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Last Indian Uprising?
Shoshone Mike, February 26, 1911
Mike Daggett lived on a reservation near Fort Hall, Idaho, where, in 1890, he lost his land to settlers. Enraged, he took his family into Nevada and began living a nomadic life. Moving from place to place, working some, they mostly lived off the land. Ranchers in the Little Salmon River area in northern Elko County remember that Mike and his sons were good workers in the hay fields. The family stayed to itself, aloof from both whites and Indians, moving often.
The hard winter of 1911 found Shoshone Mike and his family settled down in Little High Rock Canyon in northern Washoe County, Nevada, until warmer weather came. With him was his wife; two sons, Charlie and Gnat; two daughters, Snake and Toad; two adolescent males and four children. To sustain themselves, they killed a few cattle for food and hung part of the meat in trees to freeze.
Left - Shoshone Mike's war bonnet, found at Kelley Creek by a member of the Posse.
Four sheep men rode into the canyon and Mike thought maybe they were coming to get his family for rustling cows. Mike, Gnat, and Charlie ambushed them, mutilated the bodies, and stole their clothing. Now, in more serious trouble, the family fled east.
On February 11, Reno's Nevada State Journal headlined the murders. People on remote ranches panicked, many women and children went to the nearest town for safety. The men who stayed kept their guns nearby and continually looked over their shoulders in fear.
Nevada State Police put together a posse and, with the help a Paiute tracker, Skinny Pascal, began a two-week pursuit. Pascal, reading sign, led the officers over the Black Rock Mountains, across Black Rock Desert, then to the Quinn River area. By now posse members were chilled to the bone and trail weary but they kept up the chase.
Pascal followed footprints around the south end of the Santa Rosa Mountains, then on an easterly course toward the Little Humboldt River. They found Mike and his family at Kelley Creek, north of Golconda on February 26, 1911.
The band of Indians knew they were following them and it was just a matter of time until the posse found them. They began singing and chanting. Shoshone Mike's clan was ready to die.
Gunshots interrupted the ceremony. It was two black powder firearms against at least eighteen guns. It didn't take long to pick off the warriors. The women took up bows and arrows and spears forcing the posse members to shoot in self defense. When the smoke cleared, eight of the 12 family members were dead. Only Snake, a ten-year-old boy, a toddler and a baby survived.
Left - The survivors of the shootout with Washoe County Sheriff Charles Ferrel
The band's dead were buried in a common grave blasted from the frozen ground with dynamite. One posse member had died. The so-called last Indian uprising was over.
Indian uprising? That's what the press and a lot of people called it but it was more like a family that panicked and fled from the law knowing that they would have to pay a deadly price if caught. Yes, they committed a terrible crime and cannot be excused. In the end, though, it wasn't an uprising. Just an Indian family who got into a heap of trouble.
Author's notes: This was difficult to write a short story of this event. Not one account agreed on all the facts. Mike was listed as Shoshone, Bannock, and Goshute; as coming from Idaho, southern Utah and southern Nevada, and starting the rampage from Little High Rock Canyon and clear across the state in northeastern Elko County. His name, mostly listed as Shoshone Mike also appeared as Mike Daggett, Salmon River Mike, Indian Mike, and Rock Creek Mike. There are so many differences in details that sorting them out was impossible. This is not an attack on the authors - they scoured records and newspapers, talked with people, and wrote their interpretations.
Sources: Aged in Sage, Jean McElrath, 1964; Nevada's Northeast Frontier, Edna Patterson, Louise Ulph (now Beebe), and Victor Goodwin, 1969; The Indian Massacre of 1911, Effie Mona Mack, 1968; The Last Free Man, Doyle Hyde, 1973; "Stories of the Old West," Shoshone Mike vs. the Nevada State Police: The Battle at Kelley Creek - 1911, Frank Adams, 1998 (from www.nevada-history.org); Humboldt Star (Winnemucca, Nevada), February 28, 1911; and "Inventory and Assessment of Native American Remains from the Western Great Basin, Nevada Sector, in the National Museum of Natural History," (www.nmnh.si.edu).
Photographs from the collections of the Northeastern Nevada Museum, Elko.
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Everyone has seen fire extinguishers used in films and tv shows but very few people actually know how to use a fire extinguisher properly in an emergency and when it’s appropriate.
The most important thing during a fire is your safety, so knowing what to look out for and how to judge when you should attempt to fight the fire or not is crucial.
If you come across a fire, you should warn people nearby and trigger the alarm before you even think about getting a fire extinguisher. If you aren’t fighting the fire, then immediately exit the building using the stairs (not a lift) and if the room is filling with smoke then either find another route or crawl along the floor to avoid smoke inhalation.
When the alarm has been sounded and you are sure of your escape route then, and only then, consider using a fire extinguisher. If the fire is still small and confined to only one or two objects, if the air is safe to breathe, and if there is only a slight increase in heat on approach then the fire may be small enough to be put out with a portable extinguisher.
Remember to be continually aware of smoke danger and your escape route. If it looks like you’re going to be put in danger then leave immediately and wait for help.
First, make sure again that your evacuation route is clear, and check that your fire extinguisher is suitable for the type of fire (this is especially important for deep fat fryer fires and electrical) by reading the information on the front. Also check that the pressure gauge is within the green range. If everything looks good, then you are ready to approach the fire – be sure to stay at least 1 meter back at all times.
When using a fire extinguisher, you should remember the mnemonic ‘PASS’. First is P – pull the pin and break the anti-tamper seal, then A – aim the nozzle at the base of the fire, S – squeeze the lever to activate the extinguisher, and finally S – sweep from side to side until the fire is out or the extinguisher is empty.
After you have extinguished the fire, back away immediately in case the fire flares up again. If the extinguisher is empty and the fire is not extinguished then you should evacuate immediately, taking the empty fire extinguisher with you if possible.
Different types of fire extinguishers can be used to combat different types of fire. Take your time when considering what fire extinguisher to purchase and, in an emergency, make sure that the fire extinguisher you have is appropriate for the fire.
Water fire extinguishers should only be used on freely burning materials, i.e. fires that are made of burning wood, plastics, coal, or soft furnishings. Water spray extinguishers are a more effective variant that creates a fine mist and often contains surfactants to help the water penetrate burning materials.
Make sure you do not use these extinguishers on electrical fires – as they can conduct electricity through the stream – or deep fat fryer fires as they will vaporise violently into steam, spreading the burning oil further.
Foam fire extinguishers are best used on burning liquids, such as paint and petrol, as the foam can float on the liquid surface and cut the fire off from its fuel. However, these are not suitable for use on cooking fires. These also work well on freely burning materials (wood, furnishings etc.) and some varieties are safe for use on electrical fires, although will cause considerable additional damage to electrical equipment.
Foam extinguishers create an effective layer when used which makes them very useful at preventing re-ignition.
CO2 fire extinguishers are excellent for combating electrical fires and fighting flammable liquid fires. However, they are ineffective when used on wood and textile fires, flammable gasses, and cooking fires. Do not use this type of fire extinguisher on a deep fat fryer fire as it can blow burning liquid across the room, spreading the fire.
CO2 fire extinguishers can also be the most dangerous to operate as the nozzle becomes extremely cold when used, causing severe frost burns if held with bare hands. You should always operate a CO2 extinguisher by holding it behind the nozzle. CO2 can also cause asphyxiation if there is no ventilation, so after an extinguisher is used you should evacuate the room to ensure your safety.
Powder fire extinguishers can be used on freely burning materials (wood, plastic, coal etc.), burning liquids such as grease paint or petrol, and electrical fires. These are also the current go-to solution for gas fires. These extinguishers are not suitable to combat chip or fat pan fires.
This type of fire extinguisher is well-suited to the rapid knockdown of fires but, as this powder is less effective at cooling, it may not keep the fire supressed. They also carry the risk of powder inhalation which can be harmful. These models are no longer recommended for domestic use for this reason.
Designed for kitchen fires involving burning oil and deep fat fryers, chemical fire extinguishers are great for kitchen fires as well as use on freely burning materials such as wood, textiles coal etc. This type of extinguisher works using a fine spray to cool the fire while the chemical component creates a surface on the burning oil to cut off the fuel source.
Dry water mist fire extinguishers are incredibly versatile and can be used on cooking fires and freely burning materials as well as fires caused by flammable liquids, flammable gases, and electrical appliances. The only type of fire they cannot be used on is flammable metal fires as these tend to chemically react with water.
As this is made from pure water, there are no inhalation risks involved and no issues with chemicals during clean-up. As the water is de-ionised, it’s no longer electrically conductive. Plus, due to the mist being incredibly fine, it can be used on burning deep fat fryers without the water vaporising violently which stops the fire from spreading further unlike traditional water extinguishers.
If you’ve used a fire extinguisher and you need to evacuate the building, you should take the used extinguisher with you – if possible – so that no-one attempts to use an empty extinguisher during their own evacuation.
Once a fire extinguisher has been used, even if only for a tiny amount of time, you must either recharge or replace the extinguisher. This is because the pressure seals may have been compromised and it may leak pressure, causing it to become ineffective. As long as your fire extinguisher is not a disposable one and is up to current safety standards, it should be suitable for refilling after it has been discharged.
As fire extinguishers are often classified as hazardous waste, if you want to dispose of one then you should take it to your local manned refuse and recycling centre who it will be taken care of. Under no circumstances should you simply throw one into a bin.
We hope you’ve found this article useful and that you’re now familiar with the types of fire extinguishers available. If you’re interested in learning more about fire safety, why not check out our handy guide on how to fit a smoke alarm?
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Your task for this week is to read the article/s (if applicable), listen to the audio/s (if applicable) and watch the video/s (if applicable).
1. Give a brief but in-depth summary and analysis of the major points discussed in the videos “self-love”, “self sabotage“, and the audio “Aristotle critique of Plato.”
2. How are the lessons relevant for you and your life. Give a few examples.
Minimum requirements: Two-pages (approximately 500-words)
Note on the nature of your writing”
- Be mindful that the posted materials on Moodle cover a lot of philosophical and religious territories.
- They have been laboriously created by the peoples of each land and protected for thousands of years.
- They are profound and dense and have for thousands of years been a GPS to life, or a map towards living a more meaningful life.
- Though they do not fetch much respect in the modern world, they still deserve your careful study and understanding their world view.
- Stay away from rushed and superficial responses.
- Stay away from book reporting or copying and pasting.
- Make sure your responses have depth and substance.
- Make your responses are engaging and creative.
- Make sure that you demonstrate the practicality of these ideas by inserting them into your own daily life and life experiences.
- To better understand these ideas, provide examples from your life within the context of the subject materials
The source of videos “self-love”, “self sabotage“, and the audio “Aristotle critique of Plato.” are below:
(The audio “Aristotle critique of Plato.
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Somewhere in the murky space that divides alert from dormant — an enigmatic realm through which we all drift in the course of a good night’s sleep — the human body sometimes behaves as though it belongs to both worlds at once.
It rises from bed, ambling aimlessly. Perhaps it fiddles with household objects, cleans the kitchen or rearranges the furniture. At a glance, it seems to see, to feel, to register its surroundings. But look closer: The eyes are glassy, the movements clumsy. “These people are stuck in the nether regions between asleep and awake,” says Nathaniel Watson, co-director of the University of Washington Medicine Sleep Center.
Sleepwalking (a sleep disorder formally known as somnambulism) has mystified and intrigued humankind throughout history. Lady Macbeth suffered a bout of it in her post-homicide guilt; Dracula used it to his advantage when he lured a slumbering Lucy out of the house. Centuries later, neurologists still don’t fully understand the phenomenon, though they have made some progress.
Motion Without Memory
Until the 1950s, scientists believed sleepwalkers were simply acting out their dreams. That theory was uprooted with the discovery of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. It’s during REM that the brain is most active and dreams most intense, and scientists found that sleepwalking almost never coincides with this stage of the sleep cycle.
Instead, sleepwalking occurs in the nondreaming phases that precede REM sleep. “They may have a single visual scene,” Watson says, “but not a dream imagery that’s complex.” To make things worse, sleepwalkers typically remember nothing of their comatose wanderings, so the somnambulists themselves can’t offer much insight. Their subjective experience is, by nature, inscrutable.
What researchers can measure is brain activity. Electroencephalograms recorded during sleepwalking episodes suggest that certain parts of the brain, like those that deal with basic motor function, remain lively while others doze. “As these primitive centers are activated, the rest of the brain — the control centers, the centers of consciousness — are shut down,” says Emmanuel During, director of the Stanford Parasomnia Clinic.
Sleepwalking is just one of many “arousal disorders,” in which the body transitions from deep sleep to semi-wakefulness at the wrong time. Many scientists argue they’re all essentially different manifestations of the same phenomenon: Some abnormal mechanism rouses the body enough to perform intricate actions, but not enough to be fully awake. Besides sleepwalking, there’s sleep-related eating disorder, sleep terrors and even sexsomnia, which is exactly what it sounds like and has been used successfully as a defense against rape charges.
There have also been reports of homicidal somnambulism, such as the 1987 case of Kenneth Parks, who claimed never to have awoken as he drove 15 miles and stabbed his mother-in-law to death (he was acquitted). Experts are divided on the authenticity of such incidents, with some deeming it more likely that unscrupulous lawyers fall back on it as a convenient excuse. Watson says he believes it’s possible, but added that “you’re probably more likely to get eaten by a shark or struck by lightning than to have a sleepwalker kill you.”
Indeed, most midnight rambles come and go without incident. In fact, During says, somnambulism is surely an underdiagnosed disorder, since sleepwalkers often return to bed and wake without ever knowing they left it. Nevertheless, a study by the Stanford University School of Medicine in 2012 found that about 3.6 percent of adults have the habit, and children are far more prolific in their nocturnal wandering. With millions of people stumbling around in the night, dispossessed of executive function, they’re sure to sleepwalk into some trouble.
Urban legend aside, a sleepwalker will not have a heart attack if woken. But because they typically come to in a haze of confusion, sleepwalkers do sometimes turn violent and injure themselves or others. On the other hand, it’s best not to leave them alone: On more than one occasion, a sleepwalker has tumbled out of a high window. The best approach is to gently guide them back to bed and look for ways to sleepwalker-proof the home.
The ultimate causes of sleepwalking are still unknown, but there are plenty of well-documented triggers. Stress, alcohol, sleep deprivation, certain medications and other disorders like sleep apnea can all induce sleepwalking. It also runs in families, so genetics seem to play a role. Children generally grow out of it as the brain matures, but adult sleepwalkers should consider seeing a specialist, though it doesn’t necessarily indicate any underlying illness.
Some researchers have suggested that sleepwalking could be an inconvenient side effect of an otherwise evolutionarily advantageous bodily process. Keeping our brain’s motor centers at the ready during sleep may have helped more than one of our ancestors avoid a late-night lion mauling. Unfortunately, Watson notes, those with the sleepwalking defect would have found it counterproductive to their survival: “If you’re wandering out of the cave at night, your chances of getting eaten are higher.”
For now, the condition retains much of its mystery. Watson says that because sleepwalking is usually no more than a mild inconvenience compared with other sleep disorders, there has been no major push to cure or study it thoroughly. As a result, he worries the public is more afraid of it than they need to be. “It’s not something to fear,” he says. “It’s something to understand and manage.”
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Home > Book of Acts, Course B
If you have not already done so, save this lesson to your computer using the "save" feature of your browser or PDF reader. Then print out the lesson (or at least open it in your browser or PDF reader offline - not on the Internet). Read the lesson and study in your Bible the passages indicated >>> Scripture <<<. Following each passage, study each question that has a number enclosed in asterisks (*1*, *2*, etc.), and write down your answers on paper. Some questions include more than one number because they have more than one blank to fill in. ("Think" questions should be carefully considered for your own benefit, but your answers will not be submitted to us.) Please take your time, study each passage carefully, answer the questions honestly, and consider the applications to your own life (John 12:48; 2 Tim. 2:15).
When you have studied the whole lesson and written down answers to all the indicated questions, return to the menu for this course on our web site at biblestudylessons.com and click on the link for the answer quiz for this lesson (or simply click on the link at the end of this lesson). Follow the directions to submit your answers and receive your grade. You will then be given an opportunity to see the correct answers to the questions. Please save this lesson and the correct answers for future reference.
Then move on to the next lesson or the next course in order. Please study all lessons in all courses in order as listed in the menus on our web site.
Thank you for your interest, and God bless your study of His word.
Acts 14 ended as Paul and Barnabas completed their first preaching trip. After the controversy over circumcision, Paul began his second trip with Silas as his companion (15:40,41).
>>> Please read Acts 16:1-12. <<<
*1* Whom did Paul and Silas find to accompany them on the preaching trip? (a) Peter, (b) Mark, (c) Timothy, (d) all the preceding. Answer: ______.
*2* What did Paul have done to this man because of the Jews? Answer: Paul had him ______ because of the Jews.
*3* What did Paul see in a vision at Troas? Answer: He saw a man from ______ asking them to come there.
*4* Where did the group then go to preach? (a) Babylon, (b) Persia, (c) America, (d) Philippi. Answer: ______.
Comments: Paul and Silas first revisited the churches begun on the first journey. At Lystra they found a young man named Timothy, whom Paul wanted to accompany them. Timothy's mother was a Jewish Christian, but his father was a Greek.
Paul knew that circumcision does not matter one way or the other (Gal. 5:6). In Acts 15 he had refused to have Titus circumcised (Gal. 2:1-5), because some were claiming circumcision was essential to salvation (Acts 15:1). However, he did not oppose circumcision as a health measure or even as a sign of nationality. He had Timothy circumcised as a matter of influence, not as a requirement of salvation (cf. 1 Cor. 9:19-23). Jews would not associate with Gentiles (Acts 10:28), so without circumcision Timothy's opportunity to teach Jews would have been limited.
Guided by the Spirit, they passed several areas till they came to Troas (see a map). There a vision convinced them to preach in Macedonia. They took ship and traveled to Philippi (see map). The use of "we" in 16:10 implies that the author (Luke) had joined the party. Note the use of "we" or "they" from here on throughout the book.
>>> Please read Acts 16:13-15. <<<
*5* In Philippi, where did Paul find people to teach? Answer: They met with women at a place of prayer by a ______.
*6* Who was converted? (a) Lydia, (b) Dorcas, (c) Mary, (d) Eve. Answer: ______.
Comments: Paul usually began preaching at the Jewish synagogue. Evidently Philippi had no synagogue, so he taught some women who met for prayer by a riverside. Lydia and her household were baptized, then she urged Paul's company to stay in her home. Evidently she was a woman of some means, as well as very devout and very hospitable.
Advocates of infant baptism often claim that "household conversions" in Acts justify the baptism of babies. But remember that people who are baptized must first understand the gospel, believe it, repent of sins, and confess Christ, none of which babies can do (see John 6:44,45; Mark 16:15,16; Acts 8:12; 2:38; Romans 10:9,10). Furthermore, little children do not need baptism, since they have no sins to be forgiven (Matthew 18:3; 19:14; Psalm 106:38; Ezekiel 18:20; 2 Corinthians 5:10).
