesting colonies than it did to abolish it, the British government repealed the tax the following year. The fracas over the Stamp Act, though, helped plant seeds for a far larger movement against the British government and the eventual battle for independence. Most important of these was the formation of the Sons of Liberty–a group of tradesmen who led anti-British protests in Boston and other seaboard cities–and other groups of wealthy landowners who came together from the across the colonies. Well after the Stamp Act was repealed, these societies continued to meet in opposition to what they saw as the abusive policies of the British empire. Out of their meetings, a growing nationalism emerged that would culminate in the fighting of the American Revolution only a decade later. | <urn:uuid:4ee33923-4beb-4f19-8691-48e474c774dd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/3/22?catId=11 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968484 | 483 | 4.375 | 4 |
From Uncyclopedia, the content-free encyclopedia
The Ice Mico in it's natural habitat.
Ice Mico is a genus of New World monkeys of the family Callitrichidae, the family containing marmosets and tamarins. The genus was discovered in 2004 in the Antarctica. It's the only monkey known to humanity that lives in such cold regions.
The Ice Mico was discovered in May 2004 by four British soldiers, which got lost in North Britain. They somehow awoke in Antarctica where they discovered this very rare species. Close to extinction, the Ice Mico is rarely seen and has only been photographed once.(see right) One of the stranded soldiers gave him food, which led to the monkey following him.
edit Medical Usage
As one of the soldiers was sick and near dying, the Ice Mico came to him and bit him. He then peed into the wound. The surprised soldiers watched the sick soldier recover. The Ice Monkey healed him! The Ice Mico is now experimented with in labs in the USA. Scientists state, that this monkey could be able to cure cancer, AIDS, leprosy, malaria, and HIV. The monkey did heal two cancer patients but got killed with a chainsaw by a rat. Scientists are now travelling to Antarctica to find another one. If they do, they might be able to cure all these diseases. We can only hope.
Rats are evil. | <urn:uuid:877ab19e-3832-44a1-8541-7265fca66950> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://uncyclopedia.wikia.com/wiki/Ice_mico | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00105-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956264 | 290 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Definition of triliterals
plural of triliteral 1
The word "triliterals" uses 11 letters: A E I I L L R R S T T.
Direct anagrams of triliterals:
Words formed by adding one letter before or after triliterals (in bold), or to aeiillrrstt in any order:
s - artillerists
Words within triliterals
not shown as it has more than seven letters.
List all words starting with triliterals, words containing triliterals or words ending with triliterals
All words formed from triliterals by changing one letter
Other words with the same letter pairs: tr ri il li it te er ra al ls
Browse words starting with triliterals by next letter
Previous word in list: triliteralisms
Next word in list: trill
Some random words: ctenidia | <urn:uuid:939ed2b8-180e-4676-8525-e69cd53051de> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.morewords.com/word/triliterals/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00153-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.730825 | 201 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Did You Know? Thornbury Castle
Thornbury Castle is the only Tudor Castle in all of England. Work on Thornbury Castle started in 1511 under the direction of Edward Stafford, the 3rd Duke of Buckingham. Unfortunately, the work was halted in 1521 when the Duke was executed on the orders of his distant cousin Henry VIII for alleged treason. But all seemed to have been forgiven and completed by 1535, when King Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn, stayed at the castle. Princess Mary, later Queen Mary I, also lived here for several years.
Today, much still remains of the original 16th century building. Everywhere there is fascinating historical detail to enjoy – coats of arms, intricate oriel windows, arrow loops and ornate carved ceilings. Thornbury has also always had a vineyard within the castle walls and Thornbury Castle wine is still produced today.
View rates, details, and more photos of Thornbury Castle >>
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Anyone spending any length of time in Bristol is likely to come... more >> | <urn:uuid:478414b3-32ae-4899-b753-4b250cd60bf2> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.fivestaralliance.com/bristol/did-you-know-thornbury-castle | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00111-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96617 | 272 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Fighting hunger by the backpack
ST. JOSEPH, Mo. – An estimated nine million American children go to school hungry every day, and it can be a major impediment to a child's education Hunger can lead to behavior problems and chronic illnesses. For many kids, their school's lunchroom is their best - sometimes only - source of nutritional meals. Matt Hackworth reports on new efforts in America's heartland to extend that schoolhouse nourishment to the homes of hungry children.
Judith Clark is principal of Noyes Elementary School in St Joseph. She's spent more than 20 years in the classroom and says she can always spot the kids who are hungry.
"Students that don't have enough to eat don't have their mind on learning. They're either thinking about being hungry or they physically don't feel as well. They complain about stomach aches or they wanna go see the nurse. And you really can tell it. They're sleepy, they're lethargic, they just aren't interested in what's going on around them."
Kids go hungry at a higher rate here than in the rest of the state. More than half of the students in the St Joseph school district receive lunches at school for free, or at reduced prices. But Ms. Clark says those lunch programs only help kids during the week.
"Monday morning it was so quiet in the building and I never could figure it out. I always thought it was just because they were worn out from their weekend."
Childhood hunger, it turns out, takes its toll on the weekends, too. But now, around 30 of the needy students at Noyes go home each Friday with something special.
As classes end, the boys and girls are called to the school's cramped office and fidget in a single-file line. Each student here will carry two backpacks home one filled with schoolbooks from the classroom the other from the office, filled with food, from a local food bank.
Nicholas Saccaro is executive director for the America's Second Harvest food bank in St Joseph. He says the best way to fight childhood hunger is to work in the schools.
"Kids are a difficult group from a logistical standpoint to provide food to. Adults typically have some means of transportation from point a to point b to receive assistance, and with kids you have to find the places where they're already at, and then find a convenient way to distribute food there."
The Backpack Buddies Program provides that convenient opportunity, and St Joseph's Second Harvest was among the first few food banks in the country to send packs of food home each weekend with needy kids. Students return the backpacks on Monday, and they're refilled by food pantry volunteers and school workers.
As the students file through the office, they select one bag from several dozen in a colorful pile on the floor. Mr. Saccaro says the backpacks are all different to avoid creating a stigma by labeling children in need.
"How bout one of these pretty pink ones here? (zip and rustle) What we try to put in here, we stay away from junk food. We don't want anything the kid's gonna have to do more than peel the top off of it or stick it in a microwave or just consume it right after they take it out there."
The focus on nutrition makes backpack buddies slightly more expensive to operate than conventional food assistance programs- about $125 per child per year. Saccaro says his group receives some donated food and purchases the rest. So far the food bank can help only about 200 kids in a school district where more than 3,000 qualify for the program. For the relative few enrolled, Principal Clark says the extra food on the weekend makes a big difference. She also says when the backpack buddies program first started, kids didn't even wait to get home before tearing into their food.
"At first, when they were so excited, they would open their backpacks on the buses That was a problem we had to address right at first because then they wanted to pass it out, they wanted to share with everybody. Then we convinced them it was to take home to their family. We haven't had any more problems with that."
The kids now keep the food to themselves but it's still a treat. Mimi is a shy fifth grader who says she has a regular favorite inside her supply of food:
"The drinks that are in there."
MATT: "What do you like about the drinks? "
MIMI: "They're sweet."
There are just a few weeks left until Mimi and the other students here begin their summer break. But no school means no backpacks to take home. Many needy kids who don't take classes during the summer lose access to the subsistence programs that keep them healthy. The volunteers at St Joseph's Second Harvest are trying to find a way to get food to the kids who do attend summer school, and hope to open the Backpack Buddies program to even more hungry kids when classes resume in the fall.
For KCUR News, I'm Matt Hackworth. | <urn:uuid:64036467-06fa-41b4-aa44-cf691900b3fd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://kcur.org/post/fighting-hunger-backpack | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00051-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.980434 | 1,048 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Low Blood Pressure Causes and Effects
The systolic and diastolic measure of the normal blood pressure in our body is 120/80. But when we have low blood pressure, then the measure is 90/60, which is not good news. In low blood pressure, the flow of the blood is so low that it cannot carry a proper amount of oxygen and nutrients to the various important organs of our body such as the brain or the heart or maybe the kidney. Hence due to this what happens is that the organs stop working properly and might also become permanently damaged. There are no specific reasons as to why people suffer from low blood pressure, but doctors have come to certain conclusion regarding the causes of low blood pressure. The main causes are pregnancy, or heart problems, or maybe due to some liver problems. High dosage of high blood pressure medicines can also cause low blood pressure. Besides this alcohol and narcotics are also responsible for causing low blood pressure. There are several symptoms of low blood pressure such as fatigue, anxiety, hands turning cold, vision becoming blurred etc.
Low blood pressure affects our body in various ways. First the main organs of the body such as the heart, the brain and the kidney might stop working. Due to less supply of oxygen to the brain, people might suffer from a spell of dizziness and might even faint. Also due to poor supply of oxygen to the heart, one might suffer from severe chest pain or even an heart attack. The kidneys too cannot get rid of the body wastes quickly, hence the wastes starts getting mixed with the blood.
So now that you know what are the dangers of low blood pressure, you should know how to raise blood pressure fast so that the person suffering from this problem does not have to go through all the above cases. Given below are some of the steps of how to raise low blood pressure. Follow these steps and you will have nothing to worry about.
Ways to Raise Blood Pressure Fast
The ways to raise blood pressure in our body, is a bit difficult, specially when the person is suffering from a severe case of low blood pressure, when there is shortage of blood in the body, which in turn leads to dysfunction of the vital organs in the body. However, there are several foods that can raise blood pressure. Read on to learn more about how to raise blood pressure naturally as well as with the help of prescribed medicines.
- Increase in the intake of sodium chloride or salt, can help you to raise blood pressure fast. If the person is an old person, then salt intake in their diet should be increased with the permission from the doctor. This is because, although taking in salt is the best way of knowing how to raise low blood pressure, too much salt, during old age, can cause heart failure.
- Water is the best healer for every disease it seems. If you drink lots of water everyday, then that will help you to raise blood pressure instantly. Dehydration is one of the main cause of low blood pressure. But make sure that you do not drink too much water, or else all the nutrients might wash out. There are also several foods that raise blood pressure such as sugar.
- Another way of how to raise low blood pressure is by the help of medications. There are several medicines (which you have to take only with the permission of the doctor ), such as the drug fludrocortisone, which is commonly used to treat problems of low blood pressure. There is one more drug which the doctors suggests, and that is the midodrine, which again helps in the raising the blood pressure. | <urn:uuid:bc997189-7b9b-42cb-b305-eac3ca17d023> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ibuzzle.com/articles/how-to-raise-blood-pressure.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959796 | 729 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Taoyuan No. 3: New high-yield lettuce for subtropical regions
Wednesday, January 13, 2016
TAIPEI, TAIWAN - Driven by consumer demand for local leafy green vegetables, growers in Taiwan are increasingly interested in producing organic and conventional lettuce in high tunnels. In subtropical regions, growing this cool-season leafy vegetable can be a challenge; higher temperatures common in the tunnels during warm seasons can increase the possibility of lettuce bolting (premature growth of a flower stalk).
A new study in HortScience evaluated subtropical lettuce cultivars in high tunnels year-round. Experiments were designed to determine the feasibility of developing a new high-yield, high-growth cultivar and determine relationships between climatic variables, temperature, and day length, and the days to harvest for maximum marketable yield. Experiments involved nine cultivars commonly grown in Taiwan representing four types of lettuce: leaf, butterhead, romaine, and crisphead (Batavia). Experiments were conducted in high tunnels or growth chambers at the Taoyuan District Agricultural Research and Extension Station from 2008 to 2013.
'Fu San' (a Batavia cultivar) exhibited the highest days to harvest for maximum marketable yield (DMMY) and maximum marketable yield (MMY) among all the cultivars. 'Jhih Li Wo' (a romaine cultivar) had a higher growth rate during plant growth initiation and 'Fu San' grew more slowly than other cultivars during their entire spring growth. Results showed the lettuce yields were significantly different among planting seasons, cultivars, and interactions for MMY, DMMY, and growth rate before harvest. "Our research suggests that Batavia lettuce 'Fu San', romaine lettuce 'Jhih Li Wo', and leaf lettuce 'Bai Yeh Wo' are the most suitable cultivars for summer production," the scientists said.
The scientists also assessed the feasibility of integrating plant growth characteristics for developing a new lettuce cultivar for high-tunnel use. "Our studies provided evidence that introducing the high growth rate trait during the initial period of plant growth from romaine lettuce 'Jhih Li Wo' to the high yielding Fu San cultivar was feasible for developing a new cultivar with early maturity and high yields," the study authors said.
The experiments resulted in the development of a new high-yielding cultivar called 'Taoyuan No.3'.
The study contains further information about production practices and suitable lettuce cultivars that can aid growers in subtropical regions. "Since the DMMY in all cultivars studied was more sensitive to temperature swings, there is a high priority for breeding high temperature-tolerant cultivars with late bolting characteristics to mitigate the effects of global warming and climate changes," the authors said.
The complete study and abstract are available on the ASHS HortScience electronic journal web site:
Founded in 1903, the American Society for Horticultural Science (ASHS) is the largest organization dedicated to advancing all facets of horticultural research, education, and application. More information at ashs.org
This press release also available on EurekAlert! - view here
Temperature, Daylength, and Cultivar Interact to Affect the Growth and Yield of Lettuce Grown in High Tunnels in Subtropical Regions
Ah-Chiou Lee, Fang-Shin Liao, and Hsiao-Feng Lo
HortScience 50:1412-1418. [Abstract][Full][PDF]
Corresponding author. E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org | <urn:uuid:46c37bd0-5386-4c39-8a0b-16e01889f37c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ashs.org/news/269316/Taoyuan-No.-3-New-high-yield-lettuce-for-subtropical-regions.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00010-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915416 | 753 | 2.671875 | 3 |
All our knowledge of St. Matthias comes from the Acts of the Apostles, which describes his election as an Apostle (1:15-26). Because of Judas’ betrayal of Jesus and subsequent suicide, our Lord’s original and closest followers — the Apostles — numbered eleven, rather than twelve (though by this time there were many other followers of Christ, and their numbers were constantly growing).
Since the Apostles held the role of elders or leaders in the early Church, St. Peter suggested that a replacement for Judas be selected from among those who had known Jesus during His earthly ministry. Two such disciples were nominated: Joseph (known as Barsabbas) and Matthias. After praying over them, the Apostles chose by lot — and Matthias was thus selected. From that time on he was numbered among the Twelve Apostles.
Apart from this description in Acts, St. Matthias is nowhere else mentioned in the New Testament. However, an ancient tradition plausibly claims that Matthias was one of Jesus’ seventy-two disciples, and another tradition states that he suffered martyrdom in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), along the shore of the Black Sea.
1. Sometimes we may feel we don’t “fit in,” especially when it comes to taking on important responsibilities or working with influential people in the Church or in society. However, if God is calling us to such a role, He will also make it possible for us to achieve it. St. Matthias, though too humble to consider himself equal to the other apostles, was nonetheless able to exercise this office.
2. The Church has the authority to make binding decisions in response to particular issues or questions that may arise. Jesus is nowhere recorded as having told the Apostles to replace Judas; St. Peter and the others themselves decided that this should be done, and the Holy Spirit ratified this decision.
Other Saints We Remember Today
St. Boniface of Tarsus (306), Martyr | <urn:uuid:0f2934de-6b30-4b07-b72b-7fdcbfd983b4> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://catholicexchange.com/st-matthias-apostle | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00039-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971284 | 408 | 2.9375 | 3 |
John Ruskin wrote, "All machine work is bad – it is dishonest." He idealized handmade craft. However, the story of one of the greatest Native American basket weavers, Dat So La Lee (aka Louisa Keyser), is a case of supreme skill – dishonestly marketed.
Ruskin's ideas experienced their heyday in America during the early 20th century. The Arts and Crafts movement combined with the closure of the frontier to produce a curious alchemy: Native American baskets, pottery and textiles – which had been symbols of their owners' backwardness – were transformed into relics of some imagined heroic pre-industrial past.
The wealthy often housed an Indian corner, or room to display their collections of Native American crafts and artifacts. On the former frontier, entrepreneurs such as Abe and Amy Cohn tapped into this fashion.
The Cohns, avid collectors of Indian curios, ran the Emporium in Carson City, Nevada, and they enjoyed a virtual monopoly on the work of the local Washo tribe's weavers. One of whom, Louisa Keyser, who adopted the name Dat So La Lee, became the most famous basket maker of all. Thanks to the tireless efforts of the Cohns to promote her, her works sold for thousands of dollars each, colossal sums for the time.
In 1900, when the Cohns first started promoting Keyser, the pamphlets they issued with the baskets were fairly matter-of-fact. But, over the years, they came to favor a 'print the legend' approach to marketing. Amy Cohn fabricated complex literal readings of Keyser's basket designs, redolent of the 'Red Indians' of the dime-store pulp fiction; the world of campfires, buffalo, tepees and chieftains. In 1913, Cohn toured Nevada's towns to promote the work of her star artist. Her star turn was a reading of Longfellow's Hiawatha. Audiences were thrilled. It caused enough of a stir to make the Carson City News, which reported: "She appeared in the gorgeous costume of an Indian princess wearing many valuable pieces of beadwork into which the history, romance, sorrows and joys of their tribe had been woven."
When queried as to why Keyser produced such unique shapes and designs, Cohn said it was her exclusive right as an 'Indian princess'. However, Dat So La Lee was not a princess. She lived a marginal existence – she and her husband were housed by the Cohns in exchange for her basketwork – yet she was marketed as the repository of a dying tradition, "the last of the great weavers". But Keyser was, in fact, something far more interesting. She was an innovator, living in the city, apart from the other Washoe, creating original works of art while struggling with alcoholism, societal indifference and hostility. The local press, for example, were scathing about her: "She has nothing to recommend her until the cunning work of her shapely hands is in evidence. One can hardly realize that such delicacy of touch and artistic creative genius could dwell in such a tenement."
Dat So La Lee died in 1925. The words on her memorial stand as a poignant reminder. "Last of the famed Washo basket-weavers... Her memories and her visions are beautifully woven into her baskets and will live on to remind us of the history and unique tribal artistry of her people, the Washo Indians."
Jim Haas is Director of Ethnographic Department, Bonhams San Francisco. | <urn:uuid:bee21636-a658-4b83-b15b-f13e49746755> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bonhams.com/magazine/10503/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969926 | 722 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Slender-billed Oriole (Oriolus tenuirostris) - HBW 13, p. 723
French: Loriot à bec effilé
Spanish: Oropéndola Picofina
Other common names: Slender-billed Black-naped Oriole
Taxonomy: Oriolus tenuirostris Blyth, 1846, central India; error = Assam.
Closely related to and sometimes treated as conspecific with O. chinensis, the two forming a superspecies; alternatively, both sometimes considered to belong to the superspecies formed by O. oriolus, O. kundoo and O. auratus. Race invisus regarded by some authors as being of doubtful validity. Ranges listed are tentative, as status in many areas poorly known, partly because of taxonomic uncertainties (and confusion with O. chinensis). Two subspecies currently recognized.
Subspecies and Distribution:
- tenuirostris Blyth, 1846 - breeds Bhutan and NE India E to S China (SW Yunnan), Myanmar, Laos, NC Thailand and N & C Vietnam; non-breeding also W to E Nepal and S to S Myanmar and W Thailand.
- invisus Riley, 1940 - S Vietnam (S Annam).
- Least Concern Enlarge map
A bird in a pine tree, looking around. Locality Datanta Waterfall, Da Lat Plateau, Annam, Vietnam (ssp invisus)
Josep del Hoyo 20 April 2008 7 years ago 27 sec 3.8
A bird in a pine tree, showing several forms of comfort behaviour and flying away. Locality Datanta Waterfall, Da Lat Plateau, Annam, Vietnam (ssp invisus)
Josep del Hoyo 20 April 2008 7 years ago 48 sec 3.3
An adult bird perched on a branch.
Locality Tuyen Lam Lake, Lam Dong Province, Vietnam (ssp invisus)
James Eaton 1 February 2009 3 years ago 4.2
Locality Kaeng Krachan National Park, Western Thailand, Thailand
Marco Valentini 15 March 2013 3 years ago 3.8
Two birds shouting in a tree.
Locality Mae Na Chon, North Western Thailand, Thailand (ssp tenuirostris)
Christophe Gouraud 28 October 2009 6 years ago 3
- No sound recordings available yet | <urn:uuid:a5f195ea-858c-40d0-9883-c4e4b3aa3378> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/slender-billed-oriole-oriolus-tenuirostris | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.767388 | 508 | 2.9375 | 3 |
When we push or pull an object we can make it move. We have said that if we use a greater force we can make it speed up (accelerate). But what Forces are at work when an object is stationary or is moving at constant speed in a straight line?
First, let us look at the stationary object. A good model for this is to think of a tug-o-war. If the force exerted by the two teams is equal it is clear that neither will win and we say the forces are balanced. Similarly if a toy car is on the living room floor and it is not moving we can say that all the forces acting upon it are balanced. If we push the car we make it move because our push is greater than the other forces acting upon it.
If, on the other hand, an object is moving at a constant speed in a straight line then again the forces are said to be balanced.
If we think about this in the context of a skater it makes it easier to understand. We know that one force which causes objects to slow down or stop is friction. In the case of the skater the friction between the skate and the ice is reduced by the nature of the two materials. This enables the skater to keep moving for a longer time than, say, using roller skates on a road surface. If there was no friction at all then the skater would be able to keep s steady speed in a straight line ad infinitum.
The Law of Conservation of Momentum
The total momentum of any group of objects that are not subject to external unbalanced forces is constant.
Balanced forces also mean that an object will keep its shape. If this were not so then we could find objects changing shape in front of our eyes for no apparent reason.
However, if the forces are unbalanced we can see a different effect. If we refer back to our tug-o-war and one side exerts greater force than the other then the forces are unbalanced. Another example would be if we think about an empty plastic bottle. Under normal circumstances it will keep it shape because the air pressure outside is equal to that inside BUT if we exert a greater external force on it than the force of the air pressure inside it, then the bottle will squash.
ContentMeasuring Force, Mass, Speed | <urn:uuid:e8682324-11e1-4ee6-9e65-947495b99c0b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.le.ac.uk/se/centres/sci/selfstudy/fam3.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950243 | 478 | 4.53125 | 5 |
July 20, 2011
The terms quality control and quality assurance are often used interchangeably, but they are not synonymous. Quality assurance is a big-picture program executed by company management; quality control is a small-picture initiative that takes place on the production floor. Understanding these programs, and their roles, is critical in making sure the respective staffs carry out their duties effectively.
If you were to ask several purchasing agents to name the three most important criteria for evaluating the goods they purchase, they probably would agree on a fair price, on-time delivery, and quality. If you ask which is the most valuable, in all likelihood the most common response would be quality. Quality isn’t simply a cost. It can be a powerful tool that contributes to the economic success of the business. Therefore, while a supply chain partner needs to control all three, quality can be the most significant.
Many manufacturers recognize that quality leads to a higher customer retention rate and helps to build competitive boundaries. However, the term quality by itself isn’t sufficient. Two aspects are quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA). Understanding what these terms mean, and what they don’t mean, is a crucial first step in understanding how they work together.
ISO 9000 definitions provide a solid starting point:
A QC manager typically is interested in product yield. He focuses on the products, inspecting them in search of flaws. QC is a production line function. The aim of QC is to offer the highest reasonable quality of product or service to the client, thereby meeting or even exceeding the client’s requirements.
A QC method is intended to:
A QA manager is interested in process yield. He is proactive at investigating technologies and processes that prevent defects. QA is a staff function. The aim of QA is to apply a planned and systematic production process, establishing confidence that the process generates suitable products.
A QA program is based on these principles:
QC is product-oriented; it focuses on tests and inspections carried out at various production line checkpoints. QA is process-oriented; its concerns are process definitions, proper selection of tools, proper use of testing methods, and operator training. QC works at locating defects; QA works at preventing them. QC emphasizes testing of products to discover defects, and reporting the results to management. QA attempts to improve and stabilize production to minimize or prevent the conditions that trigger defects.
Typically, quality control involves problem identification, problem analysis, problem correction, and feedback. Quality assurance involves data collection, problem trend analysis, process identification, process analysis, and process improvement.
Simply put, QC finds flaws; QA looks for the root cause that led to the flaw and addresses it.
Suppose a QC manager suspects that some substandard products are being shipped to customers. The QC manager would like to have a system in place that monitors the manufacturing process and triggers alerts when a product’s characteristics fall outside predetermined control limits. After QC personnel segregate these parts from the lot, QA personnel analyze them further, look for the root cause of the variation, and implement changes to improve compliance.
After the system is implemented, QA personnel can address any future problem by reviewing historical data, looking for correlations, and making interpretations. This information is critical, because if the QA staff finds an event that is meaningful and repeatable, it can devise a procedure that prevents that event from recurring.
Together both team members contribute to the process and goal of maintaining quality standards for the company.
Because product quality is proportional to liability and profitability, risk management is one of the main reasons for establishing a quality-oriented mindset among employees and companies. A manufacturer is at less risk of having to make costly compensation payments resulting from faulty products if a good quality system is in place to prevent such mistakes. Revenue is also at stake because noncompliance can damage a company’s reputation.
TPJ - The Tube & Pipe Journal® became the first magazine dedicated to serving the metal tube and pipe industry in 1990. Today, it remains the only North American publication devoted to this industry and it has become the most trusted source of information for tube and pipe professionals. Subscriptions are free to qualified tube and pipe professionals in North America. | <urn:uuid:1042b967-0599-47f2-aae8-fad57594367d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thefabricator.com/article/shopmanagement/what-are-the-differences-between-quality-control-and-quality-assurancer | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955244 | 873 | 3.4375 | 3 |
Osteosarcoma is the most common type of bone cancer among children, adolescents, and young adults.
The disease usually occurs in the long bones, such as the arms (humerus), legs (femur/tibia), and pelvis. It rarely occurs in the jaw and fingers, but often occurs at the ends of these bones near growth plates.
Osteosarcoma cancer cells can also spread (metastasize) to other areas of the body. Most commonly, these cells spread to the lungs. However, bones, kidneys, the adrenal gland, the brain, and the heart can also be sites of metastasis.
The exact cause of osteosarcoma is not known, but genetics may play an important role. Children and adults with other hereditary abnormalities, including exostoses (bony growths), retinoblastoma, Ollier's disease, osteogenesis imperfecta, polyostotic fibrous dysplasia, and Paget's disease, have an increased risk for developing osteosarcoma.
This form of cancer has also been linked to exposure to ionizing irradiation associated with radiation therapy for other types of cancer (i.e., Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin disease).
The following are the most common symptoms of osteosarcoma. However, each child may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include, but are not limited to, the following:
- pain (sharp or dull) at the site of the tumor
- swelling and/or redness at the site of the tumor
- increased pain with activity or lifting
- decreased movement of the affected limb
The symptoms may have been present over a short period of time or may have been occurring for six months or more. Often, an injury brings a child into a medical facility, where an x-ray may indicate suspicious bone lesions.
The symptoms of osteosarcoma may resemble other conditions or medical problems. Always consult your child's physician for a diagnosis.
In addition to a complete medical history and physical examination of your child, diagnostic procedures for osteosarcoma may include:
- multiple imaging studies of the tumor and sites of possible metastasis, such as
- x-rays - a diagnostic test which uses invisible electromagnetic energy beams to produce images of internal tissues, bones, and organs onto film.
- bone scans - a nuclear imaging method to evaluate any degenerative and/or arthritic changes in the joints; to detect bone diseases and tumors; to determine the cause of bone pain or inflammation. This test is to rule out any infection or fractures.
- magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - a diagnostic procedure that uses a combination of large magnets, radiofrequencies, and a computer to produce detailed images of organs and structures within the body. This test is done to rule out any associated abnormalities of the spinal cord and nerves.
- computed tomography scan (Also called a CT or CAT scan.) - a diagnostic imaging procedure that uses a combination of x-rays and computer technology to produce cross-sectional images (often called slices), both horizontally and vertically, of the body. A CT scan shows detailed images of any part of the body, including the bones, muscles, fat, and organs. CT scans are more detailed than general x-rays.
- positron emission tomography (PET) scan - radioactive-tagged glucose (sugar) is injected into the bloodstream. Tissues that use the glucose more than normal tissues (such as tumors) can be detected by a scanning machine. PET scans can be used to find small tumors or to check if treatment for a known tumor is working.
- complete blood count (CBC) - a measurement of size, number, and maturity of different blood cells in a specific volume of blood.
- blood tests (including blood chemistries)
- biopsy of the tumor
Specific treatment for osteosarcoma will be determined by your child's physician based on:
- your child's age, overall health, and medical history
- extent of the disease
- your child's tolerance for specific medications, procedures, or therapies
- expectations for the course of the disease
- your opinion or preference
Treatment may include, but is not limited to, one or more of the following:
- surgery (i.e., biopsy, resections, bone/skin grafts, limb salvage procedures, reconstructions)
- radiation therapy
- resections of metastases (spreading of the tumor to other locations)
- rehabilitation including physical and occupational therapy and psychosocial adapting
- prosthesis fitting and training
- supportive care (for the side effects of treatment)
- antibiotics (to prevent and treat infections)
- continued follow-up care (to determine response to treatment, detect recurrent disease, and manage the side effects of treatment)
Prognosis for osteosarcoma greatly depends on:
- the extent of the disease.
