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This style of art is set in stone; literally. Architecture, statues, and other stone carvings make up this style. The Romans and Greeks idolized the human form and that is obviously the reason they have so many statues. Many of their statues were of their gods, characters from their myths, and important people in their community. These statues were tributes to the gods or person they were of. Their artwork also has many representations of the human form. The artists knew the muscle structure of the human body well and used it to nearly give statues life. The artists liked to depict people leaning slightly to emphasize the muscles. Their statues seem very real with the poses and expressions. Their art is also shown in their architecture. The Romans and Greeks had many different pillars and styles. Both are divided into three categories which are the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Buildings weren't just functional, they had meaning. Some buildings had art carved in the walls, others open to the wind. They also wanted everything orderly and controlled. Landscaping was set to certain points and cut in ways they would never grow naturally to create gardens in their palaces. This is an example of a Doric pillar. They rested on the ground and had round capitals at the top. These pillars were fluted and the height ranged from four to six and a half times the diameter of the base. The Corinthian pillars were much like the Ionic. The only difference is the Corinthian pillars had a very fancy leaf style capital.	<urn:uuid:c32451e1-a201-4fa6-92ab-290aa7b4756b>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://library.thinkquest.org/C006468/mike/classicalart.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702448584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516110728-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.986826	314	3.921875	4
Activated 1 March 1942 at Salt Lake City AB, Utah. They trained there until the 2nd of March 1943. Then moved to Geiger Field, Washington on 11 June 1942 Intensive training at Muroc Lake AB, California from the 29t June to 20th August 1942. The ground unit went by train to at Fort Dix, New Jersey. The ground unit sailed on the Queen Mary on the 5th September 1942, and disembarked from Greenock on the 12th of September 1942. the Aircraft assembled at Syracuse, New York and spent six weeks in advance flight training. They received new B-17F bombers, and left for the United Kingdom in October 1942 via the presque Isle, and Gander to Prestwick. Claims to Fame Under Col. LeMay the Group pioneered many formations and bombing procedures that became Standard Operating Procedures in the 8th AAF The 422nd Bomb Squadron undertook the first night attacks by the 8th AF Suffered heaviest loss of the 14th October 1943 Schweinfurt mission, and for this reason was given the Nazi flag found flying in the city when it was captured by the US troops Subsequent History Between 20-27 July 1945 the Group moved to St. Trond, Belgium, where it conducted photo-mapping flights which was called Project: Casey Jones over Europe and North Africa. On the 15th December 1945 moved to Lechfeld, Germany which they had bombed on the 18th March 1944. The 364th Bomb Squadron was inactivated on the 1st of July 1946. The 423 Bomb Squadron of the 306th Bomb Group was attached to the Group after this date but by the end of October 1946 the Group ceased all operations. Officially the unit was inactivated on the 25th of December 1946. On the Continent came under the 9th Air Force and on the 15th of November 1945 under USAFE. The unit was reactivated in 1951 as a Strategic Air Command B-29 unit and as the 305th Bomb Wing and converted to B-47s in 1953. Then became one of the USAF's two B-58 Hustler units. Col. LeMay and the 305th Bombardment Group 1. "An assignment to hell" The United Press correspondent, Walter Cronkite, reported that above 20,000 feet he and his colleagues could no longer make notes; the cold actually froze the lead of the pencils. Cronkite summed up the bomber mission as "an assignment to hell-a hell 20,000 feet above the earth." . 2. New survival tactics As aids to survival, the Eighth Air Force kept devising new equipment and tactics. The crewmen were given new "vests" to protect them from flak. Made of overlapping two - inch - square steel plates on top of heavy canvas, the flak vest proved to be so effective that one bombardier survived unhurt when a 20mm cannon shell exploded only two feet away from his chest. Another innovation that was gradually replacing the crews' leather and fleece - lined clothing was the electric flying suit; it could be plugged in at air receptacles inside the bomber. 3. "Iron Ass" LeMay The new tactics that were worked out had two principal aims: to increase bombing precision and to make the massed bomber formations more invulnerable to Luftwaffe attack. Some of the methods were devised by an irascible, cigar - chomping 36 - year - old Ohioan, Colonel Curtis E. LeMay, who commanded the 305th Bombardment Group. LeMay was such a slave driver that his men called him "Iron Ass." In their dispatches home, American correspondents softened the term to "Iron Pants, " only to earn LeMay's scornful charge that they feared "offending some delicate old - maid type readers." 