As with all household conversions, Lydia's case nowhere states that babies were baptized. Many households include no children, let alone little children. In fact, Lydia was probably unmarried. No husband is mentioned. Only women were present at the place of prayer (v13). A man is the head of his household (Eph. 5:22-24), so he is always mentioned if he is involved. The ?household? could have involved relatives, servants, or other people just living there like the preachers later did. Such an absence of evidence cannot be used to disprove the clear evidence stated elsewhere that babies do not meet the prerequisites of baptism.
Once again we summarize the example of conversion:
>>> Please read Acts 16:16-24. <<<
*7* What miracle did Paul perform on a servant girl? Answer: Paul cast out of her a ______.
*8* Who was upset by this? Answer: This upset the girl's ______ who made money off her.
*9* What accusations were made against Paul and Silas? Answer: They were accused of teaching customs that were not ______.
*10* What was done to them as a result? (a) nothing, (b) beating and imprisonment, (c) stoning, (d) they were set free. Answer: ______.
Comments: Paul cast the demon out of a girl who had a spirit of divination. Divination is a form of witchcraft (note Deut. 18:9-14). As in the previous cases of Simon (Acts 8) and Elymas (Acts 13), this story confirms that the Occult is from Satan, and that true miracles are superior to witchcraft.
When Paul cast the demon out, the girl's masters lost their source of income. They retaliated by making false accusations. As a result, Paul and Silas were beaten with rods and imprisoned, where the jailer put them in stocks in the innermost prison.
Note that, for perhaps the first time in Acts, Christians were here severely persecuted by someone other than the Jews.
>>> Please read Acts 16:25-34. <<<
*11* What happened that freed Paul and Silas? Answer: Paul and Silas were set free by an ______.
*12* What was the jailer about to do as a result? Answer: The jailer was about to ______.
*13* What did he do instead, when he realized no one had escaped? Answer: He asked what he must do to be ______.
*14* How was the man saved? (a) he was told to believe, (b) he was taught the whole gospel, (c) he was baptized, (d) all the preceding. Answer: ______.
Comments: At midnight, as Paul and Silas prayed and sang hymns, an earthquake opened their doors and loosed their chains. Since death was the penalty for losing a prisoner (Acts 12:19), the jailer was about to commit suicide. However, Paul called out that they had not left. The man had evidently heard something about the gospel and, realizing that his life had been spared, he asked Paul and Silas what he needed to do to be saved. This is perhaps the greatest question anyone can ever ask.
Note what happened as a result: (1) The jailer was told to believe in Jesus. (2) Then he and his family were taught the whole word of the Lord. (3) They were then baptized and had great joy as a result.
Some people argue that believing (v31) was all the man needed to do to be saved. However, this was just the introduction to the sermon! Paul and Silas still had to teach the word of the Lord to the man (v32). When the man knew the whole truth, he understood the urgency of baptism. He was immediately baptized, despite the fact the whole event began at midnight! Only after he was baptized did he rejoice, and the record says that then his faith was complete (v34). (Compare James 2:14-26.)
No passage anywhere in Acts shows sinners becoming saved without or before baptism. But many passages show the necessity of obedience, especially baptism, in salvation. See Matt. 7:21-27; Acts 10:34,35; 2:38; 22:16; Rom. 2:6-10; 6:3,4,17,18; Hebrews 5:9; 1 Peter 1:22,23; 3:21.
A summary of this example of conversion:
>>> Please read Acts 16:35-40. <<<
*15* What did the local magistrates decide to do the next day? Answer: The magistrates said to ______ the prisoners.
*16* What did Paul insist must be done first? Answer: Paul said the magistrates should personally come and release them, because they were ______ citizens.
Comments: A Roman citizen could not be beaten before he had been convicted in a trial. So when the magistrates of Philippi decided the next day to let Paul and Silas go, Paul insisted that his rights as a Roman had been violated. He and Silas left only after the magistrates had personally released them. Perhaps Paul wanted public evidence that he was innocent. In any case, Christians never used physical violence to avoid persecution, but they did use their civil rights for protection.
>>> Please read Acts 17:1-9. <<<
*17* How did Paul persuade Jews to believe in Jesus? (a) human tradition, (b) family religion, (c) reasoning from Scripture, (d) educators. Answer: ______.
*18* How did Jews describe the effect the gospel had (v6)? Answer: They said they turned upside down or troubled the ______.
*19* In what way did they claim Christians violated Caesar's law? Answer: They said Christians served a different ______.
Comments: Paul's company went next to Thessalonica (see map). Again in the synagogues they used prophecy to persuade Jews that Jesus is Christ and that He had to suffer and be raised from the dead.
Notice again how Christians drew people to Jesus and His church. They did not appeal to human wisdom or tradition, philosophy, family religion, majority rule, or man-made creeds. They did not offer carnivals, parties, entertainment, recreation, banquets or other carnal appeals (2 Cor. 10:3-5). The rested their case entirely on God's revealed will.
Note further that they "reasoned" from Scripture, explaining and demonstrating that Jesus is Christ. This conclusion is not directly stated in any Old Testament passage, but it necessarily followed from what was stated. This is sometimes called appealing to "necessary inference": drawing a conclusion that is not directly stated but which necessarily follows from what is stated. This is here called "reasoning from Scripture" and is shown to be a valid, binding way to determine God's will.
As usual, some people believed the gospel message, but others rejected it. And as before, unbelieving Jews caused a riot. They arrested a man named Jason, whom they accused of harboring Paul's company. They claimed that Christians had turned the world upside down. They knew this would concern the Romans, who despised turmoil in their territories. Adherents of the gospel never started riots or civil revolutions. That was done by enemies of the gospel. Nevertheless, the gospel will make a dramatic change in the personal lives of those who accept it.
Christians were also accused of serving a king who competes with Caesar. The Jews had used this accusation to urge Pilate to kill Jesus. Yet Jesus and Paul had always taught people to obey civil law and pay their taxes (Matt. 22:15-22; Rom. 13:1-7). Jesus explained to Pilate that His kingdom was spiritual in nature, not of this world (John 18:36).
The accusations were false, yet Paul's company again traveled on.
>>> Please read Acts 17:10-15. <<<
*20* How did the Bereans compare to the Thessalonians? Answer: They were more ______.
*21* How did they determine whether they were being taught truth? Answer: They searched the ______ daily with open minds.
Comments: Paul's company went next to Berea (see map). Here they found fair-minded or noble people, who possessed two characteristics necessary to distinguish truth from error: (1) they had honest hearts to receive the message, and (2) they examined God's word daily to see if what was taught was true. As a result, many of them believed the gospel. People who lack these characteristics will surely be led astray into error.
Note also that these people appealed to the Scriptures as their standard. Contrary to the claims of some, the Scriptures were not so confusing the common people could not understand them. Nor had parts been lost or changed over the centuries since they had been written. Today the New Testament has also been written, and God has also promised to preserve it (1 Peter 1:22-25). So today the Scriptures are the authoritative, understandable, and complete standard of God's will (2 Timothy 3:16,17).
Despite the honesty of the Bereans, Paul had to leave the city, because Jews from Thessalonica came and stirred up persecution.
>>> Please read Acts 17:16-23. <<<
*22&23* What philosophies did Paul encounter in the Athenian marketplace? Answer: He encountered ______ and ______ (v18).
*24* How is the Athenian interest in education described? Answer: They always wanted to hear or tell ______.
*25* What did Paul use to introduce his sermon? (a) an altar to an unknown god, (b) a joke, (c) a poem, (d) all the preceding. Answer: ______.
Comments: Paul's next stop was Athens (see map). The city was known for its love of learning and also for its idolatry. Greek mythology illustrates the kind of idolatry that characterized Gentiles in that day. Paul discussed with the Epicureans, who believed the pursuit of pleasure was the meaning of life, and also with Stoics, who at the other extreme sought to avoid both joy and grief.
Given an opportunity to present the gospel, Paul began by telling them about the one God they seemed to know nothing about. Again his sermon illustrates how heathen idol worshipers should be taught.
>>> Please read Acts 17:24-29. <<<
*26&27* What did these idol worshipers need to know first about God? Answer: God made the ______ and everything in it and is Lord of ______.
*28* How do we know God can be found if we seek Him? Answer: God is not far from ______ of us (v27).
*29* If we are God's offspring, what can we know? (a) God is not gold or silver, (b) God was not made by man, (c) both the preceding. Answer: ______.
Comments: As he did with the idol worshipers at Lystra (Acts 14), Paul emphasized that God is the Creator of heaven and earth. God is much more than just a man with superhuman powers, as Greek mythology portrayed the gods. We do not have different gods over different areas of the earth and different aspects of life. There is one God who created and rules everything. That God is the source from which all life came, therefore He must be alive. He does not depend on us to provide what He needs; rather we need God to provide for our needs. See also Acts 14:15,17; John 1:1-3; Rom. 1:20; 1 Chron. 29:11,12; James 1:17.
Paul also taught that God is not far from each of us (v27). God is omnipresent and all-knowing. Unlike with heathen deities, we cannot hide from God nor can we fool Him. He knows and sees everything we do (Psalm 139:1-12; John 16:30; Matthew 10:29-31; 6:8,32; 1 Kings 8:39). This also shows that God can be sought and found. He has not isolated Himself from us nor ignored us. We need not despair of knowing His will. We can know His will, for He has revealed it in the Scriptures. See also Matt. 5:6; 7:7-11; 1 Chron. 28:9; Rom. 10:6-17; 2 Tim. 3:16,17.
Finally, if we are the offspring of God (which even Athenians believed), then God must be alive and intelligent. He cannot be simply a statue of gold, silver, or stone. How could dead non-living matter create living, intelligent beings? (Modern evolutionists need to answer this question too!) Nor could God be anything made by the hands of men. God is not part of the creation. He is the Creator (Rom. 1:20-25). These are fundamental facts that distinguish the true God from the gods of ancient or modern idolatry. See also Deut. 4:19; 5:7-9; 2 Kings 21:1-6; 1 Cor. 6:9-11; 10:7,14; 2 Cor. 6:16-18; 1 John 5:21.
>>> Please read Acts 17:30-34. <<<
*30* What are all men commanded to do? (a) tithe, (b) repent, (c) observe Christmas and Easter, (d) say the rosary, (e) all the preceding. Answer: ______.
*31* What day has God appointed for all men in the world? Answer: God appointed a day in which He will ______ the world.
*32* How can we know this event will really occur? Answer: The assurance is that God raised Jesus from the ______.
Comments: Paul concluded by warning that God commands all men to repent. God, who made and controls the universe, has the right to demand obedience. These folks had to repent of their idolatry and begin to serve the true God. Likewise all of us have sins we must repent of. See Luke 13:3,5; 24:47; Acts 2:38; 3:19; 2 Peter 3:9; 2 Cor. 7:10.
Furthermore, God will judge all men according to their lives and will reward or punish them eternally. How can we know this? The proof is that God raised Jesus from the dead. If He can raise Jesus, then He can raise us all. Those, who have been dead for centuries, will still be raised and judged when Jesus returns. Matt. 25:31-46; John 12:48; Rom. 2:4- 11; 14:10-12; 2 Cor. 5:10; Heb. 9:27; Rev. 20:11-15; Ecc. 12:13,14
The doctrine of the resurrection challenged the Athenians. But all people, both then and now, need to learn the lessons Paul taught.
(These questions are for you to ponder. Your answers will help us understand your thinking, however they will not affect your "score.")
*33* Do you believe people in general can understand the Bible? __________
*34* What is your view of resurrection and judgment? __________
*35* What do you believe about infant baptism? _________
(C) Copyright David E. Pratte, 1999 biblestudylessons.com
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Scripture quotations are generally from the New King James Version (NKJV), copyright 1982, 1988 by Thomas Nelson, Inc. used by permission. All rights reserved.
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If the publication of Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859 was a watershed in the history of Western thought, it was not due merely to his suggestion that modern species were revised descendents of earlier ones. Rather, it was that Darwin had identified the precise mechanism by which one species could be revised into another, biologically distinct species. Darwin's proposal of evolution by natural selection gave immediate direction to research in the biological sciences, and it allowed the theory to begin doing important work in that arena (and beyond) by eventually closing the only significant explanatory gap that might otherwise have hindered its widespread acceptance. In his most recent book, John Richardson proposes to make Nietzsche's views on morality more coherent, more credible, and ultimately more useful by demonstrating that they are underwritten by a modified Darwinism that identifies the thoroughly naturalistic mechanisms by which human beings come to have the moral values and practices they do and through which they might realize the possibility of creating new, healthier values.
As even casual readers of Nietzsche will observe, the bulk of what Nietzsche has to say about Darwin and Darwinism is hostile. Richardson rightly points out that Nietzsche has a perhaps regrettable but nonetheless reliable tendency to bite off the hand that feeds him; the thinkers of whom he is most critical are often those from whom he takes the most inspiration. But his intellectual relationship to Darwin is more complicated still. As Richardson's examination of Nietzsche's position shows, Nietzsche's attacks appear to get wrong both Darwin's position and the biological facts of the matter. The central motif in Nietzsche's criticism of Darwin seems to be that Darwin lays too much stress on survival, and too little on power . But in offering this criticism, Nietzsche "misidentifies the selective criterion in Darwinism," which is not survival, but reproduction. Moreover, "Nietzsche seems to misread Darwinian survival as an 'end' in too literal a sense: as the aim of a will or drive or instinct" in the individual . It looks as if Nietzsche has missed something important about Darwinism -- namely, that it is not hopelessly teleological, but manages to handle the idea of 'ends' or 'aims' in an entirely naturalistic way. If this is the case, however, it appears that Nietzsche's hostile reaction to Darwin and his subsequent 'correction' of Darwinism are grounded in error. Richardson argues, however, that these errors might be peripheral after all, and that Nietzsche might really appreciate the main thrust of the Darwinian position. "What if," he asks, "[Nietzsche] gets right, after all, the sense of Darwinian selection -- how it is and isn't teleology -- and builds his own will to power and drives in parallel?" Richardson's aim is to demonstrate that the weight of textual evidence favors our reading Nietzsche in this way, and makes it more than just "wishful thinking" . I will return to this point below.
Richardson intends to show that, hostile remarks notwithstanding, Nietzsche not only accepts the core of Darwin's theory, but that he appropriates it for critical purposes of his own and even builds on it in ways that anticipate contemporary extensions of evolutionary theory within the social sciences; e.g., the analysis of social change and development in terms of memes (replicators that play a role in the transmission of cultural beliefs and practices analogous to the role played by genes in the transmission of physiological characteristics). Specifically, Richardson argues that Nietzsche recognizes a type of selection the Darwinists miss, one that operates over human societies rather than individuals . The Darwinian insights Nietzsche borrows and the introduction of his new supra-Darwinian mechanism for social selection allow him to construct a wholly naturalistic account of our values, their origin and functions; they lay the groundwork for Nietzsche's diagnosis of some values as "unhealthy," and they point the way toward "freedom" as a value that Nietzsche can endorse without violating either his rejection of a metaphysically free will or his observation that values are always indexed to some specific "perspective."
In the first of his four chapters, Richardson presents a thorough and careful picture of Nietzsche's biology, drawn along Darwinian lines. Readers of Nietzsche's System (Oxford University Press, 1996) will be familiar with the centrality Richardson accords Nietzsche's notion of "will to power," but here he (happily, in my view) widens the scope. Richardson says he has in no way retreated from the view developed in the earlier work: that we find in Nietzsche a systematic (metaphysical) theory of being in which power is ontologically basic, and in light of which we ought to understand the rest of Nietzsche's ideas. But in this new work, he concedes the "small plausibility" this metaphysical theory has for most of us, and gives readers concerned that the notion of will to power is "too isolated (or too Nachlass-bound) a notion to be worth worrying over" a new focus: now, he treats biological "drives," talk of which is pervasive in both the published and unpublished work, as Nietzsche's principal explanatory tokens [12-13].
Simply put, drives are dispositions to behave in certain ways; but importantly, they are dispositions to behave in ways that aim at specific results and that have been selected for their (highly plastic) tendencies to achieve their results. On the face of it, the notion that any purely physiological characteristic might have built-in 'aims' looks anathema to a thinker who so stridently rejects teleology. But herein lies one of the central virtues of Nietzsche's Darwinism -- it affords Nietzsche what Richardson refers to as a "thin" teleology, one that is able to acknowledge the end-directedness of drives naturalistically, without anthropomorphizing or implicitly relying on some vestigial intentionality . Hunger, for example, is a drive that 'aims' at eating, an activity that promotes survival and ultimately contributes to fitness (reproductive success). Clearly, in this case, the 'aiming' need not be conscious and its contribution to the overall end of reproductive success need not be evident; nevertheless, Richardson says, the outcome (eating) and its contribution to the overall end together explain the presence of the drive and the behavior it causes. What Darwinism offers is precisely a new model for teleology, a stripped-down version that Nietzsche need not reject because it makes clear how drives can be goal-oriented in an entirely non-cognitive way.
If the story is a bit more complicated for Nietzsche, it is because of the relationship between the economy of our various drives and "will to power." Nietzsche's New Darwinism offers two different suggestions for how we might understand that relationship. On the one hand, Richardson wants to say that "in his metaphysical moods, Nietzsche thinks that although drives may well be shaped by selection, this selection works on a raw material supplied to it by and as will to power itself" . Will to power and natural selection would thus be independent and competing explanations for the behavior of organisms. How the two explanations co-exist in Nietzsche's work and how the "cosmic force" that is will to power can be squared with other views he holds, including especially his naturalism, would in this case demand an independent account. (Such was the project of Nietzsche's System.) On the other hand, we could say that "the drives that have best served reproductive success and that dominate the drive economy of most organisms are drives whose goals involve some kind of control, either over other organisms, or over other drives in the same organism" . This is the "least metaphysical" reading of the relationship: natural selection is basic on this account, and (many) drives are selected to 'aim' not at survival or reproductive success, but at power.
Now these two interpretations are in obvious tension with one another. Cleaving to the central thesis of Nietzsche's System, Richardson remains convinced that the first is Nietzsche's "dominant" view. However, the 'concerned readers' mentioned above (of which I must admit I am one) will be pleased that he argues for the second "minority" view [6-7], offering an alternative that abandons the ontological and epistemic priority of will to power. The troubling feature of this strategy emerges with Richardson's frequent reminders that Nietzsche holds both views, with no awareness of their incompatibility. Nietzsche's actual position seems to be, like his understanding of Darwinism, simply confused: each "is a view Nietzsche sometimes thinks and states" , and although he is more deeply committed to the power ontology, "he does sometimes think the second, more fully Darwinian point" . That is, when he is at his best, "he sometimes thinks of will to power [as explained by selection]," rather than the other way around . It is difficult to see how our being forced to recognize that Nietzsche maintains contradictory views can help us appreciate the sophistication of the position built on the view to which he is in fact less committed.
I highlight this issue as an instance of a more general concern about this biological theory and the eloquent expression it finds in Richardson's book: simply put, the more elegant the view becomes and the greater explanatory power it gains, the less persuaded I am that it is Nietzsche's view. Nietzsche's failure to grasp a substantive inconsistency in the very foundation of this theory, coupled with the sometimes crude mischaracterizations of Darwinism that Nietzsche harbors, as we have seen above, and finally, the fact that Nietzsche seems to offer no independent observational evidence for this theory of selection are all serious obstacles to the acceptance of this position as a well-supported Nietzschean position. Richardson is careful never to oversell his interpretation, and he consistently emphasizes its claim to 'rational reconstruction'. But on the other hand, this new Darwinian account offers quite a lot: It promises to solve long-standing interpretive puzzles, like the apparent paradox between Nietzsche's 'fatalism' and his exhortations to create ourselves. It promises to help us understand how Nietzsche can lobby for particular values even as he claims that his values are 'just his' and 'always relative to a perspective'. It promises to give concrete and literal content to such central Nietzschean concepts as 'health' and 'sickness' and to afford us a more precise understanding of Nietzsche's 'genealogical' method. With all that turns potentially on this view, it is tempting to want more and clearer evidence of Nietzsche's having consciously constructed it.