- the size and location of the tumor.
- presence or absence of metastasis.
- the tumor's response to therapy.
- the age and overall health of your child.
- your child's tolerance of specific medications, procedures, or therapies.
- new developments in treatment.
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Delia Bacon, History's Odd Woman Out*
FEMINIST literary scholars in search of neglected antebellum women writers have made it impossible to consider fiction without Harriet Beecher Stowe, abolitionism without Lydia Maria Child, transcendentalism without Margaret Fuller. Stowe, Child, and Fuller were powerful intellectual forces in their own time, and their literary achievements are central to our understanding of antebellum culture now. Delia Bacon's is a different story. Her repeated attempts to forge a literary career were just as repeatedly rebuffed during her lifetime, and her magnum opus, The Philosophy of Shakespeare's Plays Unfolded, was indeed, as Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote of it, a "ponderous octavo volume, which fell with a dead thump at the feet of the public and has never been picked up"--unreadable then, and unreadable now.
Yet despite his reservations, Hawthorne subvented publication of the book, and Bacon somehow managed to attract New England luminaries like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Elizabeth Peabody to her cause. Her argument that the man "Shakespeare" did not write "Shakespeare's" plays was eccentric, to be sure, but eccentric in ways that resonated culturally. The woman who entered history as originator of the "Baconian" theory of Shakespearean authorship was no garden variety crank. Mad or no (and Bacon did suffer an irreversible mental breakdown soon after the book appeared), her thesis was tellingly inflammatory, for it rose within the framework of, yet in agonistic relation to, a particular New England local culture.
The local culture in question is that of antebellum Hartford and New Haven, conservative centers of a Calvinism in transition, theologically inflected science, and Federalist-Whig politics. Bacon (1811-59) imbibed from this milieu an ambition to excel in literature that it was bound to frustrate and an eventual belief in her own divine mission that it was certain to repudiate. The Philosophy of Shakespeare's Plays Unfolded can be read as the attempt of an aspiring, displaced intellectual--displaced because female and declassed--to stage herself once and for all for the approval of people whose applause she coveted but whose rules she could never fully comprehend or follow. Culture enters at every point of such a reading, controlling what it means to aspire, to be intellectual, to be displaced, to be female, to be declassed, to be applauded, to stage oneself. Bacon's lifelong work of inventing and reinventing herself as a female intellectual celebrity, though a marginal episode in literary and cultural history, deserves attention for the ways in which it defines the center through the very forms of its marginality.
In his Shakespeare's Lives, Samuel Schoenbaum, the eminent scholar of Shakespeare biography, interprets all the anti-Stratfordians as rebels against cultural and professional expertise whose invariable substitution of some high-ranking personage for the supposedly unlettered Shakespeare paradoxically indexes "the heretic's revulsion against the provincial and lowly." Schoenbaum's use of "heretic" is metaphorical, but Nathaniel Hawthorne thought Bacon understood herself quite literally as a heretic. When she realized that her readings of the plays ran counter to the "religious doctrines in which she had been educated," he says, Bacon was horrified at first; but she chose her readings over her religion--indeed, she made her readings into her religion. Shakespeare's plays as she read them were nothing less than a new gospel, which she had been appointed to make known; "she had faith that special interpositions of Providence were forwarding her human efforts." To Bacon, Hawthorne noted elsewhere, "every leaf and line" of her work "was sacred, for all had been written under so deep a conviction of truth as to assume, in her eyes, the aspect of inspiration."
It is not surprising that Bacon fell into such a theological mode of self-understanding; this was the psychological terminology her culture deployed. The motif of heresy was omnipresent in the Calvinist historiography that had trained her, and her writings from the start luxuriated in metaphors of martyrdom. Nor, in Bacon's case, was rejecting authority along with the provincial and lowly a true paradox. It was precisely because authority was provincial and lowly that she rejected it.
Although of impeccable New England lineage on both sides, Delia's family had slid far down the social scale. David, her father, was a visionary Calvinist minister who failed first in a series of frontier ministries in Michigan and then as founding patriarch of a utopian theocracy in Tallmadge, Ohio. Returning with his large family to Hartford in 1812 when Delia--the fifth of seven children--was a year old, he died in poverty five years later. The family turned to the Hartford elite for patronage; the children went to work as soon as possible. The oldest, Leonard, nine years Delia's senior, was sponsored through Yale and rose to prominence as a leading clergyman in New Haven.
Of course Delia did not have Leonard's opportunities. For some years she shuttled between a wealthy foster family in Hartford and her mother's home in eastern New York State. She had only a year of secondary schooling (in 1825, at Catharine Beecher's Evangelical academy) and began to teach for a living at fifteen. Even as she followed the obscure route of innumerable, minimally trained New England girls, Delia Bacon was driven by compensatory dreams of becoming a dazzling performer who combined great social respectability with great personal distinction. These dreams were significantly underwritten by her conviction that she was a genius, a conviction that had been fostered by those around her.
It was by no means aberrant for an antebellum woman to view herself as a genius. On the contrary, the association of genius with unworldliness, excitable intelligence, and expressive emotionality linked it closely with the feminine in cultural discourse. Rufus Griswold, for example, remarked in the preface to his anthology of American women poets that "the moral nature of women, in its finest and richest development, partakes of some of the qualities of genius" and that "the most essential genius in men is marked by qualities which we may call feminine." The notion was so widely circulated via Germaine de Stael's beloved 1807 novel, Corinne, that schoolgirls and their teachers in the northeast searched for genius in their midst almost as a matter of course. In The Female Student, Almira Hart Phelps of the Troy Female Seminary gave physical form to the quality in her description of the youthful poet Lucretia Davidson: "so vivid in my mind is the recollection of her animated and enthusiastic manner at that time, the bright flashing of her dark eye, and the glow of her brilliant complexion, that . . . it seems as if she now stood before me, the living image of youthful genius and sensibility." Catharine Beecher, Delia's former teacher, recalled her pupil in similar terms: "Possessing an agreeable person, a pleasing and intelligent countenance, an eye of deep and earnest expression, a melodious voice, a fervid imagination, and the embryo of rare gifts of eloquence in thought and expression, she was pre-eminently one who would be pointed out as a genius."
The girl genius, at once admired and isolated, stood in complex relation to her classmates. Often she came from a lower social class than they. Since it was typical of genius to exceed boundaries, those ignorant of the boundaries were most likely to transgress; moreover, those outside the genteel circle had an obvious need, which the well-positioned did not, to insist upon themselves. Paradoxically and painfully for women in a sexually asymmetric society, female excess, even when inspired, was subject to discipline and censure. Ultimately, as the tragic plot of Corinne so clearly demonstrated, the world preferred ordinary women and aristocrats preferred their own kind. The plot of many an antebellum women's novel chronicles this poignant taming and normalizing of a genius who must subside (or grow) into conventional womanhood if she is to gain the approbation of society.
The double bind of the girl genius in a culture dominated by a female pedagogy like Catharine Beecher's is cruelly obvious in the teacher's recollection. Success in composition became "the highest object" of Delia Bacon's ambition, Beecher reports, even as success continually eluded her:
For Beecher the genius is one who, by definition, cannot win the prize; had she more discipline--i.e., more class--she might win but would be, then, less a genius. Given such a context, one can easily imagine Bacon attempting throughout her life to combine incompatibles: to operate in the social center while remaining the genius on the margins. These goals were further inflected by the theocentric vocabulary of a milieu where orthodoxy was inseparable from social practice--as Catharine Beecher's recollections of her pupil's eager ambition make so clear: "the fear was generated in the mind of her teacher," she wrote, "that the desire of human estimation especially in the form of literary ambition, might prove a snare fatal to her spiritual well-being."
Bacon's first published work was a book of three historical stories written in the manner of James Fenimore Cooper and Catharine Maria Sedgwick. Titled Tales of the Puritans, it appeared anonymously in 1831 when the author was just twenty years old. The book was not a success; but derivative as it is, one can discern in it the layered political and religious tendencies that the anti-Shakespeare project would make manifest. All three stories are about superior women displaced in the New World. Featuring a heroine who exemplifies the fairy-tale "princess in disguise" motif, each plot spins a fantasy wherein a politics of class (upper) and gender (female) merges with the Protestant Reformation conviction, that one's religious sect comprises all the good in an otherwise evil world. Many antebellum women's novels about early New England use this motif, often centering on dependent and marginalized orphans who discover lineages of wealth and high breeding, thus confounding those who have snubbed them. These novels, like Bacon's stories, convey an uneasy tension between filiopietistic celebration of the yeoman Puritans and an anglophilia that celebrates aristocracy in the person of the misfit heroine. Lydia Maria Child's Hobomok is the best-known example of this type.
"The Regicides," the longest story in Bacon's book, invents a fictional daughter for the regicide Goffe, who, according to a favorite Connecticut legend, hid out in Hadley with his father-in-law Whalley for two decades. Bacon's word-portrait of Alice, the daughter who knows nothing of her parentage, unmistakably limns the girl genius:
In "The Fair Puritan" the young and beautiful Lady Eveline, motivated entirely by religious concerns, leaves her luxurious surroundings and loving siblings to emigrate to the New World. Class and breeding isolate her from the other Puritans, whom she nevertheless serves with pious ardor, and in the end she dies of a disease contracted while nursing the sick. Finally, in "Castine," the Puritan heroine frankly turns her back on the little commonwealth, linking up with a young Catholic nobleman in exciting circumstances of Indian capture and rescue and going back to France as his wife.
Though fiction-writing was not to earn her a reputation, over time Delia Bacon achieved a kind of intellectual celebrity as a history teacher in Hartford, New Haven, and New York City. As early as 1833 she began lecturing, not in a common school or even a girls' academy but to elite girls who had completed formal schooling--offering them a form of post-graduate instruction; later she added classes for adult women. According to Beecher, more than a hundred "ladies" in New Haven, "including the wives of the governor, judges, professors, and other dignitaries of society, were assembled to learn wisdom from her lips, devoting an unusual amount of time, and paying a liberal ticket for the opportunity." Thereby Bacon received, according to Beecher, "one of the highest compliments ever paid to an American lady.
But even as she collected compliments, Bacon was developing a critique of her culture centered on its failure to reward genius and live up to its responsibilities. Her 1839 closet drama, The Bride of Fort Edward, expanded a prize-winning newspaper story she had published eight years earlier. In the interval Bacon had begun to think about the theater, in particular to conceive of it as a pedagogical space with much more potential than the classroom. Suggesting that she thought of plays as illustrated lectures composed by the teacher-playwright for an audience of students, she wrote her brother Leonard that she meant "to display a grand and awful truth not in the abstract but in a form better fitted to strike the common mind-the living breathing reality. Later, in the essay inaugurating her attack on Shakespeare--"William Shakespeare and His Plays: An Inquiry Concerning Them," published in Putnam's in 1856--she would similarly refer to drama as a "mighty instrument of popular sway," a "mechanism for moving and moulding the multitude." Vivian Hopkins, one of Bacon's biographers, claims that Leonard Bacon criticized a draft of The Bride for lack of dramatic action and theorizes that Bacon recast the full-scale performance play into a closet drama in response . But in revising to take her brother's strictures into account, Bacon attacked the commercial idea of drama on which they were based, thereby also attacking the elite he represented.
The Bride of Fort Edward centers on Jane McCrea, murdered in 1777 by Indian allies of General Burgoyne when she was en route to Fort Edward to meet her tory fiance. The story, expertly sensationalized by the American side, became part of the iconography of the Revolutionary War. Burgoyne himself had much to do with circulating the legend, since he credited it with inspiring the demoralized patriot army that caused his defeat. In the many retellings of the saga, Jane--often dressed in bridal costume as she made her way through the dark woods--functioned as the most banal and blatant kind of sentimentalized object. Bacon's play carefully orchestrates a dramatic conflict between unstoppable world history and frustrated individual desire, alternating blank verse scenes dominated by Helen, the fictionalized McCrea, with scenes in colloquial prose involving the American army. The preface asserts that the play means to exhibit the abstract truth of "the apparent sacrifice of the individual in the grand movements for the race." The sacrifice is only apparent because Helen is at once crushed by history and immortalized through her usefulness to its just purposes. Even Helen knows the patriot cause is just: "Let the high cause of right and freedom ... prevail", she muses, "though I, with all this sensitive, warm, shrinking life; with all this new-found wealth of love, and hope, he on its iron way.
Bacon frames Helen's story with another, which depicts how patriot officers convert the massacred life into propaganda for the Revolutionary cause. These wise and good men realize that ordinary folk, unschooled in the nuances of political theory and impervious to abstract debate, will respond immediately to the sentimental spectacle of Jane's death. No matter he political affiliation: she was lolled by a savage enemy. The Burgoyne character says as much himself. "A young and innocent girl, seeking the protection of our camp, is inhumanly murdered by Indians in our pay. A single tale like this is enough to undo at a blow all that we have accomplished here." The play closes when the army of foot soldiers, previously "melting away like a snow-wreath, views the spectacle and storms off predictably to avenge it: "To the death! Freedom for ever!"
The triangulated script, then, contains two plots: the framed drama shows how a spectacle might operate on the populace; the frame shows how this spectacle was created by wise and astute men acting on behalf of history. Only those with the power to make propaganda can appreciate this frame, and since The Bridge of Fort Edward was published as a closet drama, not a stage play, one can assume that it was ultimately designed for such readers. The Bridge of Fort Edward dramatizes the political and didactic work drama ought to do, if only the authorities knew how to use it properly.
As the author of this drama, Bacon has transformed Helen's victimization into her own mastery. She presents the lovelorn Helen sympathetically but affiliates with those who understand the divine course of history and the providential destiny of the United States. Addressing an elite audience, Bacon reminds it of the traditional republican responsibility to instruct the people in the arts of self-government in a manner suited to their less developed understanding. If theater in the United States was not fulfilling this task, the fault to Bacon lay with those in charge who were running the theater for profit instead of principle. This would be precisely the criticism of Shakespeare the man, as opposed to Shakespeare the plays, she would later develop.
The Bride of Fort Edward showed that Delia Bacon was not satisfied with her role of purveying history to well-off women. But the play sold poorly and the wider field of action she sought eluded her. Her local reputation as a teacher continued to grow until 1847, when Alexander MacWhorter, a young divine whom she had been seeing chastely but too often and too publicly, accused her of indecorous behavior. (He seems to have been trying to escape rumors that the two were engaged.) To support his charge, he circulated some effusive letters Bacon had written him, including a few in which she pleaded with him to return her correspondence. Leonard Bacon acted to have MacWhorter formally censured by the church. The public hearing on the issue devolved into a veritable media circus. Nathaniel Taylor, Yale's most prominent theologian, supported MacWhorter; Bacon was required to testify publicly on extremely short notice, and MacWhorter received nothing more than a mild reproof for imprudence. Both wings of the Calvinist church-the town represented by her brother, and Yale College represented by the tribunal-had failed Delia Bacon who, if by no means a fallen woman, had nonetheless completely lost control of her own public image. Her reputation as a "lady"-on which her career so vitally depended and to which she was so centrally committed-was smashed.
The debacle might have caused Bacon to reject the God of her church, but it did not. Nor did she attack the church hierarchy, as Catharine Beecher soon would. Beecher claimed that she wrote Truth Stranger Than Fiction (1850) to expose the clerical hypocrisy and corruption so obvious in the case, and she was confident (wrongly) that, the church could not withstand her demonstration. "The female sex are accustomed to look upon the ministers of Jesus Christ as their special guardians and protectors. The preservation of this grateful respect and confidence is one of the most sacred trusts committed to the ministry," she insisted. Although she did not accept Beecher's designation that she was a chosen agent of God's cleansing wrath against the fallen church, Bacon certainly employed providential thinking as she attempted to understand what had happened to her. And, when she began to discern that Shakespeare had not written the plays attributed to him, she could only interpret such remarkably unexpected ideas as a divine influx. She writes to Beecher, a year after the public hearing, of newfound work for which she has been prepared by "all that I have suffered," a "true and only vocation" making "the prospect of my future life not endurable merely, but more precious than it had ever been before." "I have something to do yet before I die," she continues, "and I would gladly suffer all that I have suffered, and think it little, if that were the cost of its accomplishment-l have work to do which is not my own,-'day labor,' and the night is at hand! I am tired of this mere suffering."
In elaborating and promulgating her anti-Stratford theory, Bacon was ultimately far less concerned to attack Shakespeare the impostor than to promulgate the message she found in the plays. Her incendiary essay attacking the bard, she told Hawthorne, was meant merely "to send the old Player about his business, to make way for this graver performance." in this graver performance, Bacon boldly theorized that the plays were republican polemics produced from within Elizabeth's and James's court by a secret society founded by Walter Ralegh and headed in the next generation by Francis Bacon, who was chief if not sole author of the plays. Extending the thesis, she argued that if the plays were not what they had been taken to be, then neither the Elizabethan age nor history itself was what it had been taken to be. The heart of Bacon's re-reading involved rewriting history itself. This fundamentally historicist approach to the plays developed from an intellectual . self-presentation that had always been grounded in a supposed mastery of history. But now, as she thoroughly revised a period of English history that was also foundational to United States history, Bacon made herself an agent in history as well as a recounter of it.
The influence of Shakespeare had been obvious throughout in the construction and rhythms of The Bride of Fort Edwards; when Bacon ventured into drama she worked from her culture's most revered model without seeming to question his authorship. But in composing a closet drama rather than a performance play, she worked with one of several possible Shakespeares available to her. Writing at length about the circulation of Shakespeare's performed plays among all social levels in the antebellum United States, Lawrence Levine has argued that the bard's popularity reflects a scene where high and low culture were not yet differentiated. The Astor Place riots of 1849, for example, testified to the passionate involvement of working-class audiences in Shakespeare's works, a phenomenon that had all but vanished by the end of the century.
But Levine tells only part of the story. Long before mid century there also existed a Shakespeare of the literati, a Shakespeare of the scholar, and a Shakespeare of schoolroom recitation, which together mapped out clear demarcations between cultural levels. Well-known interpretive essays by Alexander Pope, Samuel Johnson, Charles Lamb, William Hazlitt, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, among others, had already turned the plays into sites for complicated, subtle literary criticism. Charles Lamb argued in an 1811 essay, "On the Tragedies of Shakespeare, Considered with Reference to Their Fitness for Stage Representation," that Shakespeare was far too deep for mere performance. Increasingly weighty annotated scholarly editions were appearing, including Edmund Malone's ten-volume Variorum in 1790 and its substantial expansion by James Boswell, Jr., in 1821, the so-called Third Variorum. All this English material was widely available in the antebellum United States, and American critics and scholars also wrote and lectured about the bard. Delia Bacon knew Shakespeare through reading and teaching, not attending performances, and it was these didactic, library Shakespeares whom she could not reconcile with the historically known playwright. The Shakespeare she invented was an intellectual courtier who had elaborated a science of human nature and hoped to prepare the uneducated populace, according to scientific rules, for its destined role in the progress of history. The Shakespeare she invented, in short, was a version of Francis Bacon.
In fusing William Shakespeare with Francis Bacon, Delia brought together two of the most revered cultural icons of her day. It takes a major effort in our time to imagine a historical moment when Francis Bacon was a hero to scientists just as Shakespeare was to practitioners of polite literature. "Bacon" stood for the inductive method: patiently collecting concrete, observable facts; then developing successively broader generalizations from these facts; and, ultimately, constructing a theory that accounted for every single one of them. This theory was called a law of nature; it did not presume to explain how anything had come into being but only how it functioned. Perfect functioning implied the perfection of the deity, who was the cause of it all. The emergence of Baconian empiricism in England just as Catholicism was being disestablished there was thought to be no historical coincidence; rather, it was the express result of Protestant ideology, according to which people looked at the world through their own eyes and saw it as the product of divine benevolence.
The disciplines of science were in the process of organizing themselves throughout the northeastern United States during Delia Bacon's lifetime, and all the Yale professors of chemistry, astronomy, geology, and "natural philosophy' (physics) were advocates of Bacon's system as they knew it through the mediation of Scottish commonsense philosophy. Delia Bacon was well acquainted with these men, especially. Benjamin Silliman, Yale's first professor of chemistry, and his son Benjamin Silliman, Jr., who succeeded him in the same position. It was known that Francis Bacon had not fully carried out his plan of work; Delia Bacon became convinced that some missing parts of the plan had been completed, specifically, the plays of "Shakespeare," a collection of human facts organized to display the laws of a human nature that was ineluctably progressing towards the worldwide institution of republican governments.
These were heady ideas, and for some time Delia Bacon kept them to herself. In the meantime, she found a new field and many new admirers when she reinstituted her history classes in the-hberal precincts of Unitarian Boston and Cambridge. Eliza Farrar, married to Harvard's professor of mathematics and author of a best-selling advice book (The Young Lady's Friend, first published in 1836), provided here, parlor for one such course. She recalled that Bacon "ended with a fine climax that was quite thrilling.... All who saw her then must remember how handsome she was, and how gracefully she used her wand in pointing to the illustrations of her subject. I used to be reminded by her of Raphael's sibyls, and she often spoke like an oracle." "Even now,"; her friend Caroline Dall remembered much later, "it is only necessary to close my eyes, to see once more that graceful form which always suggested the priestess of Apollo, to hear again the vibrant voice which penetrated to one's inmost soul.
Her identity as a lad, v genius firmly reestablished, Bacon took a truly daring next step, transforming her private Classes into public lectures which she delivered in Boston and then in New York. This work required presence behind the stage as well as on it, since she had to line up sponsors and supporters ahead of time. She was "a lady of elegant appearance," according to the New York Herald for I December 1852, "and decidedly pretty," wearing "a black velvet dress which set off her figure to advantage"; she delivered her lecture sitting in a chair, in a quiet and gentle manner, with a voice "musical, earnest, and sympathetic" and an enunciation "clear, distinct, measured." At the time she was probably the first and only woman lecturing publicly on a non-reform topic, and the topic could not have been more ambitious. The Herald reported-perhaps with playful irony-that "She began by saying 'she did not come there as an advocate of what were called woman's rights,' and she then proceeded to lay out and illustrate the proposition that history is a great whole, connected in all its parts." Delia Bacon came on stage in the person of a lady and performed the part of history. Evidently her performance was driven by overdetermined desires for personal vindication and triumph; but it was nothing compared to the triumph she contemplated as discoverer and publicizer of the truth about Shakespeare's plays.
Bacon's theory about Shakespeare's plays was already in formation when she moved to Boston. She seems to have talked extensively about it at least to Elizabeth Peabody, for in later years, when Leonard insisted that his sister's "theory about the authorship of Shakespeare's plays, and her views of Lord Bacon were a part of her insanity," Peabody countered that the theory was not only evident long before the insanity but its "criticism of those times is the most profound that has ever been written. Some of the republicanism in the final formulation of the theory may well have come from Peabody, just as some of its insistence on the divinity of human nature may have resulted from her exposure to local transcendentalism. But after a while, according to Peabody, Bacon became quite secretive about her ideas-not because she doubted them but because she was afraid of being scooped. Although she used her attack on Shakespeare to criticize the market mentality, she considered herself the owner as well as trustee of her theory and meant to get credit for it. She had no doubt that publication of the theory would make her world-famous.
When Bacon conceptualized the plays as a series of republican polemics authored chiefly by Francis Bacon, she did not claim kinship with him. Yet the coincidence of names must have played a part in her thinking; here was her unacknowledged forebear, an intellectual if not a blood relation. Having affiliated with Shakespeare in The Bride of Fort Edward, she was now disavowing him for a far more attractive form of authority, replacing an untalented merchandiser of dramatic goods with a courtier and gentleman who was a great thinker and also, in her reading of him, a republican revolutionary.
Bacon's historicist focus, her insistence that no great literature could be merely entertaining or even purely aesthetic, in her mind privileged her reading above all others, a position that oddly adumbrates counter-aesthetic historicist criticism of the present day. She even went a step further to argue that Bacon and his group would not have been content to limit their radical work to mere writing: "there was to have been a change in the government here at one time, very different from the one which afterwards occurred, if the original plans of these men had succeeded. The ciphered language she insisted was deployed in the plays-the discourse awaiting Delia Bacon's unsealing-had been developed originally as a way for the courtiers to communicate with each other without arousing the crown's suspicion.
Because, on the one hand, the crown was too vigilant and, on the other, the people were insufficiently trained in republican principles to be trustworthy citizens in a free state, the courtiers abandoned their planned revolution. Only then did the frustrated Elizabethan man of action become a man of letters, who "invented new letters in his need, letters that would go farther than the sword" (p. xlix). In short, the plays developed a sophisticated republican political theory in a coded language that conveyed it (under the very nose of the queen, whose regime the theory sought to undermine) to an unlettered public via the sensuous immediacy of dramatic performance.
If examined closely, Bacon's argument undermines the religion' political origins of United States history according to which the Puritans were embryonic republican anti-monarchists as well as Protestant martyrs. If she was night, anti-monarchism was a courtly, not a Puritan, credo; providential history as it had long been understood and taught in New England, and was increasingly taught in schools throughout the nation, was wrong. Yet, what New England had been in its founding was far less important to Bacon than what it had become; her reading of the plays attacks a contemporary mercantile and mercenary elite that sought to justify itself through sham appeals to patriotism, religiob, and high culture. Only such a misguided elite could possibly be satisfied with, indeed promote, an idea of the plays as documents created for mere aesthetic pleasure or, worse still, for monetary gain in the artistic marketplace.
For many reasons, and in a most un-Baconian manner, Bacon failed to recognize or even understand the need to corroborate her theory with extrinsic evidence, and it was due to this fundamental flaw that her entire project foundered. Her view of history itself was purely textual; she thought (like many a literary scholar today) that a good, convincing interpretation was the same as a proof. Caroline Dall remembered her saying that "she drew her evidences of Francis Bacon's authorship from two sources, the internal and the external. She found them in the Plays themselves, and outside of the Plays, in history. But for Bacon "history" meant history books, and history books meant the compendium or compilation nearest to hand. For all the scholastic ingenuity she expended on interpretation, she was uninstructed in editorial procedures, naive about the material constitution of documentary evidence. Bravely performative though she was, she lacked the mental furniture to live in a non-textual, material, world. She was completely unscientific. And, of course, this deficit had in part identified her as a genius in the first place. In Phelps's words, "genius is of too fine, too exquisite a nature to bear the rude contact of worldly things."
Yet before one dismisses out of hand the inadequacies of an approach in which the printed word-any printed word-acquires a kind of divine status, it is worth remembering how prevalent such an approach still was in the conservative churches. Although Higher Criticism of the Bible, on which subsequent textual literary analysis was to be modeled, had certainly begun to influence the thinking of liberal religious elites, conservatives by no means generally accepted it, for it challenged the theory of inspired biblical compositions. Moreover, the habit of interpreting texts typologically was still common in 91 New England. Baconianism and the Bible lived side by side.
Indeed, Bacon's success in finding sponsors, at least initially, suggests that her rejection of Shakespeare struck a chord. One might dismiss Elizabeth Peabody's enthusiasm for the cause on the grounds that Peabody loved a losing fight, but what is to be said about Emerson, who joined with Peabody in recommending Bacon's work to George Putnam? Emerson himself, in Representative Men, fretted over the lack of fit between Shakespeare's works and the man known as Shakespeare. And what of George Putnam, who agreed to publish "William Shakespeare and His Plays"? To be sure, as Peabody's cousin and as a publisher soliciting Emerson's contributions, Putnam may have found it politic to do the two a favor. One should not, however, neglect the evidence that his mother-Elizabeth Peabody's aunt-had intellectual habits much like Delia Bacon's.
[She] was a believer in types and symbols, and she found not only in the Scriptures but in many other things a double meaning, the first apparent and direct, the second hidden and indirect or spiritual. For the purpose of expounding these theories in regard to the interpretation of the Scriptures, she began a series of commentaries on the Old Testament.... Two octavo volumes [were] published, with filial respect, by her son George, in 1852 and 1853.
Bacon also garnered financial support from Charles Butler, a New York banker, entrepreneur, and philanthropist she met through her lecture series, who backed her journey to England in 1853. She undertook the trip ostensibly to search out confirming evidence, but once she arrived, she simply wrote ever more pages of interpretation. Early in her sojourn she visited Bacon's tomb once, in the company of Charles Butler; but she avoided Stratford until her treatise had been published. Her notion that papers testifying to the existence of the society were buried in Shakespeare's grave seems to have developed late, in response to iterated demands for ocular proof. Hawthorne was among the few in whom she confided her fresh idea, and he was responsible for circulating it after her death.
Proceeding mainly by ridicule and invective, "William Shakespeare and His Plays" scorned a venerated theory as a means of scorning its Generators. "Oh, stupidity past finding out!" that anybody could "worship this monstrous incongruity," Bacon exclaims ("Inquiry," p. 119). This was unladylike writing to say the least; thirty years later Caroline Dall wrote mournfully of the essay: "as I go back to it, it grieves me bitterly, its coarseness and flippancy seem so unworthy of, and so unlike my friend. Published anonymously, the essay adopts a voice intended to be masculine, to imply a male authority behind the disembodied neutrality of print. In a footnote, the editors sustained the masquerade by referring to the author only as a "learned and eloquent scholar" (p. 98). In contrast to the Cooperian narrative style of Tales of the Puritans and the Shakespearean mimicry of The Bride of Fort Edward, Bacon's anti-Stratfordian prose is orotund and numbingly repetitious-another imitative exercise, this one of the pulpit rhetoric and political oratory she had heard all her life.