4. The "combat box" LeMay was never to curb his notorious penchant for plain speaking, but in the winter of 1943 he was better known for two tactical innovations. The first was the flying formation known as the "combat box." In contrast to the loose bomber stream used in the British night missions, the Americans' choice of a daylight strategy had required their planes to be tightly bunched for effective defense against attack. LeMay's combat box further strengthened the defense. It consisted of as many as 21 planes staggered vertically and horizontally in such a way that the bombers' guns provided maximum firepower all around, and especially against head - on attacks. On large raids, three of these boxes were formed into a combat wing, with one box in the lead and the others stacked 1,000 feet above and below it. 5. The lead crew LeMay's second innovation, designed to increase bombing accuracy, was to place his most proficient crews in the lead planes of the combat boxes. All the planes in the box dropped their bombs simultaneously-but only at the signal of the lead crew. The result, at least in theory, was a closely packed pattern of hits on the target.	<urn:uuid:031b577e-e6e5-4526-ad1f-49344adb6e0d>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.flightjacket.com/365-bs-305-bg-8-af.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702448584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516110728-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.978844	1,019	2.59375	3
texinfo-show-structure command produces too much information. Perhaps you want to remind yourself of the overall structure of a Texinfo file, and are overwhelmed by the detailed list produced by texinfo-show-structure. In this case, you can use the command directly. To do this, type: and then, when prompted, type a regexp, a regular expression for the pattern you want to match. (See Regular Expressions in The GNU Emacs Manual.) The occur command works from the current location of the cursor in the buffer to the end of the buffer. If you want to run occur on the whole buffer, place the cursor at the beginning of the buffer. For example, to see all the lines that contain the word ‘@chapter’ in them, just type ‘@chapter’. This will produce a list of the chapters. It will also list all the sentences with ‘@chapter’ in the middle of the line. If you want to see only those lines that start with the word ‘@chapter’, type ‘^@chapter’ when prompted by occur. If you want to see all the lines that end with a word or phrase, end the last word with a ‘$’; for example, ‘catching mistakes$’. This can be helpful when you want to see all the nodes that are part of the same chapter or section and therefore have the same ‘Up’ pointer. See Using Occur in The GNU Emacs Manual, for more information.	<urn:uuid:85f4d535-bfc2-4020-b7ed-86be7b7490c7>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.gnu.org/software/texinfo/manual/texinfo/html_node/Using-occur.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702448584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516110728-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.865556	341	2.53125	3
Most people want to help protect and preserve the environment. There are many views on how to best do this, and most focus on reducing use of natural materials and recycling what can be saved. While the idea is admirable, these actions can cause more harm than good. Recycling materials that were not designed to be recycled leads to the use of hazardous materials in the process and less value in the end product. Although Cradle to Cradle by William McDonough and Micheal Braungart defies current environmental thinking, it is an eye-opening book because it reveals the incorrect policies of the past, the fatal flaws of the present generation, and improved strategies for the future. In the past, industry was purely driven by profit and the bottom line, but times have changed. The industrial revolution was a dirty time of mass production and environmental sacrifice (McDonough & Braungart, 2003, p. 30). This lead to an environment polluted by byproducts and the creation of products that were designed to be cheap to make. However, this idea of cheap production does not take into account the environmental and social cost of these dangerous products. When these costs are considered, the flaws in the former way of thinking become apparent. The unimaginable amounts of toxic byproducts and the amount of money invested in useless waste are huge costs that hurt industry and the environment. A system that feeds off of the Earth without giving anything in return goes against all of nature and can only lead to destruction. The present social environment focuses on the model of reduce, reuse, recycle, and regulate. Reducing the