Richardson makes a compelling case that this Darwinism, in its broadest strokes, can be plausibly and fruitfully attributed to Nietzsche. Whether its subtler details can be found there must be decided by a more careful consideration of the wealth of textual references Richardson marshals in support of his interpretation than I can provide in the context of a review. Fortunately, though, what he goes on to do in the remainder of the book does not stand or fall with the acceptance or rejection of the strongest version of Nietzsche's Darwinian biology. Each of Richardson's three subsequent chapters investigates a central area of Nietzsche's philosophy -- his metaethics, his ethics and politics, and his aesthetics, respectively -- and aims to show how the Darwinian reading can reveal the connections among them and help provide justification even for the views that appear most controversial.
Chapter 2 presses the analysis of drives (as plastic dispositions to behave in ways that aim at a particular goal) into the service of constructing an account of values: "values are precisely the goals of an organism's drives or wills" . It follows that we have some of our "values" unconsciously; they are built into our physiology by the process of natural selection. In this sense, all animals "value." Other "values," those we and Nietzsche are most interested in, are "values" in our more ordinary sense -- moral values, in particular. These values are also the result of selection, but in this case the selective mechanism (which from our standpoint operates largely invisibly) is social. The point of doing genealogy is to bring the same scientific investigative principles to bear on values that evolutionary biology brings to bear on the heritable characteristics of animal physiology. It aims to make this social selective process visible and explain how it happens that herds of human beings come to have the values they do. Among other things, genealogy reveals that the mechanism of social selection benefits the herd and not the individual. In fact, social selection tends to benefit the herd at the expense of the individual, when human beings acquire values (dispositions to behave in ways) that come into direct and violent conflict with the aims of drives they have by natural selection. Richardson develops the idea of this internal conflict into a persuasive naturalistic account of what Nietzsche means by diagnosing certain values as "sick," and he explores further here and in Chapter 3 whether we might find in Nietzsche a prescription for how (at least some) human beings might restore their "health" [77-78]. Briefly, he suggests that the new epistemic powers and insights we gain by doing genealogy make possible a new kind of value selection that is unlike either the natural selection operating on individuals or the social selection operating on groups. Richardson calls this new mechanism "self-selection," and he uses his Darwinian reading to argue that this is how we should understand the idea of freedom, a value that Nietzsche not only embraces for himself but that he also promotes for select readers: "The key to becoming myself is to select my values, i.e., the goals of the dispositions that -- in making my behavior -- specify 'who I am'" . This understanding of freedom is pivotal to Richardson's account, since he intends to use the connections between Nietzsche and Darwin not only to illuminate Nietzsche's critical (destructive) project but also to demonstrate that Nietzsche has a constructive account of valuing.
Here, my concern is whether Richardson is too optimistic about genealogy's potential. I wonder first whether, in order for genealogy to make freedom and self-selection a genuine possibility, it must lay completely bare the etiology of the relevant drives. If we think of it as a science in the manner suggested here, this expectation of it seems reasonable. Moreover, Richardson asserts that this is in fact its goal: "The meanings of our drives and practices, what they are truly after ('for'), lie in this evolutionary history" . And, even more strongly: "Meaning is settled by genealogy" . But this view sits somewhat uncomfortably with one of Nietzsche's best-known illustrations of the genealogical method, i.e., his discussion of punishment in the second essay of The Genealogy of Morality. Richardson draws our attention to the passage in which Nietzsche claims that "the previous history of punishment in general, the history of its exploitation for the most various purposes, finally crystallizes into a kind of unity that is hard to dissolve, hard to analyze and, what one must emphasize, quite completely undefinable" [42; cf. GM II: 13]. Yet he seems to play down the claim about "undefinability" that has attracted so much attention to this passage. While the genealogy prerequisite for freedom is, on Richardson's account, never easy work and certainly not for the faint-of-heart, it must still -- after the hard work is done -- yield "settled" meanings in order for self-selection to proceed effectively. But Nietzsche gives us no clear reason to suppose that genealogy, even properly practiced, can settle any such thing decisively. Secondly, on this reading, "valuing freely, as self selecting one's values, is precisely to value in the light of an understanding of why one values" . Here, I wonder whether we undercut the radical nature of Nietzsche's "immoralism" by seeing that, in the end, Nietzsche is just a more enlightened valuer than others. Though Richardson gestures at Nietzsche's stridently avowed opposition to the Enlightenment and its values, he says, "his conception of the benefits of genealogy shows that he really aims at a novel kind of enlightenment" . But the novelty may be underemphasized here, with the result that we get a more coherent Nietzsche at the cost of having one we recognize.
There is a great deal more of interest in Richardson's final chapters. In Chapter 3, for instance, he takes on the thorny issue of Nietzsche's affiliation with Social Darwinism. Here, Richardson takes a line that will be surprising to many, that there are agreements between Nietzsche and the Social Darwinists; but again, he uses a more subtle interpretation of Nietzsche's view to demonstrate that the agreements are less significant than the differences, and that the differences point Nietzsche in a very different direction. Chapter 4 will be of particular value for those interested in Nietzsche's aesthetics, but not only for them. Since Richardson's overall purpose is to present a reading of Nietzsche's theory of value that gives that theory its best chance of being true, he realizes that he is compelled to consider Nietzsche's perennial reminder that his values are intended (merely) "aesthetically," and what is worse, Nietzsche's equally frequent declaration that aesthetic works are "lies." He ends the book with an attempt to bring even these disparate and difficult comments under the purview of his synoptic reading and vigorous defense of Nietzsche's views.
Nietzsche's New Darwinism exemplifies the virtues that have long characterized Richardson's work and that have over the last two decades increasingly characterized the best scholarly work on Nietzsche: it is meticulously organized and carefully argued, with scrupulous attention to the demand for textual evidence in support of the interpretations it offers. The prose is lucid and the arguments transparent in a way that non-specialists in Nietzsche (and perhaps even some specialists) might never have expected that writing about Nietzsche could be. This book will be of particular interest, of course, to Nietzsche specialists who want to understand him within the context of the history of ideas and the history of science in the nineteenth century, and it is in this sense an important contribution to a lively and ongoing conversation. But I would recommend this work strongly to two other types of readers, who might otherwise miss its value for them. First, no specialist on Nietzsche who regards the "naturalist" readings of his work as controversial can afford to overlook it. Nietzsche's New Darwinism will force such readers to engage head-on a powerful set of reasons to embrace Nietzsche as a naturalistic thinker. Second, I would note that this book's clear and careful presentation of the issues makes it accessible to any patient and philosophically informed reader. Thus, anyone whose interest has been piqued by the presentation of Nietzsche's views in such popular works as Dennett's Darwin's Dangerous Idea (Simon and Schuster, 1995) owes it to himself to consider a more detailed, textually sensitive, and sympathetic development of Nietzsche's position.
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Today on a Moment of Science we put to rest once and for all the myth that microwaving food somehow damages or irradiates it. There is no evidence that microwave food is less nutritious than any other kind of food, even if it doesn’t always come out crispy.
Microwaves are low energy electromagnetic waves that have so little energy they can’t trigger chemical reactions in the molecules they encounter. And as long as there’s nothing in your microwave that can cause a spark, they also don’t leave behind any traces. When you heat food in the microwave, what you’re actually doing is running an electrical current through the water molecules in the food. This causes the water molecules to rotate and collide, and these collisions generate friction that produces a lot of heat. The reason microwaves are so speedy is because food is made up mostly of water. In contrast, when you use an oven or a grill, you have to wait for the food to heat from the outside in.
Consequently, the only chemical and physical changes that happen to your food when you microwave it are the results of the heating process. For example, at high temperatures, sugars and proteins might interact and vitamins might be destroyed. The thing to keep in mind is that these changes happen regardless of the method you use to heat food. What’s more, because microwaves heat up food so quickly, some of these changes might be less drastic than in foods that are heated up over a long time.
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What is the pectoral region?
What is the pectoral region?
The pectoral region is the anterior region of the upper chest where there are four thoracoappendicular muscles (also known as the pectoral muscles): pectoralis major. pectoralis minor. subclavius. serratus anterior.
Where is the pectoralis located?
The pectoralis major is the superior most and largest muscle of the anterior chest wall. It is a thick, fan-shaped muscle that lies underneath the breast tissue and forms the anterior wall of the axilla.
Is the breast in the pectoral region?
The major portion of the human breast or mammary gland is embedded in the superficial fascia of the pectoral region. Thus, it lies superficial to the pectoralis major muscle and fascia.
Is the breast part of the pectoral region?
Where may breast tissue be found? Breast tissue may be found anywhere along the mammary or milk line from axilla to groin, but usually in the pectoral region between the clavicle, sternum, costal margin and axilla.
What is the function of pectoralis?
The function of the pectoralis major is 3-fold and dependent on which heads of muscles are involved. With the origin fixed, the pectoralis major adducts, medially rotates, and transversely adducts arm at glenohumeral joint. It assists in extension of the arm (via the sternocostal head) at the glenohumeral joint.
What does the pectoral muscle look like?
The major muscle in the chest is the pectoralis major. This large fan-shaped muscle stretches from the armpit up to the collarbone and down across the lower chest region on both sides of the chest. The two sides connect at the sternum, or breastbone.
What is the area under breasts called?
In human anatomy, the inframammary fold (IMF), inframammary crease or inframammary line is the natural lower boundary of the breast, the place where the breast and the chest meet. The choice of the term depends on the prominence of the feature. It is also sometimes called the inframammary ligament.
What are the 3 pectoral muscles?
If you’re a gym lover, you’ll hear these muscles also being referred to as the pecs muscles. The pectoralis major has a broad origin, based on which it is divided into three parts: clavicular part, sternocostal part and abdominal part.
What muscle is under your breast?
Underneath the breasts there is fibrous tissue and muscle. The pectoral muscle passes underneath the breast and connects the chest and the arm. Lying further below the pectoral muscle are the ribs which are connected by intercostal muscles, which raise and lower the rib cage when breathing in and out.
Where is a women’s pectoral muscle?
Whats the biggest part of the chest?
For starters, we have what many people confuse as being the upper and lower chest: the pectoralis major and pectoralis minor (aka “the pecs”). They are in fact NOT fancy words for upper and lower. Instead, the pectoralis major is the big fan shaped muscle that makes up the majority of your chest musculature.
What do the pectorals do?
The pectoralis major extends across the upper part of the chest and is attached to a ridge at the rear of the humerus (the bone of the upper arm). Its major actions are adduction, or depression, of the arm (in opposition to the action of the deltoideus muscle) and rotation of the arm forward about the axis of the body.
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Home Computer Science OECD guidelines on measuring subjective well-being.
Mode effects and survey context Introduction
This section discusses survey mode and timing as well as the impact of the wider context in which surveys are conducted - such as incidental day-to-day events that might affect responses. It essentially concerns the extent to which subjective well-being data collected under different circumstances using different methods can still be considered comparable. It also examines the question of whether there is an “optimal” method for subjective well-being data collection, in terms of data quality.
There are a variety of different survey methods available for the collection of subjective well-being data. These include:
The central issue with regard to survey mode is whether data collected in different modes can be considered comparable. In general, survey mode effects can take the form of: 1) coverage error, i.e. certain modes excluding or failing to reach certain segments of the population; 2) non-response bias, i.e. different respondents having preferences for different modes; and 3) measurement error (Jackle, Roberts and Lynn, 2006). The current chapter is
Box 2.2. Experience Sampling and the Day Reconstruction method
Some measures of subjective well-being, particularly affective measures, require respondents to retrospectively recall their previous experiences over a given time frame. A frequent concern is that various self-report biases (including those linked to certain personality traits) can influence this recall process. In terms of minimising the memory burden and the risk of recall biases, Experience Sampling Methodologies (ESM - Csikszentmihalyi and Larson, 1992; Hormuth, 1986; Larson and Delespaul, 1992), also known as Ecological Momentary Assessments (EMA - Schwartz and Stone, 1998; Smyth and Stone, 2003; Stone et al., 1998) represent the “gold standard”. In these methods, respondents provide “real-time” reports throughout the study-period, and the memory burden is either very small (e.g. summing experiences over the past few hours) or nonexistent (e.g. requiring respondents to report how they are feeling right now). Studies typically involve between two and twelve recordings per day (Scollon et al., 2003) and may last one or two weeks. To ensure compliance among respondents (for example, to detect and prevent the “hoarding” of responses until the end of the day, which can be a significant problem with paper diaries), it is advisable to use electronic diaries, such as palm-top computers pre-programmed with questions and with an internal clock that can both remind respondents when entries are due and record the timing of responses (Stone et al., 2002).
Whilst experience sampling methods have some significant advantages in data quality, the study design is burdensome for both respondents and research resources. A less intrusive and burdensome alternative is offered by the Day Reconstruction Method or DRM (Kahneman et al., 2004). This technique is designed to assist respondents in systematically reconstructing their day in order to minimise recall biases. It builds on evidence suggesting that end-of-day mood reports may be more accurate than previously supposed (Parkinson et al., 1995), and that retrospective accounts of mood may be reasonably valid for periods of up to 24 hours (Stone, 1995). The DRM represents a more pragmatic alternative to the ESM but still requires detailed survey modules, which can for example take respondents between 45 and 75 minutes to complete (Kahneman et al., 2004).
particularly concerned with the third of these issues, and although discussion of sampling issues is covered in Chapter 3, the first and second issues also have consequences that potentially interact with mode effects and problems with data quality - for example, where mode effects are more likely among certain groups of respondents.
A further crucial consideration is the extent to which identical question wording and response formats can be used across different survey modes. As noted in Sections 1 and 2 of this chapter, question wording and response formats can have non-trivial impacts on responses. If questions designed for pen-and-paper questionnaires or face-to-face interviews need to be modified for presentation over the telephone, for example, this may reduce the comparability of the data collected.
Techniques for the measurement of subjective well-being can vary substantially on a wide range of dimensions that may be of relevance to measurement error, such as:
There are various ways in which the above features of survey mode can influence data quality - for example, through influencing respondent motivation, question comprehension and the likelihood of satisficing and response biases. Interviewer interaction and audience effects are also expected to influence the extent to which self-presentational effects and socially desirable responding are likely to occur, such as presenting oneself in a positive light, or conforming to social norms. In the case of subjective well-being measures, self-presentational biases, if present, would be expected to increase reports of positive evaluations and emotions and decrease reports of negative ones. Although self-presentation effects are quite a wide-reaching issue for data quality, discussion of them is generally limited to this section of the chapter, because the main practical implications in terms of survey methodology concern the impact of survey mode.
Different survey methods have different advantages, and steps taken to reduce one risk to data quality (such as social desirability) may have consequences for other risks (such as other forms of response bias). Furthermore, where mode differences are detected, this does not in itself tell you which mode is producing the more accurate data. Much of the discussion that follows therefore describes the extent to which survey mode appears to influence subjective well-being data and the extent to which data collected in different modes can be compared with confidence.
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February 28, 2007
GCRIO Program Overview
Our extensive collection of documents.
Archives of the
Global Climate Change Digest
A Guide to Information on Greenhouse Gases and Ozone Depletion
Published July 1988 through June 1999
FROM VOLUME 3, NUMBER 6, JUNE 1990
OF GENERAL INTEREST
"Model Calculations of the Relative Effects of CFCs and Their
Replacements on Stratospheric Ozone," D.A. Fisher (Du Pont Exper. Sta.,
Wilmington DE 19880), C.H. Hales et al., Nature, 344(6266),
508-512, Apr. 5, 1990.
Because hydrohalocarbons are destroyed by reaction with atmospheric hydroxyl
radicals in the troposphere, they have significantly shorter atmospheric
lifetimes than CFCs, and are being examined as CFC replacements. Model
calculations show that chlorine-containing hydrohalocarbons have less effect on
ozone, by an order of magnitude, than CFCs.
"Model Calculations of the Relative Effects of CFCs and Their
Replacements on Global Warming," D.A. Fisher (address immed. above), C.H.
Hales et al., ibid., 513-516.
Uses two separately developed atmospheric models to simulate the chemical
reactions and radiative balance of the atmosphere. Results of the two models
agreed well after normalizing calculated effects with respect to CFC-11, using
consistent assumptions about chemical lifetimes. Concludes that the potential of
the replacement compounds to affect global warming is an order of magnitude less
than that of CFCs, chiefly because of shorter atmospheric lifetimes.
"Relative Contributions of Greenhouse Gas Emissions to Global
Warming," D.A. Lashof (Nat. Resour. Defense Council, 1350 New York Ave. NW,
Washington DC 20005), D.R. Ahuja, ibid., 529-531.
Proposes an index of global warming potential for methane, carbon monoxide,
nitrous oxide and CFCs relative to that of carbon dioxide, and applies this to
determine the source of recent increases in greenhouse forcing to help establish
a basis for policy development. Carbon dioxide emissions account for 80% of the
contribution to global warming of current greenhouse gas emissions, but only 57%
of the increase in radiative forcing during the 1980s.
"The Global Effects of Tropical Deforestation," R.A. Houghton
(Woods Hole Res. Ctr., Woods Hole MA 02543), Environ. Sci. Technol.,
24(4), 414-421, Apr. 1990.
Considers the effects of tropical deforestation on emissions of trace gases
and on the earth's atmosphere and climate, emphasizing the effect from CO2
emissions. Explains three strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from
tropical forests. Urges policies to stabilize CO2 in the atmosphere that include
a reduction of fossil fuel use, an end to deforestation, and an increase in the
area of forests.
"Precise Monitoring of Global Temperature Trends from Satellites,"
R.W. Spencer (Marshall Space Flight Ctr., Code ES43, Huntsville AL 35812), J.R.
Christy, Science, 247(4950), 1558-1560, Mar. 30, 1990.
Analysis of the first 10 years (1979-1988) of satellite measurements of
lower atmospheric temperature changes reveals a monthly precision of 0.01° C
and large temperature variability on time scales from weeks to several years,
but no obvious trend for the 10-year period.
"Observational Constraints on the Global Atmospheric CO2 Budget,"
P.P. Tans (CIRES, Campus Box 216, Univ. Colo., Boulder CO 80309), I.Y. Fung, T.
Takahashi, ibid., 1431-1435, Mar. 23, 1990.
Comparison of observations with general circulation model results shows that
the observed differences between the partial pressures of CO2 in the surface
waters of the Northern Hemisphere and the atmosphere are too small for the
oceans to be the major sink of fossil fuel CO2. Therefore, a large amount of the
CO2 is apparently absorbed on the continents by terrestrial ecosystems.
"Cloud Albedo, Greenhouse Effects, Atmospheric Chemistry, and
Climate Change," J.E. Penner (Lawrence Livermore Lab., Univ. Calif., POB
808, Livermore, Calif.), J. Air Waste Mgmt. Assoc., 40(4),
456-461, Apr. 1990.