Stripped of some of its interesting complexities, "William Shakespeare and His Plays" accomplishes its task through a series of arguments. First: Shakespeare could not have Written the plays attributed to him because they reflect a level of education and cosmopolitan sophistication he lacked. Second: his failure to get them printed, or even to preserve the manuscripts, indicates complete ignorance of their true significance. The Shakespeare known to history was a poorly educated theatrical hack who "exhibited these plays at his theatre in the way of his trade, and cared for them precisely as a tradesman would; cared for them; as he would have cared for tin kettles, or earthen pans and pots, if they had been in his line" (p. 124). Bacon intends her tradesman metaphor to be taken literally. Especially important for the political argument she will develop in The Philosophy of Shakespeare's Plays Unfolded, Bacon maintains that such a self-serving commercial mentality could not possibly have conceived of patriotically disinterested lines like these:
Third: despite the absurdity of imagining a person like the historical Shakespeare as author of such work, the reverence in which the plays have been held testifies to the world's sense of their value. But over time the name ascribed to them has been partly detached from the man- "It is only the work itself that we now know by that name-the phenomenon and not its beginning' (p. 125). To square the plays' felt experience with the man supposed to have authored them, critics have endorsed a pernicious theory of aberrant genius that obscures the plays' complex historicity and is, as well, irrelevant to the historical Shakespeare. "Condemned to refer the origin of these works to the vulgar, illiterate man who kept the theatre where they were first exhibited," asks Bacon, "how could we, how could any one, dare to see what is really in them?" The only reasonable solution, again, is to dismiss Shakespeare, for the plays are learned and scholarly in a way that genius is not; this is no question of mere "lyric inspiration" or the merely "dramatic genius" of a "Bunyan or a Burns" (pp. 131-32). The historical Shakespeare was neither of the people nor of their rulers; his was the rising spirit of market values, and so to imagine that he could have written the plays only exhibits one's own crass mercantilism. Through this "Shakespeare" she invents, then, Bacon criticizes the prevalence of market values among those who should be instructing the populace in civic virtue.
What the plays need at this juncture, Bacon explains are "historical investigation and criticism" (p. 154), Which she plans to offer in her anticipated major study. Her theory of an authorship by disinterested aristocratic proto-republican patriots working against absolute power and inherited rank obliterates all the crypto-royalist affiliations of her earlier writings, allowing her to embrace the court without embracing its ideology, to have her royals without royalism. "The Fair Puritan" had stated more or less outrightly that the high-ranking woman who abandoned her aristocratic privilege for the Puritan cause was much more admirable than the more ordinary person who had much less to lose, materially and socially, by renouncing monarchist politics. Bacon's theory of Shakespearean authorship locates this self-sacrificing idealism within the heart of the court itself, among a group of worldly and educated men who alone had the privileges requisite for writing the plays. Thus, the theory of coded discourse makes courtiers into patriots willing to face martyrdom for their cause.
At the center of this group of courtiers is Francis Bacon. Identifying Shakespeare's plays as the missing practical applications of Francis Bacon's Novum Organum, Delia hits upon a strategy that allows her to use The Advancement of Learning as a gloss on the plays-a substantial revision of Bacon as well as Shakespeare. She admits that her approach demands "a very different kind of study from any that we have naturally thought it worth while to spend on them, so long as we regarded them as works of pastime merely.... It is pastime no longer. It is a study, the most patient, the most profoundly earnest to which these works now invite us" (Philosophy, pp. 175-76). "Of Art as anything in itself, with an independent tribunal, and law with an ethic and ritual of its own, this inventor of the one Art, that has for its end the relief of the human estate and the Creator's glory, knows nothing" (p. 303). In the plays, she insists, we want to find-and we do-"the new method of scientific inquiry applied to the questions in which men are most deeply interested-questions which were then imperiously and instantly urged on the thoughtful mind. We want to see it applied to POLITICS in the reign of James the First" (p. 187).
Bacon's works of scientific intellection analyzed human nature; his imaginative works-the plays-projected his philosophy in concrete examples. The scientific insistence that human nature is entirely lawful, that humans may be perfected by learning and applying the law, is an obvious contradiction of old-style Calvinism, even of those forms of perfectionism involving actions of faith and free grace. A perfectionist credo of sorts was already present in The Bridge of Fort Edward, where it manifests itself as routine patriotic Enlightenment rationalism of a sort that had long since been reconciled with Calvinism in the New England churches. The Philosophy of Shakespeare's Plays Unfolded goes far beyond the rational patriotism of The Bride, however, to sketch out a new gnosis of revealed science, through which instructed individuals might align themselves with historical progress. Bypassing the Bible, the Philosophy (which includes some sarcastic references to puerile Semitic achievements) substitutes a hew occult corpus for interpretation. The plays become, literally, Sacred Writ. "Great news for man he [Francis Bacon] brings; the powers which are working in the human life, and not those which are working without it only, are working in obedience to laws.... Good news for the state, good news for man; . . . confirmations from the universal scriptures, of the revelation of the divine in the human" (pp. 486-87). This statement rings with the democratic individualism and the Protestant inventiveness of an age of numerous new breakaway sects, at least one of which (Mormonism) was formed around a wholly new' sacred scripture.
The prominence of textual interpretation along with an intensely anti-individualist utopian ethos differentiate Bacon's theory from the Emersonian transcendentalism that it obviously resembles and at times seems to endorse. "Good news, because that law of the greater whole, which is the worthier-that law of the common-weal, which is the human law-that law which in man is reason and conscience, is in the nature of things, and not in man only' (p. 487). Man's "relation to the common-weal is essential to the perfection of his individual nature"; "The highest good of the particular and private nature ... comprehends necessarily the good of the whole in its intention" (pp. 477-78). Francis Bacon's project aims to realize the highest form of the polity, the perfect, the truly republican, state.
The core of The Philosophy of Shakespeare's Plays Unfolded is comprised of extended close readings of King Lear, Julius Caesar, and Coriolanus, in which the languages of New Criticism and New Historicism are anachronistically and startlingly foreshadowed. Framed by historical material in a long reface preface and a shorter conclusion, the three plays are read as coded attacks on the Tudor and Stuart monarchies rooted in Francis Bacon's supposed science of human nature, reflecting republican ideals of government by self-governing individuals. In a sequence on presence and absence, Bacon argues that though King Lear stands for "pure will and tyranny in their most frantic form" (p. 202), his presence on the stage as "insulted trampled outcast majesty' also signifies what is absent-the people-reminding readers "that the State is composed throughout, down to its most loathsome unimaginable depths of neglect and misery, of individual men, social units, clothed of nature with the same faculties and essential human dignities and susceptibilities to good and evil, and crowned of nature with the common sovereignty of reason" (pp. 204, 208). The emperor in Julius Caesar is "the most splendid and magnanimous representative of arbitrary power ... so that here it is the mere abstract question as to the expediency and propriety of permitting any one man to impose his individual will on the nation" (p. 326); the play's outcome, which dramatizes that principled patriots were "no more fit to be trusted with absolute power than he was, nor, in fact, half so fit" (p. 329), proves that neither single-man rule nor junta can produce the perfect state. Only self-governing individuals can do that.
Still more important for Delia Bacon's argument is Coriolanus (which has recently emerged as a key text for New Historicist readings of Shakespeare), wherein "the whole question of government is seized at its source" (p. 350). The argument of this play, as Bacon interprets it, is the familiar nineteenth-century insistence that until the people are instructed in the arts of self-government, they are untrustworthy electors, certain to choose a demagogue to rule over them. She explains: "That which stops short of the weal of the whole for its end, is that which is under criticism here; and whether it exist in 'the one,' or 'the few,' or "the many,--and these are the terms that are employed here,--whether it exist in the civil magistracy, sustained by a popular submission, or in the power of the victorious military chief, at the head of his still extant and resistless armament, it is necessarily rejected as a principle of sovereignty and permanence" (pp.353-541).
An uninstructed people is especially likely to choose a military hero, whom Bacon sees exemplified in Coriolanus as "the pure negation of that heroism which his author conceives of," a man who "knows no common-wealth; the wealth that is wealth in his eyes, is all his own; the weal that he conceives of, is the weal that is warm at his own heart only" (p. 395).
Each play treated by Delia Bacon puts a bad ruler on display to ask what a ruler's responsibility ought to be. As an anti-populist democrat, she envisages a long period of tutelage before the people can safely take government into their own hands; it is the task of rulers to provide the necessary instruction. Among bad rulers, the military hero is perhaps most germane to the 1840s, when the pro-Clay Whigs--the faction to which all the Bacons seem to have adhered--saw their man rejected twice in favor of military men (William Henry Harrison and Zachary Taylor). In depicting Coriolanus, Bacon says, the poet separates "instinctive military heroism, and the principle of so-called heroic greatness, from the true principles of heroism and nobility, the true principle of subjection and sovereignty in the individual human nature and in the commonweal" (p. 427). When the party of the ruling class supports a military man because he can win popular elections, the ruling class has failed its responsibility, and history takes a backward step.
In sum, The Philosophy of Shakespeare's Plays Unfolded tried to merge contemporary discourses of religion, science, and politics together in one historical package called "Shakespeare's philosophy"--philosophy, not commercial entertainment. Delia Bacon's history was all wrong, but her historicist reading of "Shakespeare" was virtually unique in her culture and ambitiously self-aware. Restoring Francis Bacon to his imagined place at the forefront of historical progress, Delia Bacon laid claim to a similar place for herself in her own time. Her project failed; once and for all she did not win the prize. A few months after The Philosophy of Shakespeare's Plays Unfolded was published in 1857, she had a complete psychological breakdown; she was taken back to the United States by a nephew and died in an asylum less than two years later. Insofar as she figures in cultural discourse at all, it is as a deranged spinster obsessed with digging up Shakespeare's grave. But her assimilation of aesthetics to commerce; her insistence that all intellectually valuable work had to further human progress toward political perfection; her drive to combine religion with science; and finally her refusal to stay in even the best place her local culture could provide for an intellectual woman--all these invite a more generous interpretation.
1 Nathaniel Hawthorne, Our Old Home: A Series of Sketches (1863), vol 5 of The Centenary Edition of the Works of Nathaniel Hawthorne (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1970), pp. 114-15.
2 Bacon was probably the second person to argue in print against Shakespeare's authorship of the plays. The first seems to have been another American, Joseph C. Hart, who claimed in his Romance of Yachting: Voyage the First (New York: Harper & Bros., 1848) that the plays were collaboratively authored by diverse hands, the best parts written by Ben Jonson and the stage-manager Shakespeare's occasional contributions identifiable by their vulgarity. Bacon may have known about this book (she was visiting in New York City at the time it appeared), but her argument is completely different. Hart debunks the plays as well as the playwright; for Bacon, the playwright is a demigod, which is why he cannot be Shakespeare. For additional material on Hawthorne's subvention of The Philosophy of Shakespeare's Plays Unfolded, see Hawthorne's Letters, 1853-1856 and Letters, 1857-1864, ed. Thomas Woodson et al., vols. 17 and 18 of the Centenary Edition (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1987).
3 Samuel Schoenbaum, Shakespeare-'s Lives (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), p. 608.
4 Nathaniel Hawthorne, English Notebooks (New York: Russell & Russell, 1962), p. 388, and Our Old Home, pp. 108, 114.
5 For Delia Bacon's life, see: Theodore Bacon, Delia Bacon: A Biographical Sketch (Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1888); Catharine A. Beecher, Truth Stranger Than Fiction: A Narrative of Recent Transactions, Involving Inquiries in Regard to the Principles of Honor, Truth, and justice, Which Obtain in a Distinguished American University (Boston: Phillips, Sampson & Co., 1850); Helen R. Deese, "A New England Woman's Network: Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, Caroline Healey Dall, and Delia S. Bacon," Legacy 8 (1992): 77-91; and Vivian Hopkins, Prodigal Puritan: A Life of Delia Bacon (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959).
6 Rufus W. Griswold, ed., The Female Poets of America (Philadelphia: A. Hart, 1848), p. 7.
7 Almira Hart Phelps, The Female Student: or, Lectures to Young Ladies on Female Education, 2d.ed. (New York: Leavitt, Lord & Co., 1836) pp. 293-94: Beecher, Stranger Than Fiction, p. 17.
8 Beecher, Stranger Than Fiction, pp. 18-19.
9 Beecher, Stranger Than Fiction, p. 19
10 For an analysis of several of these historical novels, see my American Women Writers and the Work of History, 1790-1860 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1995), pp. 152-68.
11 Delia Bacon, Tales of the Puritans (New Haven: A. H. Maltby, 1831), p. 92. For a discussion of the regicide legend, see Douglas C. Wilson, "Web of Secrecy: Goffe, Whalley, and the Legend of Hadley," New England Quarterly 60 (December 1987): 515-48.
12 For the centrality of history in antebellum women's intellectual education and concepts, see my American Women Writers and History.
13 Beecher, Stranger Than Fiction, p. 22.
14 Delia Bacon, quoted by Hopkins, Prodigal Puritan, p. 59.
15 Delia Bacon, "William Shakespeare and His Plays: An Inquiry Concerning Them," reprinted in T. Bacon's Delia Bacon, pp. 98-155, the edition I cite here and later (quotation p. 144).
16 Hopkins, Prodigal Puritan, p. 62.
17 Delia Bacon, The Bride of Fort Edward (New York: Samuel Coleman, 1839), p. 68.
18 Bacon, Bride of Fort Edward, pp. 164-65, 21, 174.
19 Beecher, Stranger Than Fiction, pp. 7, 270, 272.
20 T. Bacon, Delia Bacon, pp. 168-69,
21 Lawrence W. Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), pp. 11-82.
22 On Bacon's centrality to the scientific ideology of the antebellum era, especially among religious Protestants, see Dirk J. Struick, Yankee Science in the Making, rev. edition (New York: Collier, 1962); George H. Daniels, American Science in the Age of Jackson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968); and Theodore Dwight Bozeman, Protestants in an Age of Science: The Baconian Ideal and Antebellum American Religious Thought (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1977). On Delia Bacon's close connections with Yale Scientists, see Hopkins, Prodigal Puritan. Pp. 52-53 and passim.
23 Eliza Farrar, Recollections of Seventy Years (Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1866), pp. 320-21, and Caroline Healey Dall, What We Really Know About Shakespeare (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1886), p. 104.
24 Letters of Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, American Renaissance Woman, ed. Bruce Ronda (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1984), pp. 299,301.
25 Her attitudes were like those of many others who attacked, but could not escape, the market revolution, on which see Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
26 Delia Bacon, The Philosophy of Shakespeare's Plays Unfolded (Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1857), p. xxxix. Cited hereafter in the text.
27 No trace of such a secret society has ever been unearthed, but there were rumors that both Ralegh and Bacon advocated athiestic materialism. Delia Bacon used the term "cipher" to mean a duplicitous discourse, the interpretation of which constituted her own extensive labors. Later anti-Stratfordian Baconians read the term literally to mean a numerical or letter code by which Bacon threaded his name into the plays.
28 Dall, What We Really Know, p. 105.
29 Phelps, The Female Student, p. 291.
30 George Haven Putnam, George Palmer Putnam: A Memoir (New York and London: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1912), p. 4.
31 When Bacon neither found evidence nor agreed to return home, Butler terminated his support; she carried on in a poverty so extreme that it may well have debilitated her both mentally and physically. This was her condition when Hawthorne went to see her in 1856, at Elizabeth Peabody's urging. For Butler, whose relation to the market was as conflicted in its way as Bacon's, see John Denis Haeger, The Investment Frontier: New York Businessmen and the Economic Development of the Old Northwest (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981), and Francis Hovey Stoddard, The Life and Letters of Charles Butler (New York: C. Scribner, 1901).
32 Hawthorne was completely unpersuaded by Delia Bacon's theory but greatly impressed by her intellect. In memorializing her, he found a way to turn her work into an inadvertent tribute to the bard: "To have based such a system on fancy, and unconsciously elaborated it for herself, was almost as wonderful as really to have found it in the plays. But, in a certain sense, she did actually find it there. Shakespeare has surface beneath surface, to an immeasurable depth, adapted to the plummet-line of every reader" (Our Old Home, p. 106). Having agreed to help Delia Bacon find a publisher for the manuscript, Hawthorne finally wrote a preface for it as well as subsidizing it. For his publicizing of Bacon's visit to Shakespeare's grave, see my "Delia Bacon, Hawthorne's Last Heroine," Nathaniel Hawthorne Review 20 (1994): 1-10.
33 Dall, What We Really Know, p. 104.
34 "Inquiry," p. 129. The lines are from Henry Viii, 3.2.441-59. Other plays named or quoted from are Romeo and Juliet, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Coriolanus, Twelfth Night, Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra, Henry V, Much Ado about Nothing, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, Hamlet, and The Tempest.
*Originally published in NEQ 69 (1996): 223-49. | <urn:uuid:3260e1e2-ba43-403a-ab52-5a4a625abfce> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.english.illinois.edu/-people-/emeritus/baym/essays/delia_bacon.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00166-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969321 | 12,385 | 2.625 | 3 |
In a rotating machine, the negative sequence current vector rotates in the same direction as the rotor. It is the magnetic flux produced by the negative sequence current that rotates in the reverse direction of the rotor. Thus, the rotor cuts through the flux at twice the synchronous speed, and the induced current in the rotor is twice the line frequency. Regarding measurement of negative sequence, it is measured by the negative sequence filters within the relays.
The net torque is reduced and if full load is still demanded, then the motor will be forced to operate at a higher slip, thus increasing the rotor losses and heat dissipation. | <urn:uuid:24851f70-ef56-4c05-a25d-8163b1721a37> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://electricalsimplified.blogspot.com/2011/09/negative-sequence-current.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943063 | 126 | 3.203125 | 3 |
How do fossils form?
Not many plants and animals are lucky enough be turned into fossils.
When an animal or plant dies its remains usually rot away to nothing. Sometimes though, when the conditions are just right and its remains can be buried quickly, it may be fossilised. There are several different ways fossils are formed. Here we go through the five steps of fossilisation to make a typical 'mould and cast' fossil.
An animal dies, its skeleton settles on the sea floor and is buried by sediment.
An animal dies and its body sinks to the sea floor. The soft parts of the animal rot away, leaving only its skeleton. The skeleton is buried by sediment (like mud or sand) falling from the ocean above. The sea floor is an ideal place for fossilisation, which explains why many fossils are marine (from animals that lived in the sea). Land animals may die and be swept out to sea to be buried in the same way.
The sediment surrounding the skeleton thickens and begins to turn to stone.
The skeleton continues to be buried as sediment is added to the surface of the sea floor. As the sea floor sinks, pressure increases in the lower layers of sediment and it turns it into hard rock.
The skeleton dissolves and a mould is formed.
Now buried at depth and surrounded by stone, the skeleton is dissolved by ground water. This leaves a cavity (or hole) preserving the shape of the original skeleton. This cavity is known as a natural mould.
Minerals crystallise inside the mould and a cast is formed.
Water rich in minerals enters the mould, and fills the cavity. The minerals deposited in the mould form a cast of the mould. This cast has the same shape as the original skeleton, but none of its internal features.
The fossil is exposed on the Earth's surface.
Millions of years later, the rock surrounding the skeleton rises to the Earth's surface (this happens during mountain building, earthquakes and other earth processes). The rock is worn away by wind and rain, and the fossil is now exposed, waiting to be found!
Fossils form when the conditions are right. Why not find out more about fossils?
See how difficult it is to become a fossil by playing our game, A twist in time!
If you read these pages you should get a pretty good idea of what a fossil is.
Introducing the basics What can fossils tell us?
How do fossils form? Different types of fossils
Find out more about fossils by visiting Invertebrate I.D. or the History of life | <urn:uuid:8e975c22-7064-45b4-8d24-f6de023f88e5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oum.ox.ac.uk/thezone/fossils/intro/form.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00087-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949298 | 530 | 4.34375 | 4 |
We’ve all heard about the benefits of probiotics for re-establishing and maintaining gut integrity and optimal health. What is the purpose of probiotics, who should consume them and for how long, and what about people on a plant-based diet?
Who and for how long?
Unless you’ve never been on a dose of antibiotics in your life, never eaten an animal product injected with steroids, hormones or antibiotics, never travel and are able to shield your body from environmental toxins via air, water and food – then you can stand to benefit from daily probiotic consumption.
Benefits of probiotics
Our bodies require a healthy dose of good bacteria in order to maintain wellness. Meanwhile probiotics perform many daily functions:
- break down and digest food
- produce vitamins
- suppress other microbes that threaten to take over, such as yeast
- replenish good bacteria destroyed by antibiotics and environmental insults
- manage diarrhea and urinary tract infections
- potentially alleviate medical conditions such as:
- Irritable bowel syndrome
- Diarrhea, especially when associated with antibiotic use
- Chronic yeast infections
- Autoimmune Illnesses
- display minimal side effects, mainly gas initially as gut integrity is re-established
Lactobacillus doesn’t mean lactose
Many people associate lactobacillus (a strain of bacteria) with lactose (a milk sugar). In reality, lactobacillus is present everywhere. It exists in nature and colonizes the digestive tract, even in those who do NOT eat dairy. Lactobacillus is not just from fermented dairy, although it is used to ferment dairy to make yogurt and cheeses.
Often the lactobacillus is grown on a dairy medium, but the dairy is removed in processing. That means only the most severely allergic would need to avoid a trace amount of dairy from a physiological standpoint. For vegans and those dealing with an extreme dairy allergy (which is very rare), there are vegan versions of probiotics.
However, many “vegan” probiotics DO contain lactobacillus.
The question for people on a plant-based diet then is this: knowing that most lactobacillus is initially grown on a dairy medium, yet ubiquitous in nature, is a product containing lactobacillus truly plant-based?
ProbioActive is a great example since it is labeled as “suitable for vegans” yet contains lactobacillus. From a health standpoint, there is essentially no difference. From an ethical standpoint, it becomes a personal choice.
What’s your other option?
If you refuse to consume a supplement with lactobacillus and can not find a vegan probiotic that doesn’t contain it, then you can enjoy fermented plant foods (cultured vegetables, sauerkraut, tempeh, miso, coconut kefir, kimchi, kombucha, etc…). Keep in mind that these foods may or may not have been cultured with lactobacillus.
Fermented foods are cheaper than supplements, tastier, and usually more effective. Adding these delights to your daily intake is quite feasible and in many ways preferred, but it will require additional education, planning and incorporation of new foods. The book Cultured by Kevin Gianni is a great resource for getting started with a variety of delicious recipes like applekraut.
The casein protein
Unlike lactobacillus, casein is a mammalian milk protein that is non-vegan. In some cases, casein invokes a severe food allergen. A toddler who is so allergic to dairy (or specifically casein) that they react just by being near it, should obviously avoid a probiotic with casein but doesn’t necessarily have to avoid lactobacillus.
The ProbioActive (mentioned above) doesn’t contain casein, but does contain lactobacillus and would be a reasonable option when avoiding casein. For a vegan child (with or without a milk allergy), one might choose to incorporate the fermented food option instead of a probiotic capsule.
What to look out for in a “vegan” probiotic
- Read “vegan” labels – make sure you can view all the ingredients prior to purchasing online
- Magnesium Stearate – look for “vegetable magnesium stearate” instead
- Casein = milk protein
- Capsules made with gelatin = horse, cow, sheep hoof remnants
- Honey, Bee Pollon, Royal Jelly, Propolis, Beeswax = bee related
- Lac Resin/Shellac = bug juice, think M&M’s coating
- Cholecalciferol = animal version of vitamin D
- Vitamin A – from fish or animal livers
One of my favorite product lines is Renew Life since they offer unique formulas for various conditions such as yeast, antibiotics, children, etc… Although plant-based, dairy-free and gluten-free with ingredients such as “vegetable capsules” and “cellulose,” these do contain lactobacillus.
To find more vegan probiotics, visit your local health food store (where you can read the labels) or look for animal-friendly probiotics online.
Vegan (and Non-Vegan) Recommendations
Overall my recommendation for anyone, especially the true vegan (avoiding lactobacillus), is to consume probiotics from cultured and fermented foods. This is a delectable option because it provides nourishment while enjoying the probiotic benefits within real, whole vegan foods rich in water, fiber, nutrients and phytochemicals!
The good news is that there are plenty of convenient options for getting started such as a daily dose of fermented veggies (cultured veggies, sauerkraut, kimchi, pickles) soy products (1-2 servings of soy or coconut based yogurt, tempeh, miso) or beverages (like Kombucha and Kevita).
In fact, learning the art of fermenting vegetables in your own kitchen may be that next challenge you’ve been seeking as a veteran vegan looking to take your health to the next level!
Please note, I don’t have any affiliate ties to any of the products mentioned above.
Image Source: Veganbaking.net/Flickr | <urn:uuid:a9cc1cf0-6c9e-4302-8c18-9c19f1b45a6a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.onegreenplanet.org/vegan-health/probiotics-health-benefits-and-vegan-options/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.922972 | 1,328 | 2.65625 | 3 |
It seems the most important question these days is not whether Bashar Assad survives but whether Syria survives as a state. Syria, in its present borders, is not a homogenous entity, either historically or ethnically, but the outcome of Anglo-French imperialist arrangements made after World War I. They set the borders of the countries that formed on the Ottoman Empire's ruins.
First came the Sykes-Picot Agreement and the convoluted results of Faisal's Arab Revolt. Then came France's decision to separate Lebanon from Syria and annex areas beyond historically Christian Mount Lebanon to form Greater Lebanon. Finally, on the eve of World War II, came France's capitulation to Turkey's demands to transfer control of the Alexandretta Province (the Hatay Province ) to Turkey.
In Syria, France was also responsible for encouraging the Alawite minority to serve in the army as a counterweight to the Sunni majority, using the age-old colonialist policy of divide and conquer. This legacy is apparent to this day. It is what allowed the Alawite minority to take power under the secular Baath Party. It also created the paradoxical situation in which Assad's regime drew - and still draws - significant support from the Christian minority, around 10 percent of the country's population. The Christians view him - despite his repressive nature - as their best guarantee against a tyranny of the Sunni majority.
Similar to Iraq and Egypt, secularism in Syria went hand in glove with a repressive regime, despite the differences between Saddam Hussein and Hosni Mubarak. The civil war in Syria is not only a war against Assad's repressive regime. It has taken on religious and ethnic characteristics. In this sense, it is reminiscent of what happened in Yugoslavia. The growing strength of radical Islamic elements in the opposition - at times supported by Saudi Arabia, at other times linked to Al-Qaida - shows that the alternative to Assad's regime could be far from democratic.
The minorities understand this very well. Some Christians are leaving Syria, and the Kurds in the northeast are thinking about autonomy, possibly even a link-up with the autonomous Kurdish region in northern Iraq. If Assad falls, one cannot rule out a scenario in which the Alawites gather in their mountain stronghold, and who knows how the Turks would react; they have a long score to settle with the Syrians on all border issues. On the other hand, there may also be implications for southeast Turkey's large Alawite minority and Lebanon's Sunnis, concentrated mainly in Tripoli near the Syrian border.
The possibility of a disintegrating Syria reflects processes whose ramifications are not limited to the regimes' future but touch on the these countries' very existence. The territorial arrangement made after World War I, which political leaders until now have sought to preserve, is starting to crumble. It happened in Iraq, which is no longer a unified national Arab state. It is the case in Sudan, whose borders were drawn during the British occupation at the end of the 19th century and which has already split in two, with further divisions still to come. And in Libya, the people who toppled Muammar Gadhafi are having a hard time maintaining the country's unity.
In the current charged atmosphere, this op-ed piece could be interpreted by some Arab analysts as more proof of the Zionist plot against the Arab world; any assertion that it is only an analysis of a possible development won't convince anyone who believes in conspiracy theories. But historical processes sometimes have unexpected consequences. Just as in Russia the disintegration of the communist regime did not give rise to democracy but to Vladimir Putin, so it is in our region. The Arab Spring could be in for some surprises.
Want to enjoy 'Zen' reading - with no ads and just the article? Subscribe todaySubscribe now | <urn:uuid:c2d22eb7-5077-4d4b-9a86-4e8029a51a26> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/will-syria-survive-1.456755 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00114-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961575 | 764 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Flu: Signs of Bacterial InfectionSkip to the navigation
A bacterial infection may develop following infection with viral influenza . Signs of a bacterial infection include:
- Ear pain that lasts more than 24 hours or severe ear pain that lasts longer than 1 hour.
- A sore throat that lasts longer than 2 to 3 days despite home treatment and does not "act" like a cold.
- Sinus pain that persists despite 2 to 4 days of home treatment, especially if nasal drainage is colored rather than clear and fever is also present.
- Nasal drainage that changes from clear to colored after 5 to 7 days of flu, while other symptoms (such as sinus pain or fever) are getting worse.
- A cough that lingers more than 7 to 10 days after other symptoms have cleared, especially if it is bringing up mucus (productive).
- Yellow, green, rust-colored, or bloody mucus that is coughed up from the lungs, especially while other symptoms are getting worse. Mucus coughed up from the lungs is a more serious symptom than mucus that has drained down the back of the throat (postnasal drip).