amount of products used and thus the waste and toxins created by those products does not help fix the problem; it just puts off the inevitable outcome, a barren, toxic Earth devoid of resources. Reusing products also helps in the short run, but fails to address the real problems. Even after reusing a product it still is discarded and those valuable materials are lost. Recycling tries to address this problem of lost materials. In reality, materials are still lost as most recycling is actually down-cycling; where a material is recovered in a less valuable state. Water bottles are melted down but the plastics are degraded in the process. These cannot be used for bottles again, but have to be used as artificial turf or other products that can be made with weaker materials. Also, the byproducts of recycling can be much worse than the byproducts of the original production. The harsh chemicals and processes can release more toxins than if the product was just thrown away (McDonough & Braungart, 2003, p. 56). These chemicals and other byproducts released by the production and recycling have been released in such quantities that it required governmental regulation of the environmental effects of industry. The constant battle between environmentalists and industry has created a polarized view; environmental considerations directly fight profit and success. This could not be further from the truth. Factories made to be pleasant to work in and environmentally friendly have shown an ability to entice workers and save millions of dollars. Ford Motor Company has redesigned its factories with the help of input from the authors. In one particular instance, they saved over 50 million dollars just from using environmentally helpful sewer systems. As McDonough and Braungart point out, a balanced view that considers all issues of economy, equity and ecology is needed (McDonough & Braungart, 2003, p. 150). If even one of these issues is valued more than the others than the whole decision-making process is flawed and any solutions will be invalid, useless, and harmful. However, if a proper system is used to come to logical and truly low cost processes, then real change and improvement can be made. A five step process to create better products is presented, which includes: getting rid of known environmental culprits, following informed personal preferences, creating a list of categorized products by environmental impact, using the list to redesign products using safer materials, and finally completely reinventing the product (McDonough & Braungart, 2003, p. 165). The end result is not an improved product with a reduced impact, but a totally new product designed from the beginning to have minimal impact and be easily broken down. The gradual scale of this process allows for companies to start improving their products now and work up to full scale reinvention of manufacturing. Optimizing the materials used can have major positive improvements of both economic and environmental considerations. By designing with the end of a product’s lifespan in mind products can become truly waste-free. The authors constantly stress the difference between biological nutrients and technical nutrients. These two separate metabolisms – the technical material cycle and the biological cycle – can be used in designs to create products with zero waste, and some that even produce positive byproducts (McDonough & Braungart, 2003, p. 103). Shoes can be designed with biodegradable soles and plastic uppers that separate for disposal. The soles are biodegradable and can be returned to the biological cycle with no waste or toxicity. The plastic uppers can be up-cycled into new shoes or better products because of the pure plastic not degraded by afterthought recycling. By utilizing the nutrient cycles separately the authors can maximize usefulness of the product’s materials and minimize environmental impact. These ideals are just the start to a world vision of closed circle production and consumer loops, where the waste of one process becomes nutrients for the next process. These changes will not occur overnight, Cradle to Cradle outlines how the needed changes can be made gradually and productively. The authors present their arguments, the facts, their sources, and their solutions in a very organized and effective manner. With the help and consul of McDonough and Braungart we can save our planet. We need to not just work on minimizing or avoiding or reducing waste (McDonough & Braungart, 2003, p. 67). We need to remove waste from the equation completely, so that waste ceases to exist. Just as this book is dedicated to “The children of all species,” we need to focus on solutions that will benefit the children for all time. McDonough, W., & Braungart, M. (2003). Cradle to cradle, remaking the way we make things. New York: North Point Pr.	<urn:uuid:d94763b1-2321-470c-a83f-70ac3d31c74b>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://envirowriters.wordpress.com/2012/05/04/essay-2-book-review-revision-cradle-to-cradle-clean-creation-and-clean-destruction/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705559639/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115919-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.952211	1,286	3.96875	4