Summarizes recent research in trends in long-lived species such as CO2, CH4,
N2O and CFCs; trends in short-lived species such as NOx and SOx; and changes in
cloud optical properties. Explains the need to develop 3-D global chemistry and
climate models to evaluate the effects of these emissions and understand
quantitative changes in climate that may occur in the future.
"The United States Global Change Research Program (US/GCRP): An
Overview and Perspectives on the FY 1991 Program," R.W. Corell (Nat. Sci.
Foundation, Washington DC 20550), Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 71(4),
507-511, Apr. 1990.
The United States Global Change Research Program represents an integrated,
government-wide scientific effort designed to document, understand and predict
changes in the global environment to provide the foundation for national and
international policy making. The proposed budget details a coordinated program
of research that involves seven agencies and includes a major new initiative:
the Earth Observing System, EOS. (See REPORTS/EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE, this
Global Climate Change Digest issue--June 1990.) Issues: Toward a Strategic
Plan for A&WMA," D.G. Fox (USDA-For. Serv., Rocky Mountain For. &
Range Exper. Sta., Fort Collins CO 80526), J. Air Waste Mgmt. Assoc.,
40(3), 376-377, Mar. 1990.
Proposes that the Air and Waste Management Association is the appropriate
organization to facilitate the necessary debates over global change, to provide
professional leadership, to educate the public, and to aid in the formulation of
responsible policies. The Association has made global change one of its major
themes; suggestions for Association initiatives on this topic are welcomed by
"A First Approach to Assessing Future Climate States in the UK Over
Very Long Timescales: Input to Studies of the Integrity of Radioactive Waste
Repositories," C.M. Goodess (Clim. Res. Unit, Univ. East Anglia, Norwich
NR4 7TJ, UK), J.P. Palutikof, T.D. Davies, Clim. Change, 16,
As part of the UK disposal safety assessment program, time-dependent models
of the repository environment are being developed. Two methods are being
employed: the Milankovitch theory and an empirical analysis of the long-term
reconstructed climate record. The climate sequence established using these
methods will form the basis for studying related processes, such as erosion and
groundwater movement and transfer by vegetation, and their implications for
radioactive waste disposal.
Guide to Publishers
Index of Abbreviations
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It’s shocking how much food we throw away because it goes bad in the fridge. Aside from wasting money, it’s just plain wasteful, given how many people go hungry.
One of our New Year’s resolutions was to stop wasting food. We looked at exactly what we were throwing out a week later, and figured out how to use it within a day or two. Here’s the plan we devised:
• Cooked Vegetables: All leftover vegetables go into an omelet or scramble for the next day’s breakfast or dinner.
• Proteins: Meat and fish leftovers too meager for a sandwich get added to the next day’s pasta or rice dish.
• Salad: We only dress half of the salad. If anyone wants more salad, it’s easy to dress and serve. Dressed salad turns into a soggy mess overnight; but washed, undressed salad stays crisp in paper towels and a plastic bag.
Leftover scraps go into omelets, pasta or rice.
• Berries: Berries are very perishable; ours often rot before they’re finished. If you simply can’t finish them on breakfast cereal or as a snack, stick them in the freezer and use them in a smoothie or a puree.
• Other Fresh Fruits & Vegetables: If they’re about to go bad and we don’t have the appetite to eat them, we slice and marinate them (use vinaigrette for veggies, liqueur for fruits) or quickly steam them. It buys another couple of days. Steamed fruit and veggies can be turned into purées or soup. Vegetables can be topped with sauce and grated cheese for a snack or side.
• Bonus: Chicken carcasses, meat and fish bones get converted into stock. Though we’ve often made excuses for not making stock (no time top make it, no place to store it), we find that if we start the stock as we’re cleaning up from dinner, it “makes itself.” And we don’t store it because we plan to use it the next day.
Think of how you waste food and write down—then follow—your own tips to stop it. If you need ideas, let us know.
Related Food Videos: For more food videos, check out The Nibble's Food Video Collection.
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Source: Suresh Fernando
What is philosophy? If it is anything it is the domain that aims to answer the most substantial questions in a foundational way. It attempts, for example, to provide an account of Truth or Knowledge in a manner that answers these questions in a way that can be understood as ‘scientific’. The attempt, therefore, is to make ‘objective’ or ‘universal’ certain domains of inquiry.
There is more to philosophy than this, however. In virtue of the inquiry into the problems that are most fundamental, philosophers, privilege their domain of inquiry. Philosopher have a sense that their inquiry is in some way special… that it stands distinct from other inquiries. How justified is this? What is the current status of the inquiry?
Rorty is famous for saying ‘Philosophy is Dead!’ What did he mean by this?
The pursuit of foundationalism has followed two different paths that find their basis in two differing perspectives on the foundations for knowledge. The most central philosophical distinction, dating back to Plato, was that between forms and essences and sense impressions… qualia, and so on. For the former, there was something fundamental that resided outside of one’s direct experience of the world… something essential that we are hopefully able to access. Popularly this frame of reference is known as rationalism.
Empiricism which found its roots in the work of Locke, Berkeley and Hume, was a response to rationalism… It asked all metaphysicians who spoke of transcendent realms… how do you know? What is the basis for your knowledge? Empiricists steadfastly assert that the source and foundation for all of our knowledge is sense experience and everything that we can infer needs to start with this foundation.
Then along came Immanuel Kant who served to bridge this divide by constructing an account, in his magnum opus, the Critique of Pure Reason, that suggests that knowledge is constructed by categories in the mind that impose order on an unstructured external world. So persuasive was this account that it completely shifted the playing field and the way we view knowledge as well as our relation to the world. In effect, Kant bridged the divide between rationalists and empiricists.
This is the first major step in collapsing the distinction between subject/object… private public… inside/outside…
The essence of the Kantian position was that certain forms of knowledge/concepts that are such that the predicate is not contained in the subject, yet it can be known prior to experience. These statements are known as ones that are synthetic a priori (think of ‘all bodies are heavy’). Synthetic statements are contrasted with analytic statements (‘all husbands are male’).
Kant, even in bridging the divide between empiricism and rationalism is still a foundationalist… He reifies reason and the autonomy of human subjectivity. Kant is the philosopher of the enlightentment who, coincident with the emergence of science as a paradigm, develops a view of human subjectivity that elevates the status of humankind… No longer is Truth relegated to transcendent realms… Nor are we merely receptacles for external experience… No longer does subjectivity simply impose order on a world, it serves to structure certain forms of knowledge in a way that provides a foundation for that which is true and certain.
The next wave of modern foundationalists were the logical positivists, the Vienna Circle. In response to the style of philosophy that was prominent on the continent (German Idealism); a style that had a different tone but was nevertheless foundationalist in its own right… a tone that aimed to construct grand systems that integrated everything. Hegel and Marx were examples of this tradition… those that had a view of very broad scope but that postulated objectivity… they had arrived at the truth! Characteristic of the German Idealists was a certain obtuseness… a difficulty in understand what they were saying. What, after all, is Absolute Spirit and how precisely is it expressed through the march of history?
The logical positivists found their roots in the convergence of mathematical logic (Frege, Peano, Cantor. Goedel…), philosophy of language (Russell and Wittgenstein) and empiricism. The emergence of philosophy of language during this period was, at least in part, due to the sense that philosophy had gone astray… had lost its capacity to be foundationalist due to its mode of presentation… as represented by the German tradition. Those like Russell, Frege and Carnap who had been trained in formal logic explored the integration of logical principles into the pantheon of philosophy? How could logic be utilized as the basis for developing a foundation for philosophy?
This spawned a wide range of theories of truth and meaning (Frege and Russell etc…)… foundationalism persisted!
Language philosophers, as a result of their inquiry into the status of language and role in philosophy came to more deeply understand the relationship between thought and language, and therefore the limits of what we can know… This elevated the importance of language within the broader discourse… Philosophy becomes about language…
Truth, knowledge, reality itself become about language…This is known as the linguistic turn…
One might say that the end of foundationalism came when William Van Orman Quine, in the Two Dogmas of Empiricism, offered a powerful critique of the Kantian position, thereby challenging the ‘internalist’ position, which challenges the analytic/synthetic divide and thereby the possibility of synthetic a priori statements… In mounting a successful challenge, he refutes the idea that the rational agent can, simply in virtue of categories of the mind, create certain sorts of concepts; synthetic ones.
The crux of the argument lies in a demonstration that language is a property of community interaction… that all linguistic terms get their meaning from our interaction with others and therefore reference to internal constitution of truth/meaning is off target.
That philosophy can be foundational is further challenged by Wilfred Sellar’s attacks the empiricist perspective (and therefore the ground of knowledge) from a different perspective when he elucidates the Myth of the Given. He challenges the foundation of the empiricist position through arguments that suggest that all knowledge is linguistic/propositional… that there can be nothing ‘given’ that can serve as the basis for inferential knowledge. Sellars’ position is anti-foundationalist in that it eliminates the hierarchy/foundation for knowledge… that which is simply ‘given’ from which all else is inferred.
Both Quine and Sellars, coming from different directions, place language at the center!
Both of these arguments serve, in different ways, to shift the ground for knowledge into the public domain; to make knowledge a social construct… what Rorty would refer to as epistemic behaviourism… This is, in some sense, the grounding for the entire tradition of ‘pragmatism’ (Dewey, James, Rorty…)… a tradition that rejects Truth and Knowledge as the basis for foundationalism… or the relevance of foundationalism at all…
But is there more to be said about foundationalism in philosophy?
The combination of the Kantian focus on the ‘point of cognition’… as well as the move to a more internalist position gave rise to another branch of German philosophy that explored the way that our mind connects with the world and brings to bear on our knowledge of the world. Isn’t the way that sensory information is presented to cognition a good basis for studying the ‘phenomena’ of consciousness? This gave rise to a deeper examination of the way phenomenon present themselves to consciousness and the domain of Phenomenology and is represented through the work of Husserl is born.
Phenomenology aims to raise, to a level of ‘science’ the examination of the way that objects in the world present themselves to consciousness. As such the ‘boundary’ of its domain of inquiry is subjectivity itself. This approach is also found wanting… Martin Heidegger, Husserl’s most famous student in his magnum opus, Being and Time, introduces the notion of Dasein… Being-in-the-world. The basic insight is that we cannot examine merely the objects of consciousness; how they are presented to us; how we interpret them; what meaning they give us and so on because our consciousness cannot be understood as having a boundary. We, as human beings, bring to each moment a long history that preceded us. We are influenced by our parents our teachers as well as our communal context. We are embedded in a complex and deep nexus of activity and relations that serve to define us at each moment. We are, in some large sense, constituted by our context, history and relations… Our march forward in time, therefore, is not a series of discrete moments but a continuous stream of ‘meaning-to-us’ that serves to shape our consciousness… Heidegger extends the notion of inquiry by raising the question: ‘What is it to be?’
This, in some sense, marks the birth of existentialism…
Who else might be considered the ‘founder’ of existentialism? Well, Friedrich Nietzsche of course!
Nietzsche… a genius of extraordinary proportions and, arguably the most influential ‘contemporary’ philosopher of all time was heavily influenced by Arthur Schopenauer who was, in turn, greatly influenced by Kant. Essential to the Kantian position was the notion of the thing-in-itself… that aspect of reality that we could not know. If our mind’s impose order on reality, there is an aspect of reality that is beyond our grasp. Schopenhauer wondered if it were possible to have access, in some way, to the realm of the thing-in-itself… was there any evidence from the state of affairs in the world to suggest what might lie beneath the surface… that we could not see but might be able to infer something about? In observing the state of affairs in the world; a world rife with suffering, pain, war, conflict, genocide etc… he could only conclude that what lay beneath the surface was something furious, animalistic, uncontrolled… Dionysian… a fury that impelled and propelled us individually and as a species in a particular direction, but that was always in conflict with our rational aims… our higher ambitions. Schopenhauer is famous for being a pessimist; not seeing any way out of this morass… He eventually sought solace in eastern mysticism as he concluded that renunciation of this Will was the only hope!
Nietzsche begged to differ! He embraced the notion of Will, but saw in this notion something deeper… something that provided life with a source of meaning. Nietzsche shares Schopenhaur’s intuition that there is something furious, uncontrolled and uncontrollable in human nature. He understand the internal fury that ensues… the constant internal struggle between the ferocity of our animal nature and our attempt to transcend this. Nietzsche sees reason/rationality as an essential element in the human experience; one that is always in conflict with the animal in us… Nietzsche articulates the Apollonia/Dionysius distinction… the two sides of human nature… For Nietzsche transcendence is the refined convergence of these two internal imperatives.
In viewing things as such, Nietzsche introduces the notion of temporality and provides a suggestion as to how we might guide our lives… through transcendence… of ourselves…
He also deconstructs all metaphysical claims, showing with precision that all thought forms are social constructs… ‘God is Dead!’ In doing so he places the responsibility squarely on our shoulders. We cannot appeal to anything outside of ourselves for guidance… We have created this mess and now we must clean it up!
He also provides an intuition as to where the problem may lie… If we are, in part, guided by our animal nature… a subpersonal world that we have no visibility into that is motivated by base imperatives to survive, procreate and so on that comes into contact with our more rational selves, how can we contend with this conflict? Is this conflict the source of our conflict with ourselves? The source of our unhappiness… the source of tension with others… the source of conflicts between nation states?
Is transcendence a possibility?
And then along came Sartre who granted us radical autonomy! Sarte suggested that, in the final analysis, we are free to choose to do exactly as we want. Even faced with a gun to our head, we choose our response… The aspiration towards freedom motivates most social organization in western culture and the prospect of personal freedom can be intoxicating! But is he correct?
The most important contribution that Sartre has made is his notion of Being-for-itself… the idea that humankind is distinct from the animal kingdom in virtue of its ability to reflect on itself… to create a picture of itself… to represent itself to itself. It provides an intuition, at a deeper level, of the source of existential struggle… the disconnection between who we are and who we ought to be…
It also raises to the fore the notion of representation… that sense in which a rational cognition can construct the way that it stands in relation to itself as well as the way that it stands in relation to others…
So what now?
Truth is to philosophy as God is to religion… a ‘foundational distraction’
We need not concern ourselves with ultimate truths that apply to everyone. What matters is not what is True or what you Know but what is sufficient that we choose to do this or that. What is incontrovertible is that we move through space and time, describing an arc of activity that defines us. This set of actions, consequences, responses… serve to define us. In this is sense Sartre was correct. We are no more than we do.
What need to understand is not what is foundational for Truth or Knowledge, but what is foundational for choice… for the discrimination that results, in the moment, in choosing to go left or right. This choice is not grounded in Truth or Knowledge… categories that have received much philosophical attention.. but Relevance… the satisfaction of conditions necessary for a particular individual… to choose…
What is relevant for you or I will not require that knowledge be True or Certain… but that it be meaningful for us from moment to moment. This meaning will be derived from a deep realization of the complexity of human existence (the combination of our animal and rational nature) as well a realization of the complexities of our social and global context. What is Relevant for an individual must also account for our connection to others that are significant to us as well as our communal context.
We need not pursue a deeper understanding of what is True in some deep or abstract sense, or what the conditions are for the possibility of deeper, foundational Knowledge. What matters is our human experience… that we understand the inner machinations of our internal and external world such that we live in peace and harmony.
There is a sense in which this position is eminently pragmatic… Rorty, a pragmatist, when asked whether he was a relativist suggested that all he could offer was that we organize ourselves based on the way western democracies have organized themselves… that philosophy cannot base its inquiry on something deeper.
This is not good enough!
W will need to do better…
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2. Terminology (Key words)
3. Drug Administration & Absorption (Route)
4. Brief Discussion of Drug Groups, Actions and Effects
- Respiratory System [Mucolytics, Antitussive, Stimulants and Asthma drugs]
- Drugs in Rheumatic diseases
- Drugs in Cancer (Chemo)
- Drugs in Pain Relief (Analgesics)
Per definition Physical Therapy is referred to, as a health discipline that deals with habilitation and rehabilitation of dysfunctions resulting from injuries, surgical or diseases.
Physical Therapy utilizes: Physical means such as therapeutic exercises, water (hydrotherapy), Ice (Criotherapy), Heat (Thermotherapy), and Electrotherapy (Ultrasound, Short-Wave Diathermy, TENS & Interferential) for pain relief and functional restoration to patients or clients.
Physical Therapy is at times referred as ‘Physical Medicine’ as opposed to Drug and Surgical interventions. Drugs or Medicationsper sefall outside the footprint of physical therapy.
However, it will not be correct to say, that the field of physical therapy stands 100% only on the physical means platform for interventions.
At certain extent, pharmaceutical agents are commonly encountered in the physical therapy practice.
Therefore, this assignment serves the purpose of shading light about these drugs that are commonly encountered in the practice of physical therapy and complementing it, their actions and effects, and the grouping of them.
2. TERMINOLOGY (Keywords):
Drug:broadly can be defined as any chemical agent that affects processes of living.
Pharmacology:is when the effects of drugs or rather chemical agent over the living is studied in relation to prevention, diagnosis and treatment of diseases.
Therapeutics:Simply means application of Pharmacology in clinical practice
3. DRUG ADMINISTRATION & ABSORPTION (Route):
For a drug to perform its intended therapeutic tasks, it must at first place Administered and Absorbed.
From there is carried or transported to the tissues where it is desired to act, but one should note a drug taken orally (mouth) to the gastro-intestine has to go via the liver (at times referred to as ‘body laboratory’) and from there then only to the tissues. These drugs can be in the form of Solution, or Solid (tablets & capsules) or in Suspension.
As I have just mentioned in the above paragraph, most of these drugs that are absorbed from the gastro-intestine tract, (given as solid, suspension or solution), their rate of absorption depends to a big extent on the nature of the drug itself.
A drug that is in a liquid state will absorb relatively faster than tablets or capsule.
Tablets and Capsules are intended for a slow absorption. It takes relatively a longer period for a tablet which it’s hard in form or a capsule that has relatively hard protection cover to disintegrate or rather dissolved in the gastro-intestinal tract; hence therefore the desired slow absorption in this way is acquired.
Another route from where a drug can be absorbed is from the Buccal-Cavity. Via this route the absorption of the drug is very rapid.
To be more exactly, here the sub-lingual (under-the-tongue) advantage is utilized to drugs (tablets) that quickly dissolve beneath the tongue the case in point here is a drug that goes by a generic name;glyceryl trinitratethat is widely prescribed for a fast relief of angina pain.
Another route that drugs can be absorbed is from therectum,drugs that are prescribed by this way are calledsuppositories.
4. Drugs can be absorbed through the lungs. The example here is drugs prescribed to be taken by inhalation such as a bronchodilator salbutamol .
Last but not the least; drugs can be absorbed byinjection.This has been a route of choice for years. When compared to the previous routes are relatively expensive especially when one considers the cost of the syringe, pump and medication.
However, has an advantage of action rapidity, precision to intended site and avoid chances of being altered by gastric acids or functions of the liver.
BRIEF DISCUSSION OF DRUG GROUPS, ACTIONS & EFFECTS:
Pharmaceuticals agents that physical therapists commonly encounter in the practice can be divided into five (5) folds namely;Respiratory, Rheumatic, Epileptic, Cancer and Analgesicsdiseases treatment drugs.