These infections may sometimes need treatment with antibiotics.
Primary Medical Reviewer E. Gregory Thompson, MD - Internal Medicine
Specialist Medical Reviewer Christine Hahn, MD - Epidemiology
Current as ofAugust 21, 2015 | <urn:uuid:d6e6df91-3b22-4939-a5a8-7e3600399f8e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ghc.org/kbase/topic.jhtml?docId=hw247865&secId=hw247865-sec | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00152-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.913798 | 286 | 3 | 3 |
||This article needs more sources for reliability. (October 2010)|
An inductor is usually made from a coil of conducting material, like copper wire, that is then wrapped around a core made from either air or a magnetic metal. If you use a more magnetic material as the core, you can get the magnetic field around the inductor to be pushed in towards the inductor, giving it better inductance. Small inductors can also be put onto integrated circuits using the same ways that are used to make transistors. Aluminum is usually used as the conducting material in this case.
How inductors work[change | change source]
While a capacitor does not like changes in voltage, an inductor does not like changes in current.
In general, the relationship between the time-varying voltage v(t) across an inductor with inductance L and the time-varying current i(t) passing through it is described by the differential equation:
How inductors are used[change | change source]
Inductors are also used in electrical transmission systems, where they are used to lower the amount of voltage an electrical device gives off or lower the fault current. Because inductors are heavier than other electrical components, people have been using them in electrical equipment less often.
Inductors with an iron core are used for audio equipment, power conditioning, inverter systems, rapid transit and industrial power supplies.
Related pages[change | change source]
References[change | change source]
- "Inductors 101". Vishay Intertechnology, Inc.. 2008-08-12. http://www.newark.com/pdfs/techarticles/vishay/Inductors101.pdf. Retrieved 2010-10-02.
- "Inductors and Calculus", All About Circuits, Retrieved June 8, 2016
- "Inductor", Engineersblogsite.com, Retrieved June 8, 2016
- "Highly Efficient Iron Core Inductors", Agile Magnetics, Retrieved June 8, 2016
Other websites[change | change source]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Inductors|
- How stuff works How inductors work, made very simple. | <urn:uuid:446b976d-cc3a-495c-ada1-96120064f6d0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00001-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.888222 | 459 | 3.96875 | 4 |
The art that explained a centuries-old Asian medical system to its practitioners is highlighted in a new exhibit at the Rubin Museum.
"Bodies in Balance: The Art of Tibetan Medicine" features 140 objects dating from the ninth century to the present time. They were gathered from over 20 private and institution collections, from more than 10 countries.
"Visual arts had a special role in the development of Tibetan medicine," explained Theresia Hofer, a social and medical anthropologist at the University of Oslo who curated the show. She said that in the 17th century, 79 medical paintings were created to illustrate in detail the core of the Tibetan medical text. The illustrations helped students memorize the text.
Those original illustrations are in the storage room of a medical institute in Lhasa, Tibet, now part of China. Hofer said that the door to the storage space has three locks, and each key is in the hands of three different people. "The funniest thing was that then we couldn't open one of those locks," she said. "And I was so eager to get inside that I said, I will go and have a try. And I managed to open it, and there they were."
Hofer wanted to include those paintings in the show, but the Chinese government declined the request. So the show includes some more current reproductions of those paintings.
Tree of the Body in Health and Illness, Tibet or Mongolia; 18th or 19th century (Pritzker Collection)
The exhibit does feature an original painting with the earliest representation of the Medicine Buddha, from the year 836. The piece was in storage at the British Museum; this is the first time it is being shown to the public. A faded inscription explains it was created to improve the health of the artist, and other human beings.
The show also includes examples of Tibetan medical compounds, a multimedia installation showing different places of the world where Tibetan medicine is practiced, and a pulse station that teaches visitors how to feel their pulse according to the Tibetan practice.
Red Wolf-Headed Protectress, Central Tibet; 19th century. (Rubin Museum of Art, Gift of Shelley and Donald Rubin) | <urn:uuid:2662b8cc-c763-408c-aa4c-48215bc740c3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wnyc.org/story/drawings-and-paintings-how-buddha-cured/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00092-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973109 | 445 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Focus on where you live:
Article for ConservativeHome
Alexander Hamilton described the judiciary as the "least dangerous" branch of government because it possessed neither the power of the purse nor the power of the sword. The independence of the judiciary is not just one of the components of the rule of law; it is an absolute prerequisite for it. But this independence is under threat, both from direct attempts by the Government to fetter the judiciary, and from developments which are drawing judges into the political arena.
Judicial autonomy is threatened when governments seek to limit the ability of judges to do justice in individual cases. Legislation currently before Parliament would enable Ministers to remove coroners from inquests if they deem it ‘in the public interest' and prevent magistrates from giving suspended prison sentences for summary-only offences. Perhaps most worryingly, Jack Straw is proposing a Sentencing Commission, which would take into account the impact on the prison population when setting sentencing guidelines. This is simply wrong. It is the job of the Government to ensure we have the prison places we need to accommodate all those who judges feel need to be incarcerated, not to restrict sentences because they have failed to provide adequate prison capacity.
The judiciary are not only the protectors of the rule of law: they are themselves subject to the principle. The principle that Parliament makes the law and the judiciary uphold and enforce it - even against the Government when it is the executive which is breaking the law - is not only sound, it is democratically essential. That's why it is of concern that some judges have started to question the sovereignty of Parliament, talking instead of a "dual sovereignty of the Crown in Parliament and a Crown in the courts". Lord Steyn has described the principle of parliamentary sovereignty as "a construct of the common law" and suggested that a different constitutional hypothesis may apply in future. Lord Hope has gone further to suggest that "the English principle of absolute legislative sovereignty of Parliament ... is being qualified". Both Law Lords were speaking in the context of a case concerning the validity of the Hunting Act. Proponents of a new constitutional settlement should perhaps stop and consider their reaction if this controversial Act had been struck down by the courts.
Parliamentary sovereignty means that law is made, and if necessary unmade, by elected Members, who are democratically accountable to the people. Simply removing hard decisions - like whether to drop prosecutions that give rise to national security concerns or to deport terrorist suspects - from the hands of Ministers and handing them over to the courts does not depoliticise decision-making: it politicises the judiciary. If judges start to determine questions which are in essence political, then people will rightly wonder for whom they speak and to whom they should answer. As US Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia has put it, "if judges are routinely providing the society's definitive answers to moral questions on which there is ample room for debate - rather than merely determining the meaning of democratically adopted texts - then judges will be made politically accountable".
In other jurisdictions judges are appointed by politicians or are subjected to confirmatory hearings by the legislature. Justice Scalia remarked that he was unhappy about the intrusion of politics into the judicial appointment process in the US, but he preferred it to the alternative, "government by judicial aristocracy". Neither is desirable in Britain. But the continuing independence of the judiciary requires that judges are not drawn into the political arena.
There is little doubt that in making a sport of populist attacks on the judges, often over sentencing decisions, a succession of Labour home secretaries - notably David Blunkett - have helped to sour relations between the executive and judicial branches. As the Government's adviser on terrorist legislation, Lord Carlile of Berriew QC, warned, "if the Government undermines the judiciary then the judiciary might be tempted to undermine the Government." But if Labour spin doctors failed to understand the dangers, some judges have in turn laid themselves open to legitimate criticism by their refusal to apply mandatory minimum sentences passed by Parliament with the clearest of intentions. It is controversial when the judiciary are seen to be ignoring public concern about law and order. But they certainly should not ignore the law of the land.
Some politicians see the trespass by judges into the political arena as wilful. David Blunkett railed this week: "Why don't some of our senior judges take off their wigs, abandon their robes and stand for Parliament?" There have probably always been turbulent judges, but it is wrong to characterise Britain's careful judiciary as having some kind of political motivation. In fact, it this Government, and not moves by the judiciary themselves, which has opened the gate to greater judicial activism. First, poorly drafted laws and weak parliamentary scrutiny has resulted in a huge growth in judicial review. Bills are routinely subjected to guillotines, giving Parliament little time to pick up on problems - especially when Ministers table amendments to their own legislation late in the parliamentary process. Amendments to legislation are tabled before the original bill has been enacted. Laws are passed, but never implemented, because government thinking has moved on. Politicians can hardly complain when judges have to sort the mess out.
But Parliament's weakness must be addressed by strengthening it. The remedy cannot lie in allowing the judiciary to assume the role which the legislature should properly have in holding the executive to account. In 1995, Lord (then Mr) Justice Sedley said that "modern public law has carried forward a culture of judicial assertiveness to compensate for, and in places repair, dysfunction in the democratic process". But unelected judges are hardly in the right position to repair democracy, and if they attempt to do so they will imperil their reputation and position.
The second cause of greater judicial activism is the Human Rights Act, which has fundamentally changed the nature of the judiciary. The European Convention on Human Rights used to operate as a backstop. Now, it is at the forefront of the legal process. Judges are required to interpret legislation - creatively, if necessary - in order to make it compatible with the very broad principles of the Convention. In these circumstances, it is not always clear where interpreting the law ends and making the law starts.
For instance, some lawyers argue that judges have seized on Article 8 of the Convention to develop a general law of privacy. It is true that judges were shaping common laws of privacy before the Human Rights Act was passed, but the Act has licensed a sharp acceleration towards greater protection. Yet elected politicians - never slow to create new laws - have been reluctant to take this course. Parliament has been hesitant because the issue is a difficult one, involving fundamental and conflicting rights. Cynics might add that politicians have been unwilling to take on the press. But whatever the motive, and whether or not we think that a privacy law is a good thing, the fact remains that Parliament declined to pass one, yet the judiciary is pressing ahead.
Even this Government can now see the consequences of forcing judges to apply abstract rights to real cases. Ministers once talked proudly of creating a ‘human rights culture'. Now they acknowledge that the Human Rights Act has created a culture of rights without responsibility. The real culture change that the Human Rights Act created has been to encourage individuals in our adversarial legal system to raise every claim and counterclaim as involving a breach of their human rights. The new language of rights has demeaned their value. As protestors implore us to act against China for abuses of human rights, a prisoner uses the same language to claim an infringement because the lavatory in his cell is broken. Now it appears that even pirates can enjoy protection: the Royal Navy has been warned that they must not detain Somalian pirates intercepted on the high seas, because they could use the prohibition against torture in Article 3 to claim asylum in the UK rather than being returned to their country.
Such cases repeatedly draw attention to how the courts deal with issues that touch on public safety, national security and our armed forces. Within the last fortnight, we have learnt that the Human Rights Act has prevented a foreign national terrorist - described by Mr Justice Collins as "a truly dangerous individual" - from being deported; prevented the Justice Secretary from objecting to the parole of murderers, and insisted on proper equipment for our armed forces, all on the grounds of protecting human rights. You do not have to disagree with these individual outcomes to worry about whether the courts should have been sitting in judgement on the matters. It should not take a court ruling to secure adequate equipment for our armed forces, and the extension of human rights laws into the field of military conflict could be highly problematic in future. There is a powerful case for judicial oversight of parole decisions, but one which Parliament should debate and decide. It must be right to consider the danger that deported terrorists might be tortured, but if governments no longer have the ability to balance the considerations of national security, who does?
Some agree with Cicero that "the safety of the people is the highest law". Others think that human rights such as the prohibition of torture must be absolute. This thorniest of questions should be debated and decided, as the length of detention of terrorist suspects will de decided, in Parliament. And the Human Rights Act must be replaced with a British Bill of Rights so that we can help restore British parliamentary supremacy as against law made elsewhere.
Facing the Palace of Westminster across Parliament Square, a £100 million building is currently shrouded by scaffolding. When it opens next year, Britain's new Supreme Court will house what the legal commentator Joshua Rozenberg has described as "big judges". The potential for growing conflict between politicians and judges is obvious, and it must be avoided. A healthy democracy requires not just a separation of powers, but a balance of powers - a mutual respect between the courts, Parliament and the executive about their roles in the constitutional settlement. A turf war between government and the judiciary is a battle which both sides will lose.
18 April 2008
"I pledge to work hard for everyone in the constituency, to stand up for local people, and to be a strong voice at Westminster for your concerns" | <urn:uuid:c85a9f61-e03d-4755-9b77-5af4f88cde31> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nickherbert.com/media_centre.php/229/Judicial%20Activism | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00072-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965497 | 2,031 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Editorial: The Dynamics of Coral Health
Rapidly growing corals can interfere with both water circulation and light reaching their inner branches and other nearby corals. In other words, the conditions that allowed the fragments to grow rapidly are altered by their growth patterns.
One hears too often, my reef was thriving, with everything growing, and then it crashed. Both in Nature and in our small reefs corals can often be their own worse enemies. In Nature they are on a suicide mission, growing toward the light - the Sun - but also toward the atmosphere where they will be destroyed by wave action, desiccation, UV, heat, etc. However, the situation in our reef tanks is different. Corals, when healthy, grow very rapidly, increasingly making it difficult for water circulation and light to reach them. This can generate stress, often leading to a crash. Of course, there can be many other reasons. But, reading Charles Delbeek's Media column this month got me to thinking about growing corals and water motion.
In his column Charles wrote, "The following two articles support the observation that good water flow is an essential component in a successful reef aquarium that houses a lot SPS corals such as Acropora and may help to prevent coral bleaching brought on by increased water temperatures and light levels." I suggest you read Charles' column carefully; it might save you from a crash.
We all know that it is much easier to start a fragment than a whole colony, letting the fragment adapt to the environment we provide, but what we may forget is that growing corals change the environment that they adapted to by their growth patterns. They may grow to the point where they cannot get the water circulation and or light that they need to survive. To avoid a crash we may need to increase light and water circulation and periodically thin out our corals. This may be one of the reasons that we too often hear, just before the crash everything seemed to be doing so well.
Ron Shimek raised most reef keeper's anxiety level a few years ago by claiming that our reef tanks were sinks for the accumulation of toxic heavy metals. In part 2 of his series "Is It In The Water?" Richard Harker confronts Dr. Shimek's controversial position with data of his own. The beauty of science is that, when confronted with new data, it is self-correcting. | <urn:uuid:a7404a95-0389-4f3d-8cf4-28b6313b0867> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2004/1/aaeditorial | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393533.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00062-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969896 | 489 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Last week, when writing about potential discoveries in 2008, I admitted to having some specific ideas, some vague hopes, and that some might just happen. I wrote about some of my specific ideas for the year. Here I’ll talk about the other two – and the much more common – types of discoveries.
The “vague hope” types of discovery are very different from the “specific idea”, or, to be more specific, the make-a-hypothesis-and-test-it types of discoveries favored in explanations of the scientific method in 8th grade classes.
The best example from my own past that I can give us this type of vague hope was the discovery of Eris itself (the Kuiper belt object larger than Pluto that caused the uproar over Pluto’s status and finally forced the demotion of Pluto to a dwarf planet. You can read much more about Eris on my detailed site). When I started scanning the skies almost a decade ago looking for large objects in the outer solar system, I certainly didn’t know what specifically was going to be out there, but I knew that there was a not bad chance that we would find something bigger than Pluto eventually (though I will admit that at one point midway through the decade I contemplated declaring the search over, thinking we had found all there was to find of interest. One of my students eventually talked me out of it). On January 5th 2005 (3 years ago today, even though it feels like a much longer time ago to me), I finally spotted the object that we first called Xena -- then temporarily became named 2003 UB313 and finally became Eris -- moving very slowly past the stars on my computer screen. It’s not that we had had a hypothesis to prove, just a realization that if you search more of the sky than anyone else has since the invention of the computer and digital cameras, you will certainly find things that no one has before. Will the thing you find be bigger than Pluto? Maybe yes, maybe no, but, as long as you are hoping, you might as well hope in the direction of bigger.
Now to 2008. The survey of the skies that led to the discovery of Eris and the other dwarf planets ended more than a year ago when we finally had scanned almost all of the skies that can be seen from our telescope at Palomar Observatory. But after spending most of a decade searching the skies for newer and larger bodies, it was hard to actually quit. What to do? Start over again. But this time I am doing it with the knowledge gained from doing it the first time, so this time we are doing everything – I hope – right. In practice, the most important thing that this means is that we are extending the survey to find extremely distant objects that we would have missed the first time around.
Why? Vague hope. Or perhaps it is better called “directed hope.” From our discovery of Sedna, which spends most of its time far far away from the sun, we realized that there might well be many many objects out at those distances, and that some of them could be quite large indeed. By “large” here, I am talking about something perhaps even the size of Mercury or of Mars (hope. remember: the key here is hope). I certainly don’ t have a specific scientific hypothesis supported by equations and calculations that some such object is out there, just a realization that it plausibly could be and that no one has ever done a thorough search.
So that could be one very exciting answer for discoveries of 2008: a Mars-sized body orbiting at perhaps twice the distance of Eris. Amusingly, by the current IAU definition, such an object would still be called a dwarf planet, though it would be a dwarf bigger than some real planets. If we really did discover such a thing it would probably re-light the planet definition fire, and we would all get to watch astronomers begin arguing once again.
To be honest, I have to admit that I think finding such a beast is a bit of a long shot. The main reason is that even though I am pretty convinced that such large dwarf planets are out there floating in the same region occupied by Sedna, they are likely to be too far away for our modest telescope at Palomar Observatory to see. Really, we would have to get pretty luck. But again: directed hope. It just might be there, and we won’t know until we look.
Finally, some discoveries are the type that I said just happen, though, really, that is not quite the right phrase. No discover ever just happens, I don’t think, but, sometimes, while you’re looking for something else, or examining something just because you’re curious, or trying hard to understand one little detail of something that just doesn’t make sense to you, something will pop out that you had no idea was coming.
The discovery of Sedna was like this. We were scanning the skies hoping that we might find something bigger than Pluto, knowing that we were bound to find many things than no one had ever seen before, but we never anticipated anything like Sedna.
When I first saw Sedna I wasn’t even convinced it was real. It was so faint that I thought it might just be a recurring smudge on the pictures I was looking at. The first email I sent out to Chad Trujillo and David Rabinowitz, the two guys with whom I was working, said “Not that I think it’s actually real, but the thing I might have just found is really really far away and really really big.” It was true, which is why we are now looking for things even bigger and further away.
Sedna orbits in a region of space that astronomers expected to be essentially empty, so it really had never occurred to me that when we began hunting in the skies something like Sedna might show up in our snares. Sedna is smaller than Eris by perhaps 20-30% and thus smaller than Pluto, so it didn’t get nearly as much press coverage as the Eris discovery, but, of the two, Sedna is by far the much more interesting scientific discovery. Eris’s main importance is less in the scientific knowledge that something bigger than Pluto exists but much more in the cultural importance in that it was the discovery that finally drove home the fact that Pluto is not a unique oddball at the edge of the solar system but simply one of the largest members of a much more extensive population. But Sedna tells us something we never knew before. What? It is still not clear; we’re working hard to understand all that Sedna says, but by the time we are done I hope that Sedna is the beginning of an intricate story of the birth of sun in a crowded cluster of stars which eventually caused Sedna to be peeled out of the inner solar system to become part of this new still unnamed region beyond the Kuiper belt. Stay tuned. There are other possibilities for what it might mean. But whatever it turns out to mean will be something we never even considered when we first started looking across the sky.
What might we discover unexpectedly in 2008? There is no way I can tell, of course, but I can at least give some areas of possibility, because all of these accidental discoveries come about with a lot of hard work to make the accidents possible. If I had to place bets on what project is most likely to lead to something like this, I would have to again say the new sky survey. Anytime you are looking over vast areas of sky in ways that no one ever has before your chances of having a good accident are high. But that is not the only project my group and I are working on these days – we’re thinking about storms on Titan, giant collisions and icy atmospheres in the outer solar system and more – so one of the other projects may sneak in as a long-shot. Or something new may come along unexpectedly.
Happy third anniversary of the discovery of Eris, and hope for discoveries – expected, hoped for, and accidental in 2008. | <urn:uuid:ac7149a2-5f0c-4675-ad7b-bc9277ee9ddf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mikebrownsplanets.com/2008/01/vague-hopes-and-just-happenings.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00161-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.978949 | 1,696 | 2.625 | 3 |
Typically, a phone that supports a specific technology in three different radio frequency bands.
For example, some phones support tri-band WCDMA, where the three bands are 850, 1700, and 1900 (all American bands.) Another example of tri-band WCDMA would be 850/1900/2100 (2100 is primarily a European/Asian band.)
Another example is tri-band LTE phones that support 850/1900/2500, and therefore fully support Sprint's LTE network (as of 2013-2014.)
Before 3G, tri-band meant a GSM phone that supported three of the four major GSM frequency bands, and would therefore work in most parts of the world, making it a "world phone". (Of the four major GSM frequency bands, 850 and 1900 are the two bands used in North America. 900 and 1800 are the most common bands in other parts of the world.)
GSM phones that supported fewer bands (dual-band) were generally not world phones.
Tri-band GSM phones were eventually replaced by quad-band GSM phones, once newer antenna and radio technology made it easy and affordable for nearly all GSM phones to be quad-band.
There are also tri-band CDMA phones that support the 850, 1700, and 1900 bands in the U.S. | <urn:uuid:48084b4e-ca03-45fe-b1d4-95b0345f546f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.phonescoop.com/glossary/term.php?gid=136 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00181-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931516 | 273 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Van Allen, James A
(1914-2006) American astrophysicist; his experiment carried aboard the first American satellite established the existence of radiation belts that encircled the Earth; also very active in sounding rocket experiments.
James A. Van Allen was a path breaking astrophysicist best known for his work in magnetospheric physics. Van Allen's January 1958 Explorer 1 experiment established the existence of radiation belts--later named for the scientist--that encircled the Earth, representing the opening of a broad research field. Extending outward in the direction of the Sun approximately 40,000 miles, as well as stretching out with a trail away from the Sun to approximately 370,000 miles, the magnetosphere is the area dominated by Earth's strong magnetic field.
Birth Place: Mount Pleasant, Iowa.
More... - Chronology...
Launius, Roger D, NASA Chief Historian, NASA History Office Home Page, Web Address when accessed: here.
Van Allen Chronology
1949 March 1 -
: AVM1. LV Family
. Launch Vehicle
- Rockoon concept. - .
Nation: USA. Related Persons: Van Allen. Concept of launching of small high-performance rockets suspended from a balloon above most of the atmosphere (later called "Rockoons"), developed by Cmdr. Lee Lewis, Cmdr. G. Halvorson, S. F. Singer, and J. A. Van Allen during Aerobee firing cruise of U.S.S. Norton Sound.
1952 July 29 -
: WYG-279. LV Family
. Launch Vehicle
- First Rockoon launch attempt. - .
Nation: USA. Related Persons: Van Allen. First Rockoon (balloon-launched rocket) launched from icebreaker Eastwind off Greenland by ONR group under James A. Van Allen. Rockoon low-cost technique was later used by ONR and University of Iowa research groups in 1953-55 and 1957, from ships in sea between Boston and Thule, Greenland.
1956 January 26 -
- Satellite symposium. - .
Nation: USA. Related Persons: Van Allen. Summary: Symposium on "The Scientific Uses of Earth Satellites" held at the University of Michigan under sponsorship of the Upper Atmosphere Rocket Research Panel, James A. Van Allen of the State University of Iowa, Chairman..
1957 April 1 -
- Van Allen heads research panel. - .
Nation: USA. Related Persons: Van Allen. Summary: Upper Atmosphere Rocket Research Panel was renamed the Rocket and Satellite Research Panel. Its chairman was James A. Van Allen of the State university of Iowa..
1962 July 17 -
- Nuclear blasts to clear inner radiation belts for Apollo - .
Nation: USA. Related Persons: Van Allen. Program: Apollo. In an address to the American Rocket Society lunar missions meeting in Cleveland, Ohio, James A. Van Allen, Chairman of the Department of Physics and Astronomy, State University of Iowa, said that protons of the inner radiation belt could be a serious hazard for extended manned space flight and that nuclear detonations might be able to clean out these inner belt protons, perhaps for a prolonged period, making possible manned orbits about 300 miles above the earth.
2006 August 9 -
- Death of James A Van Allen - .
Nation: USA. Related Persons: Van Allen. Summary: American astrophysicist; his experiment carried aboard the first American satellite established the existence of radiation belts that encircled the Earth; also very active in sounding rocket experiments..
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Road pricing involves direct charges for use of roads. They include flat tolls, vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees, and congestion pricing.
Tolls are any type of fee charged for use of roads that are based on use of a specific facility.
VMT fees are charges that are ubiquitous and not generally based on use of specific facilities. They may vary by time of day, facility type, geographic area, or emissions class, fuel efficiency, weight, number of axles, or axle-weight of the vehicle.
Congestion pricing includes toll or non-toll strategies (e.g., parking pricing) to affect travel demand and reduce congestion. Tolls may be pre-scheduled, and vary by time of day (to address congestion) or by emissions class (to address emissions).
Value pricing is another term for congestion pricing. It is a term used in TEA-21 legislation which changed the name of the Congestion Pricing Pilot Program to Value Pricing Pilot Program.
Dynamic pricing is one way to implement congestion or value pricing. It involves variable tolls that change in real time, as often as every 3 minutes in practice, to moderate demand. Drivers must have an alternative that they can choose at short notice for this to work.
Depending on your interest, please select one or more of the links below:
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Ashes on Ash Wednesday?
Last February, on Ash Wednesday, I was wondering where
the tradition of putting ashes on our foreheads started. The only answers I got, whenever
I asked someone, was that it reminds us of our mortality. But I want to know where
The use of ashes and dust with religious, magical or medical
meanings was common among the ancients, says the New Catholic Encyclopedia. Ashes
were often symbolic of mortality, mourning or penance.
In the Hebrew Scriptures, after Jonah has announced the
destruction of Nineveh and the news reaches the king, he rises from the throne, lays
aside his robe, puts on sackcloth and sits in ashes. The king then proclaims a fast.
Nineveh mourns its sins and does penance (Jonah 3:1-6).
In foreseeing the destruction to come upon Israel, Jeremiah
says, "O daughter of my people,...roll in the ashes. Mourn as for an only child
with bitter wailing, for sudden upon us comes the destroyer" (6:26). Jeremiah calls
Israel to conversion.
In the Gospel of Matthew Jesus reproaches Chorazin and
Bethsaida saying, "For if the mighty deeds done in your midst had been done in Tyre
and Sidon, they would long ago have repented in sackcloth and ashes" (11:21).
Christians, then, seem to have taken the use of ashes as
a sign of penance from Jewish tradition. According to the New Catholic Encyclopedia,
ashes were originally signs of private penance. But early on they became part of the
ritual for public penance.
Adolf Adam, in The Liturgical Year (Pueblo Publishing
Company), points to Tertullian and Cyprian, in the third century, as evidence early Christians
were familiar with ashes as a sign and part of the ritual for public penance.
As early as the 300's, local churches had a ritual for
the beginning of public penance at the start of Lent. Those who had been guilty of public
serious sins like murder, apostasy, heresy or adultery were clothed in a penitential
garment and sprinkled with ashes.
The sinner was then expelled and led from the church as
Adam had been cast out of Paradise. Later those ending their penance (which could go
for years) were received back into the Church on Maundy Thursday. They were led back
into the church in procession as part of a rite of reconciliation.
According to Herman Wegman in Christian Worship in East
and West (Pueblo Press), texts and ceremonies were added to the rite for the reception
of penitents in the ninth century, and carried over into the Pontificale Romanum of
the Council of Trent.
Adolf Adam says public ecclesiastical penance disappeared
around the end of the first millennium. Wegman suggests that the severity of the practice
was at least partially the reason for its disappearance. But there was also a growing
conviction that every person is a sinner and must do penance.
Pope Urban II (1088-1099) recommended the custom of all
receiving ashes to all the churches. Ashes were put on the heads of men and the sign
of the cross traced with ashes on the foreheads of women, presumably because their heads
In the 11th century there appeared a special prayer for
the blessing of ashes. And the 12th century gave rise to the rule that the ashes used
on Ash Wednesday are to be made from the palm branches of the previous year.
When is a company justified in laying off its employees?
Today you hear so much about corporate greed and higher dividends for shareholders.
Does a Catholic institution, such as a hospital, have more of a responsibility to ensure
the job security of its employees and to avoid layoffs?
I can't give you numbers that would justify laying off
employees or reducing a work force. Situations could range from a business owned and
administered by one person to a huge company with hundreds of employees and many investors
But surely the threat of going bankrupt would justify reducing
a work force to the point where a business can survive and be profitable. To continue
running a business at a loss means eventual collapse and ruin for everyone in the enterprise
with damage to creditors.
Good and just management looks at the welfare of investors,
employees and customers in its decisionmaking. The interests of all need to be balanced.
What fair and just return can an investor expect? What are fair and just wages and decent
working conditions for employees? What kind of quality, service and fair price can customers
A good manager will try to schedule production and services
to avoid layoffs. Good management would look for ways to increase productivity and sales
to keep its work force occupied. But eventually changes in an industry or profession
may simply doom it with the consequent loss of jobs and employment.
In that case there isn't much an employer can do. With
the advent of electricity, candlemakers got laid off. When automobiles took over, livery
workers disappeared. With electric refrigerators, the demand for ice tongs went down.