Interview with Prof. Ken Donaldson Professor of Respiratory Toxicology, ELEGI Colt Laboratory, Centre for Inflammation Research, Medical School, University of Edinburgh ICON: What is the most important thing that readers should take away from your publication? Ken Donaldson: The study places carbon nanotubes within the paradigm that controls the pathogenicity of fibers such as asbestos. According to the paradigm, long, thin, insoluble fibers are pathogenic. What we showed was that the long multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNT) did conform to the paradigm in that the long MWNTs were pathogenic. The short ones weren’t, which also complies with the paradigm. The results were unwelcome but unsurprising since several influential groups have identified that nanotubes might behave like asbestos, although no one had yet done a proper study. ICON: Briefly describe your experiment and the findings. KD: To test the rule of fiber length we took two samples of short nanotubes, and two samples of long nanotubes; the paradigm rules would suggest the short ones would be harmless and the long ones pathogenic. The test was based on the fact that the mesothelium is a tissue targeted by amphibole asbestos, the most harmful asbestos type, causing a range of pathologies, the most severe of which is the tumor mesothelioma. Because mesotheliomas take a long time to develop, short-term effects on the mesothelium were measured – inflammation and granuloma (scar) formation. Back in the 1980s I had studied this model and showed that it was highly responsive to long fibers. The short nanotubes did nothing. The long caused inflammation and scarring. We had important controls – short and long asbestos fibers. We put those alongside in the study with the same result: Short asbestos fibers are harmless and long asbestos caused inflammation and scar formation. ICON: What was the source of your MWNTs, and how did you expose the mice? KD: We purchased the two short ones from Nanolabs; one of the long ones was a gift from the Mitsui Corporation and the other long one was made at the University of Cambridge. In the case of asbestos, people get their exposure by inhalation. The fibers find their way to the mesothelium, which encompasses the outside surface of the lung between the lungs and chest wall. What we did was use the identical surface in the body cavity – the abdominal mesothelium; we injected the fibers into the abdominal cavity of the mouse. It was a rapid and easy way to expose the sensitive mesothelial tissue. ICON: Was there anything special about the animals you used in the experiment? KD: No, they were normal laboratory mice. ICON: What controls did you run and what was their purpose? KD: We had a number of controls. First, the vehicle control, which was the protein solution used to disperse the nanotubes. Also, we used the long and short amosite asbestos fibers, which we had used in previous studies. Finally, we used nanoparticulate carbon black; these nanoparticles are composed of sheets of graphene in a ball shape. The carbon black was chosen since graphene in tubular form is the essential structure of MWNT. The vehicle had no effect; the short amosite had no effect; and the carbon black and the short nanotubes had no effect – just the long nanotubes and long asbestos, so all particles conformed to the paradigm. ICON: What experiments are you running now to expand upon this result? KD: We’re still doing dose response studies to see what the lowest dose is. The study is a long way from saying if you inhale long multi-walled carbon nanotubes you will get mesothelioma. This study shows it’s possible, but we have to go quite a distance to show that inhaled nanotubes can find their way to the mesothelium, as asbestos does. We’re looking at other kinds of nanofibers as well, such as nickel nanowires, to see if they conform to the paradigm. Also, we don’t know the cut-off length for pathogenicity of either nanotubes or asbestos. It’s somewhere between 10 and 20 micrometers, but we don’t know exactly. An important next step is to go into work places and see what is in the air. We don’t have to worry if workers are not exposed to long nanotubes. But we need exposure measurements. Risk is composed of two parts – hazard and exposure; we showed that long nanotubes could be a considerable hazard to the mesothelium and we now need more exposure studies to be able to predict risk. It’s important to point out that the study exclusively addressed fiber effects of nanotubes; different studies are needed to address whether nanotubes can have adverse effects by virtue of being particles. ICON: What is your opinion of the Japanese study? KD: It claims to demonstrate that nanotubes have the potential to cause mesothelioma, but it is flawed. There are at least three things that were wrong with the paper. 