These chemical agents or rather drugs if you like are very useful to a physical therapist especially when executing chest or pulmonary physical therapy.
The aim of chest physio is to facilitatesputumor unwanted secretions from the lungs resulting from hypo dynamism. This secretion if left not attended they can lead to pulmonary complications such as hypo-static pneumonia, atelectasis and poor circulation of oxygen in the lungs and consequently in the entire body.
The action of these drugs or medication breaks down sputum proteins and by so doing reduce the viscosity of sputum and it becomes much easier to expel the secretions by techniques like percussion, vibration or postural drainage.
These drugs can range from menthol a traditional agent to compound drug such as benzoin tincture in hot water.
Antitussives can be in two (2) folds, there are those that suppresses cough and those and those that increase expectoration rate. They are both helpful to a therapist and the patient. Expectoration is an act intended by the physical therapist and is beneficial to the patient. On the other end the suppressants give a relief to the patient as we are aware that productive coughing can be quit painful.
These are drugs that they are intended to act on centers of brain that a responsible for respiratory and their action increase the depth & rate of respiration. This has a positive effect in conditions such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases (COPD) and its symptoms (dyspnea, fatigue, wheezing, and loss of control and lung infections) that significantly impact the quality of life and the ability to perform basic daily tasks.
These drugs are used to reduce bronchospasm and production of secretions from the bronchial which is a wish of any physical therapist, and positive results to a patient.
- Quote paper
- Marine Kimaro (Author), 2010, Pharmacotherapeutics, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/156513
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Book Review of The Italian Wars, 1494-1559: War, State and Society in Early Modern Europe
Posted by William Young on July 26, 2012
Michael Mallett and Christine Shaw. The Italian Wars, 1494-1559: War, State and Society in Early Modern Europe. Modern Wars in Perspective series. Harlow: Pearson, 2012. ISBN 978-0-582-05758-6. Maps. Bibliography. Index. Pp. xxi, 367. $49.60.
The Italian Wars (1494-1559) changed the political landscape of the Italian Peninsula in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. The Italian states, including Milan, Florence, Venice, Rome, and Naples, that had dominated Renaissance Italy were invaded and controlled by the foreign leaders and armies of France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire during a series of eight wars. These conflicts began with a French invasion of Italy in 1494 and ended with Spanish dominance in Italy in 1559. During this sixty-five year period the Italian Wars brought major shifts in the balance of power in Italy and Europe, military organization, and diplomatic practice. Despite the importance of these conflicts, the Italian Wars have surprisingly lacked a comprehensive study in the English language that examines these political, diplomatic and military issues.
Dr Michael Mallett, Emeritus Professor of History at the University of Warwick and a distinguished historian of fifteenth and sixteenth century Italy, began this much needed study of the Italian Wars in the outstanding Modern Wars in Perspective series. He is the author of The Borgias: The Rise and Fall of a Renaissance Dynasty (1969), Mercenaries and Their Masters: Warfare in Renaissance Italy (1974), and co-author (along with John R. Hale) of The Military Organization of a Renaissance State: Venice, c.1400 to 1617 (1984). Unfortunately, Mallett became ill and died before he could turn his extensive research on the Italian Wars into a complete study. After his death, Dr Christine Shaw, a Research Fellow at Swansea University, used Mallett’s notes, along with her own research to complete the work. Shaw is known for her work that includes Julius II: The Warrior Pope (1993) and (as editor) Italy and the European Powers: The Impact of War, 1500-1530 (2006).
This study depicts the politics, diplomacy, and conduct of war during the Italian Wars. It is well-written and organized. The book is based on primary and secondary works. Mallett and Shaw depict Italian politics and combinations of alliances of the numerous Italian states in the complex series of Italian wars involving the great powers of France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire, along with involvement by England, Scotland, and even the Ottoman Empire. The authors explore the Italian conflicts from the opening dispute between Charles VIII of France and Ferdinand of Aragon over hereditary control of the Duchy of Milan and Kingdom of Naples in the late fifteenth century; to the creation of various alliances between the great powers and Italian states to prevent one power’s domination over the Italian Peninsula; to the various wars between Francis I of France and the Emperor Charles V, including the dramatic battle of Pavia (1525) and sack of Rome (1527); to the various temporary peace settlements, and finally Philip II of Spain’s defeat of France and control of most of Italy, including Milan and Naples, in the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559.
Mallett wrote the two chapters that might interest students and scholars of military history the most. In “The Transformation of War” the author discusses military weapons and the balance of arms, the impact of gunpowder weapons, fortifications and siegecraft, the rise of professional standing armies, military training and skills, tactics and strategy, leadership, the war at sea, and the experience of war. In this chapter he stresses the rising value of infantry over cavalry in the Italian Wars, noting the effectiveness of Swiss and German pike infantry as well as massed Spanish arquebusiers. He points out the creation of small, professional standing armies that were supplemented by militias and mercenary forces. The author describes infantry tactics and weapons, along with the employment of artillery. Contrary to what many believe, Mallett argues that “the French artillery did not make a great contribution to Charles VIII’s successful march through Italy in 1494-95” (p.182). He goes further to say that: “In the last resort, guns [artillery] contributed more to a shift towards defence than to one towards blitzkrieg. The majority of guns manufactured and employed by the European powers were sited in defensive works, on the walls of towns and castles, guarding routes, all encouraging the development of bastions and earthwork emplacements” (p.183). He stresses that the construction of the new style of fortifications, the so-called trace italienne, were being built before the French invasion in 1494. In the second chapter, “The Resources of War,” Mallett explores the resources and logistics of the armies involved in the Italian Wars. He discusses the recruitment and mobilization of infantry and cavalry units, military ordinances involving the muster and control of armies, billeting and supply of the armies, pay, naval resources, and the cost of war.
The Italian Wars consist of a complex, at times confusing, puzzle of political issues, alliances, and military actions by numerous actors and states. Shaw expertly handles these issues. However, a novice to the Italian Wars may find it difficult to follow her narrative at times. She frequently fails to cite dates (the year) of particular events, which if included, would make it easier for readers to follow her narrative and arguments. A chronology of major events would have been extremely beneficial.
The Italian Wars, 1494-1559 is highly recommended to students and scholars interested in the politics, diplomacy, and warfare of Early Modern Europe. The study fills a void for a comprehensive study of the Italian Wars in the historiography of warfare, and will be an important study for years to come. For those individuals interested in reading more about the Italian Wars, there are many scholarly journal articles, essays, and monographs on different aspects of the politics and diplomacy of the era. But, there are few military studies. These studies include the influential Frederick L. Taylor, The Art of War in Italy, 1494-1529 (1921), Charles Oman, A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century (1937), Simon Pepper and Nicholas Adams, Firearms and Fortifications: Military Architecture and Siege Warfare in Sixteenth-Century Sienna (1986), David Abulafia (editor), The French Descent into Renaissance Italy, 1494-1495 (1995), David Nicolle, Fornovo, 1495: France’s Bloody Fighting Retreat (1996), Angus Konstam, Pavia, 1525: The Climax of the Italian Wars (1996), as well as Maurizio Arfaioli, The Black Bands of Giovanni: Infantry and Diplomacy during the Italian Wars (1526-1528) (2005).
Dr William Young
University of North Dakota
Grand Forks, North Dakota
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WE SEEN ENOUGH PENGUINS?
Here's a twist on an old joke: What's black and white and stars in movies? The answer, of course, is a penguin, a flightless creature, that walks like Charlie Chaplin in a tuxedo with shirt showing and no hat. With the recent movies, videos, and advertisements involving these comical creatures, some young people may think that in their natural habitat penguins move in synchrony to snappy music, seek out cameras to peer at, and do whatever else is necessary to look appealing.
I don't know what has been presented about penguin ecology in the Hollywood hype, but I assume some of the following will be new to most people. Everyone pretty much knows that the quintessential penguin is a cold-natured creature that lives in frigid saltwater habitats. These icons waddle about on Antarctic ice floes, avoiding leopard seals, killer whales, and predatory birds that will eat a penguin as fast as a penguin will eat calamari. But a dozen and half species of these charming birds exist. And not all live in cold climates; not all thrive on squid; and not all have to worry about fearsome sea predators.
When full grown, some weigh less than 10 sticks of butter. Some eat krill, tiny shrimplike crustaceans that are also eaten by whales. Two kinds of penguins--emperor and king--lay one egg at a time and build no nest, whereas most of the rest lay two or even three eggs. The male emperor penguin, the largest species, weighing up to 90 pounds, incubates the egg, balancing it on its feet for months while fasting during an Antarctic winter. Both sexes of the other penguin species are involved in the incubation of the eggs, mostly in association with nests. Penguins are found on the southern ends of Australia, Africa, and South America, and live on land in burrows at night. They take daily excursions into the ocean to forage. Their primary natural predators on land are sea gulls.
The reason penguins never worry about being eaten by polar bears is of course that polar bears live at the North Pole and penguins have only made it as far north as the Galapagos Islands, which are on the equator. The Galapagos penguins are not only the northernmost ones but are among the smallest, reaching a length (or would you say, height?) of less than 20 inches. But these are brutes compared to the delicate little blue, or fairy, penguins of southern Australia and New Zealand, which are only 14 inches tall, being not much bigger than a half-gallon milk container. Fairy penguins differ from the Antarctic penguins in being exposed in recent centuries or even decades to a new suite of predators--foxes, dogs, and possibly even cats and ferrets--that have been introduced to the terrestrial habitats where the penguins spend their evening hours.
Despite their newfound fame as Hollywood stars, each penguin is a member of a species that has a native region where it lives and a natural environment that must exist for it to survive. Neither zoos nor Sunset Boulevard is the penguin's natural habitat. Most of us probably take their ecological well being for granted. But maybe we shouldn’t. If global climate change is as serious a threat as many scientists say and is caused by carbon dioxide emissions resulting from human overconsumption that could be regulated by the ruling industrial nations, then we could be responsible for the melting of polar icecaps and warming of the cool temperate regions where penguins live. This will severely affect their ecology, and some will disappear, forever. If some nation began to view penguin oil, meat, or eggs as lucrative commodities, as did whalers and seal hunters of the 19th century, entire penguin species could be wiped out in months or years.
is always a plus, but it may not be enough to save the penguins, which
have specific environmental needs. As do all species. As the dominant
species on earth, we have a responsibility to protect the habitats and
well-being of the other creatures that share the planet with us. If we
don't, a century from now, the march of the penguins will be only a celluloid
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The Aquarium and Pond Active Online Publication
Ammonia Toxicity and
the pH Relationship
By Tony Griffitts
Ammonia's toxicity to fish is very well know. Most aquarium and pond related books usually dedicate at least a paragraph or two on the subject. What is often not mention in many books is the relationship pH plays in the toxicity of the ammonia.
Ammonia concentration in a new aquarium or pond is a chemical we have to watch closely to make sure the levels do not reach a point where they start killing fish. The death of many species of fish can start at as low as .6 parts per million (ppm). In established systems the ammonia level normally reads 0 ppm. When you test for ammonia with your aquarium or pond test kit, the reading you actually have is a combination of ammonium (NH4+ or ionized ammonia) and ammonia (NH3 or unionized ammonia) known as Total Ammonia Nitrogen (TAN). Ammonia is the toxic part of the TAN. Ammonium even at high concentrations does not cause mortality in fish. Understanding the difference between two is crucial to figuring out how much toxic ammonia you really have in your system. How much of the TAN you have that is toxic is greatly related to the pH of the water, and to a much lesser extent the temperature. The higher the pH the greater amount of the TAN is ammonia. Water with a temperature of 82° F (28° C), a pH of 7.0, and a TAN of 5 ppm has only .03 ppm ammonia. If you are trying to keep Tanganyikan Cichlids in water with a pH of 9.0, that has a TAN of 5 ppm your ammonia level is 2.06 ppm (a deadly danger zone). This is why saltwater fish and African cichlids are thought to be more sensitive to ammonia, these fish are normally maintained in water with a pH of 8.2 or greater. At a pH of 6.0, and 10 ppm of TAN, the ammonia is only .007 ppm. While it looks like the fish mortality should be very high, the fish are doing fine. The graph below provides a "True Free Ammonia" chart that can be referenced for figuring out how dangerous your TAN reading is.
Free ammonia is the toxic part of the Total Ammonia Nitrogen (TAN). The ledger to the right provides the line colors for 1 ppm through 5 ppm, the left side of the graph is the "True Free Ammonia" reading based on the pH value on the bottom. Notice that above the pH of 8.0 the toxicity of the TAN rapidly rises.
South American and West African cichlid breeders that maintain a low pH below 6.0 need to be cautious when performing water changes, as the low pH has an adverse affect on the nitrifying bacteria that converts ammonia to nitrite. Because of the acidity these bacteria populations can drop so low that the TAN reading can rise quickly. While the pH stays low the TAN reading is nearly all ammonium, but if you do a water change or add a alkalinity buffer to the system the ammonium can be quickly converted to ammonia, potentially causing ammonia poisoning.
Ammonias toxicity is greatly affected by the pH in the system. You need to test both the pH and the total ammonia nitrogen level to find out the true ammonia toxicity level. The TAN is far more toxic at higher pHs and than at lower pHs.
Published - 20070105
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Tardigrades (Water Bears)Created by Sarah Bordenstein, Marine Biological Laboratory
Strange is this little animal, because of its exceptional and strange morphology and because it closely resembles a bear en miniature. That is the reason why I decided to call it little water bear.
- J.A.E. Goeze (Pastor at St. Blasii, Quedlinburg, Germany), 1773
What is a Tardigrade?
Tardigrades (Tardigrada), also known as water bears or moss piglets, are a phylum of small invertebrates. They were first described by the German pastor J.A.E. Goeze in 1773 and given the name Tardigrada, meaning "slow stepper," three years later by the Italian biologist Lazzaro Spallanzani. Tardigrades are short (0.05mm - 1.2mm in body length), plump, bilaterally symmetrical, segmented organisms. They have four pairs of legs, each of which ends in four to eight claws. Tardigrades reproduce via asexual (parthenogenesis) or sexual reproduction and feed on the fluids of plant cells, animal cells, and bacteria. They are prey to amoebas, nematodes, and other tardigrades. Some species are entirely carnivorous! Tardigrades are likely related to Arthropoda (which includes insects, spiders, and crustaceans) and Onychophora (velvet worms), and are often referred to as a "lesser known taxa" of invertebrates. Despite their peculiar morphology and amazing diversity of habitats, relatively little is known about these tiny animals. This makes them ideal research subjects for which students and amateur microscopists may contribute novel data to the field.Back to Top
Where to Find Tardigrades
Tardigrades can be found in almost every habitat on Earth! With over 900 (more info) described species, the phylum has been sighted from mountaintops to the deep sea, from tropical rain forests to the Antarctic. Most species live in freshwater or semiaquatic terrestrial environments, while about 150 marine species have been recorded. All Tardigrades are considered aquatic because they need water around their bodies to permit gas exchange as well as to prevent uncontrolled desiccation. They can most easily be found living in a film of water on lichens and mosses, as well as in sand dunes, soil, sediments, and leaf litter.Back to Top
How to Find Terrestrial Tardigrades
- Collect a clump of moss or lichen (dry or wet) and place in a shallow dish, such as a Petri dish.
- Soak in water (preferably rainwater or distilled water) for 3-24 hours.
- Remove and discard excess water from the dish.
- Shake or squeeze the moss/lichen clumps over another transparent dish to collect trapped water.
- Starting on a low obejctive lens, examine the water using a stereo microscope.
- Use a micropipette to transfer tardigrades to a slide, which can be observed with a higher power under a compound microscope.
Tardigrades in Extreme Environments
Tardigrades have been known to survive the following extreme conditions:
- temperatures as low as -200 °C (-328 °F) and as high as 151 °C (304 °F);
- freezing and/or thawing processes;
- changes in salinity;
- lack of oxygen;
- lack of water;
- levels of X-ray radiation 1000x the lethal human dose;
- some noxious chemicals;
- boiling alcohol;
- low pressure of a vacuum;
- high pressure (up to 6x the pressure of the deepest part of the ocean).
How do they do it?
Tardigrades have adapted to environmental stress by undergoing a process known as cryptobiosis. Cryptobiosis is defined as a state in which metabolic activities come to a reversible standstill. It is truly a death-like state; most organisms die by a cessation of metabolism. Several types of cryptobiosis exist, the most common include:
- anhydrobiosis (lack of water);
- cryobiosis (low temperature);
- osmobiosis (increased solute concentration, such as salt water);
- anoxybiosis (lack of oxygen).
The most common type of cryptobiosis studied in tardigrades is anhydrobiosis. Anton van Leeuwenhoek first documented cryptobiosis in 1702, when he observed tiny animalcules in sediment collected from house roofs. He dried them out, added water, and found that the animals began moving around again. The animalcules were likely nematodes or rotifers, other types of cryptobiotic animals. Tardigrades can survive dry periods by curling up into a little ball called a tun. Tun formation requires metabolism and synthesis of a protective sugar known as trehalose, which moves into the cells and replaces lost water. While in a tun, their metabolism can lower to less than 0.01% of normal. Revival typically takes a few hours, depending on how long the tardigrade has been in the cryptobiotic state.
Live tardigrades have been regenerated from dried moss kept in a museum for over 100 years! Once the moss was moistened, they successfully recovered from their tuns. While tardigrades can survive in extreme environments, they are not considered extremophiles because they are not adapted to live in these conditions. Their chances of dying increase the longer they are exposed to the extreme environment.Back to Top
Learn more about Tardigrades with this collection of resources including informational websites, primary literature, and educational activities.
Back to Top
For additional resources about Tardigrades, search the Microbial Life collection.Back to Top
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Q&A: General Astronomy and Space Science
I have never heard of any one mentioning gamma rays. Do
gamma rays exist in space?
There are gamma rays in space, and probably every kind of radiation you can think of. [More information on the electromagnetic spectrum is available at
http://chandra.harvard.edu/resources/em_radiation.html & http://chandra.harvard.edu/xray_astro/xrays.html]
In fact, the most mysterious objects in the universe are
very hot flashes of light that emit mostly in the gamma ray energy,
called gamma ray bursts. We have a description of gamma ray
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When President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, 1865, a war-weary nation was plunged into shock. The last great battles of the Civil War were still a recent memory, and the murder of the president seemed to be a bloody, pointless coda to four years of conflict and instability. There was a great outpouring of grief across the country, and poems and songs were written mourning the nation’s loss.
One American who grieved for the fallen president was the poet Walt Whitman. Whitman had lived in Washington for most of the war and was a great admirer of Lincoln, whom he felt embodied the American virtues of plain-spokenness, courage, and "horse-sense." He often saw the president riding around town on horseback, and the two men sometimes exchanged cordial bows.
Lincoln’s death inspired Whitman to write one of his most memorable works—a simple, three-stanza poem of sorrow that bore little resemblance to his other, more experimental writings. "O Captain! My Captain!" was published in New York’s Saturday Press in November of 1865, and was met with immediate acclaim. The poem’s evocation of triumph overshadowed by despair spoke to readers throughout the shattered nation, and it was widely reprinted and published in anthologies. "O Captain! My Captain!" became the most popular poem Whitman would ever write, and helped secure for him a position as one of the greatest American poets of the 19th century.