A Catholic institution, above all, should be aware of how
the social encyclicals lay out its obligations to the institution's employees as well
as to those it serves. Part of its concern should be managing its affairs to avoid large
and sudden layoffs that disrupt the lives and welfare of workers.
If forced to reduce the institution's staff, management
might do so by attrition. It should also provide severance pay and assist the employee
in finding a new job.
When a diocesan parish priest takes the vow of celibacy,
is he also required to take the vow of chastity? Would you please define the two as
pertaining to the diocesan priesthood? Also, if chastity is required, and the vow is
broken, what happens to a priest then?
Bishops, priests and deacons are clerics. Canon #277 of
the present Code of Canon Law governing Western-rite Catholics obliges clerics to observe
perfect and perpetual continence and celibacy for the kingdom of heaven and that they "can
adhere more easily to Christ with an undivided heart and can more freely dedicate themselves
to the service of God and humankind."
Canon #1037 requires that unmarried candidates for the
permanent diaconate and candidates for the priesthood must publicly assume before God
and the Church the obligation of celibacy if they have not professed vows (including
chastity) in a religious institute. Married men who are ordained to the permanent diaconate
who become widowed may not remarry without a dispensation from the Sacred Congregation
for the Discipline of the Sacraments and Divine Worship.
In the rite of ordination, those unmarried men to be ordained
deacons manifest their intention to commit themselves to celibacy.
I believe some moral theologians would call this acceptance
of the obligation of continence and celibacy an implicit vow.
Of course, all Christians are called to chastity. A
Concise Dictionary of Theology (Paulist Press) defines chastity as: "that
virtue which enables human beings to integrate sexuality within their whole personality
according to their vocation in life: for the celibate, through complete abstention,
for the married, through fidelity and for single persons, through self-control."
The violation of chastity by anyone is a sin if all the
conditions of sin are present.
Clerics who attempt marriage are automatically suspended
and face other penalties including dismissal from the clerical state (Canon #1394).
Clerics who live in concubinage or continue in other external
sins against the Sixth Commandment that produce scandal are to be suspended. If they
persist in their offenses, they can finally be dismissed from the clerical state.
In the case of other offenses against the Sixth Commandment
committed by force or threats or publicly or with a minor under the age of 16, the cleric
is to be punished with just penalties, including dismissal from the clerical state if
the case so warrants.
That is the Church law in regard to the obligation of chastity
and celibacy. In the case of conduct that is criminal in the civil law, the violator
is also, of course, subject to civil penalties.
and the Virginity of Mary
As an article of faith we are taught and believe that
Mary the Mother of God was "ever virgin." In speaking of St. Joseph, St.
Matthew's Gospel (1:25) says: "and he had no marital relations with her until
she had borne a son...." Does this not infer that after Jesus' birth Mary and
Joseph lived as husband and wife? How does one explain this to nonbelievers?
Any number of commentaries will throw light on verses 18-25
of the first chapter of Matthew.
Perhaps the most important thing to keep in mind is that
the original text of Matthew was written in Greek and the author came from a Semitic
background. Any English translation merely attempts to convey what the author meant in
the original language.
Analyzing 1:25 in The Gospel According to Matthew (Sheed & Ward),
Alexander Jones writes, "Matthew makes this statement of the period which directly
concerns him, his purpose being to safeguard the virginal nature of the conception and
birth of Jesus. Of the period following the birth he says nothing. His sentence would
best be paraphrased: She brought forth a son without having relations with Joseph. The
Semitic turn of phrase, 'not...until,' while denying the action for the period preceding
the verb borne, implies nothing for the period which follows it: c.f. Genesis
8:7, 1 Timothy 4:13, etc."
Raymond E. Brown, S.S., says much the same thing in The
Birth of the Messiah (Doubleday).
Brown notes that to understand this passage we must look
at the verse in its immediate context and the context of the whole Gospel. Matthew's
immediate concern is to stress Mary's virginity before the child's birth and the fulfillment
of the Isaian prophecy. And he says, in English when something is negated until a
particular time, occurrence after that time is usually assumed.
But in Greek and Semitic, he instructs us, "such a
negation often has no implication at all about what happened after the limit of the 'until'
From the Catholic Distance University: "Thank
you very much for your mention of CHSI (Catholic Home Study Institute) in your February 1996
"I want to update you. We now offer 23 accredited courses, not 12. Tuition is slightly
higher: $330 for three-credit college courses and $255 for noncredit.
"Beginning in 1997, we will offer a master's degree in religious studies and effective
March 25, 1996, our new name is The Catholic Distance University (CDU). We hope our new
name will avoid confusion with the home-schooling movement. We do not educate children.
"Our new address is: P.O. Box 178, Paeonian Springs, VA 22129-0178."
The Wise Man welcomes your questions. If you have a question, please submit it here.
Include your street address for personal replies enclosing a stamped, self-addressed envelope, please. Some answer material must be
mailed since it is not available in digital form. You can still send questions to: Wise Man, 28 W. Liberty Street, Cincinnati, OH 45202. | <urn:uuid:b1b1d5af-e644-4e9b-b35c-ab4feae891a7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.americancatholic.org/Messenger/Jul1996/wiseman.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00147-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951443 | 2,473 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Subtitle: The Objects of Our Paper.
Title: Colored American - April 11, 1839
Speaker or author: editor
Newspaper or publication: Colored American (1837 - 1842)
The writer lists the benefits of the Colored American newspaper, and offers its pledge to continue to serve the African American community.
Description of file(s): one scanned, two columned, newspaper page
Subjects: Abolitionists--United States; African American abolitionists; Antislavery movements--United States; Slavery; United States--History--19th century
Keywords: communication; community; condition; duty; education; elevation; ethics; improvement; inferiority; injustice; morality; newspaper; prejudice; religion; society
Publication type: editorials; Newspapers | <urn:uuid:541b9e4a-141b-4233-8b51-fa8084c00aed> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://research.udmercy.edu/find/special_collections/digital/baa/item.php?record_id=2072&collectionCode=baa | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00139-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.881451 | 167 | 3.3125 | 3 |
Building may be a noun or a verb. Building is one of the most ancient human skills. It is part of how we have survived and it is the clearest symbol of every civilization. Although some other animals build simple structures, e.g. birds, ants and bees, humans have learned to build in a great many different ways, to suit different needs and local conditions. We build mostly for shelter. Buildings can shelter people, or animals, or machinery, or anything. The simplest building is just a roof, to keep the space beneath dry, or shady. Adding walls gives more shelter, from the wind or rain. It also gives security.
By putting a window in a wall, with or without glass, we let light inside the building. We leave a hole somewhere big enough to go in and out, with a door which can be opened and closed. Often the door will have a lock, so the building can be left secure.
If a building is to last for a long time, it must have a solid foundation. This foundation is like the root of a tree, which is sunk a bit deep into the ground and supports the walls. If the ground is soft, the foundation must be very deep and strong so that the building might be having a strong contact with the ground.
If a building is high enough, it can have more than one floor. People can climb from one floor to the next by a staircase, or perhaps by a lift or elevator. This is known as going upstairs, or downstairs. Buildings can also have a floor under the ground. This is usually called a cellar or basement.
Buildings can be beautiful or ugly, exciting or boring. Architects are people trained to design buildings. There have been many good architects and also many bad ones, just as there have been good builders and bad. Architecture can be an art form. Look at the building where you are reading this. Look at the shapes and shadows. Is there enough light? Do some rooms make you feel like staying in them, while others make you want to hurry away? Do they have interesting features? Think about how you could have made the building better. Almost anybody can become an architect if they want to. But only a good architect or a good builder can design or build a beautiful building.
Types of buildings[change | change source]
Shelters are places to live and to raise our young. We also build places to work and to make things, places to store things, places to sell things, places where sick people can go to be treated, places to put people who break our laws. We build to make life easier, or to make money.
Some buildings have a very different reason. A large number of people can gather at a temple to worship god or listen to what other people have to say. In Christendom they are called churches. Until we began to build skyscrapers, churches were always the very largest, tallest buildings of all, except for castles. The biggest churches are cathedrals, even bigger than most castles. Big buildings require much work to make, thus can symbolise power. They impress and they give a focus to cities.
Where people live or stay[change | change source]
Where people work[change | change source]
- School, Study hall, dormitory
- Farm, barn, silo
- Fire Station
- Jail or prison
- Police Station
- Power plant
Culture and entertainment[change | change source]
Transportation[change | change source] | <urn:uuid:5f917510-c659-435c-8e66-8e0417456e19> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00033-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967971 | 721 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Here is the Venn diagram, showing how many sites were polymorphic in all populations, in only one of them, or in any combination thereof:
This confirms the oft-mentioned observations that Africans are more genetically diverse than other populations. This is also confirmed by the existence of 222,255 polymorphisms that are unique to the YRI population.
A few years ago, the pattern of polymorphism sharing would be interpreted in some way similar to this:
In the above tree model, the story of Homo sapiens proceeds in isolation, from our earliest ancestors, through a series of splits (the first of which is "Out-of-Africa"), all the way to modern populations. Such a story is pretty much necessary to explain the super-homogeneity of Eurasians vs. the super-diversity of Africans. If the human story is self-contained, then the only plausible explanation is the Great Out-of-Africa Bottleneck.
But, the human story is not self-contained. Multiple lines of evidence suggest that several demes within the species Homo heidelbergensis, and perhaps, even H. erectus, co-existed during the Middle Paleolithic in the Old World with people who were genetically and anatomically most similar to living humans. A new possibility emerges: that the heterogeneity of modern humans was created in part by admixture between such divergent populations.
It is a worthwhile exercise to study the behavior of SNP subsets vis a vis the two archaic hominins (Neandertal and Vindija) whose genomes we possess. In a recent experiment, I did just that. The finding that population-specific polymorphism (e.g., variable sites that are specific to Europeans, East Asians, or Africans) show an increased evidence of archaic admixture seems to suggest that the roots of regional populations of Homo sapiens may lie in very divergent regional Middle Paleolithic Homo populations interacting with a successful deme within anatomical Homo sapiens that emerged prior to 100 thousand years ago and concluded its conquest of the Old World about 50-60 thousand years later.
If this idea is correct, then it may turn out that the remarkable landscape of polymorphism sharing (and non-sharing) between modern human populations was not only shaped by what Homo sapiens did as he followed his own story. Thanks to technologies invented by some of his descendants, we are beginning to piece together the remarkable panorama of the prehistory of our species. But the cadre will not be complete until we find a place in it for those mysterious Others, fragments of whose DNA persist in our cells. | <urn:uuid:272faf60-774a-4cd9-a3d2-63cb1514208b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://dienekes.blogspot.com/2012/09/the-remarkable-landscape-of.html?showComment=1346947387533 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950606 | 531 | 2.984375 | 3 |
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Pressing at the Limits: The Challenge of the Hebrew Committee Of National Liberation to Chemical Warfare Policy
by John Ellis van Courtland Moon
On 16 September 1944, the Hebrew Committee of National Liberation made a startling recommendation to the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS).1 Citing Presidential statements threatening chemical warfare retaliation against the Axis powers if they used "poison gas against civilian or military populations ... of any of the United Nations," the Hebrew Committee proposed the issuance of a warning "stating that unless the practice of using poison gas against the Hebrew people ceases forthwith, retaliation in kind will be immediately ordered against Germany." The Hebrew Committee reinforced its appeal by arguing that such a warning would demonstrate to the Germans that the Hebrews were accepted as fully equal within the United Nations.2
The Joint Strategic Survey Committee, a high-level group of senior officers who advised the "Chiefs of Staff on national policy and world strategy," prepared a detailed answer for use by the Joint Chiefs of Staff.3 They argued that such a warning would boomerang: the Germans would continue their extermination program and the proposed retaliation would unleash unrestricted gas warfare resulting in heavy civilian and military losses. In the conclusion of their draft letter, the joint Strategic Survey Committee tried to soften the impact of rejection: "The joint Chiefs of Staff are of the opinion that the vigorous Allied offensives now being so successfully consummated and the announced policy of bringing war criminals to justice will soon bring this deplorable matter to an end."4
Two members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Henry H. Arnold, Commanding General of the Army Air Forces, and Admiral William D. Leahy, Chief of Staff to President Roosevelt, objected to a rejection by explanation.5 After discussion by the JCS, the request of the Hebrew Committee of National Liberation was neatly parried: "The joint Chiefs of Staff consider that, from a military point of view, the proposal set forth in your letter does not come within their cognizance."6 The question was apparently never brought to the attention of either the Combined Chiefs of Staff or the President.
In 1942 and 1943, British Prime Minister Churchill and President Roosevelt had defined chemical warfare policy in a series of pronouncements, some of which were interpreted by the Hebrew Committee of National Liberation as providing the justification for their proposal. Responding to a warning by Stalin that the Germans were preparing to launch chemical warfare against the U.S.S.R., Churchill, on 10 May 1942, threatened massive retaliation against Nazi Germany:
I wish now to make it plain that we shall treat the unprovoked use of poison gas against our Russian ally exactly as if it were used against ourselves, and if we are satisfied that this new outrage has been committed by Hitler we will use our great and growing air superiority in the west to carry gas warfare on the largest possible scale far and wide upon the towns and cities of Germany.7
On 5 June 1942, President Roosevelt issued a similar statement on chemical warfare policy in response to repeated allegations that the Japanese had used toxic agents against the Chinese:
I desire to make it unmistakedly clear that if Japan persists in this inhuman form of warfare against China or against any other of the United Nations, such action will be regarded by this Government as though taken against the United States and retaliation in kind and in full measure will be meted out.8
These declarations were aimed at deterring Axis use of gas against the Russians and the Chinese. They were limited in scope, extending the protection of a retaliatory pledge to the members of the anti-Axis military coalition.9
On 8 June 1943, this policy was re-emphasized by President Roosevelt, who explicitly limited chemical warfare policy to retaliation. After citing reports that Axis powers "were seriously contemplating use of poisonous or noxious gases or other inhumane devices of warfare," the President defined the policy of retaliation to which the United States would adhere throughout the war. Pledging that America would never resort to first use of toxic weapons, Roosevelt warned that "acts of this nature committed against any one of the United Nations will be regarded as having been committed against the United States itself and will be treated accordingly." The President's pledge was sweeping and emphatic:
We promise to any perpetrators of such crimes full and swift retaliation in kind and I feel obliged now to warn the Axis armies and the Axis peoples, in Europe and in Asia, that the terrible consequences of any use of these inhumane methods on their part will be brought down swiftly and surely upon their own heads.10
The brief but illuminating discussion held in response to the proposal of the Hebrew Committee showed that there were limits to the implementation of this broad pledge.
The stark recommendation of the Hebrew Committee was a more grandiose version of reprisal suggestions made repeatedly during the war by Jewish organizations and occasionally by Allied Governmentsin-Exile to deter or to counter German atrocities.11 The proposal was presented to the joint Chiefs of Staff at the time when another dramatic military measure was being urged upon the Allies by established and recognized Jewish and Zionist organizations. By June 1944, Auschwitz-Birkenau had been identified as the chief extermination camp in Nazi Europe, and the magnitude and frightfulness of the slaughter carried out there was undeniably apparent.12 Throughout the late spring and summer of 1944, the Jewish Agency and the leaders of other important Jewish and Zionist organizations repeatedly urged the Allies to bomb the rail lines from Budapest to Auschwitz, thereby hindering the deportation of the Hungarian Jews; furthermore, they recommended bombing the gas chambers and crematoria of Auschwitz-Birkenau, thereby disrupting the momentum and the scale of the extermination program.13 In the United States, this proposal was steadily resisted by the War Department, using an argument later echoed by the Joint Strategic Survey Committee: ". . . the most effective relief to victims of enemy persecution is the early defeat of the Axis, an undertaking to which we must devote every resource at our disposal." This argument was bolstered by more specific objections centered upon the operational difficulties presented by the bombing proposal.14 In England, the Auschwitz-Birkenau proposal, emphatically backed by the Prime Minister and the Foreign Secretary, was frustrated by bureaucratic lethargy and by the arguments of the Air Ministry regarding the technical difficulties of the proposed operations.15
The rejected proposals for the Auschwitz bombing operation, backed by established and recognized Jewish and Zionist leaders, were far more limited in scope and far less sweeping in consequence than the proposal for chemical warfare retaliation advanced by the relatively obscure Hebrew Committee of National Liberation. It is, therefore, not surprising that the Hebrew Committee's recommendation was dismissed so swiftly.
The Hebrew Committee of National Liberation did not command widespread support among the American Jewish community or the world Zionist organizations. Its creation, announced on 18 May 1944 by its chair, Peter Bergson, was accompanied by the establishment of an "unofficial embassy" in Washington, D.C., and by a declaration that the Hebrew Committee would seek "co-belligerent status" within the United Nations."16 The creation of the Hebrew Committee was immediately denounced as a "colossal hoax" promulgated by "half a dozen adventurers from Palestine with no standing, no credentials, no mandate from anyone unless from the Irgun Zevai Leumi in Palestine, an insignificantly small, pistol-packing group of extremists who are claiming credit for the recent terror outrages."17 The Hebrew Committee was, therefore, viewed as a nonrepresentative, selfappointed group, associated with the extremist underground army, the Irgun, which had declared war against the British Mandate in Palestine in January 1944. Unlike established Zionist organizations, the Hebrew Committee challenged the concept of a universal Jewish community. It advocated a Hebrew nation - for which it was the self-appointed protector - composed only of Palestinian Jews and the uprooted Jews of Nazi-occupied Europe.
With only the dubious sponsorship of such a presumptuous group, the proposal for chemical warfare retaliation was unlikely to command prolonged consideration by the American military. The record does not indicate whether the joint Chiefs of Staff were briefed on the relative importance of the respective Jewish and Zionist organizations. However, the status of the Hebrew Committee would have surfaced rapidly if the debate had been carried into diplomatic and political circles.
The decision of the Joint Chiefs of Staff deserves our attention because it clearly illuminates one of the basic reasons for the failure of the Allies to accord higher priority to the relief and the rescue of the Jewish victims of Nazi annihilation.
As a military measure, the recommendation of the Hebrew Committee of National Liberation was hardly persuasive. As the Joint Strategic Survey Committee pointed out in its proposed letter to the Hebrew Committee, the execution of this policy would lead to the outbreak of full-scale chemical warfare. Such a development was understandably unwelcome. Moreover, the effectiveness of the threat was questionable. As the Joint Strategic Survey Committee warned: "If gas warfare is threatened, we must be prepared to carry out the threat."18 Since the President's 1943 pledge, the Joint Chiefs of Staff had struggled with the problem of preparedness for global chemical warfare, seeking to build an American arsenal capable of immediate and massive retaliation against Axis initiation. In the summer of 1944, however, preparations still lagged behind requirements.19
This buildup was part of a preparation for an uncertain eventuality, an eventuality that American military leaders hoped would never take place. The Hebrew Committee's proposal called for a response to an undeniable challenge: the Nazi war of extermination against the Jewish population of Europe. Struggling with the continuing problems of preparedness and the conflicting demands of a multi-theater conflict, the Joint Chiefs of Staff certainly did not want to complicate their task by recommending a course of action that, if approved by the British and American governments, would force the Allies to initiate chemical warfare operations against the Axis.
There is, however, a more fundamental reason why the proposal of the Hebrew Committee of National Liberation received scant consideration. Even if it had been advocated by established and recognized Zionist organizations, and even if Allied preparations for chemical warfare had been completed by the summer of 1944, this proposal would probably have been dismissed without extensive consideration. Like the more rational and limited Auschwitz bombing proposal, it confronted an underlying political fact: the Jewish people had no status within the Allied coalition. John Mack, a Labor member of Parliament, highlighted the powerlessness of the Jews in a debate in the House of Commons: " . . . they have no Government to speak for them, they have no consul and no flag. They have no status in any land and they are not likely to have a place at any future peace conference."20 He could have added: they have no army.21
By the summer of 1944, it was obvious to the Allied leaders that Hitler was systematically exterminating the captive Jewish population of Europe. By then, gas had become the most efficient means of delivering death. Using Zyklon B, hydrogen cyanide, in the gas chambers of their extermination camps and carbon monoxide in their death vans, the Nazis were engaged in an unprecedented form of war to which there was no prepared response22 It is cruelly ironic that, although the extermination of the Jews violated the traditional distinction between combatants and non-combatants, Allied chemical warfare policy could provide no counter. Devised to prevent a recurrence of the horrors inflicted by the use of gas in military operations in World War I, it could not meet the ethical challenge of the "final solution." It answered more immediately practical imperatives.
The policy evolved at a time when delays in the launching of a Second Front to relieve the German pressure on the Eastern front and the impossibility of carrying out major operations on the Asiatic mainland had led to endless recriminations from the Russians and the Chinese. The Roosevelt-Churchill pronouncements on chemical warfare had been measures designed to strengthen the bonds of the Allied coalition. Although sweeping in scope, the pledges to retaliate had never covered the hostage captives of occupied Europe. The debate over the proposal of the Hebrew Committee of National Liberation made explicit a distinction which was always implicit. To the end of the war, chemical warfare policy was determined by the political imperatives of a military coalition.
The author gratefully acknowledges assistance from William Cunliffe, John Mendelsohn and Leroy Jackson of the National Archives, Washington, D.C. I am also indebted to 1. L. Kenen, Washington, D.C., for information about Jewish organizations, and to the following scholars who reviewed this article in draft form: Professor Ernest R. May, Harvard University; Professor Robert Weiner and Professor Joan van Courtland Moon of the University of Massachusetts at Boston. Dr. William Emerson, Director, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, N.Y., verified that the proposal of the Hebrew Committee of National Liberation was never formally presented to the President.
1. The basic documents for this article are located in the National Archives, Washington, D.C., Record Group 218, the Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. [Hereafter cited as NARS, RG 218, JCS] See especially file CCS 385.3 (9-16-44). (The date in parenthesis refers to the initial document in the file.) See also The Holocaust, ed. John Mendelsohn, (New York and London, 1982) vol. 14, Relief and Rescue of Jews from Nazi Oppression, pp. 129-52. Allied chemical warfare policy and preparedness are analyzed in John Ellis van Courtland Moon, "Chemical Weapons and Deterrence: The World War II Experience," International Security 8 (Spring 1984): 3-35.
2. NARS, RG 218, JCS 1072: Retaliation for the Extermination of Hebrews in Europe by the Use of Poisonous Gases, 26 Sept. 1944, CCS 385.3 The Hebrew Committee appealed first to the State Department. The State Department referred them to the War Refugee Board. The Board in turn referred them to the joint Chiefs of Staff.
3. NARS, RG 218, Minutes, 40th Meeting, Joint Chiefs of Staff, 3 Nov. 1942, CCS 334 (6-23-42). For the formation and the functions of the Joint Strategic Survey Committee, see Ray S. Cline, Washington Command Post: The Operations Division, United States Army in World War II (Washington, D.C., 1951), pp. 173- 74.
5. For General Arnold's proposed modifications to JCS 1072, see NARS, RG 218, General H. H. Arnold to the Secretary, Joint Chiefs of Staff, Subject: Retaliation for the Extermination of Hebrews in Europe by the Use of Poisonous Gases, 29 Sept. 1944, CCS 385.3 (9-16-44). Admiral Leahy's proposed modification is found in NARS, RG 218, McFarland to Leahy, Marshall, King, Subject: Retaliation for the Extermination of Hebrews in Europe by the Use of Poisonous Gases, 1 Oct. 1944, CCS 385.3 (9-16-44).
6. NARS, RG 218, Admiral William D. Leahy to the Hebrew Committee of National Liberation, 4 Oct. 1944, CCS 385.3 (9-16-44). For the discussion of JCS 1072 by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, see NARS, RG 218, Minutes, 180th Meeting, Joint Chiefs of Staff, 3 Oct. 1944, CCS 334 (6-23-42).
11. Martin Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies (New York, 1981), pp. 50-51, 106-7, 246, 250, 258, 264-65; Henry L. Feingold, The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust 1938-1945 (New Brunswick, N.J., 1970), pp. 256-57.
13. Ibid., pp. 216-17, 236-37, 245, 246-48, 252, 255, 264, 269, 278-79, 285, 301, 303-6, 312, 318-20; Bernard Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe: 1939- 45 (London and Oxford, 1979), pp. 307-20, 349-50; David S. Wyman, "Why Auschwitz Was Never Bombed," Commentary 65 (May 1978): 37-46; Feingold, Politics of Rescue, pp. 256-57, 305.
14. NARS, RG 165, OPD, OPD 387-7, section 11, case 21: Letter by Major General Thomas T. Handy, Assistant Chief of Staff. Quoted in Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies, p. 238. This argument, developed by the Operations Division of the American General Staff, was used consistently by the War Department in the debate over the bombing of Auschwitz and the access rail lines: see especially Wyman, "Why Auschwitz Was Never Bombed," pp. 39, 41. Wyman's article skillfully demolishes the arguments used by the War Department.
17. Quoted ibid. The phrasing is that of the American Zionist Emergency Council. Other Jewish organizations (Zionist. Organization of America, the Jewish Agency for Palestine, the American World Zionist Organization, the Women's Zionist Organization, the American Jewish Conference) denounced the Hebrew Committee in similar terms.
21. For the proposal to form a Jewish Brigade within the British Army, finally accomplished in October 1944, see ibid., pp. 48-49, 261, 276, 291; Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews, pp. 176, 270-88, 349.
22. The literature on Hitler's war against the Jews is so extensive as to defy summary. A few examples must suffice: Eugen Kogon, The Theory and Practice of Hell: The Concentration Camps and the System Behind Them (New York, 1950); Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews (Chicago, 1967); Lucy S. Dawidowicz, The War against the Jews: 1933-45 (New York, 1975). On the use of gas, the most notable recent work is Nationalsozialistische Massentotungen durch Giftgas, ed. Eugen Kogon, Hermann Langbein, and Adalbert Ruckerl (Frankfurt, 1983). | <urn:uuid:77f2ac63-6855-44c7-9eda-b0dfacd1a015> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.museumoftolerance.com/site/c.tmL6KfNVLtH/b.6585401/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00062-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948144 | 3,752 | 2.6875 | 3 |
'When we waste food, we waste all of the resources it takes to bring it to our plates'
A new plan offers a roadmap for the U.S. to reduce food waste by 20% within a decade while also creating thousands of jobs and could save consumers billions of dollars.
The report, which comes just months after the launch of a federal initiative aimed at cutting food waste by 50% by 2030, offers a 27-point list of ways to address the issue that includes everything from eliminating sell-by dates to changing the composition of animal feed.
The plan comes from a non-profit and corporate collaboration known as ReFED and drew support from more than 30 organizations including the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), Deloitte and investment firm MissionPoint Partners.
“When we waste food, we waste all of the resources it takes to bring it to our plates—from money to farmland, energy and water,” said Dana Gunders, NRDC senior scientist, in a statement. “The Obama administration and the food industry should use this roadmap to prioritize actions that keep more food on our plates, and out of the trash.”
The report divides food waste solutions into three categories: prevention, recovery and recycling. Proposed measures focus heavily on preventing food waste in the first place. For one, the report suggests food companies should adjust packaging to discourage waste. Portions should be smaller and packaging should be designed to prevent food from spoiling. Distributors should invest in technology to eliminate food waste during transport. Prevention methods would help save roughly $8 billion and and prevent 2.6 million tons of food from being wasted, according to the report.
Read more: Here’s How To Cut Down On Food Waste
Recovery solutions focus on new methods of taking food that would otherwise be thrown away and using it for other purposes before it goes bad. The report also recommends creating tax incentives to donate food, softening regulations on food donations and processing food to extend its life. The study also encourages recycling food once it is no longer edible. Composting and investment in recycling infrastructure could reduce the quantity of food goods that end up in the country’s landfills.
Food waste contributes to a whole slew of related problems from food insecurity to climate change. The average American household of four currently wastes more than two million calories of food annually. At the same time, other American families remain food insecure and rely on cheap and unhealthy food. Carbon dioxide produced in the process of growing crops and raising livestock also hastens global warming. Nearly 10% of the greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. comes from the agriculture sector, according to a report from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Problems associated with food waste are only expected to escalate in coming years as the global population soars and climate change wrecks crop production. Crop production in some areas of the world face a nearly 20% decline in productivity thanks to climate change.
The new report offers a path to begin efforts to meet the federal government food waste goal. The government initiative—brought through the EPA and the U.S. Department of Agriculture—offered high ambition but few crucial details.
“Let’s feed people,” said EPA Administrator Gina McCarthy announcing the goal last year. “Not landfills.” | <urn:uuid:8a7ab4ab-bc77-4f36-b1e2-f62006dd1a8d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://time.com/4252941/united-states-food-waste-cuts/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944434 | 689 | 3.28125 | 3 |
The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) predicts that by 2015, copper-based vias that connect the silicon surface to a chips' wiring and connect one layer of wiring to another simply will not be able to do the job anymore. That day is a little over a year away—practically tomorrow in technological innovation terms. As a result, there is a bit of a scramble to find alternatives—not just for vias but for all sorts of interconnects used in integrated circuits (ICs).
Researchers at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) have taken an initial step in offering one possible alternative: “an integrated circuit design scheme in which transistors and interconnects are monolithically patterned seamlessly on a sheet of graphene.”
It’s been over 30 months since IBM demonstrated that it could make an integrated circuit using graphene; in this most recent research, the UCSB team demonstrated, using a computer model, that its design is feasible. So where is the disconnect (pun intended)?
The IBM work involved a graphene field-effect transistor and inductor and other circuit components that were monolithically integrated on a single silicon wafer. The UCSB design proposes that every bit of the IC be made from graphene.
"In addition to its atomically thin and pristine surfaces, graphene has a tunable band gap, which can be adjusted by lithographic sketching of patterns—narrow graphene ribbons can be made semiconducting while wider ribbons are metallic,” explained Kaustav Banerjee, professor of electrical and computer engineering and director of the Nanoelectronics Research Lab at UCSB, in a press release. “Hence, contiguous graphene ribbons can be envisioned from the same starting material to design both active and passive devices in a seamless fashion and lower interface/contact resistances."
In the paper that was published in the journal Applied Physics Letters (“Proposal for all-graphene monolithic logic circuits”) the researchers demonstrate “that devices and interconnects can be built using the 'same starting material'—graphene.” While that is intriguing, what may really garner the interest of the semiconductor industry is the research paper's claim that, “all-graphene circuits can surpass the static performances of the 22-[nanometer] complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor devices.”
Commenting on the research, Professor Philip Kim at Columbia University noted: "This work has demonstrated a solution for the serious contact resistance problem encountered in conventional semiconductor technology. [It presents the] innovative idea of using an all-graphene device-interconnect scheme. This will significantly simplify the IC fabrication process of graphene based nanoelectronic devices."
Illustration: UCSB Nanoelectronics Research Lab | <urn:uuid:2e4fe4d3-ae14-4773-abb9-201ca82ce35b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://spectrum.ieee.org/nanoclast/semiconductors/nanotechnology/lets-make-the-entire-chip-from-graphene | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00059-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920456 | 586 | 3.421875 | 3 |
Both here in the US and around the world, obesity rates continue to climb. Today, for the first time, more people are classified as obese than underweight, finds a major new study published in The Lancet.
The findings have severe implications for cancer rates. Aside from not smoking, staying a healthy weight is the single largest risk factor related to cancer risk. AICR research links excess body fat to ten cancers, including colorectal, postmenopausal breast and esophageal.
Here in the US, if everyone were a healthy weight, AICR estimates that approximately 128,000 cases of cancer could be prevented each year.
Colorectal cancer is one of the most preventable cancers, yet it remains the third most common cancer among US men and women.
The good news is that rates have declined 30 percent among people 50 years of age and older, however incidence and mortality among individuals under 50 are on the rise and expected to climb. Among 20-34 year olds, rates of colorectal cancer have increased 51% since 1994 and in the period from 2010-2030, colorectal cancer in this age group is expected to increase by 90 percent.
At the Early Age Colorectal Cancer Onset Summit last week, I was one of the speakers talking about the concerning increase in this cancer among adults in their 20s through 40s.
Among 20-34 year olds, rates of colorectal cancer have increased 51% since 1994 – and in the period from 2010-2030, colorectal cancer in this age group is expected to increase by 90%.
Alarmingly, cancers in the under 50 population are diagnosed at later stages (most often due to delays in diagnosis) and appear to be more aggressive tumor types, both of which have implications for prognosis and survival.
What’s unknown is the cause of young onset colorectal cancer.
By now you’ve probably heard about the report last week categorizing hot dogs, bacon and other processed meats as a cause of colorectal cancer, and probably red meats also. In general, that supports AICR’s longstanding and continuous analysis of the research.
Since 2007, AICR has recommended to avoid processed meat and eat no more than 18 ounces of (cooked) red meat weekly to lower cancer risk. If you’re used to eating red meat or that daily salami sandwich, shifting your diet may seem daunting.
Here are swap suggestions to help. For the recipes, visit our updated Healthy Recipes. | <urn:uuid:1511700f-108e-4cd3-baa3-839653a9e0ce> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blog.aicr.org/category/cancer-sites/colon-rectum/page/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962824 | 529 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Home > How long can you survive in extreme poverty?
How long can you survive in extreme poverty?
By Kira Dault| Print | Share
For many of us, poverty is largely an abstract concept. We relate to it in terms of dollars or percentages. (For example, 40 percent of people living in the United States will spend at least one year at or below the poverty line between the ages of 25 and 75.) But an organization called Live58 has released a game that brings home the way that poverty, for people who are living it, is not about numbers. It's about choices. Choosing between education and clean water. Using what little money is available for medical treatment or for food.
In an informal poll at U.S. Catholic, most of us were not able to survive more than a week. Give it a try here. How long can you survive? | <urn:uuid:9febcfe1-4d60-4a4a-8131-74f8db9e384b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.uscatholic.org/print/28624 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956147 | 180 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Nancy Pelosi was born on March 26, 1940 in Baltimore Maryland. Nancy’s family has always been involved in politics. Her father, Thomas D'Alesandro, Jr. was a congressman from Maryland from 1939 to 1947. He was Mayor of Baltimore from 1947-1959. Her brother, Thomas D'Alesandro III, was also Mayor of Baltimore from 1967-1971.
Nancy became Speaker of the House of Representatives on January 4, 2007. She is the first women ever to hold the job. Besides being the first women, she is the first from California and the first of Italian heritage to hold that important position. Speaker of the House is the second person in line to succeed the president after the Vice President. That makes her the highest ranking woman in the United States Government in our country’s history! She was the House Minority Leader from 2002-2007. Nancy Pelosi has represented the 8th Congressional District of California in the House of Representatives in 1987.
Nancy graduated from Trinity College in Washington, D.C. in 1962. Nancy married Paul Pelosi and they moved to Paul’s hometown San Francisco, California. Nancy and Paul have five children: Nancy Corinne, Christine, Jacqueline, Paul and Alexandra, and six grandchildren.
Image courtesy of U.S. Government
for more information:
by Jacqueline & Linda, fourth grade, 2007
Last modified 05/10/2007 | <urn:uuid:aa29eeb9-b7b7-43cd-9c76-9931be79fbc6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www2.lhric.org/pocantico/womenenc/pelosi.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00052-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951159 | 292 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Space radiation: CSU studies risks for astronauts going to Mars
A new research facility at Colorado State University – the only one of its kind in the world – will be established with a $9 million grant from NASA to help reveal the effects of long-term exposure to space radiation as the nation prepares for a manned mission to Mars.
The multimillion-dollar grant from America’s space agency will provide a unique neutron radiation facility at CSU, which is one of three new NASA Specialized Centers of Research for the study. The Colorado State facility will mimic the long-term, low-dose-rate exposures to highly energetic radiation that astronauts would encounter on a multiyear mission to the Red Planet.
“NASA is asking, ‘Are the cognitive effects of space radiation exposure going to jeopardize the mission?’” said Michael Weil, a professor in CSU’s Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences and the project’s lead scientist. “Safety guidelines ensure that astronauts are not exposed to radiation that will increase their risk of developing a fatal cancer by more than 3 percent, but a three-year Mars mission will exceed this limit. Plus, CSU investigators and others have recently found that cancers caused by space radiation may be more lethal.”
The five-year project will renovate an existing gamma ray facility at CSU, allowing researchers to assess the impact of low doses of neutron radiation over long periods. A mission to Mars is expected to last about three years, and astronauts already are staying in space longer than they used to on the International Space Station.
In fact, Weil’s colleague Susan Bailey is one of 10 researchers chosen by NASA to study the effects that a full year on the space station has on the body of astronaut Scott Kelly, whose mission began March 27. She’ll also be studying astronaut Kjell Lindgren, a CSU alumnus whose mission begins May 26.
The exposure to radiation increases as the duration of the mission increases. And astronauts encounter radiation composed of energetic cosmic rays that no current spacecraft or spacesuit can shield, Weil said. The Earth’s magnetic field and atmosphere protect people on terra firma from these energetic cosmic rays.
NASA must first understand the health effects of this space radiation, such as increased cancer risk, then must determine how to mitigate risks for astronauts on extended missions.
To gain insights, CSU researchers will modify an existing gamma ray facility in the basement level of the Molecular and Radiological Biosciences Building. Central to the modified facility will be an irradiator that emits low doses of neutrons. Inside this secured and well-shielded room, mice will be exposed to low levels of neutron radiation for up to 400 days, receiving doses comparable to what astronauts experience on long missions.
The design will closely approximate conditions astronauts would face traveling to Mars, said Thomas Borak, another CSU investigator on the project who is an expert in neutron radiation.
“Neutrons are not identical to space radiation, but they’re a close approximation,” Borak said. “They are an excellent surrogate for the complex radiations that would be encountered in deep space.”
The CSU team will study the effects of neutron radiation on the central nervous system and will identify biomarkers that could predict the chances of developing cancer after an astronaut returns to Earth.
Weil and his colleagues have conducted radiation research funded by NASA for more than a decade. Previous studies have examined the effects of acute exposures to high-energy radiation using a Department of Energy particle accelerator at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in New York.
The new NASA-funded project marks the first time the CSU group has analyzed long-duration, low-dose-rate exposures that cannot be replicated at the Brookhaven facility.
Weil said it will be fascinating to learn the differences between acute and chronic exposures.
“It may be like taking 365 baby aspirin in one day instead of one each day for a year,” he explained. “Something that might be extremely hazardous in one shot might not be hazardous at all when spread over time. Of course, with cosmic rays, the opposite could be true. At this point we just don’t know.”
The CSU team has been part of two previous NASA Specialized Centers of Research, which likely helped the researchers in competing for the current project, Weil said.
In these studies, Weil’s team found that space radiation is no more likely to cause leukemia than terrestrial radiation.
“However, we found quite by accident that space radiation is 50-fold more effective than typical radiation on Earth at causing a type of liver cancer called hepatocellular carcinoma,” he said.
Collaborators in the new project include Dr. Douglas Thamm, a CSU veterinarian and cancer researcher who holds the Barbara Cox Anthony Chair in Oncology; he will study why simulated space radiation causes certain tumors to spread, or metastasize, more readily.
Scientists know that liver tumors resulting from space radiation are more likely to metastasize than those that develop without such exposure, Thamm said. The question is whether space radiation makes the tumor cells more aggressive or whether it makes the body’s tissues more susceptible to spread.
“Is it something about the tumor, or something about the host?” Thamm asked. “It may be a bigger deal if it’s related to the host, because then any tumor that an astronaut gets could behave more aggressively, no matter what kind it is.”
Although the primary focus is related to radiation effects in astronauts during manned space missions, the scientists believe that many of the discoveries could have a broader impact in understanding the initiation and development of cancers in humans.
The project has received $100,000 from the CSU Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, the College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences and the Office of the Vice President for Research. Other partners include F. Andrew Ray and Howard Liber of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, as well as researchers at the University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Oregon Health & Science University, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center and Promega Corp. | <urn:uuid:0407a5ab-f81b-419e-a78f-c1a9b6bd5fef> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://source.colostate.edu/space-radiation-csu-studies-the-risks-for-astronauts-journeying-to-mars/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00179-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930503 | 1,297 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Outer Space Story Activity
Being able to tell a story in order is an important form of communication and expression. After learning the basics of storytelling, your child will be ready to expand her creativity by creating a fictional story. This project will help keep your child's thoughts in order as she creates a story about outer space from the beginning of what happened, all the way through to the end. Each story box focuses on punctuation. The punctuation at the end of each storytelling box will indicate how your child creates her story.
What You Need:
What You Do:
- Have your child use a marker to divide a sheet of paper into four sections.
- Ask her to write the following phrases in the boxes (the words should be in order from top to bottom, left to right): "It all started," "And then," "I wondered," and "Finally."
- At the end of each box, have her write the following punctuation (from top to bottom, left to right): ".," "!," "?," and "."
- Have her think of a story about outer space she would like to tell. Encourage her to think of something that could happen on another planet or during space travel. She can write down notes or an outline on a separate sheet of paper.
- Ask her to begin her story using the words already written in the box. She should have at least 3 sentences per box to help move her story forward. The first box should set up her story, the second box will develop the plot of the story and create suspense. This box should include some sort of dilemma. The third box will resolve the dilemma and explain how it was resolved. The fourth box completes the story and may include results or effects of what happened in the previous boxes.
- Encourage your kid to use descriptive words and create action to make her story more exciting. The final sentence of each box should correctly make use of the punctuation mark at the bottom of the box.
- Have her read the story aloud when she finishes. Does she think it sounds like a complete story? Does everything make sense to her? Are there any sentences she needs to edit or remove?
- When she finishes, have her read her story to friends or family. | <urn:uuid:35fabe20-7cad-486e-a613-6308a307dceb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.education.com/activity/article/outer-space-story/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961885 | 463 | 4 | 4 |
Supported by over 500 historical sources from across Europe, this resource examines key themes in the history of World War One. Explore a wealth of original source material, over 50 newly-commissioned articles written by historians, teachers' notes and more to discover how war affected people on different sides of the conflict.
Collection items featured on this site have been contributed by Europeana 1914-1918 institutions.
Over 50 articles about World War One, written by leading experts
Atrocity propaganda focused on the most violent acts committed by the German and Austro-Hungarian armies, emphasising their barbarity and providing justification for the conflict. Professor Jo Fox describes the forms that such propaganda took in the early years of the war.Read more
Considering the roles of both men and women during World War One, Susan R Grayzel asks to what extent the war challenged gender roles and to what degree society accepted them.Read more
Explore the worldwide implications of the war in Origins, outbreak and conclusions; the logistics of military organisation in The war machine; and the realities of warfare in Life of a soldier and in Race, empire and colonial troops. Consider the roles of non-combatants in Civilians, the power of persuasion in Propaganda, creative responses to the war in Representation and memory; and the changing nature of our perceptions of war in Historiography.
Over 500 collection items from the British Library and institutions across Europe
Takes a close look at the range of propaganda used by different states – and their opponents.
Listen to the work of prestigious poets, including Laurence Binyon, G K Chesterton, Rupert Brooke and Wilfred Owen | <urn:uuid:cb09d35a-8513-49bd-a072-f0fe5ba2dbb9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bl.uk/world-war-one?ns_campaign=ww1&ns_mchannel=bl_website&ns_source=carousel&ns_linkname=ww1_image_link&ns_fee=0&mobile=off | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.916305 | 334 | 3.359375 | 3 |
Location: Buzzards Bay, off West Falmouth, Mass.
Material spilled: No. 2 fuel oil
Amount spilled: 189,000 gallons
Spill extent: **
The spill heavily oiled one small cove in West Falmouth, Mass., near Woods Hole and the oceanographers at WHOI. That cove, Wild Harbor, has become the focus of more than 40 years of scientific research into the physical, chemical, and biological impacts of oil spills on coastal and near-shore ecosystems. Those efforts represent the first comprehensive, quantitative, and peer-reviewed studies into how oil affects the marine environment, including the transport and persistence of contaminants, the long-term health of plant and animal communities, and the very shape of an oiled coastline decades after a spill.
Scientists from WHOI and elsewhere continue to visit Wild Harbor to look for clues to how other oil spills might play out in the environment over years to come.
PublicationsCulbertson, JB, I Valiela, M Pickart, EE Peacock, and CM Reddy, “Long-term consequences of residual petroleum on salt marsh grass,” Journal of Applied Ecology 45(2008): 1284-1292.
Culbertson, JB, I Valiela, EE Peacock, CM Reddy, A Carter, and R VanderKruik, “Long-term biological effects of petroleum residues on fiddler crabs in salt marshes,” Marine Pollution Bulletin 54(2007): 955-962.
White, HK, L Xu, ALC Lima, TI Eglinton, and CM Reddy, “Abundance, composition, and vertical transport of PAHs in marsh sediments,” Environmental Science & Technology 39(2005): 8273-8280.
Peacock, EE, RK Nelson, AR Solow, JD Warren, JL Baker, and CM Reddy, “The West Falmouth oil spill: similar to 100 Kg of oil found to persist decades later,” Environmental Forensics 6(2005): 273-281.
Slater, GF, HK White, TI Eglinton, and CM Reddy, “Determination of microbial carbon sources in petroleum contaminated sediments using molecular C-14 analysis,” Environmental Science & Technology 39(2005): 2552-2558.
Reddy, CM, TI Eglinton, A Hounshell, HK White, L Xu, RB Gaines, and GS Frysinger, “The
west Falmouth oil spill after thirty years: The persistence of petroleum hydrocarbons in marsh sediments,” Environmental Science & Technology 36(2002): 4754-4760.
Teal, JM, JW Farrington, KA Burns, JJ Stegeman, BW Tripp, B Woodin, and C Phinney, “The West Falmouth oil spill after 20 years: Fate of fuel oil compounds and effects on animals,” Marine Pollution Bulletin 24(1992): 607-614.
Sanders, HL, JF Grassle, GR Hampson, LS Morse, S Garnerprice, and CC Jones, “Anatomy of an oil spil: Long-term effects from the grounding of the barge Florida off West Falmouth, Massachusetts,” Journal of Marine Research 38(1980): 265-380.
Sanders, HL, “Florida oil spill impact on Buzzards Bay benthic fauna,” Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 35(1978): 717-730.
Wertenbacher, W, "A small spill," New Yorker, November 26, 1973, 48-79.
From Oceanus Magazine
Still Toxic After All These Years
Does oil spilled in 1969 still have impacts on wildlife? Ask a fiddler crab.
Oil in Our Coastal Back Yard
An oil spill on WHOI's shores set the stage for advances in the science of cleaning up
A Local Spill Revisited
By John Teal, Oceanus magazine, 1993
By George Hampson and Howard Sanders, Oceanus magazine, 1969
MultimediaScience in a Time of Crisis, Chapter 1: Oil Spill Pioneers
WHOI's Response to the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
Lessons from an Old Oil Spill
From The New York Times | <urn:uuid:28167e34-b108-4111-8de5-26e78228cc85> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.whoi.edu/oil/florida | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.830833 | 907 | 2.640625 | 3 |
OHSU Cancer Institute Researcher Reports More Accurate Prognosis For Young People With Cancer
11/06/06 Portland, Ore.
Researchers at Oregon Health & Science University and two other institutions have found a way to better predict the survival of older adolescents and young adults with cancer. They calculated a new statistic called conditional survival, which takes into account the time elapsed since diagnosis when predicting survival probability. The research was presented during the American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology, which runs through Nov. 9 in Philadelphia by Samuel J. Wang, M.D, Ph.D., Holman Pathway resident in radiation medicine.
"Traditionally, cancer survival rates are usually only reported from the time of diagnosis, but for patients who survive several years after diagnosis and treatment, survival rates may change and often improve," said Wang.
The researchers used the National Cancer Institute's Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results database to determine the conditional survival rates of cancer patients between the ages of 15 and 29, and compared them with younger and older age groups.
In prior studies, Wang had found that in other age groups, conditional survival rates improved significantly as patients survived longer periods of time from their diagnosis and treatment. In this latest study, however, they found that patients in the 15-to 29-year-old age group showed the least improvement in conditional survival over time, compared with every other age group, including infants and patients older than 85.
"This information on conditional survival rates is useful to patients who want to know how their current prognosis is changing from year to year. It is also useful information for health care providers who need to decide on appropriate follow-up testing based on the patient's risk," Wang said.
The reason young adults show the lowest improvement in conditional survival rates is not known. It could be due to the unique mix of cancers in this age group, which predominantly consist of lymphomas, melanomas and testicular and thyroid cancers. It could also be because this age group has historically received less attention in cancer research compared to other age groups. This age group has the lowest enrollment rate in clinical trials despite the fact that cancer is 2.7 times more common in this age group compared with those younger than 15 year. Wang suggests that further studies are needed to investigate other potential causes for these findings.
Charles Thomas, M.D., professor and chairman of the radiation medicine in the OHSU School of Medicine and a member of the OHSU Cancer Institute; researchers at University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, and St. Charles Medical Center in Bend Ore., participated in the study.
OHSU Cancer Institute is home to one of the first Adolescent and Young Adult Oncology Programs in the country. The AYA's mission is to develop and disseminate more effective methods to diagnose, treat, follow, and care for young adults with cancer aged 15 to 40.
# # #
The OHSU Cancer Institute is the only cancer center designated by the National Cancer Institute between Sacramento and Seattle. It comprises some 120 clinical researchers, basic scientists and population scientists who work together to translate scientific discoveries into longer and better lives for Oregon's cancer patients. In the lab, basic scientists examine cancer cells and normal cells to uncover molecular abnormalities that cause the disease. This basic science informs more than 200 clinical trials conducted at the OHSU Cancer Institute. | <urn:uuid:579b571b-aff2-4ad4-a731-ebfdafceabb3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ohsu.edu/xd/about/news_events/news/2006/11-06-ohsu-cancer-institute-re.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402479.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00180-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954372 | 694 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Researchers' work creates energy
The students' proof-of-concept could turn light into energy
Published 6:40 pm, Monday, May 20, 2013
Two University at Albany researchers, Ph.D. candidate Jason Seeley and undergraduate biology student Clare Miller, have constructed a proof-of-concept solar cell that uses organic proteins to generate electricity in place of semiconductors like silicon.
Their proof-of-concept, which demonstrates the feasibility of a project, uses peptides, or chains of amino acids, as the substance that converts light energy into usable electrical energy.
John Welch, a chemistry professor at UAlbany, originally devised the idea and tasked the two research students to make it into a reality.
Miller and Seeley's proof-of-concept works by using specially tailored peptides, which are chains of amino acids, to convert light into usable electrical energy. The process is similar to that of photosynthesis, a process that plants use to convert sunlight to usable energy. Amino acids are protein structures that comprise the majority of biological cells.
Theoretically, their proof-of-concept could be engineered into a full-fledged solar energy generation system, but it's too early to talk about specific impacts and uses, Welch said.
The race to improve the efficiency and lower the costs of solar cells has encouraged researchers globally to look toward using organic and natural compounds in solar cells.
UAlbany isn't alone in their research into creating organic structures to absorb and convert light to electrical energy. Korean researchers constructed a solar cell composed of peptides and carbon nanoribbons in 2010.
And earlier this year, Georgia Tech researchers successfully utilized cellulose, a compound found in wood, as the surface to mount semiconductors to generate solar energy. The cellulose compound is natural and recyclable, unlike the glass and plastic used in current commercial solar cells.
Miller and Seeley are excited about their work. Seeley says "It's exciting to do something unique, and be on the forefront of something." Miller, who is a sophomore at UAlbany, says that "especially being an undergrad, [this research] is great experience."
Seeley hopes to work in research science after completing his doctorate. Miller has a double major in biology and Spanish, with a chemistry minor. She hopes to be a medical doctor, and may pursue a dual M.D/Ph.D. degree. | <urn:uuid:c26a2782-94a4-4636-9bd1-0ea23cdf1e0c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.timesunion.com/default/article/Researchers-work-creates-energy-4532355.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00194-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943418 | 499 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Advent in Church and Cultural Tradition
- Bobby Gross Author, Living the Christian Year
- 2011 1 Dec
In the early centuries, the churches in the East celebrated both the birth and the baptism of Jesus on January 6. Not surprisingly, the day became a major occasion for performing baptisms, which led to a preparatory period of fasting and catechesis (instruction). During the fourth century, the Eastern churches followed the West's lead and adopted December 25 for the Feast of the Nativity. Even though this was no longer a day for baptisms, Eastern churches retained their tradition of penitential preparation. This practice spread to the northern and western regions of the church where it fit well with the greater emphasis there on the final coming and judgment of Christ, which called for self-examination and spiritual readiness. Today, Orthodox Christians still observe a nativity fast from meat November 15 through December 24.
In the church centered in Rome, it was a different story. There, Advent entailed a festive preparation for the birth of Christ from the start. In the sixth century Pope Gregory the Great established the forerunner of our Advent by creating special masses for the four Sundays preceding Christmas Day. After seesawing over the ensuing centuries, these two traditions, the "warm Latin joy" and the "ascetic northern preparation" eventually merged into the synthesis that characterizes Advent today. While fasting has largely fallen away in the West, we still feel a subtle and fruitful tension. As Christopher Hill puts it, "The pull between the affectionate backward look and the anxious forward look - both situated in the world of human time" opens up the present moment for Christ to come in our hearts.
Obviously, Advent and Christmas are closely linked, and many cultural customs apply to both seasons. For example, the Feast of St. Nicholas, from which we get our idea of Santa Claus, falls on December 6 in Advent. Three Advent traditions - the Christmas tree, the Advent wreath and the "O" Antiphons - open for us respectively the themes of death and life, darkness and light, doubt and longing.
The Christmas tree. Encroaching winter, with its growing cold and darkness, provides the seasonal context for Advent, at least in the northern hemisphere. The "dead of winter" as we say, invokes images of fallow fields, barren trees, hard ground, absent birds and lowering skies. From as far back as we have record, people in northern Europe decorated their dwellings at midwinter with evergreens such as holly, ivy, laurel and yew. "The strange survival of summer greens in the snows had always been a sacrament of the hope for new life through the winter," Explains Hill. In fact, Gregory the Great instructed missionaries to tolerate such customs and dedicate them to Christ. So, for example, holly can remind us of Christ with its prickly leaves (crown of thorns) and red berries (blood).
The decorated Christmas tree derives from this ancient tradition. The custom flourished in Germany as far back as the fifteen hundreds (Martin Luther is said to have decorated a tree indoors), although it did not spread widely in Europe until the nineteenth century. Interestingly, Christmas trees may have reached Revolutionary America by way of German settlers even before they appeared in England! But not until the early twentieth century did Christmas trees become more widely popular in the United States.
The Christmas tree, then, with its dark green branches and forest fragrance, its garlands and lights and bright adornments, comes into our homes in the dead of winter as a symbol of life and a sign of hope.
The Advent wreath. This simple arrangement consists of four candles set equidistant in a circle of evergreens, with a larger fifth candle placed in the middle. On the first Sunday of Advent, one candle is lit, on the second Sunday, two candles, and so on. Finally, on Christmas Eve, we light the Christ candle in the middle. Usually, three of the outer candles are purple, the liturgical color of Advent that signifies both penitence and royalty, but the candle for the third Sunday is rose-colored, denoting the theme of joy. The Christ candle is white. The circle suggests eternity, the greens symbolize life, and the cross of lighted candles points to Christ.
In ancient northern cultures, the lighting of bonfires and yule logs was meant to ward off the midwinter darkness and its sinister denizens. So it is easy to see how Christians combined the greenery of life and the candles of light into the Advent wreath. By lighting a new candle each week, by accumulating the brightness, we signify our hope in the coming light of Christ, even as daylight diminishes and darkness rises with the approach of winter solstice. Lighting the Advent wreath in our homes and churches enacts our faith in John's testimony: "The light shines in the darkness, and the darkness did not overcome it" (John 1:5).
The minor feast day of St. Lucy, or Lucia, on December 13 provides another opportunity to celebrate the coming light of Christ during Advent. Lucia, whose name derives from lux (Latin for "light"), was martyred in Italy in 304. Devoted to Christ, she gave all of her dowry to the poor, infuriating the man she was to marry by arrangement. He denounced her to the governor, who had her killed by the sword after attempts to burn her failed. Lucy is especially honored in Scandinavia as the Queen of Light. The custom is for a daughter in the home to wear a crown of candles and go from room to room awakening the family from their deep midwinter sleep and bringing them Lucia buns baked with saffron.
The "O" Antiphons. Since the seventh century, this set of seven prayer texts has been sung or recited over the final days of Advent during the daily service of vespers, or evening prayer. They are voiced in response to the Magnificat (Luke 1:46-55). Each antiphonal prayer addresses God with "O" and a biblical name and concludes with a call for him to come. The phrases of the prayers derive from Scripture. You may be familiar with them from the verses of the well-known Advent hymn, "O Come, O Come, Emmanuel." They may be used devotionally, one a day, from December 17 to 23. Here are the traditional texts of the "Great O's."
O Wisdom, O holy word of God, you govern all creation with your strong yet tender care: Come and show your people the way to salvation.
O Sacred Lord of ancient Israel, who showed yourself to Moses in the burning bush, who gave him the holy law on Sinai mountain: Come, stretch out your mighty hand to set us free.
SEE ALSO: Advent: Enlarged in the Waiting
O Flower of Jesse's stem, you have been raised up as a sign for all peoples; rulers stand silent in your presence; the nations bow down in worship before you. Come, let nothing keep you from coming to our aid.
O Key of David, O royal power of Israel, controlling at your will the gate of heaven: Come, break down the prison walls of death for those who dwell in darkness and the shadow of death, and lead your captive people into freedom.
O Radiant Dawn, splendor of eternal light, sun of justice: Come, shine on those who dwell in darkness and the shadow of death.
O Ruler of all the nations, the only joy of every human heart, O keystone of the mighty arch of humankind: Come and save the creature you fashioned from the dust.
SEE ALSO: Renew Your Faith by Celebrating Advent
O Emmanuel, ruler and lawgiver, desire of the nations, savior of all people: Come and set us free, Lord our God.
On December 21, the church remembers St. Thomas, the apostle famously known as Doubting Thomas for his refusal to believe in Jesus' resurrection until he had fingered the nail marks and felt the spear wound. After Jesus graciously accommodated his doubt, Thomas declared, "My Lord and my God!"(John 20:28). According to tradition, he is credited with taking the light of the gospel to India. As his feast day falls in the week of the "O" Antiphons, these meditative prayers can be for us affirmations of faith and longing in the face of doubts that we, like Thomas, may experience.