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The Complete Guide to A+ Certification covers everything you need to know to pass both the Core Hardware Exam and the Operating Systems Technologies Exam of CompTIA's A+ certification program. With its easy-to-read style, The Complete Guide to A+ Certification serves as a good training manual and will serve as a valuable reference long after your certification is hanging on your wall. The text examines basic components of computer hardware systems, as well as how to upgrade and troubleshoot computers. Both Windows and Linux operating systems are covered. This guide includes practice exam questions, as well as separate glossaries for terms and acronyms. Each chapter is highlighted with "buzz-words" helping to increase readers' technical vocabulary. Exam notes and sidebars help explain related issues in detail.
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DAVID GREENE, HOST:
Let's move onto another story now. America is politically polarized, which means whenever someone is nominated to be a judge, the first question that gets asked is whether the nominee is liberal or conservative. We've heard this question many times, but political preferences are not the only sources of influence on judicial decisions. New research finds that the children of judges may play a surprisingly important role. NPR's Shankar Vedantam joins us each week on this program to talk about social science research, and he spoke with my colleague, Steve Inskeep, about this study.
STEVE INSKEEP, HOST:
So what's happening here, the kids are telling the judges how to rule?
SHANKAR VEDANTAM, BYLINE: Not quite, Steve. This research is looking at how the life experiences of judges might affect how they rule from the bench. Now this is a surprisingly difficult question to study empirically, because you can't conduct controlled experiments on judges. You can't change their race or gender or political affiliation, and see how that changes their rulings.
INSKEEP: Oh, yeah, OK.
VEDANTAM: So I was speaking with Maya Sen, she is a political scientist at the University or Rochester, and along with Adam Glynn, at Harvard, she realized that mother nature was actually conducting a randomized experiment on judges when it came to one factor, the gender of their kids.
MAYA SEN: Once a couple decides to have a child, then essentially what happens is that nature comes in and does a version of a coin toss. And if it comes up heads, then the couple will have a girl, and if it comes up tails, the couple will have a boy, and so essentially the gender of the child is outside of the couple's control.
INSKEEP: Okay so they're wondering what factors influence a judge's decision besides the cold objectivity of the law. They get wondering if parenting affects your decisions and they're able to check before and after these parents have kids.
VEDANTAM: Exactly, they wanted to factor that the judges themselves didn't have control over, and the gender of their kids is not a factor that the judges had control over. So Sen and Glynn studied 2600 rulings of 240 judges on the US Court of Appeals and they looked to see if having a daughter made a difference to their rulings. Now there's lots of anecdotal evidence that personal experiences of judges make a difference. On the Supreme Court for example Harry Blackman, who wrote the famous Roe v. Wade opinion - apparently he had a teenage daughter who got pregnant and there's been some speculation that that informed his writing in Roe v. Wade.
INSKEEP: Makes sense.
VEDANTAM: Justice John Paul Stevens, a World War II veteran, you know, he was usually a strong proponent of first amendment, freedom of speech issues, but when it came to flag burning, he sort of drew the line and I think his military experience may have informed his position on that. So, what Sen and Glynn wanted to find out is whether there was empirical evidence that judges could be influenced in this way, and specifically whether having daughters change the way judges ruled. Here's Sen.
SEN: We found having at least one daughter means that a judge will be about 7 percentage points more likely to vote in sort of a feminist direction on gender related cases. Things like employment discrimination, pregnancy discrimination, abortion, Title IX, things like this.
INSKEEP: Seven percent more likely to vote in a feminist direction. How significant is that?
VEDANTAM: Well, It doesn't seem like very much, but Sen explained to me that if you think about the ideological difference between judges who are republicans and judges who are democrats, seven percentage points is about half that partisan difference, so it's actually a sizable amount. Now interestingly they find that this effect is strongest among republican men. So, male republican judges with daughters are most likely to vote differently than male republican judges who don't have daughters. And also this difference emerges only for cases involving gender. It doesn't emerge for cases involving bankruptcy or other kinds of the law.
INSKEEP: So what do we think is happening here, that you have a judge who has this personal experience with having a daughter which causes them to be exposed to different points of view or think about women and girls in a different way?
VEDANTAM: Well, that seems to be the argument that Sen and Glynn are making. You could make the argument that judges with daughters are being biased, but you could just as easily make the argument that compared to judges who have daughters, judges who have sons are biased in a different direction. And I think what the study is pointing to is the fallacy of imagining that judges rule on the bench without bringing their personal experiences to bear. The better question to ask might be, what biases do you want the judges to have, not whether the judges are biased at all.
INSKEEP: What do you mean, what biases do you want the judges to have?
VEDANTAM: Well, what life experiences do you want to see represented on the bench because the life experiences of the judges seem to affect how they rule, and if those life experiences don't match the people who are being judged, there's going to be a mismatch between what happens with the bench and who's appearing before the bench.
INSKEEP: An argument for diversity among judges?
VEDANTAM: And lots of different kinds of diversity, exactly.
INSKEEP: Shankar, thanks very much.
VEDANTAM: Thanks, Steve. Transcript provided by NPR, Copyright NPR.
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Vampirism isn’t just for bats and Edward Cullen anymore. Some ordinary insects are also beginning to covet human blood, sweat, and tears, because these fluids contain valuable salt that is hard to find in their natural environment. Surprisingly, many species are even preferring salt to energy-rich sugar.
The idea that salt attracted bugs first dawned on a team of sweaty scientists studying insects in Peruvian forests. Puzzled by the swarms of tiny bees attacking them, the scientists soon realized that the bees were trying to get a taste of their sweat. Animals need salt to activate nerves and muscles, and to maintain water balance in their cells.
Intrigued, the scientists littered the forest floor with hundreds of vials filled with either sugar or salt and counted the ant species they baited. They found that ant species living within 100 kilometers of the oceans (with easy access to salt) chose sugar over salt. But ant species living farther inland had a noticeable preference for salt. Reporting in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the scientists say the salt cravings were only seen in vegetarian ants, since carnivorous ants can get enough salt from the bodies of their prey.
Which brings us to the vampire moths.
In an unrelated study, entomologists say a population of fruit-feeding moths (Calyptra thalictri) have evolved the habit of feeding on blood. The moths, found in Russia, can use their long tongues, lined with sharp hooks and barbs originally adapted to pierce fruit, to get under human skin. The scientists say they have observed these moths sucking blood from their own hands for more than 20 minutes at a time. [Ed. note: That is just nasty.] Since only the male moths engage in blood-feeding, the scientists suspect they are offering the salt from the blood as a gift to females during copulation.
Now isn’t that romantic?
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Child marriage is a violation of human rights that adversely affects education, health and wellbeing of boys and girls and perpetuates the cycles of poverty and inequality. The Observatory is the first entity in Albania that has raised the issue of child marriage and it has undertaken four years of intensive engagement in exploring and raising public awareness of the practise.
The approach to this matter has started in January 2015, when Observatory, supported by Canadian Fund for Local Initiatives (CFLI), started a project on Child Marriage in Albania focusing on Roma community in three selected areas: Shkoza, Tufina and Liqeni. This study intended to point out the phenomenon of Early Child Marriages in Roma community, as well as the actors which contribute to this phenomenon and the effects that these marriages bring. For more refer to the study report available at: http://observator.org.al/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/2015-Child_marriage_in_Albania.pdf.
The first initiative, brought a public reaction pointing out that this situation was not only happening in Roma community, but also in rural areas, so it was followed by a second one, with the support of CFLI, piloted in Korca and Vlora. This second initiative aimed at analysing Demographic Characteristics, Family Background Characteristics, Characteristics of Educational Background, Family Life, Social and Economic Status of Women in Early Marriage, as well as the Reasons for Early Marriage. The study report may be accessed at: http://observator.org.al/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/ZEB_Studimi_en_12Feb2016.pdf.
Since the only legal way to enter an Underage marriage is the Court, the third initiative analyses the legal and social aspects of underage marriage in Albania. This initiative, realized in collaboration with CFLI, has resulted in two study reports focusing on identifying and analysing the judicial practices with subject ‘the requests to enter into underage marriage’ and how “underage marriage” has affected the social and family life of the juveniles. The study reports are available at: http://observator.org.al/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Report2-Legal-social-analyze-underage-marriage_June2018.pdf and http://observator.org.al/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Early-marriage-report-english.pdf.
These studies revealed important information about the practice of child marriage in Albania, and the social groups that it predominantly affects. The studies also explored some of the reasons why people support the practice. But, the need to provide a triangulated in-depth look around child marriage, and to explore the social norms supporting/impeding the practice still were unaddressed.
Under the attention of Ministry of Health and Social Protection, in close cooperation with UNICEF and UNFPA in Albania, and with the financial support of Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, on 14th December 2018, was launched the report “Child Marriage- Knowledge, Attitudes and Perceptions among affected communities in Albania”. This qualitative study was commissioned to collect data on knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and perceptions, social expectations, incentives, sanctions and norms relating to child marriage in Albania. The study, conducted between the autumn of 2017 and early summer of 2018, focused primarily on Roma and/or poor rural populations where the phenomenon seemed to be more prevalent. Findings and recommendations will better guide mainstreaming of child marriage issues into the country strategies and programmes of government and non-governmental stakeholders, as well as UN agencies. The findings will help stakeholders to understand the issue of child marriage better and build common ground to take action. The study report is available at: http://observator.org.al/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Child-marriage-Report-Final-vesion.pdf.
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View your list of saved words. (You can log in using Facebook.)
Country, north-central Europe. Area: 16,640 sq mi (43,098 sq km). Its territory includes Greenland and the Faroe Islands, which are self-governing dependencies. Population: (2009 est.) 5,523,000. Capital: Copenhagen. The majority of the population is Danish. Language: Danish (official). Religions: Christianity (predominantly Evangelical Lutheran [official]); also Islam. Currency: Danish krone. Lying between the North and Baltic seas, Denmark occupies the Jutland peninsula and an archipelago to its east. The two largest islands, Zealand (Sjælland) and Funen (Fyn), together make up about one-fourth of the country's total land area. With a 4,500-mi (7,300-km) coastline, Denmark has a generally temperate and often wet climate. It has a mixed economy based on services and manufacturing. It boasts one of the world's oldest and most comprehensive social welfare systems, and its standard of living is among the highest in the world. Denmark is a constitutional monarchy. Its head of state is the Danish monarch, and the head of government is the prime minister. Denmark was inhabited by about 12,000 BCE. During the Viking period the Danes expanded their territory, and by the 11th century the Danish kingdom included parts of what are now Sweden, England, and Norway. Scandinavia was united under Danish rule from 1397 until 1523, when Sweden became independent; a series of debilitating wars with Sweden in the 17th century resulted in the Treaty of Copenhagen (1660), which established the modern Scandinavian frontiers. Denmark gained and lost various other territories, including Norway, in the 19th and 20th centuries; it went through three constitutions between 1849 and 1915 and was occupied by Nazi Germany in 1940–45. A founding member of NATO (1949), Denmark adopted its current constitution in 1953. It became a member of the European Economic Community in 1973 and of the European Union (EU) in 1993, but it negotiated exemptions from certain EU provisions in response to some Danes' concerns regarding environmental protection and social welfare. In the early 21st century Denmark's handling of immigrants raised great debate.
Variants of DENMARK
Denmark officially Kingdom of Denmark
This entry comes from Encyclopædia Britannica Concise. For the full entry on Denmark, visit Britannica.com.
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Find Out More, Session 9: Love of Learning
In "Love Will Guide Us," a Tapestry of Faith program
Books geared toward children and families include:
- A Child's Introduction to the Night Sky: The Story of the Stars, Planets, and Constellations — and How You Can Find Them in the Sky by Michael Driscoll (Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 2004)
- Astronomy by Kristen Lippincott (DK Eyewitness Books, 2008)
- The Stars: A New Way To See Them by H. A. Rey (Houghton Mifflin Company, 2008)
- Maybe Yes, Maybe No by Dan Barker (Prometheus Books, 1993). In this child's introduction to healthy skepticism and critical thinking, the ten-year-old heroine, Andrea, is "always asking questions," writes Barker, because she thinks you should prove the truth.
- Humanism, What's That? by Helen Bennett (Prometheus Books, 2005). "This small volume holds out the hope and openness of Humanism in a form that can help young people confront Fundamentalist approaches to religion with confidence," writes Rev. William Sinkford, past President of the UUA.
This work is made possible by the generosity of individual donors and congregations. Please consider making a donation today.
Last updated on Thursday, October 27, 2011.
- About the Authors
- Session 1
- Session 2
- Session 3
- Session 4
- Session 5
- Session 6
- Session 7
- Session 8
- Session 9
- Session 10
- Session 11
- Session 12
- Session 13
- Session 14
- Session 15
- Session 16
- List of Stories
- List of Handouts
- List of Leader Resources
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1- Palestinians in occupied East Jerusalem pay taxes to the Israeli authorities. Yet Palestinian neighborhoods in Jerusalem do not receive adequate services. Only 10% of Jerusalem’s city budget is directed toward Palestinian neighborhoods, which are home to 37% of the city’s population.
2- 685 Palestinian homes in East Jerusalem were demolished between 2004 and 2016, leaving 2,513 people homeless. Home demolitions are part of a broader Israeli policy to alter the demographic and geospatial makeup of Jerusalem, privileging Jewish settlers over the indigenous Palestinian population.
3- 10,000 Palestinian children in Jerusalem have no legal status because their parents hold different types of ID cards. Unregistered children have no access to education, health, and social services, putting them at a severe disadvantage respective to their peers.
4- Israeli settlements in the occupied Palestinian territories are illegal under international law. Today, over 200,000 Israelis live in settlements on Palestinian land in East Jerusalem.
SOURCES & DATA
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Translate this visual.
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Cingulum meanings in Urdu
Cingulum meanings in Urdu is سینگولم Cingulum in Urdu. More meanings of cingulum, it's definitions, example sentences, related words, idioms and quotations.
Please find 1 English and definitions related to the word Cingulum.
- (noun) : (anatomy) an encircling structure (as the ridge around the base of a tooth)
What are the meanings of Cingulum in Urdu?
Meanings of the word Cingulum in Urdu are . To understand how would you translate the word Cingulum in Urdu, you can take help from words closely related to Cingulum or it’s Urdu translations. Some of these words can also be considered Cingulum synonyms. In case you want even more details, you can also consider checking out all of the definitions of the word Cingulum. If there is a match we also include idioms & quotations that either use this word or its translations in them or use any of the related words in English or Urdu translations. These idioms or quotations can also be taken as a literary example of how to use Cingulum in a sentence. If you have trouble reading in Urdu we have also provided these meanings in Roman Urdu.
We have tried our level best to provide you as much detail on how to say Cingulum in Urdu as possible so you could understand its correct English to Urdu translation. We encourage everyone to contribute in adding more meanings to MeaningIn Dictionary by adding English to Urdu translations, Urdu to Roman Urdu transliterations and Urdu to English Translations. This will improve our English to Urdu Dictionary, Urdu to English dictionary, English to Urdu Idioms translation and Urdu to English Idioms translations. Although we have added all of the meanings of Cingulum with utmost care but there could be human errors in the translation. So if you encounter any problem in our translation service please feel free to correct it at the spot. All you have to do is to click here and submit your correction.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
What do you mean by cingulum?
Whats the definition of cingulum?
Definition of the cingulum are
- (anatomy) an encircling structure (as the ridge around the base of a tooth)
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ADSL's Business Highlights
Residential and small business customers who use DSL services are most typically connected to an asymmetric DSL (ADSL) line. ADSL splits the available frequencies in a line, assuming that most Internet users view or download a lot more data than they transmit or upload. Considering this, if the connection speed from the Internet to the user is three to four times as fast as the connection from the user back to the Internet, then, the majority of the time, the user will reap the most benefit from an ADSL connection.
History of ADSL
ADSL was established by telephone companies in an effort to compete with cable TV by delivering both TV and phone service on the traditional copper phone line. These days, ADSL is also a top competitor as a provider for high speed Internet access. In the beginning, ADSL was originally created for use as a regular phone line in the event of a power outage. The "A" in "ADSL" stands for "Asymmetric", meaning data can be sent to the consumer, but the consumer cannot send back very much data at all. At first, only 64kbps was supported but now ADSL can manage up to 10 times that much. In 1987, Joe Leichleder, a Bellcore researcher, first conceived the idea to convert analog to digital at the subscriber end. ADSL was originally intended to provide access for interactive video, such as video games, Video On Demand (VOD), delayed television segments, and more, but quickly became popular for high-speed Internet data transmission, as well as just surfing the Web. As far back as the 1990s marketers who developed VOD products began utilizing ADSL technology with varying speeds for transmitting different channels. And, although the idea didn't catch on as well as had been predicted for the television market, it quickly became very popular for use with the Internet.
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Please respond to Carolyn Raffensperger <firstname.lastname@example.org>
To: "Science and Environmental Health Network" <email@example.com>
cc: (bcc: Lois Epstein)
Subject: Special Bulletin: Precautionary Principle
Debating the Precautionary Principle
Science and Environmental Health Network
The precautionary principle has taken center stage in a number of recent
international discussions on trade, the environment, and human health. As a
result, it has stirred criticism as well as interest. In these discussions
and in a growing number of media reports on the principle, certain
criticisms and qualifications, enumerated below, have been repeated with
The Science and Environmental Health Network offers the following responses
to stimulate the thinking of others on these statements and on the
precautionary principle. Many of these ideas were articulated in a January
2000 meeting of precautionary principle advocates and in discussions
following the meeting.
1. "The precautionary principle is vague and has conflicting definitions."
The precautionary principle is worded differently each time it is
articulated. This is not uncommon in international customary law. Although
some statements of the principle are more detailed than others, there are
no major conflicts among them. At the core of each statement is the idea
that action should be taken to prevent harm to the environment and human
health, even if scientific evidence is inconclusive.
For example, the 1998 Wingspread Statement on the Precautionary Principle
summarizes the principle this way: "When an activity raises threats of
harm to human health or the environment, precautionary measures should be
taken even if some cause and effect relationships are not fully established
scientifically." (The Wingspread Conference on the Precautionary Principle
was convened by the Science and Environmental Health Network.)
The February 2, 2000 European Commission Communication on the Precautionary
Principle notes: "The precautionary principle applies where scientific
evidence is insufficient, inconclusive or uncertain and preliminary
scientific evaluation indicates that that there are reasonable grounds for
concern that the potentially dangerous effects on the environment, human,
animal or plant health may be inconsistent with the high level of
protection chosen by the EU."
The January 29, 2000 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety says: "Lack of
scientific certainty due to insufficient relevant scientific information .
. . shall not prevent the Party of import, in order to avoid or minimize
such potential adverse effects, from taking a decision, as appropriate,
with regard to the import of the living modified organism in question."
(The negatives in this last statement echo the 1992 Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development: "Where there are threats of serious or
irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as
a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental
As the principle has been elaborated recently, it nearly always implies
three additional ideas, beyond "harm" and "scientific uncertainty":
1) the notion of seeking alternatives to harmful technologies;
2) the idea of shifting to proponents of a technology the responsibility
for demonstrating its safety; and
3) the goal of transparency and democracy in making decisions about
Taken together, these concepts provide what we believe is a sound
overarching approach to assessing and making decisions on products and
technologies and other human activities that may impact healthor the
environment. That is how "precaution" operates at the broadest level. On
this level it is something like the common-sense attitude we take in
conducting our own lives and making decisions: We consider whether we need
or want something, try to learn as much as we can about risks and benefits,
consider alternatives, choose the best and (most likely) safest route, and
hold responsible those who provide the services we choose. And when
something we value is threatened, we tend to err on the side of caution.