Taken from Living the Christian Year: Time to Inhabit the Story of God by Bobby Gross. Copyright(c) 2009 by Bobby Gross. Used by permission of InterVarsity Press PO Box 1400 Downers Grove IL 60515. www.ivpress.com.
Bobby Gross is director of graduate and faculty ministries for InterVarsity Christian Fellowship. Bobby also serves on the national board of Christians in the Visual Arts (CIVA) and lives in Atlanta, GA.
Visit Crosswalk's Christmas Facebook page at www.facebook.com/LuvChristmas. | <urn:uuid:a9daa5f4-cf1d-4dbc-9f1f-9cf5e8f4f049> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.crosswalk.com/special-coverage/christmas-and-advent/advent-in-church-and-cultural-tradition-11623364.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950715 | 1,867 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Today is Friday, Sept. 27, the 270th day of 2013. There are 95 days left in the year.
On this date in:
1540: Pope Paul III issues a papal bull establishing the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, as a religious order.
1779: John Adams is named by Congress to negotiate the Revolutionary War’s peace terms with Britain.
1854: The first great disaster involving an Atlantic Ocean passenger vessel occurs when the steamship SS Arctic sinks off Newfoundland; of the more than 400 people on board, only 86 survive.
1928: The United States recognizes the Nationalist Chinese government.
1939: Warsaw, Poland, surrenders after weeks of resistance to invading forces from Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union during World War II.
1941: On “Liberty Fleet Day,” the United States launches 14 rapidly built military cargo vessels, including the first Liberty ship, the SS Patrick Henry, which is personally launched by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in Baltimore.
1942: Glenn Miller and his orchestra perform together for the last time, at the Central Theater in Passaic, N.J., prior to his entry into the Army.
1954:“Tonight!” hosted by Steve Allen makes its network debut on NBC-TV.
1964: The government publicly releases the report of the Warren Commission, which finds that Lee Harvey Oswald had acted alone in assassinating President John F. Kennedy.
1988: Three days after placing first in the men’s 100-meter dash at the Seoul Summer Olympics, Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson leaves for home in disgrace, stripped of his gold medal by officials who said Johnson had used anabolic steroids.
1991: The Senate Judiciary Committee deadlocks, 7-7, on the nomination of Clarence Thomas to the U.S. Supreme Court.
President George H.W. Bush announces in a nationally broadcast address that he is eliminating all U.S. battlefield nuclear weapons and calls on the Soviet Union to match the gesture.
1994: More than 350 Republican congressional candidates gather on the steps of the U.S. Capitol to sign the “Contract with America,” a 10-point platform they pledged to enact if voters sent a GOP majority to the House.
2001: President George W. Bush asks the nation’s governors to post National Guard troops at airports as a first step toward federal control of airline security.
1988: Mahoning County Prosecutor Gary Van Brocklin says he’ll prosecute any welfare cheats identified in a recent probe by state Auditor Thomas E. Ferguson.
Mahoning Valley farmers seeking federal disaster relief will have to show crop losses of at least 35 percent due to the drought.
Officials of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers tell Youngstown Mayor Patrick Ungaro that they will look into the role the corps could play in helping to revitalize the Mahoning River.
1973: Youngstown area druggists say convicted narcotics addicts should not be released prior to serving their sentences and suspects accused of narcotic violations should not be released on reduced bonds if the wave of robberies of pharmacists is to be stopped.
Statistics released by the U.S. Department of Justice show Youngstown’s crime rate decreased by 3 percent during the first half of 1973.
A 17-year-old Urbana High School unwed mother is ruled off the homecoming ballot by the school principal who told her “only virgins can run for homecoming queen.”
1963: Gov. James A. Rhodes names Kenneth M. Lloyd, secretary of the Mahoning Valley Industrial Council, to the new Ohio Manpower Advisory Committee.
The Youngstown Maen-nerchor Club will celebrate its 100th anniversary with a two-day event that will include a dinner dance and singing by the Maennerchor’s mixed chorus.
E. Arthur Swanson of Forest Hill Avenue, Poland, receives the designation as Knight of the York Cross of Honor, highest honorary degree in the York Rite of Freemasonry.
1938: The Rendezvous Villa night club loses its fight to prevent a local option vote in Austintown Township that would turn the area dry.
Fourth Ward Councilman William Brown urges Youngstown officials to make the widening of Mahoning Avenue the first project under the PWA streets improvement project.
Mary Spear, a tiny 70-year-old seamstress, is found dead with a shotgun discharge in her right lung in the hallway of 36 S. Jefferson St., New Castle. | <urn:uuid:5cba98d5-3e72-4a30-aa57-19a063e8e181> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.vindy.com/news/2013/sep/27/today-is-friday-sept--the-th-day-of--the/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00180-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930584 | 936 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Aging & Health A to Z
Peripheral Artery Disease
Basic Facts & Information
As many as one in five people over the age of 65 have the common circulation problem called peripheral artery disease (PAD). In this condition, arteries narrow and become blocked, most often in your pelvis and legs. This decreases the flow of blood and oxygen to your legs or arms and it is linked to heart attacks and stroke.
Peripheral artery disease often occurs together with coronary artery disease, because both conditions are caused by the same thing: the buildup of cholesterol blockages in arteries (known as atherosclerosis).
You can help prevent or slow the progression of peripheral artery disease by:
- Exercising regularly
- Quitting smoking and the use of other tobacco products
- Eating a healthy, low-fat diet
- Keeping your blood pressure, weight, and cholesterol under control
- If you have diabetes, keeping your blood sugar under control.
Updated: March 2012
Posted: March 2012 | <urn:uuid:35cd10ff-71af-4103-bee7-f6d1ccd8422f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.healthinaging.org/aging-and-health-a-to-z/topic:peripheral-artery-disease/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397213.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00002-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945457 | 206 | 3.484375 | 3 |
16th & Lewis streets
Photograph of T.J. Raney High School. Photo by Larry Obsitnik.
Appeared in Arkansas Gazette, 5 August 1959.
School no longer in operation
Building no longer exists
Although T.J. Raney was not operated by the Little Rock School District, we felt it was important to include here for historical reasons.
T.J. Raney High School was formed in the autumn of 1958. It was named after Thomas J. Raney, a prominent Little Rock businessman.
Governor Orval Faubus enacted a law that enabled him to close all four of Little Rock's public high schools when the LRSD School Board decided to proceed with the integration of its schools after the Brown v. Board of Education ruling. The 1958-59 school year is referred to by many as the "Lost Year" because the high schools were closed.
The Little Rock Private School Corporation was formed in September 1958, aided by Governor Faubus, with the intent to open private schools for white students in the empty high school buildings when they were shut down. The School Board went as far as to actually lease the then-vacant buildings to the corporation, but the Supreme Court stopped the action, saying that "evasive schemes for segregation" could not be used to nullify court orders.
The Little Rock School District made an effort to fulfill its dedication to educate the high school students of Little Rock and briefly entered into agreements with the three local television stations to broadcast teacher-led lessons in the mornings for the displaced high school students (KATV, the ABC affiliate, broadcast classes for sophomores; KTHV, the CBS affiliate, showed courses for juniors; and KARK, the NBC affiliate, broadcast courses for seniors). Only the basic courses -- math, science, English and history -- were offered, but it was better than nothing at all.
The Private School Corporation leased a building formerly used by the University of Arkansas Graduate Center at Little Rock at 16th and Lewis streets. About 750 students attended Thomas J. Raney High School, which officially opened for business on 22 October 1958.
Obviously, not all of Little Rock's public high school students attended Raney High School. Two smaller private schools, Baptist High and Trinity Interim Academy, also were formed.
In all, 3,665 students were affected by the closure of the high schools. Of 2,915 white students, 1,120 enrolled in private schools in Little Rock and nearby Conway, 877 were in other schools in Arkansas, 275 were in out-of-state schools and 643 did not go to school. Of the 750 African-American students, 229 were in other public schools in Arkansas, 79 were attending out-of-state schools and 442 were not in school.
One hundred eighty-eight students graduated from T.J. Raney High School at the end of the 1958-59 school year. Governor Faubus spoke at the school's commencement ceremony.
Although it was termed "private," students were not charged tuition to attend. The school relied on government funds (money that the Little Rock School District lost when its high schools were closed) as well as contributions from businesses and private citizens for its operating costs.
Raney High School was only in operation for the 1958-59 school year. The Little Rock School District reopened its high schools (with its plan for integration intact) the following year, and the Little Rock Private School Corporation announced that it was out of money.
Arkansas Gazette, August 5, 1959, several stories related to Central High School and T.J. Raney High School.
"Little Rock 1957: Pages from History," Arkansas Democrat-Gazette's Arkansas Online website
"1958-1959: The Lost Year Project" website: http://www.thelostyear.com/index.html
Central High School 40th Anniversary website: http://www.centralhigh57.org/
If you have information about a Little Rock school or photographs you would like to contribute to this project (we will return photographs if requested), please contact us!
Updated August 2007 | <urn:uuid:811b4e14-f875-44c3-aa85-0e979b4896a5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.lrsd.org/drupal/?q=content/raney | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.981058 | 850 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Namibia is an upper-middle-income country with perennial food deficits, recurring droughts and floods, high rates of chronic malnutrition - and one of the highest levels of HIV/AIDS in the world. Income distribution in Namibia is highly distorted with about 35 percent of the country’s population living on less than US$ 1 a day.
While the country’s economy is heavily dependent on the mining sector, roughly half of Namibia’s two million people rely on subsistence agriculture, characterized by low productivity and high variability due to water scarcity, erratic rainfall, poor soils and low capacity to support intensive agricultural methods. At the national level, Namibia is food secure. However, access to adequate food for marginalized and vulnerable populations remains a constant challenge, contributing to the current, unacceptable levels of chronic malnutrition.
In 2009, a FAO/WFP Crop, Livestock and Food Security Assessment estimated Namibia's annual cereal requirement at 289,000 metric tons of which 139,000 metric tons were produced locally while the rest was met through imports. With high global food and fuel prices, however, rises in the cost of food have increased pressure on the most vulnerable households and made access to food by poor households even more problematic. HIV/AIDS is another developmental challenge for Namibia.
The national HIV/AIDS prevalence rate is about 17.8 percent with the highest prevalence found among the most productive age group of 25-44 years. Of the 150,000 orphans in Namibia, 69,000 had been orphaned due to HIV/AIDS. The country still hosts some 6,500 refugees and asylum seekers, most of whom fled civil war in neighboring Angola. As the situation in Angola improved many refugees returned home. However, the conflict in the Great Lakes Region created a new wave of asylum seekers arriving from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi. Refugees and asylum seekers live in the Osire settlement in central Namibia.
Refugee Relief: Since 1999, WFP has been providing food assistance to Angolan and other refugees and asylum seekers in Namibia. WFP still provides monthly food rations to some 6,500 refugees and asylum seekers from other countries, most of them in the Great Lakes region. Efforts are being made to find a durable solution to the refugee situation. WFP will provide a three-month food package to refugees who decide to return home.
Flood Response: WFP gives technical assistance to the Government of Namibia to deliver life-saving food assistance to people affected by floods, mainly in the northern and north-eastern parts of Namibia. Specific support is provided in the areas of food assistance programming and associated logistics including beneficiary targeting, warehouse and commodity management, food distribution and reporting. | <urn:uuid:420aed63-481c-4725-98a2-ac99fcb34848> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://m.wfp.org/countries/namibia/food-security/overview?device=mobile | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00004-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95067 | 563 | 3.1875 | 3 |
"We are currently preparing students for jobs that don’t yet exist,
Using technologies that haven’t been invented,
In order to solve problems we don’t even know are problems yet."
- Karl Fisch, Educator and author of "Did You Know"
When we grew up, the employment rate was fairly stable. Our greatest concern was having to compete against a few "local" job applicants to get a "good" job.
Our children, however, will face new challenges. For one, they will no longer be competing with people in their hometowns for jobs; they will be competing with people all over the globe! Secondly, companies are down-sizing. For better or worse, technology is allowing companies to do more with less.
In order to give our children a competitive advantage in this Information Age and global economy, we must teach them how to learn strategically -- to organize themselves, process new information efficiently, make critical decisions about that information and access it at a later time.
These types of learning skills are called "soft skills." They include learning, organization, and communication strategies. Most schools do not teach these skills because the national and state standards that drive their funding are focused almost entirely on content. Very little focus falls on learning or processing skills.
One study done by the Stanford Research Institute and Carnegie Melon Foundation found that 75 percent of long-term career success depends on soft skills and only 25 percent on technical knowledge!
Another survey asked hundreds of employers in growing industries what skills they needed from their employees now, and in the future. Of the top 57 skills they listed, only four were related to technology. Ninety-five percent of the skills they need include things like: the ability to think critically, know how to use various learning strategies and manage time efficiently.
It seems unthinkable that our education system would ignore the top 95% of skills that students need for career success! But, that is exactly what is happening. They have the heavy burden of making sure students pass standardized tests. Ironically, they don’t have time to provide instruction that is relevant to your child’s future.
In the world of education, "soft skills" are called "study skills." Study skills let students use strategies in school. Students use strategies for sports and video games...why don’t they know how to use strategies in school?
Study skills are the skills:
* Required to be an independent learner.
* That build confidence.
* That develop efficiency.
* That allow students to be proactive, make good decisions, and think critically.
* That improve performance to prepare students for high-stakes tests and the globally competitive job market of the future.
Ohio State University published a study in 2009 confirming the dramatic impact study skills can have on school performance. The study found that students who took a study skills class earned a higher grade-point average. More significantly, they found that study skills had a major impact on graduation rates!
* 45% = the increased likelihood that students who had "struggled" in high school would graduate from college.
* 600% = the increased likelihood that students who had "average" grades in high school would graduate from college!
If study skills are this powerful for college students, imagine the impact they could have on upper elementary, middle, and high school students? Imagine the confidence students would have much earlier in life?
Study skills give students a competitive advantage for the future, help them earn better grades (in less time), and develop confidence! The only way to ensure your child has every advantage to compete in our global economy is to provide access to these life-long skills.
You can download a free Homework Rx Toolkit featuring simple study skills that can make a difference for your child.
Posted on November 9, 2011 by Susan Kruger, M.Ed [Guest Article]
Susan is a former struggling student, a certified teacher with a Master's Degree as a Reading/Learning Specialist, and author of SOAR Study Skills.
© 2011 Susan Kruger, All rights reserved. You are free to reprint/republish this article as long as the article and byline are kept intact and all links are made live.
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Other articles from this issue | Version in English | Version in French
The Right to Religious Liberty
This paper was presented at the eighth annual meeting of the International Liaison Committee between the Roman Catholic Church and Judaism at Regensburg, Bavaria, October 1979.1 It seeks to outline the teachings of the Catholic Church on religious liberty as stated in the Second Vatican Council's document on this subject and in subsequent papal statements. It traces the essential elements of the right to religious liberty and delineates the part that should be played by civil authorities in safeguarding the rights to religious liberty of their citizens.
One of the most important affirmations of the Second Vatican Council is that which declares the human person's basic right to religious freedom. This right is expressed in the Declaration: Dignitatis Humanae whose first chapter opens with the words:
"The Vatican Council declares that the human person has a right to religious freedom. Freedom of this kind means that all men should be immune from coercion on the part of individuals, social groups and every human power so that, within due limits, nobody is forced to act against his conviction in religious matters in private or in public, alone or in associations with others." 2
This declaration illustrates the progress that has been made within the Catholic Church itself as well as a step forward in the progress of mankind. Yves Congar, one of the foremost theologians at the Council, speaks of an indubitable change whose name is development: a development clearly visible in the thinking which resulted in the promulgation of this Declaration.
We shall consider first of all the essential elements of this right to religious liberty and then go on to discuss the role played by civil authorities in according these rights to their subjects.
I ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF THE RIGHT TO RELIGIOUS LIBERTY
We must distinguish between religious liberty as a positive value and spurious imitations. It cannot be equated, for example, with religious indifferentism that would consider "one religion as good as another"; neither is it a philosophical relativism that would deny the existence of objective truth. One cannot call religious liberty the concept that would deny a person's obligation to seek to discover wherein lies true religion or that would teach that one is not subject to divine law but only to the moral rules laid down by society. Far from being a release from religious and moral obligations, religious freedom, on the contrary, binds all persons
"... to seek the truth, especially in what concerns God and his Church, and to embrace it and hold on to it as they come to know it. The sacred Council likewise proclaims that these obligations bind man's conscience. Truth can impose itself on the mind of man only in virtue of its own truth, which wins over the mind with both gentleness and power." 3
What then is religious freedom? It is neither tolerance nor liberty of conscience nor freedom to believe what one wishes — rather it is the duty and the responsibility of seeking the truth in that liberty which is consonant with human dignity.
Religious Liberty — a Natural Right
Religious liberty is not a right which is conferred by the State of which a person is a citizen. Rather it belongs to all citizens as a natural right, a right to which they are entitled as human beings and, as such, must be protected by the State. It belongs to all men, today and for always, wherever they may be:
"... religious freedom must be recognized as the right of all men and all communities and must be sanctioned by constitutional law." 4
The Dignity and Responsibility of the Human Person
"The Council further declares that the right to religious freedom is based on the very dignity of the human person as known through the revealed Word of God and by reason itself."5
It is interesting to see how the dignity of the human person has been receiving more and more emphasis in our day:
"Contemporary man is becoming increasingly conscious of the dignity of the human person; more and more people are demanding that men should exercise fully their own judgment and a responsible freedom in their actions and should not be subject to the pressure of coercion but be inspired by a sense of duty. "6
Thus we see how, as history develops, there is a progressive growth in the consciousness of the dignity of the human person so that people are gradually coming to demand to be considered not as instruments but as free and responsible individuals. They see a responsibility inherent in their very nature to enter into a relationship with God, and above all, to find an answer to the great questions posed by human existence (cf. D.H. 1).
When a person has learnt to distinguish good from evil, and truth from falsehood, he assumes the responsibility for shaping his eternal destiny. While his ability to do this is a gift from God, nevertheless it is a profoundly human act endowed with great dignity.
This decision and this conquest must be made in complete freedom from outside pressure (cf. D.H. 11 a) since such pressure could not have any positive effect on a personal relationship with God (cf. D.H. 10). On the contrary, it could prove a disturbing element. The right to religious freedom therefore constitutes the guarantee of the DUTY of each person to seek the ultimate meaning of his life:
"The impossibility for any human being of eluding the responsibility and therefore the duty personally to establish a relationship with God constitutes the deepest root of the right to religious freedom. " (Pavan)
Thirdly, the dignity of the person is seen from the point of view of his relationship with truth. Man is created to seek the truth, to adhere to it and to translate it into action. To know, to love and to live the truth: these are the three motive forces through which human beings recognize themselves, develop and fulfil themselves as persons. But truth cannot be known except "in the light of truth": force from outside can be no substitute for interior evidence. Adhering to the truth means an act of love and love cannot be imposed.
A life which is apparently coherent with the truth can have no value unless it is the manifestation of a free personal decision; otherwise it is mere hypocrisy and formalism.
For many believers their readiness to receive the truth is complemented by an openness to the personal, transcendent truth already existing, which proposes freely chosen adherence to itself (cf. D.H. 3). For us Christians, this truth has been revealed in Christ.
The Object of the Right — Immunity from all Constraint
It is generally admitted that the subject of a right cannot, immediately and formally speaking, be a spiritual value such as truth, moral good, justice, etc. because the subjects of rights are persons, and persons only (in the physical sense). Thus, the relationship between persons and spiritual values is not of a legal nature but metaphysical, logical or moral. Legal relationships are always and without exception relationships between individuals, that is, person-to-person and not between persons and values.
This being so, the basis of the right to religious freedom is not the concept (widespread by the way, before the Council) decreeing that "only the truth has rights" while "error can have no rights at all". The conclusion to be drawn from these two affirmations is that only those who "posses" the truth have the right to communicate and spread their convictions, while those who are "in error" have not this right. Hence the call on the civil authorities to put their "strength" at the disposal of the truth and at most to "tolerate" error.
In the course of history this concept has led to situations where the "structural violation" of the rights of persons or groups has taken place.
To be more precise, in religious terms and within Catholic milieux, the concept of religious freedom which was current until the time of Vatican II can be formulated as follows: "The Catholic faith alone, being the only true faith, is to have rights in society."
On the contrary, the definition of Catholic doctrine at the Council is as follows:
"... man's response to God by faith ought to be free and therefore nobody is to be forced to embrace the faith against his will. It is therefore fully in accordance with the nature of faith that in religious matters every form of coercion by men should be excluded." 7
The great change in perspective consists in the fact that it has fortunately been "rediscovered" that religious freedom does not concern the content of religion nor the relationship of man with truth or error and above all with God, in the sense of an "existential" (metaphysical and moral) relationship, but solely the exercise in society of the power to act freely in religious matters. In other words, religious freedom concerns the relations between citizens when there is a question of inwardly belonging to a religion; of practising it in public, in private, alone or as a group; of introducing it to others or influencing secular structures according to its tenets.
The right to religious freedom means immunity from all constraint in religious matters in the life of society and this in a double sense since no-one, in religious matters, can be forced to act against his conscience or be prevented from acting according to his couscience.
"Conscience" means first of all "responsibility", so that the statement quoted above should be understood thus: "No-one, in religious matters, should be forced to act in a manner differing from that which he himself has decided upon."
In the second place, "conscience" has the meaning of "moral rectitude", so that the statement can be read in another sense: "No-one, in religious matters, can be forced to act in a way differing from that which he sees to be his duty." It must be clearly stated that the right to religious freedom has nothing to do with moral problems caused by a conscience rightly or wrongly orientated, honest or dishonest: such problems concern the relationship of man to the truth, while religious freedom concerns the relationship of persons, one to another.
The right to religious freedom therefore has as its object freedom from all constraint, whether by individuals, intermediary bodies or public authorities.
For this reason religious freedom may be seen as guaranteeing the inviolability of a human area within which the individual may fulfil the duty of clarifying his relationship to God and the truth without suffering pressure from outside. It is the guarantee that society shall respect the individual when what is at stake are the most important decisions of his existence. All that has been said here can be found in essence in D.H. 2a which has already been quoted.
The Subjects of the Right to Religious Freedom
Those who have the right to religious freedom are first and foremost, human beings as persons or individuals. This is a right which concerns all men, believers or unbelievers. The athiest has a negative answer to the problem of religion, but this also forms part of "religious matters". It is a right which affects religious acts whether private or public, individual or collective. (Cf. D.H. 3).
Secondly, the subjects of this right are religious groups:
"The freedom of immunity from coercion in religious matters which is the right of individuals must also be accorded to men when they act in community. Religious communities are a requirement of the nature of man and of religion itself." 8
Thirdly there are families, within which religious life derives mainly from the parents; theirs is the right to decide on the religious education of their children and to be free to choose schools and other means of education. Civil authorities are to recognize and respect this right, without making it too difficult to exercise (cf. D.H. 5).
The right to religious freedom obviously implies that within the family parents cannot impose their religious faith on their children: they must however see to it that the children are able to receive it in ever-increasing moral awareness.
The Extent of the Right to Religious Freedom
As a general principle all possible freedom must be accorded to individuals and to groups, and this is only to be curtailed in cases of necessity (cf. D.H. 7a). This point will be further elaborated in the latter part of this article.
Since what is in question is a natural right of the individual, its extent is determined by the inner nature of the right under discussion and by the dignity of the person. We have already spoken of this right as protecting the inviolability of the vital area necessary to the person or the group, the space for each person to become conscious that he cannot elude his responsibility. Inviolability implies that the decisions taken by him shall not meet with obstacles raised by exterior agents.
The extent of this space must be deduced from what has been stated above on the subject of the relationship of the person to truth and to God. The function of religious freedom is in fact to permit the exercise of the responsibility of every human being to enter into a relationship with God and to fulfil the respansibilities imposed by this relationship.
For each person the extent of the right will be judged according to the principle that the right to religious freedom must guarantee that the individual not be forced to act against his conscience nor, conversely, be hindered from acting according to its dictates. He must therefore be free to worship in private or in public, as an individual or as a group, and to manifest or diffuse truths of a religious nature in accordance with his religious principles.
For communities, the area of freedom must be seen both in a context of the religious life itself and of the internal organization of the group. In accordance with what is clearly stated in D.H. 4, this freedom will extend likewise to the spreading of belief and to the religious spirit inspiring the secular activities and institutions of communities.
A Glance at Secular Reality
In political systems with totalitarian regimes, there is the claim to "dictate" what the citizen is, what he is to think and how he is to act; this derives from the totalitarian concept of man as an instrument and is therefore opposed to his dignity as a person (cf. D.H. 1). From this follows the claim to limit religious freedom to acts of private worship or at most to individual acts performed in public. This is done in the belief that religion will thus die out sooner or later, both in individuals and in society as a whole.
But the nature of things is such that if the right to religious freedom is not recognized, an abyss is created between the people and the governing power. This results in certain reactions such as dissidence and violence. Thus, to prevent men from manifesting their religious beliefs and letting them permeate their lives is a violation of human dignity (cf. D.H. 3d).
Indeed, one's human identity is an indissoluble whole, as can be seen from the close connection of the premises indicated above. Man is created to know the truth; the truth once known, demands to be loved; once loved, it demands to be incarnated in the structure of existence. This is the way to the harmonious development of the person. If this continuity is broken, the dignity of the individual is violated. To prevent aperson from being himself in public, therefore, is to destroy him.
In systems with democratic regimes, it is a fact, generally speaking, that religious freedom is conceded to its full extent and according to its nature. It is also a fact that the free exercise of religious liberty is the basis of all rights, for it is the exercise of the greatest freedom that man can have, that which concerns one's ultimate aim in life. When a person is free to choose his path in this field, he is demanding and practising all the other aspects of freedom, while respecting the freedom of others. Herein lie the foundations of democracy.
However, it is also unfortunately the case that in certain democratic systems freedom cannot blossom to the full and does not enjoy all the respect due to it. This occurs in States with a non-religious or religiously neutral basis, which confine themselves to the negative aspect of their duties as will be explained further on.
A survey of the social reality of our world must not fail to mention religious groups which are very exclusive or very intolerant. It is enough to say that their way of acting is analogous to that of totalitarian regimes. They take the place of the individual in decisions regarding his relationship to God and the truth and forget that force and violence can never be convincing arguments.
They injure the cause of "their" religious truth by behaving as though it were not in itself strong enough to carry conviction. Using coercion does not serve the cause of truth; it damages it by implying a lack of confidence in the power of the truth to illuminate the human spirit by its own light.
II RELIGIOUS FREEDOM AND THE CIVIL AUTHORITIES
Civil authorities should never forget that religious acts transcend by their very nature the domain of earthly and secular aims to which the State's competence is restricted. The State is concerned with all dimensions of the person but the spiritual dimension is not being respected unless the citizen is fully autonomous.
Nevertheless, religious freedom is exercised in a social context, that of the common good, the responsibility for which devolves upon the civil authorities. Their guideline in these matters should be the standard indicated by the encyclical, "Pacem in Terris":
"The common good consists especially in safeguarding the rights and duties of the human person; hence governments must guarantee above all to recognize and respect these rights, their mutual reconciliation, their defense and their expansion and consequently, to make the fulfilling of these duties possible for each citizen." 9
The Recognition and Respect for Religious Freedom
The State must defer to the right of religious freedom because this right does not derive from it; each citizen bears it within his person, the dignity of which is inviolable. It is a right which even lessens the power of the civil authorities over the individual.
The State must "recognize and respect" this natural right, that is, abstain from any interference in order to "control or direct religious activity." 10
The Protection of Religious Freedom by the State
"The protection and promotion of the inviolable rights of man is an essential duty of every civil authority." Civil authorities therefore have the duty, as the text goes on to explain:
"to undertake to safeguard the religious freedom of all the citizens in an effective manner by just legislation and other appropriate means."
The organization of the State in matters of legislation cannot be said to conform to justice if it does not offer the citizens effective legal means of asserting their rights. It has rightly been stressed that it is almost impossible, given the nature of human beings and their affairs, for the rights of the individual effectively to be safeguarded if the fundamental power of the State is concentrated in the hands of a single person or group of persons. A clear distinction or, as "Pacem in Terris" has it, "a suitable division" of power within the State is therefore to be desired.
The Promotion of Religious Freedom
Civil authorities should promote and facilitate religious freedom (cf. D.H. 6b). They should also see to it that the citizen does not lack the means of fulfilling his religious duties. Indeed the sole justification for the existence of civil authorities is the working towards the public good, that is to say, the creation of a social environment where men may find the means and the stimulation necessary to the development of their personality as a whole. Now, religious freedom is a basic factor in this flourishing of the personality and its exercise has a positive influence on the life of society.
Indeed, the sincere profession of a living religious faith feeds the moral sense which spurs the citizen to act everywhere in a spirit of responsibility, mutual understanding and fruitful collaboration (cf. D.H. 6b, 8b). Civil authorities would exceed their competence if they claimed to determine the content of belief or the manner of worship; this does not mean however that they should take no interest in the means of worship (there must be planning, for example, to ensure building sites for churches).
We live in times of religious pluralism and, generally speaking, under regimes practising the division of Church and State.
This need not prevent a certain political community from "giving special recognition" (cf. D.H. 6c) to a given religious community. History is full of such examples and we meet them today. It was to be expected that the Catholic Church should envisage such a situation.
Taking this situation as a starting point, the Council then declares: "... the right of all citizens and of all religious communities must be respected as well" (cf. D.H. 6c). In such a situation the social pressures tending to impair the equality of all citizens before the law naturally grow stronger — this is why the conciliar document asks civil authorities to take steps to safeguard this equality in such cases (cf. D.H. 6d).
The Limitation of the Right to Religious Freedom
Human beings are capable of abusing the right to religious freedom just as they can misuse other rights. Civil authorities have the task of preventing abuses and remedying them (cf. D.H. 7c). But this must not be done in a arbitrary manner, hence the delicacy of the question of choosing the criteria instructing authorities if and when they have the duty or the right to intervene.
Here there is a pitfall to be avoided on either side: individuals or groups could commit acts impairing the rights of others and and so become harmful to society or the State under religious pretexts; civil authorities could undertake arbitrary limitations of the right to religious freedom in the name of justice.
The Declaration of the Council has assumed the criterion of the public order, stating precisely what elements are necessary to ensure it. It asks for the effective protection of rights, the defense of public morality and the preservation of the public peace, all these things being basic components of the public good. It demands a life founded on true justice so that men can live together in harmony.
Finally and above all, the aim must be co-existence inspired by the principles dictated by an objective morality. It should not be forgotten that by preventing the abuse of religious freedom the attention of the citizens is drawn to the true nature of religious faith which must be professed for its own sake, because of the spirit inspiring it. On no account may the practice of religion violate others' rights.
The Fundamental Criterion
Having listed the elements that make for public order, the text (cf. D.H. 7) wisely adds:
"For the rest, the principle of the integrity of freedom in society should continue to be upheld. According to this principle, man's freedom should be given the fullest possible recognition and should not be curtailed except when and in so far as is necessary."
It is therefore desirable for religious freedom to develop, not within an absolutist or totalitarian State but rather in a State with democratic and social rights. Better still, the character of this State should be neither non-religious nor religiously neutral nor determined by a single religious denomination. The ideal in fact is a democratic State which considers it a duty and a right to take positive action in matters of religious belief, an action which corresponds to the true nature of religion.
Help is needed to create a climate of understanding between human beings, a climate of respect, of trust, of the will to act mutually for the good of all. In such an atmosphere, those who are in the truth can manifest it and those who are in error will be able to discover the truth in all areas including that of religion (cf. D.H. 8b), but in a manner in accordance with their dignity and with the nature of the relationship between the individual and the truth, that is, in the light of truth.
1. Cf. SIDIC, Vol. XII, No. 3 - 1979, pp. 29f. for the press release of this meeting.
2. Austin Flannery, General Editor: Vatican Council II: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents, "Dignitatis Humanae" (hereafter referred to as D.H.) pp. 799ff. Dominican Publications/Talbot Press, Dublin, 1975. D.H. 2a.
3 Ibid lb; 3a, b.
4 Ibid 13c.
5. Ibid 2a.
6. Ibid la.
7. Ibid. 10.
8. Ibid. 4.
9. John XXIII, translated from Documentation Catholique no. 1398, p. 524.
10. D.H. 6, conclusion.
11. Ibid 6. | <urn:uuid:44649986-5e2d-4b3c-909d-9f947ecbc8be> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.notredamedesion.org/en/dialogue_docs.php?a=3b&id=1059 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00157-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960356 | 5,070 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Although the cause of myelofibrosis often isn't known, certain factors are known to increase your risk:
Aug. 01, 2014
- Age. Myelofibrosis can affect anyone, but it's most often diagnosed in people in their 50s and 60s.
- Another blood cell disorder. A small portion of people with myelofibrosis develop the condition as a complication of essential thrombocythemia or polycythemia vera.
- Exposure to certain chemicals. Myelofibrosis has been linked to exposure to industrial chemicals such as toluene and benzene.
- Exposure to radiation. People exposed to high levels of radiation, such as survivors of atomic bomb attacks, have an increased risk of myelofibrosis. Some people who received a radioactive contrast material called Thorotrast, used from the 1920s to the 1950s, have developed myelofibrosis.
- Hoffman R, et al. Hematology: Basic Principles and Practice. 6th ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier; 2013. http://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed Sept. 23, 2013.
- Mesa RA. The evolving treatment paradigm in myelofibrosis. Leukemia & Lymphoma. 2013;2:242.
- Tefferi A, et al. One thousand patients with primary myelofibrosis: The Mayo Clinic experience. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2012;87:25.
- Myelofibrosis facts. Leukemia & Lymphoma Society. http://www.lls.org/#/diseaseinformation/myeloproliferativediseases/idiopathicmyelofibrosis. Accessed Sept. 23, 2013.
- Thorium. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tf.asp?id=659&tid=121. Accessed Sept. 23, 2013.
- Jakafi (prescribing information). Wilmington, Del.: Incyte Corporation; 2013. http://www.jakafi.com. Accessed Sept. 23, 2013.
- Bone marrow transplantation and peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/bone-marrow-transplant. Accessed Sept. 25, 2013.
- Cook AJ. Decision Support System. Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. July 5, 2013.
- Mesa RA (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic, Phoenix/Scottsdale, Ariz. Sept. 26, 2013. | <urn:uuid:421e65cc-d5a8-48af-977d-4cd81c6806ff> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/myelofibrosis/basics/risk-factors/con-20027210 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00068-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.850833 | 555 | 2.609375 | 3 |
The Eponymous Trolley
We named Studio 34: Yoga | Healing | Arts after the streetcars that run past it: Route 34 of SEPTA’s Subway-Surface Lines.
Serving the community: A PCC trolley leads an 8000-series streetcar along Baltimore Avenue. Photo by Rob Hutchinson. Used with permission.
a short history of route 34
The Green Line trolleys connect our neighborhood along one of its main thoroughfares: Baltimore Avenue. They provide environmentally sound transportation to downtown Philadelphia and are a living link to the founding of West Philadelphia as an early suburb.*
When William Penn laid out the plans for his new city, he left the land to the west of the Schuykill River for farms and what small settlements might develop. Light industry rose up around Mill Creek, a fast-flowing river whose traces remain as the bowl in present-day Clark Park. By the 1860s, the mills had mostly disappeared, but residential development had picked up speed, thanks to a new form of public transit that connected the newly annexed city district to downtown: streetcars drawn by horses along tracks. (A city ordinance soon fixed the width between the rails at 5 feet, 2 1/4 inches, the standard that prevails to this day.*) The horsecar lines stopped at 43rd Street, and therefore, so did most development.*
In the next few decades, horsecars were joined by steam-powered, financially unprofitable “dummies,” then streetcars pulled by cables. But the big boom arrived with electrically powered trolleys in 1892.* Fast and clean, the trolleys were immediately popular, and within five years, all lines were electrified.* Tracks quickly spread, connecting existing neighborhoods and fostering new ones to the west and southwest. By 1906, every West Philly resident lived within four blocks of a trolley line.
Trolleys on Baltimore Avenue predated electrification. The first service began in 1890, with tracks running from 20th and South Streets to 40th and Baltimore via Lancaster Avenue.* Electric-powered streetcars began operating on 13 January 1895 under the flag of the Delaware County and Philadelphia Electric Railway Company.* The next year, service ended on Lancaster, and tracks were laid westward along Baltimore to 61st Street in the then-distant community of Angora. Service along Baltimore became known as the Angora Line.*
Initially, the eastern end of the route took trolleys on a loop around 40th, Locust, and 36th Streets, and sent them back westward on Spruce and then Woodland to Baltimore. But the traction companies quickly noted the demand for a line that connected West Philadelphia with the Delaware River waterfront, and in February 1895, the route was extended to run east along Lombard to Front Street, returning westward on South Street.*
For a few months in 1896, the route from West Philly terminated in the depot at 25th and South Streets. It was reextended in September to Front Street via Chestnut (eastbound) and Walnut (westbound). The West Philly path was altered as well; instead of using 40th and 38th streets to get from Baltimore to Spruce, trolleys began using 42nd Street for their brief north-and-south legs.*
In the 1920s: An 8000-series car at 42nd Street and Baltimore Avenue. (See this corner in 2007.) Photo from the Henry Adamcik Collection of the Electric City Trolley Museum Association. Used with permission.
As the number of “traction companies” proliferated, the tracks became clogged with competing streetcars. Less than a decade after the arrival of electric lines over Baltimore Avenue, four companies were operating on the Angora Line. The Delaware Cty & Philadelphia Elec. Ry. Co. had been quickly joined in January 1895 by the Electric Traction Company, followed by The Union Traction Company in July 1896 and the Philadelphia Rapid Transit Company in July 1902.* City leaders decided that the solution to this transit traffic-jam was a colossal merger, and in 1903, 33 transit firms were consolidated into the Philadelphia Rapid Transit Company.*
The supersized PRTC quickly built a subway tunnel to link West Philly’s trolleys to City Hall in 1906, and opened the elevated Market Street line in 1907. It also slashed the number of free passes issued annually to local politicians.*
In 1911, the city’s streetcar population hit its all-time high: 4,000 cars. The year also welcomed the first of 1,500 Nearside cars, so named because their front-end passenger doors required a stop on the “near side” of intersections instead of the far-side stops made by rear-door trolleys.*
“Pepsi-Cola: the light refreshment”: PTC 8114 stops at 30th and Market. This was one of the “single-end” cars built by J.G. Brill from 1923 to 1926. Photo from “Single End 1923-26 Cars,” Henry Adamcik Collection, Electric City Trolley Museum Association. Used with permission.
Late in the year, Philadelphia began to redesignate its electric railway routings with route numbers, becoming the first American city to adopt the practice, which was already widespread in Europe. Initially, routes were numbered in the order in which they were equipped with Nearside cars. The following year, a citywide plan was drawn up assigning lines 2 through 78. (No. 1 was assigned to the Market Street subway-elevated line.) In March 1913, the list was changed once again to reflect the planned consolidation or elimination of several lines; this list ran from 2 to 65.* The Angora Line became Route 34.*
The next decade brought tighter management to the city’s streetcar lines. In 1920, the PTRC noted that the average speed of a streetcar had risen to 9.33 mph, up 1.3 mph.*. A two-cent rate hike brought the price of single ride to 7 cents, or four fares for a quarter.*
But the arrival of the automobile had increasingly drained transit ridership and fomented sprawl, and in 1939, Philadelphia’s trolley company declared bankruptcy. It reemerged as the Philadelphia Transportation Company. By 1953, the PTC was running 49 trolley routes,* making it the world’s largest urban transit company still in private hands.*
Designed in 1945 and delivered to Philadelphia between 1946 and 1948, the 198 PCC all-electrics were the “classic Philly trolley” for much of the postwar generation. The slanted windshield was for the motorman’s benefit; it was intended to reduce distracting glare from the well-lit interior.*
Here, PCC Car 2799 enjoys a brief post-retirement jaunt at the 40th Street Station on 2 February 2002. This car is now preserved at the Baltimore Streetcar Museum. Photo by BIll Monaghan. Used with permission.
But the forces that had changed its larger cousins would not be denied, and in 1965, the PTC was absorbed by the Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, established two years earlier to help area railroads keep running unprofitable commuter rail service.
In 1981, the first of SEPTA’s 112 Kawasaki LRV trolleys began arriving. PCCs were phased out of service on Route 34 (although 15 rebuilt PCCs were returned to service on Route 15, bringing trolleys back to Girard Street after more than a dozen years of bus service).* | <urn:uuid:e76c6394-c180-4eb8-9e32-fb85b91107e6> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://studio34yoga.com/about-us/our-trolley/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970682 | 1,566 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Simple Definition of retrench
: to change the way things are done in order to spend less money
Examples of retrench in a sentence
When the economy slowed, the company was forced to retrench.
Origin and Etymology of retrench
obsolete French retrencher (now retrancher), from Middle French retrenchier, from re- + trenchier to cut
First Known Use: 1596
Synonym Discussion of retrench
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up retrench? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible). | <urn:uuid:917f46cd-71e7-46cf-915c-9e70741582bb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/retrench | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00028-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917621 | 126 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Well, in these particular cases I think both sound a bit awkward. What you have here in the second clause is (I think) what linguists call pseudogapping, which is a type of verb phrase ellipsis (i.e., the verb in the antecedent clause is left out of the second clause). Sometimes when you leave the verb out of a clause you use "so" as a kind of stand in for the complement or adjunct of the verb (i.e., what comes to the right of the verb in the first clause). In this case, I think "that" and "it" are stand-ins for "when a phrase is informal", but as I said normally in English you would prefer to use "so" for that.
Note that these examples aren't ungrammatical. But they do sound, to my ear, typical of second language English. Not that there's anything wrong with that.
As for the distinction in general between "do it" and "do that", it's subtle. "It" is a pronoun, and as such when you use it you are signaling that you are referring back to something which has already been talked about or somehow referred to in the discourse. (In other words, I can point to something and say "Do it!" and that would be enough.) "That" is a word which you use to point out a particular thing in the world (the technical term is "deixis"), as such "that" is a better choice when you are distinguishing or contrasting one thing from something else. | <urn:uuid:4fb11824-959d-482b-b741-2dfe0352e21f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://english.stackexchange.com/questions/1498/do-it-versus-do-that/1511 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00054-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977986 | 321 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Am Fam Physician. 2004 Apr 15;69(8):2006-2007.
Exposures to certain foods in the infant diet have been implicated in destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic cells, leading to type 1 diabetes. Autoantibodies to islet cells is also known as islet autoimmunity (IA). Studies have shown conflicting results in identifying cow's milk as a cause of IA. Similarly, in only some studies has early introduction of solid foods been associated with the development of type 1 diabetes. Exposure to cereals before six months of age was not associated with IA in children with a family history of type 1 diabetes in one study. Norris and colleagues examined the association between exposure to cow's milk and cereals in infant diets and the appearance of islet autoantibodies.
In the Diabetes Autoimmunity Study in the Young, high-risk and moderate-risk infants were identified by screening cord blood for diabetes susceptibility alleles. Further participants were recruited through a diabetes registry and newspaper publicity. The study population consisted of 841 HLA-screened children without a family history of type 1 diabetes and 342 children with a first-degree relative with type 1 diabetes. Children were tested for antibodies to pancreatic islet antigens at months 9, 15, and 24, and then annually, from birth to nine years of age. Dietary data were collected for the study cohort.
In the full cohort of 1,183 children, 85 percent were breastfed. Children who remained autoantibody positive on two or more consecutive visits were more likely than unaffected children to be non-Hispanic white and positive for specific HLA genotypes, and to have a first-degree relative with type 1 diabetes. The authors found that children first exposed to any cereals before four months or after six months of age were at increased risk of IA compared with those first exposed between four and six months. This association held whether or not there was any family history of type 1 diabetes. Neither cow's milk exposure at any age nor breastfeeding duration was associated with increased risk of IA.
The study data suggest that introducing cereals before four months of age may increase a child's risk of developing IA. However, waiting until seven months of age also seems to increase this risk. Early risk may suggest a mechanism involving an aberrant immune response to cereal antigens in an immature gut. Late exposure may be related to the quantity and frequency with which cereal is consumed at first exposure in older children. These results are valid for children at higher risk for type 1 diabetes but also may apply to the general population. Current recommendations for the timing of cereal introduction need not be changed from the four to six months of age that is generally recommended in this country.
Norris JM, et al. Timing of initial cereal exposure in infancy and risk of islet autoimmunity. JAMA. October 1, 2003;290:1713–20.
Copyright © 2004 by the American Academy of Family Physicians.
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Kundalakesi is a fragmentary Tamil epic written by Nagakuthanaar. Tamil literary tradition places it among the five great epics, alongside such works as the Manimekalai and Cilappatikaram. Its time period has been estimated to be before fifth century C.E.
Sources and content
Of the five great epics, Valayapathi and Kundalakesi are not available in full. Only fragments quoted in other literary works and commentaries have survived. Only 19 of the original 99 verses of Kundalakesi have been recovered. An additional five have been recovered, but whether they were part of Kundalakesi has not been proven conclusively. Tamil linguist Kamil Zvelebil has speculated that the epic was destroyed due to its Buddhist content by anti-Buddhist fanatics. The 19 verses recovered have been found in the commentaries for Tolkāppiyam, Veera Sozhiyam, Yapperungalam , Thakkayagaparani, Sivagnana Siddhiyar Parapakkam (Thirvorriyur Gnanaprakasar's commentary), the epic Neelakesi and the poem Vaisyapuranam. Neelakesi - one of the five lesser Tamil epics, was a jain religious work about the life of the female jain monk of the same name, who was a rival preacher of the Buddhist protagonist of Kundalakesi(It was written as a Jain rebuttal to the Buddhist criticism in Kundalakesi). The first lines of the 99 verses of Kundalakesi are available in the Jain saint Vamanar's commentary onNeelakesi. The 19 recovered verses do not reveal the plot of the epic and are advisory in nature. The introductory and 15th Verses contain references to Buddhism.The Vinaya sub commentary Vimativinodani refers to the epic as follows:
Formerly in Tamil country an elder named Nagasena [Nagakuthanaar] compiled a work in Tamil containing the story of Kundalakesi, foe refuting heretical doctrines, adducing arguments for demolishing the views advanced by non-Buddhists.
Yapperungalam, which also quotes the epic's Kadavul Vazhthu (lit. invocation to God) describes it as a tharkavadham - a book of controversy and polemics.Veera Sozhiyam's commentator Perunthevanar and the 14th century anthology Purathirattu both describe it as aakalakavi - a large poem.
Kundalakesi is an adaptation of the story of the Buddhist Bhikṣuni. Kunḍalakeśi from the Dhammapada. The protagonist Kundalakesi (lit. The woman with curls) was born in a merchant family in the city of Puhar. Her birth name is "Bhadra". She loses her mother during childhood and lives a sheltered life. One day she sees a thief being paraded in the streets of Puhar and falls in love with him. The thief,Kaalan has been sentenced to death for banditry. Besotted with Kaalan, Kundalakesi implores her father to save him. Her father petitions the king for the thief's release. He pays Kaalan's weight in gold and 81 elephants to the treasury to secure Kaalan's release. Kundalakesi and Kaalan are married and live happily for some time. One day, she playfully refers to him as a thief. This enrages the mercurial Kaalan and he decides to kill his wife in revenge. He tricks her into visiting the summit of the nearby hill. Once they reach the summit, he announces his intention to kill her by pushing her off the hill. Kundalakesi is shocked and asks him to grant a final wish - she wishes to worship him by going around him three times before she dies. He agrees and when she gets behind him, Kundalakesi pushes him off the summit, killing him. Repenting her actions, she becomes a Buddhist monk and spends the rest of her life spreading the teachings of Buddha
Manimekalai or Maṇimekhalai written by the Tamil Buddhist poet Seethalai Saathanar is one of the masterpieces of Tamil literature. It is considered to be one of the five great epics of Tamil literature. Manimekalai is a poem in 30 cantos. Its story is a sequelto Silapathikaram or Sīlappadhikāram and tells the story of the conversion to Buddhism of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi. It is the only extant Tamil Buddhist literary text.Description
As a continuation of Silappatikaram, this epic describes how Manimekalai, the beautiful daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, followers of Jainism, converts to Buddhism. According to the poem, Maṇimekalai studies the six systems of philosophy of Hinduism and other prevalent religions of the time and compares them to the teachings of the Buddha. She is most impressed with Buddhism. Later, upon hearing doctrinal expositions from the Buddhist teacher Bhikshu Aravaṇa Aḍigal, she becomes a dedicated Buddhist nun.
The aim of the author, Sīthalai Sāttanār (or Cīttalai Cāttanār) was to compare Buddhismfavourably with the other prevailing religions in South India in order to propagate Buddhism. He criticizes Jainism, the chief opponent and competitor of Buddhism at the time. While exposing the weaknesses of the other contemporary Indian religions, he praises the Buddha's Teaching, the Dhamma, as the most perfect religion.
The poem Manimekhalai gives much information on the history of [[Tamil Nadu], Buddhism and its place during that period, contemporary arts and culture, and the customs of the times. The exposition of the Buddhist doctrine in the poem deals elegantly with the Four Noble Truths(ārya-satyāni), Dependent Origination (pratītyasamutpāda), mind (citta) and Buddhist practices like virtue (Śīla) and non-violence (ahimsa).
The poem is set in both the harbour town of Kāveripattinam, the modern town of Puhar in Tamil Nadu, and in Nainatheevu of NākaNadu, a small sandy island off the Jaffna Peninsula in modernSri Lanka. The story runs as follows: The dancer-courtesan Manimekalai is pursued by the amorous Cholan prince Udyakumāra, but rather wants to dedicate herself to a religious celibate life. he sea goddess Manimegala Theivam or Maṇimekhalai Devī puts her to sleep and takes to the island Maṇipallavam (Nainatheevu). After waking up and wandering about the island Maṇimekhalai comes across the Dharma-seat, the seat on which the Buddha had taught and appeased two warring Naga princes, and placed there by the God Indra. Those who worship it miraculously know their previous life. Manimekalai automatically worships it and recollects what has happened in her previous life. She then meets the guardian goddess of the Dharma seat, Deeva-Teelakai (Dvīpa Tilakā) who explains her the significance of the Dharma seat and lets her acquire the magic never-failing begging bowl (cornucopia) called Amṛta Surabhi (”cow of abundance”), which will always provide food to alleviate hunger. The goddess also predicts that the Bhikshu Aravaṇa Aḍigal in her native town will teach her more. Manimekalai then used the mantra which the sea goddess had given her and returns to Kāveripattinam, where she meets the Bhikshu Aravaṇa Aḍigal, who expounds her the Buddha's Teaching. She then becomes a Buddhist nun or Bhikshuni and practices to rid herself of the bondage of birth and death and attain Nirvana.
Manimekalai - The daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, who was born with bravery and virtues. Udhayakumaran - The Chola King, who was madly in love with Manimekalai. He was a foolish king, who wanted things done only in the way he wanted them to be done. Sudhamadhi - Manimekalai's most faithful and trustworthy friend. The sea goddess Manimekalai, who protects the heroine.
Disappearance of Kāveripattinam or Puhar
The poem relates that the town Kāveripattinam or Puhār was swallowed up by the sea (i.e. destroyed by a tsunami or flood) due to the Cholan King not holding the annual Indra festival, causing the wrath of the sea goddess Manimekhalai. This event is supported by archeological finds of submerged ruins off the coast of modern Poompuhar. Ancient ruins of a 4th-5th century Buddhist monastery, a Buddha statue, and a Buddhapada (footprint of the Buddha) were also found in another section of the ancient city, now at Pallavanesvaram. The town of Kāveripattinam is believed to have disappeared in between the 3d and the 6th century. Date of Composition
Although there is some controversy about the exact date of this work, it is likely to have been composed in the 6th century CE. Survival of Text
The Manimekhalai is the only extant Tamil Buddhist literary work of what once was an extensive literature. The reason for it survival is probably its status as the sequel to the Silapathikaram or Sīlappadhikāram. Tamil Nadu produced many Buddhist teachers who made valuable contributions to Tamil, Pali and Sanskrit literature. Reference to their works is found in Tamil literature and other historical records. Lost Tamil Buddhist works are the poem Kuṇḍalakesī by Nāgaguttanār, the grammar Vīrasoliyam, the Abhidhamma work Siddhāntattokai, the panegyric Tiruppadigam, and the biography Bimbisāra Kadai.
Buddhist School Affiliation
The work contains no direct references to Mahayana as propagated by Nagarjuna, etc, and appears to be a work of an early early Buddhist,Sravakayana school such as the Sthavira or Sautrantika school. According to Aiyangar, the emphasis on "the path of the Pitakas of the Great One" (i.e. Tipitaka) and the exposition of Dependent Origination, etc, in Chapter 30, could suggest that it is work of the Sautrantika school. An early Sravakayana Buddhist school affiliation with the emphasis on liberation from the defilements (kilesa), ending the cycle of birth, old age and death (samsara), and becoming an arahant is indicated by the conclusion of the poem, where Aravaṇa Aḍigal encourages full liberation from the three roots of evil—greed, hatred (rāga, dosa, moha). The final sentence of the poem states that Maṇimekhalai strove to rid herself of the bondage of birth (Aiyangar p. 230). Buddhist logic | <urn:uuid:5053044e-789a-4443-aa66-15b5503ab564> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://manimekalaicae.blogspot.com/2011/02/search-box.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00122-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951703 | 2,465 | 2.78125 | 3 |
What we think of today as being “computers” started out in the minds of mathematicians as purely abstract devices–thoughts about how to solve math problems using machines instead of the mind.
These mathematicians are the people we would consider the modern founders of “computer science.” Computer Science is actually the mathematical study of information processing. It is not, as some people believe it to be, the study of computer programming. In fact, there is no science of computer programming. To understand how that could possibly be true, and what I mean, you have to know the history of programming.
The earliest computers were built under the supervision of computer scientists by highly skilled electronic engineers. They were run by highly-trained operators in tightly-controlled environments. They were all custom-built by the organizations that needed them (mostly governments, to aim missiles and crack codes), and there were only one or two copies of any given model.
Then, along comes UNIVAC and the whole notion of “commercial” computers. Now, there’s only so many advanced theoretical mathematicians in the world. If you start shipping out computers to everybody, you can’t ship a mathematician along with each one. So although some organizations, such as the United States Census Bureau, almost certainly had some highly-trained operators for their machinery, other organizations undoubtedly got their machine and said, “Okay, Bill from Accounting, this is yours! Read the manual and have at it!” And there went Bill, diving into this complex machine and doing his best to make it work.
Bill there is our first “working programmer.” He might have studied math in school, but he almost certainly didn’t study the sort of advanced theory needed to conceive and design the machine itself. But he can read the manual and understand it, and by trial and error, make the machine do what he wants.
Of course, the more commercial computers you ship, the more Bills you have and the fewer highly-trained operators you have. And if there’s one thing that Bill has, it’s job pressure. He has demands from management to “Get that task done now!” and “We don’t care how it’s done, just do it!” He figures out how to make the thing work according to its manual, and it works, even if it crashes every two hours.
Eventually Bill gets a whole team of programmers to work with him. He has to figure out how to design a system and split up the tasks between different people. Instead of being studied and mapped out like a standard science, the whole art of practical programming grows organically, more like college students teaching themselves to cook than like NASA engineers building a space shuttle.
So there’s this hodge-podge system for software development, and it’s all very complex and hard to manage, but everybody gets along somehow. Then along comes The Mythical Man Month, a book by a guy who actually looked at the process of software development and pointed out some things about it–most famously that adding more programmers to a project doesn’t necessarily make it faster. He didn’t come up with a whole science, but he did make some good observations about programming and managing software development.
Of course, then came a flurry of software development methods: the Rational Unified Process, the Capability Maturity Model, Agile Software Development, and others. None of these claim to be a science, just a way of managing the complexity of software development.
And that, basically, brings us up to where we are today: lots of “methods,” but no real science.
A science is composed of observations, experiments, and laws. Although we have hundreds of books of observations about practical programming, and “the world is our laboratory”, all of that has resulted in very few laws, which are the most important part of a science. That is, instead of coming up with methods to work around complexity, there ought to be some fundamental rules to follow that would lead to simplicity–ways to avoid complexity entirely and explain why what “works” in software development does work.
In reality, there are two missing sciences here. The first one is being worked on actively, and includes the various methods I mentioned above. That’s the science of managing software development. The fact that conflicting, equally-valid “opinions” seem to exist within the field indicates that the fundamental laws of software management have not been worked out. However, there is at least attention being given to the problem.
The other science, though, gets very little attention in the practical world of programming: the science of writing software. Very few people are taught that there is a science to writing software, in school. Instead, they are just shown “This is how it works in this programming language, now go write some software!”
The science I’m talking about is not Computer Science. That’s a mathematical study. I’m talking about a science for the “working programmer”–something that gives fundamental laws and rules to follow when writing a program in any language. One that’s as reliable as physics or chemistry in telling you how to create an application.
Some people might say that such a science is not possible, that software development is too variable to ever be described by simple, fundamental laws. Some people also once said that understanding the physical universe was impossible because “it is the creation of God and God is unknowable.” So unless you’re telling me computers are unknowable, I think that making such a science would be entirely possible.
Actually, I’ve started to collect some basic hypotheses for such a science, and I’m writing a book about it. I might post some of them here, but actually, all of what I’ve written in the blog so far actually comes from those hypotheses. That is, I haven’t really posted any of my hypothetical “laws” yet, but I have been posting data that I’ve derived from them.
Anyhow, I think that the primary source of complexity in software is actually the fact that this science is lacking. If programmers actually had a science for simplicity in software, there wouldn’t be nearly so much complexity, and we wouldn’t need crazy processes to manage that complexity.
Whenever there’s a problem with something, my instinct is to go philosophically above the level of the problem and look at it from there. If there’s some “unsolvable” effect happening to something, there must be some unknown cause on a higher level. So there you go–if the problem is complexity, then maybe it’s because there was no science of simplicity in the first place. | <urn:uuid:add43d5e-345f-4ef4-84d2-d6edb8e7b45f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.codesimplicity.com/post/there-is-no-science-of-software/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969244 | 1,432 | 3.078125 | 3 |
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