But the precautionary principle, especially as articulated in international
treaties and agreements, is also a specific justification for action in
cases of likely harm and scientific uncertainty.
2. "If precaution applies to everything, precaution would stop all
technology in its tracks."
This criticism confuses the broad, common-sense precautionary approach to
decision-making with specific precautionary action. It is wrong on two
In the first place, precautionary action does not always mean calling a
halt or implementing a ban. It can also mean imposing a moratorium while
further research is conducted, calling for monitoring of technologies and
products already in use, adopting safer alternatives, and so forth.
In the second place, a broad precautionary approach will encourage the
development of better technologies. Using this approach, society will say
"yes" so some technologies while it says "no" to others. Making uncertainty
explicit, considering alternatives, and increasing transparency and the
responsibility of proponents and manufacturers to demonstrate safety should
lead to cleaner products and production methods.
3. "Precaution calls for zero risk, which is impossible to achieve."
Any debate over the possibility of "zero risk" is pointless. Our real goal
must be to impose far less risk and harm on the environment and on human
health than we have in the past. We must harness human ingenuity to reduce
the harmful effects of our activities.
The precautionary principle is based on the assumption that people have the
right to know as much as possible about risks they are taking on, in
exchange for what benefits, and to make choices accordingly. With food and
other products, such choices are often played out in the marketplace. A
major factor in the controversy over genetically engineered food is the
consumer understanding that benefits of these products (which accrue more
to producers than to consumers) do not outweigh the risk of harm to
themselves or the environment.
Increasingly, manufacturers are choosing to reduce risk themselves by
substituting safer alternatives in response to consumer uneasiness, the
threat of liability, and market pressures. For example, a number of toy
manufacturers have voluntarily stopped using phthalates in soft plastics.
Such actions are in the spirit of the precautionary principle.
A key to making those choices is transparency--about what products contain,
and about the testing and monitoring of those ingredients. Another is
support, by government and industry, for the exploration of--and rigorous
Sometimes it makes sense to eliminate even questionable risks if it is easy
to do so. For example, most airlines forbid passengers to use electronic
devices during takeoff and landing, even though studies have not confirmed
that they pose a danger.
In other cases the risk will be small but the consequences severe. An
example of this kind of precautionary action is the U.S. "zero-tolerance"
standard for Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat foods. Listeria
infections are rare, but they are extremely dangerous. (See Edward Groth
III, "Science, Precaution, and Food Safety: How Can We Do Better?"
Consumers Union of the U.S., Inc., February 2000.)
Market and voluntary action is not enough, especially on issues that go
beyond individual and corporate choice. It is the responsibility of
communities, governments, and international bodies to make far-reaching
decisions that greatly reduce the risks we now impose on the Earth and all
4. "We don't need the precautionary principle: we have risk assessment."
Risk assessment is the prevalent tool used to make decisions about
technologies and products. Its proponents argue that because conservative
assumptions are built into these assessments, they are sufficiently
Too often, however, risk assessment has been used to delay precautionary
action: decision-makers wait to get enough information and then attempt to
"manage" rather than prevent risks. Risk assessment is not necessarily
inconsistent with the precautionary principle, but because it omits certain
basic requirements of the decision-making process, the current type of
risk assessment is only helpful at a narrow stage of the process, when the
product or technology and alternatives have been well developed and tested
and a great deal of information has already been gathered about them.
Standard risk assessment, in other words, is only useful in conditions of
relatively high certainty, and generally only to help evaluate alternatives
to damaging technologies.
Under the precautionary principle, uncertainty is also given due weight.
The nature of the uncertainties about a technology can suggest such things
as whether short-term testing can provide adequate answers; and if not,
whether longer-term testing and monitoring can do so; and whether the
benefits of the technology warrant that investment. The precautionary
principle calls for the examination of a wider range of harms--including
social and economic ones--than traditional risk analysis provides. It
points to the need to examine not only single, linear risks but also
complex interactions among multiple factors, and the broadest possible
range of harmful effects.
This broad, probing consideration of harm--including the identification of
uncertainty--should begin as early as possible in the conception of a
technology and should continue through its release and use. That is, a
precautionary approach should begin before the regulatory phase of
decision-making and should be built into the research agenda.
What is not consistent with the precautionary principle is the misleading
certainty often implied by quantitative risk assessments--that precise
numbers can be assigned to the possibility of harm, that these numbers are
usually a sufficient basis for deciding whether the substance or technology
is "safe," and that lack of numbers means there is no reason to take
action. The assumptions behind risk assessments--what "risks" are evaluated
and how comparisons are made--are easily manipulated by those with a stake
in their outcome.
5. "The precautionary principle is a tool of risk assessment."
This statement implies that the precautionary principle only applies to
risk management, rather than a comprehensive approach to preventing harm.
It implies that uncertainty will eventually be resolved through more
research or trial and error. Related to the above arguments, this one
assumes a narrow definition (and use) of the precautionary principle--a
stop or holding action when scientific evidence is uncertain. We argue that
this is only one aspect of the precautionary principle, and that, on the
contrary, risk assessment as it is currently practiced may be a
useful--but narrow--tool of a broader approach to precautionary
6. "Precaution itself is risky: it will prevent us from adopting
technologies that are actually safer."
This consideration is built into the precautionary principle. Current and
prospective alternatives to harmful technologies (such as genetic
modification to reduce pesticide use) must be scrutinized as carefully as
the technologies they replace. It does not make sense to replace one set of
harms with another.
7. "The precautionary principle is anti-science."
On the contrary, the precautionary principle calls for more and better
science, especially investigations of complex interactions over longer
periods of time. The assertion that the principle is "anti-science" is
based on any or all of the following faulty assumptions:
1) Those who advocate precaution urge action on the basis of vague fears,
regardless of whether there is scientific evidence to support their fears.
Most statements of the precautionary principle say it applies when there is
reason to believe serious or irreversible harm may occur. Those reasons are
based on scientific evidence of various kinds: studies, observations,
precedents, experience, professional judgment, and so forth. They are based
on what we know about how processes work and might be affected by a
However, precautionary decisions also take into account what we know we do
not know. The more we know, scientifically, the greater will be our ability
to prevent disasters based on ignorance. But we must be much more cautious
than we have been in the past about moving forward in ignorance.
2) Taking action in advance of full scientific proof undermines science.
Scientific standards of proof are high in experimental science or for
accepting or refuting a hypothesis, and well they should be. Waiting to
take action before a substance or technology is proven harmful, or even
until plausible cause-and-effect relationships can be established, may mean
allowing irreversible harm to occur--deaths, extinctions, poisoning, and
the like. Humans and the environment become the unwitting testing grounds
for these technologies. Precaution advocates say this is no longer
acceptable. Moreover, science should serve society, not vise versa. Any
decision to take action--before or after scientific proof--is a decision of
society, not science.
3) Quantitative risk assessment is more scientific than other kinds of
Risk assessment is only one evaluation method and provides only partial
answers. It does not take into account many unknowns and seldom accounts
for complex interactions.
8. "The precautionary principle is a cover for trade protectionism."
The precautionary principle was created to protect public health and the
environment, not to restrict valid trade. North American, Argentinian, and
other representatives in trade talks have leveled this accusation against
the European Union in response to EU action on beef containing growth
hormones and on genetically modified foods and crops. Recent EU statements
on the precautionary principle have emphasized that the principle should be
applied fairly and without discrimination.
However, the real issue is not protectionism but whether a nation has the
sovereign right to impose standards that exceed the standards of
international regimes. The recent European Commission statement on the
precautionary principle and Cartagena Biosafety Protocol both assert that
9. "Precautionary actions must be proportionate, cost-effective, and
temporary (subjected to further research)."
These qualifications (along with "fairness") have been included in recent
statements, no doubt partly to make the precautionary principle more
palatable to U.S. officials. While it is difficult to argue against any of
them, they could dilute the effectiveness of the principle. For example:
Action should indeed be generally proportionate to the severity of a threat
and standards of protection. But (as noted above) sometimes the
availability of alternatives or the ease of taking action makes decisive
action appropriate even if the threat is not severe or imminent.
"Cost-effectiveness" and "cost-benefit analysis" have been used in the past
to stop regulatory action. Cost considerations, like risk assessments, are
easily manipulated: whose costs and whose benefits are considered? The
European Commission precautionary principle statement makes the useful
assertion that "protection of health takes precedence over economic
considerations." If "cost-effectiveness" is defined in this way, then of
course precautionary decisions are cost-effective, directing us to the
least costly choices.
All decisions about technology, positive and negative, should be
temporary--that is, open to review and revision based on new knowledge and
experience. A precautionary approach has many feedback loops. As
uncertainty is reduced, we may say "yes" to some things to which we
previously said "no, " and vice versa. This implies that all stakeholders
should have access to relevant information. But sometimes the judicious
decision will be to turn away from technologies that pose too many
uncertainties and offer too few benefits. It will not always make sense to
invest limited government resources into continuing research into those
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Each year, some 230,000 new cases of breast cancer are diagnosed in American women, and about one in eight American women will develop invasive breast cancer at some point. Breast cancer represents the second-most common cancer in women after skin cancer, and it’s the second-leading cause of death in women behind lung cancer, according to The American Cancer Society. Given these alarming numbers, it’s vital for all women to be on the lookout for breast cancer symptoms. Inform your physician about any abnormalities you notice in your breasts, and discuss periodic screening tests with your doctor. In doing so, you may improve your chances of catching breast cancer early on, when the odds of successful treatment are greater.
Breast Cancer Symptoms
The most common symptom of breast cancer is a hard lump or mass felt in the breast. The lump usually is not movable and may or may not cause pain. Any lumps felt under the arm may be cancer that has spread from breast tissue to the lymph glands under your arm.
Other potential breast cancer symptoms include the following:
- Breast or nipple pain
- Abnormal nipple discharge
- Breast swelling
- An inverted nipple
- Irritation, dimpling, redness, or thickening of the breast skin or nipple
Breast Cancer Symptoms: Early Detection
Research has found that performing periodic breast self-examinations does not lead to improvements in breast cancer survival. As such, medical associations generally do not support breast self-exams as a screening method for breast cancer. Nevertheless, some women find them beneficial, and experts advise women to understand how their breasts usually look and feel, and to inform their physicians immediately if they notice any potential breast cancer symptoms.
The cornerstone of breast cancer screening and early detection is the mammogram, but recommendations regarding when to begin screening mammography, and for how long, vary. For instance:
- The National Comprehensive Cancer Network recommends that women who are at average risk of breast cancer undergo yearly mammograms starting at age 40 and continuing as long as they are healthy.
- The American Cancer Society endorses annual screening mammography for women ages 45 to 54 and then screening every two years thereafter in healthy women. The organization notes that women should have the option to begin screening at age 40 and continue with annual mammograms after age 54.
- The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends mammography screening every two years and only for women ages 50 to 74. The task force advises women in their 40s to make their own decision about breast cancer screening after weighing the pros and cons with their doctors.
When you undergo mammography, ask your doctor if the test shows dense breast tissue. Women with high breast density are significantly more likely to develop breast cancer, and higher breast density may limit the effectiveness of breast cancer screening. Consequently, women with dense breasts may require other testing in addition to a mammogram, such as 3-D mammography, whole-breast ultrasound, or magnetic resonance imaging.
Breast Cancer Testing: Other Options
If cancer is found, further testing will be done to study the cancer cells and predict how quickly the cancer is likely to grow, the risk that it will spread throughout the body, and the chances that it will recur.
One test measures estrogen and progesterone receptors in cancerous tissue—about two-thirds of breast cancers contain receptors for these female hormones. When these hormone receptors are present, especially in high numbers, breast cancer can be stimulated to grow when exposed to estrogen or progesterone. Another test checks for a protein known as HER2/neu. About 20 percent of breast cancers have elevated levels of this protein, which promotes tumor growth.
The results of these tests help determine whether breast cancer is hormone receptor-positive or negative, HER2/neu-positive or negative, or triple negative (no positives for estrogen, progesterone or HER2/neu). This information can guide your physician in making treatment recommendations.
| 56,018
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Trade-offs between metal hyperaccumulation and induced disease resistance in metal hyperaccumulator plants
Fones HN., Preston GM.
Metal hyperaccumulation is an unusual trait involving the uptake and storage of high concentrations of metals in the aerial tissues of plants. A number of hypotheses have been proposed to explain the evolution of the metal hyperaccumulation trait, of which the hypothesis that accumulated metal provides a defence against herbivores or pathogens has received most attention and support. Metal hyperaccumulation requires a range of physiological adaptations that enable plants to take up, transport, sequester and tolerate high concentrations of metal. Such adaptations may confer a fitness cost, and it has been suggested that metal hyperaccumulator plants may compensate for this cost by reducing investment in other traits such as induced disease resistance. This is supported by recent work that shows that metal hyperaccumulators such as Noccaea spp. show reduced or altered production of key components of induced disease resistance. However, an alternative explanation exists, which is that the physiological adaptations involved in metal hyperaccumulation require alterations to, or compromise, functional aspects of plant defence mechanisms. Here, the evidence for trade-offs between metal hyperaccumulation and disease resistance mechanisms is reviewed, and the nature of the physiological adaptations involved in metal hyperaccumulation and their potential to impact other forms of plant defence is discussed. It is suggested that defensive trade-offs may have been key to the evolution of the metal hyperaccumulation trait, resulting in increased dependence upon the protection conferred by metals. © 2013 British Society for Plant Pathology.
| 155,142
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We tried to think up what movies weren't based on books and for the most part we couldn't come up with too many. It's interesting that some of the best movies were books first--The Help, Sherlock Holmes, Hugo, The Three Musketeers. And how many times has the BBC put out another Jane Austen movie?
Many of our children's plays are based on stories. Tomorrow, we perform one of the first interactive children's show we came up with--Princess on a Pea. We used Chris's class of third graders to test it on. The next day one of his students found the story in the basal reader and the wide-eyed girl asked if she could read it. Chris was happy to let her. When we perform for children, we like to show them books that go along with the show.
We love this Einstein quote: “If you want your children to be intelligent, read them fairy tales. If you want them to be more intelligent, read them more fairy tales.” Would it work for us adults as well; could we get more intelligent, too? Nice!
The Salem Public Library starts their No Screen Week challenge starting tomorrow. It may be to encourage kids to read more but adults could have a great week by joining in. (http://www.cityofsalem.net/Departments/Library/EventsAndPrograms/children/Pages/childrensactivities.aspx)
So, as we like to tell our young audiences at the beginning of our shows: we encourage you to read and "play."
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Republicans Warn of Papist Plot
Democrat, anti-Prohibition and Catholic presidential candidate Al Smith found that many of his party had deserted him, though he did carry Massachusetts with its liquor interests, the first Democrat to do so since the War. A previous Democratic presidential candidate knowingly stated: “Smith hasn’t a chance, the Middle West does not know him and does not want him; and the South, of course, won’t have Smith.”
Bernhard Thuersam, Circa1865
Republicans Warn of Papist Plot
“Smith’s career had been a demonstration of the validity of Americanism. In his own mind, his success had confirmed the premise established by his life . . . that men of diverse backgrounds and different beliefs could nevertheless understand each other.
[An opposing view] . . . had begun earlier in the century, in the movement to restrict immigration . . . [and these] fears revived the Ku Klux Klan. Founded in 1915 in Georgia, the organization was still small and powerless at the end of the war. Thereafter it spread rapidly, not only in the South but everywhere in rural and small town America. It was particularly influential in Oregon and Indiana and had significant centers of strength throughout the West.
Purification was essential through a return to the old order, through fundamentalism in religion, through abstinence and restraint in personal behavior, and through the forceful exclusion from government and the economy of all alien sources of infection.
The millions of adherents of the Roman Church, held in subservience to a foreign despot by an army of priests and bishops, wielded enormous political power through the city machines. Their doctrines and rituals, like their hostility to Prohibition, were a danger to old America. It was necessary to prepare lest they insidiously assume control of the whole nation.
Smith did not take the Klan seriously, even in 1924. The “spirit of unrest” was an “unnatural consequence of war” and would soon subside.
The Klan, which had heretofore shown itself mostly on the local level, was nonetheless to be pre-eminent issue of the 1924 convention. Much of the strength of the organization was located in the Republican party, which was able to arrive at a tacit decision to evade any mention of the Klan in the campaign.
Openly and squarely he faced the religious issue [but] . . . With the covert encouragement of local Republicans, numerous fundamentalist groups spread the tale of the Papist plot to conquer America at the ballot box. Al made no pretense that the problem [of his Catholicism] did not exist. In North Carolina he insisted on speaking on immigration. In Oklahoma City, one of the centers of Klan strength, he launched into an attack upon the forces injecting bigotry “into a campaign which should be an intelligent debate of the important issues.”
But now as he looked down upon the stony faces, row upon row of bitter farmers soon to leave their parched lands, he perceived “the dull hostility in their staring at his strangeness and for a moment he felt a premonitory fear, for what had he and they in common?”
Through the rimless glasses across his thin parched face, Bishop Cannon had looked bitterly out upon the Houston convention. Control had fallen to the men from the “foreign-populated city called New York,” where “confessedly Satan’s seat is.” Now . . . he was resolved that “no subject of the Pope” should be President.”
(Al Smith and His America, Oscar Handlin, Little, Brown and Company, 1958, pp. 117-120; 131-132)
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For example, if your skin normally changes colour after 10 minutes of unprotected sun exposure and you use a sunscreen rated SPF 30, you will get five hours of sun protection (10 minutes x 30 = 300 minutes, which is 5 hours of protection).
Does SPF 30 mean 30 minutes?
“Imagine that your skin normally begins to burn after 10 minutes in full sun without any protection. A 30 SPF sunscreen would provide 30 times the protection of no sunscreen.” That means 30 times longer before you start to burn, or in this case, 300 minutes.
Is SPF 30 enough for everyday?
For day-to-day use, pick a sunscreen with sun protection factor (SPF) of at least 30. If you spend time outdoors, choose a product with SPF 60 or greater. In reality, most people do not use as much sunscreen as they should, and this higher SPF helps compensate.
How often should you reapply SPF 30?
Dermatologists say you should re-apply sunscreen every two hours, especially when you’re at the beach or outside for extended periods of time.
Is 30 SPF high enough?
When possible, go with a broad-spectrum sunscreen of at least 30 SPF. To be clear, an SPF higher than 30 isn’t harmful or ineffective. If you have SPF 50, use and reapply it as often as you would SPF 30.
Is SPF 30 enough for face?
Dermatologists recommend using a sunscreen with an SPF of at least 30, which blocks 97 percent of the sun’s UVB rays. Higher-number SPFs block slightly more of the sun’s UVB rays, but no sunscreen can block 100 percent of the sun’s UVB rays.
Is SPF 30 or 50 better?
A sunscreen with SPF 30 will protect you from around 96.7% of UVB rays, whereas an SPF of 50 means protection from about 98% of UVB rays. Anything beyond SPF 50 makes very little difference in terms of risk of sun damage, and no sunscreens offer 100% protection from UVB rays.
Is SPF 30 enough for dark skin?
Those with darker skin tones don’t need a daily dose of SPF. But here’s the truth: While melanin does give darker complexions some sun protection, it’s not enough to ward off those damaging rays. (As a reminder: You don’t need a bottle of SPF 100; broad-spectrum SPF 30 is enough).
Is SPF 30 enough for indoors?
UVA rays can contribute to skin cancer, which is the main reason Park recommends slathering on SPF while inside, and especially if you’re sitting by a window or in a room with lots of sunlight. Zeichner recommends wearing a classic SPF, or a moisturizer that contains sunscreen, with at least broad-spectrum SPF 30.
Can you get a tan with SPF 30?
Ideal SPF. An SPF also means that a certain percentage of skin-aging UVB rays are still allowed to penetrate the skin. According to the Skin Cancer Foundation , 3 percent of UVB rays can enter your skin with SPF 30, and 2 percent with SPF 50. This is also how you can still get tan while wearing sunscreen.
How long does SPF 30 last indoors?
If you use sunscreens properly, then yes, they can last many hours if the skin stays dry—up to four to six hours. So depending on what time you applied it, you may still be protected by the time you drive home.
Is SPF over 30 a waste?
You can buy a product that is labeled as higher than SPF 30, but it’s almost always a waste, and potentially harmful. SPF 30 filters out approximately 97 percent. SPF 50 filters out approximately 98 percent. SPF 100 might get you to 99.
Is too much sunscreen bad?
The bottom line: Cover up. The science on sun exposure is clear: too much of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation leads to sunburns, rapidly aging skin, and potentially, skin cancer.
Is SPF 30 good for acne?
Brush on Block Translucent Mineral Powder Sunscreen SPF 30 The ingredients found in this sunscreen are beneficial for oily, acne-prone skin. “It’s all mineral — zinc oxide and titanium dioxide, as well as antioxidants to protect from free radicals — and protects from infrared rays,” King added.
Is SPF 60 better than 30?
The protection factor of SPF 30 is not double that of SPF 15, nor is SPF 60 twice as effective as SPF 30…… The rationale behind this myth is that if SPF 30 can filter out 96.7% of UV rays, while SPF 60 can filter out 98.3%, the resulting difference is only 1.6% – thus SPF 60 must only be marginally better than SPF 30.
Is anything above SPF 30 really work?
High-SPF products don’t give you a whole lot more protection. But the truth is that higher-SPF products are only marginally better at shielding you from UVB, according to both the EWG and the Skin Cancer Foundation. SPF 30 blocks nearly 97% of UVB radiation, SPF 50 blocks about 98%, and SPF 100 blocks about 99%.
Is SPF 30 bad?
When used correctly, sunscreen with SPF values between 30 and 50 offers adequate sunburn protection, even for people most sensitive to sunburn. 4. High-SPF products may pose greater health risks. High-SPF products require higher concentrations of sun-filtering chemicals than low-SPF sunscreens do.
How strong is SPF 30?
An SPF 30 allows about 3 percent of UVB rays to hit your skin. An SPF of 50 allows about 2 percent of those rays through. That may seem like a small difference until you realize that the SPF 30 is allowing 50 percent more UV radiation onto your skin.
Is SPF 30 enough for the beach?
Various health authorities have different recommendations, though all agree that SPF 15 is the minimum. For the best protection when you’ll be outside all day at the pool, park, beach, amusement park or elsewhere, SPF 30 or higher is ideal.
Is SPF 15 or 30 better?
The SPF (Sun Protection Factor) scale is not linear: So, while you may not be doubling your level of protection, an SPF 30 will block half the radiation that an SPF 15 would let through to your skin. It’s complicated, but to keep it simple, most dermatologists recommend using a SPF 15 or SPF 30 sunscreen.
Is SPF 30 enough in Australia?
SPF rating Sunscreens sold in Australia must be labelled with an SPF of at least 4 to the highest rating of 50+. SunSmart recommends choosing a sunscreen labelled SPF30 or higher that is also broad-spectrum (will filter out both types of UV radiation) and water-resistant.
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A sand table is just that, a table with high sides and an open top filled with sand. It is used for landscape
simulation to provide a visual reference for planning and coordination. The most common use for a sand table is to devise military tactics
to address a situation and briefing unit members about said plan. In that application little plastic people
are also used, creating a scene little different than that of kids playing in sand with trucks and toys.
The importance of having a visual three-dimensional landscape reference is critical in combat planning, as lines of sight (and fire), available cover, and maneuver goals can be easily determined and explained to others.
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Four seasons did not suffice for Laplanders and the Sami people in the olden days. Instead, they structured time into eight periods: autumn-winter; winter; spring-winter; spring; spring-summer; summer; summer-autumn and autumn. The four main seasons were supplemented in this way by four “half-seasons”. The warm, moonlit nights of August belong to summer; however, August comes with a hint of autumn’s crispness and its piercing, melancholic light. It only takes a couple of cold, frosty nights, and the autumn-summer turns into autumn. When leaves begin to fall and lakes become covered with fog and ice at night, autumn has arrived in full force, though it is not quite yet autumn-winter.
Pakkastalvi (‘frosty winter’) is the first season of the year. The New Year festivities have come to an end, and it is dark, cold and quiet until March or April when, soon after the Lental Season, hankikanto (‘the spring of crusted snow’) arrives. The amount of light increases significantly, even though it is still dark and cold at night. With increased light, everything in nature begins to awake. At the first sign of spring, jäidenlähtökevät (literally ‘ice break-up’) begins: snow still covers the ground, but the first plants begin to appear, and reindeer give birth to calves. The first stoneflies begin to crawl on the snow near the waterfront.
Once the sun no longer sets, the ‘light green summer’ (keskiyönauringon aika), or the time of the midnight sun, begins. With 24 hours of daylight, the entire ecosystem lives in ecstasy. The ‘harvest time’ (sadonkorjuunaika) begins when the willowherb blossoms, and days begin to get shorter. This is followed by ruska or ‘colourful autumn’ when the fiery autumn colours remind us that soon the ground will be covered by ice and snow again. And then... the ‘first snow’ (mustalumi) arrives, only to melt during the first days of mild weather. The frost that follows this period of “black snow” will freeze the ground.
The last season, ending the yearly cycle, is Christmas (joulukaamos), a period of constant darkness. The long polar nights are followed by the greatest celebration of the year: Christmas - a celebration of rebirth, light and letting go of the old.
There were valid reasons for dividing time into eight distinctive seasons. By predicting weather and carrying out seasonal tasks according to the weather signs, the northern way of life gave birth to the northern state of mind: a mentality which imitates nature. Nature is in a constant state of change, simultaneously in the present season while on the way to the next. This is also true of humans: we are constantly in a state of flux; always moving on and preparing for tomorrow.
The structures and institutions of society may change, but mentalities, moulded by nature, remain practically unchanged through generations. In this way, the eight seasons have also remained. In a number of ways, they still influence the things we do, what we feel and how we think, all the time. The eight seasons give a rhythm to this website as well. The pictures on the site and its colours also change according to the seasons.
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Spirulina benefits are commonly recognized by numerous experts. Many times, spirulina gets misclassified as a herb due to its great health-promoting properties, though, it is actually blue-green algae or bacteria that’s found in rivers, ponds, and freshwater lakes. It is widely considerate as one of the most nutritionally complete superfoods in the world, as it provides health benefits to practically every bodily and organ function.
What is spirulina?
Definition: Spirulina is a natural blue-green “algae” (cyanobacteria) powder, which is really high in protein and a great source of B-vitamins, antioxidants, and many other nutrients. When harvested appropriately from non-contaminated bodies of water and ponds, it’s one of the most powerful nutrient sources available 1 .
It got its name from the Latin term for “spiral” or “helix” due to its spring-like physical characteristic. It’s largely made up of essential amino acids and protein and is usually recommended for vegetarians because of its high natural iron content.
The high concentration of iron and protein also makes it ideal after surgery, during pregnancy, or each time your immune system needs a boost.
In the U.S., spirulina is commonly known as an ingredient to add a nutrient boost to green drinks and smoothies and as a nutritional supplement. However, in some other parts of the world, spirulina is considered as a valuable food source to prevent malnutrition.
Spirulina is recommended by many health professionals due to its great nutrient content that can be beneficial for your brain and body 2 . Here are the evidence-based health benefits of spirulina:
- Helps the Body Detox Naturally
Spirulina benefits body cleansing. It has really high concentration of chlorophyll, which is one of nature’s best detoxifying agents. Plus, it has been found to be effective at helping eliminate toxins from the blood, and it binds to radioactive isotopes and heavy metals, making it very helpful for those undergoing radioactive therapy.
Eases PMS Symptoms and Reduces Inflammation
Spirulina is one of the best sources of Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), which is one of the most potent anti-inflammatory agents in nature. Gamma-linolenic acid is also especially beneficial to women, as it could decrease the symptoms of PMS. Moreover, it has 26-times the calcium of milk as well, making it an exceptional nutritional supplement for pregnant women.
- Keeping Eyes Healthy
Spirulina is a perfect supplement for those who have eye issues, or looking to improve their eye health. It is rich in vitamin A – a vitamin that is exceptionally significant for healthy eyes. For this exact same reason, consuming more carrots has long been suggested to those looking to improve their eye health, but this superfood actually has 10 times the vitamin A concentration gram per gram of carrot.
- Supports Digestion
Spirulina benefits don’t stop here! This superfood can ease the passage of waste throughout the digestive system, thus reducing stress on the system. Spirulina also promotes “good” bacteria in the digestive system and can boost the absorption of dietary nutrients.
- Immune Response
Spirulina has long been valued for its ability to improve the immune system. Because it promotes cell regeneration, it assists wounds heal quicker and supports recovery from ailments occur faster. This superfood fortifies one’s immune system and helps prevent colds, flu, and many other contractible illnesses.
Related: Do You Have Just a Cold… or The Flu? Difference Between Cold and Flu
Other Spirulina Benefits
- Spirulina is a source of B- vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinamide, pyridoxine, folic acid, and cobalamin), vitamin K1, vitamin K2, and vitamin E.
- It’s very high in bio-available iron, making it helpful to those with pregnancy or anemia, with reduced risk of constipation.
- It has 4 times the antioxidant abilities of blueberries.
- As we mentioned before, spirulina is a good source of protein: gram per gram more so than soybeans, fish, poultry, and beef.
It is also a source of zinc, selenium, phosphorus, manganese, magnesium, copper, chromium, and potassium.
Spirulina Nutrition Facts
Taken as an average of diverse spirulina species, 1 ounce of spirulina contains this nutritional content 3 :
- Dietary fiber: 1 g
- Protein: 39 g
- Sugars: 9g
- Saturated fat: 4% DV
- Total fat: 3% DV
- Omega-6 fatty acids: 351 mg
- Omega-3 fatty acids: 230 mg
- Pantothenic Acid: 10%
- Riboflavin: 60%
- Niacin: 18%
- Thiamin: 44%
- Vitamin K: 9%
- Folate: 7%
- Vitamin E: 7%
- Vitamin C: 5%
- Vitamin B6: 5%
- Vitamin A: 3%
- Iron: 44%
- Copper: 85%
- Magnesium: 14%
- Manganese: 27%
- Potassium: 11%
- Sodium: 12%
- Zinc: 4%
- Selenium: 3%
- Calcium: 3%
- Phosphorus: 3%
*DV – daily value
Note: In contradiction to many beliefs, spirulina isn’t a good source of Vitamin B12 for humans. According to studies, while it does contain some B12, it’s pseudovitamin B12 that isn’t effective or absorbable in humans 4 .
How to Consume Spirulina?
Make sure to choose organic spirulina when buying, as others can have nitrate compounds as additive or can be contaminated.
Spirulina tastes like pond water, so many people prefer using spirulina supplements. You can also mix it with water and drink straight – though some individuals have trouble with this. The phosphorous makes it beneficial for the tooth re-mineralizing regimen, and it’s ideal taken with an Omega-3 source. Its potent anti-inflammatory properties have been beneficial to people with joint pain or some other types of inflammation.
How much spirulina should I consume?
Recommended daily dose of spirulina:
The dose of spirulina used in research examining its properties varies greatly. Generally, 1 to 8 g per day of spirulina has been found to have some effect. However, the exact doses depend on the health condition its being used for:
- For cholesterol: 1 to 8 g a day have been used
- For muscle performance: 2 to 7.5 g a day may be impactful
- For blood glucose control: mild effects have been seen with 2 g daily
- Blood pressure:5 to 4.5 g a day
- Fatty liver:5 g a day showed positive effected
Spirulina is about 1 percent phycocyanobilin by weight and 20 percent C-phycocyanin by weight.
Further studies are required to determine whether spirulina needs to be taken once a day, or in lesser doses, several times per day.
Note: It’s not recommended to exceed the maximum dose mentioned above, as no any clear benefits have been found beyond that level.
Spirulina Possible Side Effects
In general, spirulina is safe to use. However, it is absolutely critical to make sure that the purity and quality of the spirulina that you ingest are of the highest standards. Above all, like everything that comes from the sea, be certain to only buy blue-green algae which are free from contamination. Contaminated spirulina can cause the following, according to WebMD 5 :
- Stomach pain
- Liver damage
- Rapid heartbeat
- Shock, and even death
Likewise, some sources suggest that children and pregnant women shouldn’t consume algae. Consult your health care provider to confirm whether or not you need to use spirulina supplement.
Spirulina is an alga which can be taken as a supplement in either powder or pill form. Today, many health professionals promote spirulina benefits and recommend it as a treatment for a range of heart health and metabolism issues, including high cholesterol, weight loss, and diabetes, according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH). People may also recommend this supplement as an aid for various emotional and mental disorders, including attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), stress, anxiety, and depression.
Does spirulina work? According to NIH, there is not enough scientific evidence to determine if this alga is effective in treating health conditions. Though, spirulina benefits are still appreciated due to its high amounts of niacin, calcium, magnesium, iron, B-vitamins, and potassium. It also contains essential amino acids (which are the building blocks of proteins).
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On Karl Wieland's idiot site, I came across this short article entitled, Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dinosaur? where Don Batton, the one who wrote the article, gave out some distorted information on Chinese dragons, which never in fact looked like dinosaurs at all, while at the same time give out untruthful claims about dinosaurs being dragons people saw alive in ancient times.
First he claims that the Chinese-English Dictionary (published in China in 1979) gave the meanings behind 'dragon' as 'dinosaur' and falsely claims that the dictionary recognized the dragon to be real. If so, then where are their remains? Where are all the 'dragon' bones found alongside of tigers and humans in China? If the answer's 'nowhere', you're right! 'Dragon' and tiger bones together are nowhere to be found in both historical and prehistorical records!
He then says that the Chinese word for dinosaur, which is konglung, means "mighty dragon" in a paleontology sense. In a way, dragons are dinosaurs per se'. But what inspired the Chinese people is not what Batton falsely asserts. Fossil remains of dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals (mostly early Cenozoic Mammals) and live sightings of crocodiles and snakes are the true inspirations behind dragon legends, especially in China. Fictional live sightings of dinosaurs, Mesozoic sea monsters, and pterosaurs are not.
However, when he said,
"….-remember that the English word 'dinosaur' was not invented until 1841 [It's 1842, not 1841! They all have it one year off on the year Richard Owen coined the phrase 'dinosaur' or Dinosauria meaning "fearfully great lizards"]."
..he falsely implies that dinosaurs and dragons are one and the same while they are in fact not.
He then gives out some old Chinese sayings that involves tigers and dragons such as, 'like a coiling dragon and crouching tiger (translated in Chinese as Lo'ng Teng Hu Yo)' meaning "a forbidding strategic point". A variation on this saying inspired the title of the recent award-winning Chinese movie, Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (or Wo Hu Cang Lo'ng) meaning "a benign looking place with powerful hidden forces". 'Dragon's pool and tiger's den (translated in Chinese as Lo'ng Tan Hu Hsueh)' meaning "a dangerous place". 'Dragons rising and tigers leaping' (translated in Chinese as Lo'ng Teng Hu Yo) meaning "a scene of bustling activity."
Batton then states,
"Furthermore, of the twelve symbols used in the Chinese lunar calendar cycle, eleven are real animals (pig, rat, rabbit, tiger, etc.), suggesting that the remaining one, the dragon, is equally real."
Circular reasoning is what Batton displaying here, falsely implying that since all of the 11 animals in the Chinese Zodiac are real, then the dragon must be real too, or so he assumes. The truth of the matter is that putting dragons alongside real animals don't make them any more real than putting unicorns, elves, fairies, and gnomes alongside deer, rabbits, and other real types of forest animals. Unfortunately, creationists like Batton don't know better.
With these Chinese sayings and symbols involving dragons and tigers, Batton uses them to his advantage and came up with this blatant falsehood,
"The above evidence is consistent with identifying dinosaurs with the dragons of Chinese history as real animals that have lived not too long ago. This contradicts the whole idea of an 'age of dinosaurs' millions of years before people existed, and further supports the Biblical account of the real history of the world."
It would indeed contradict the idea of dinosaurs living millions of years ago before man IF we find evidence of dinosaurs and human remains mixed together in the fossil record as well as finding tombs of humans and their dinosaur companions buried together and valid artifacts depicting them that do not have the letters H-O-A-X written all over it. But none are found! Especially in China. So, why should it be consistent then when this is nothing more than the likes of Battan fabricating dragon legends to make it as if they are what they think they are while in reality they're not? Batton never gets it in his head that the word 'dragon' comes from the Latin word drakon meaning 'snake' or 'serpent.' The dragons of China resembled coiling twisting snakes with four limbs and wolf like heads, dear like antlers and carp scales, and the ability to control the weather and change into a different forms. Dinosaurs could do no such thing and have no such features on them at all.
And this is Shantungosaurus, a Hadrosaur that lived 80 million years ago.
Now, does the dragon, in the first link, looks exactly like the dinosaur in the second link? I don't think so! There is not one dinosaur alive and extinct that bore a body that resembled snakes and/or lizards. They have bodies and anatomy like birds and mammals, instead. The Chinese dragon may have originated from early sightings of not live non-avian dinosaurs, but snakes, fish and crocodiles. Especially sightings of an huge ancient giant crocodile Crocodilus Porosis this crocodile senses the coming rains in the most accurate way thus gave the people the idea of dragons controlling the weather. When one looks at the true history of the Chinese dragon, that person, especially you, can bet with certainty that the real story of the Chinese dragon has zero to do with dinosaurs, despite what Batton idiotically assumes.
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Can you find a way to identify times tables after they have been shifted up or down?
Imagine we have four bags containing a large number of 1s, 4s, 7s and 10s. What numbers can we make?
Caroline and James pick sets of five numbers. Charlie tries to find three that add together to make a multiple of three. Can they stop him?
Imagine we have four bags containing numbers from a sequence. What numbers can we make now?
Here is a machine with four coloured lights. Can you develop a strategy to work out the rules controlling each light?
A game for two people, or play online. Given a target number, say 23, and a range of numbers to choose from, say 1-4, players take it in turns to add to the running total to hit their target.
An introduction to the notation and uses of modular arithmetic
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