1. The delivery of the dose. In toxicology the dose is everything. The dose drives the response. In our study, the effective dose is long nanotubes. Their dose was big clumps of nanotubes, 100 microns in diameter, far bigger than any cell. They would never have reached the part of the lung where macrophage phagocytosis, a key factor in determining fiber pathogenicity, would have occurred. Nor are such big lumps likely to reach the sensitive mesothelium. 2. The use of genetically modified mice. To provide a shortcut, they used p53 defective animals. These mice were far more likely to get cancer. That’s fine and an interesting model, but what we don’t know is if this model is anything like the norm. It’s so sensitive that anything could have been an irritant. There was no control. C60 was not a good control since it’s an anti-oxidant. In short, this is an unvalidated model for mesothelioma. 3. The size of the dose. Three milligrams, or 3,000 micrograms, is 30,000 times the dose that we find to be the lowest dose that has an effect. It’s one reason that the fibers clumped together, probably. They seemed to have used that dose in order to meet the fiber criteria of 109, a dosage defined by the European Union that was in common usage for detecting the carcinogenicity of fibers in rats. But that’s a rat dose, and these are mice. Return to Backgrounder Professor Ken Donaldson (KD) is the Scientific Director of the ELEGI Colt Laboratory in the Medical School of the University of Edinburgh, where he is Professor of Respiratory Toxicology. Prior to this he was Professor of Pathobiology, Napier University and before that Head of the Toxicology Unit, Institute of Occupational Medicine, Edinburgh. He has a PhD and a DSc from the University of Edinburgh and a BSc(Hons) (First Class) in Biology from the University of Stirling and is a Fellow of several distinguished societies, including the Royal College of Pathologists. Professor Donaldson is recognized as an expert in the mechanisms of lung disease caused by inhaled agents especially particles and fibres and in this capacity has provided expert opinion and consultancy to the US Environmental Protection Agency (North Carolina), US Health Effects Institute (Massachusetts), World Health Organisation, International Agency for Research on Cancer (Lyon France), WHO Air Quality and Health (Bonn, Germany), UK Medical Research Council, UK Health and Safety Executive, etc. KD sits on three government committees pertaining to toxicology of air pollutants – Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollution (COMEAP) and Expert Panel on Air Quality Standards (EPAQS) and Advisory committee on Hazardous Substances. KD has given advice on the toxicology of fibres to the US EPA and UK HSE. In relation to inhaled nanoparticles (NP) and nanotubes, KD was one of the initial proponents of the NP theory of the toxicity of particulate air pollution and has acted as a consultant to various bodies on the risk from NPs such as EU (SCEHNIR, COST), European Science Foundation, Health and Safety Executive, ECETOC and the WHO. He has published over 280 scientific papers, a large number on mechanism of lung injury caused by inhaled agents and currently has a research programme into the adverse effects of nanoparticles on the lungs and cardiovascular system. He is Founding Editor of the journal ‘Particle and Fibre Toxicology’ and Co Editor of ‘Particle Toxicology’, 2007, CRC Press. Return to Backgrounder	<urn:uuid:5d6cc96a-77d3-4c8b-a1c6-718e63ad6244>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://icon.rice.edu/resources.cfm?doc_id=12344	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705559639/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115919-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953792	1,892	2.59375	3
Scylla (sĭlˈə) [key], in Greek mythology. 1 Sea monster. According to one legend Circe, jealous of the sea god Glaucus' love for Scylla, changed her from a beautiful nymph into a horrible doglike creature with six heads and twelve feet; according to another, Amphitrite, jealous of Poseidon's love for her, transformed her into the ugly monster. Scylla lived on the rocks on the Italian side of the Strait of Messina, where she seized sailors from passing ships and devoured them. On the other side of the strait was the whirlpool Charybdis. Odysseus in his wanderings passed between them, as did Jason and the Argonauts. 2 Daughter of Nisus, king of Megara. She betrayed her father to his enemy Minos, but when she sought Minos' love, he scorned her. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. More on Scylla from Infoplease: See more Encyclopedia articles on: Folklore and Mythology	<urn:uuid:692aa1b9-7b57-4ed2-9d52-1de72091e2e8>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/entertainment/scylla.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705559639/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115919-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.924575	234	2.890625	3
Unlike mammals, fish are cold-blooded. This means that they do not maintain a constant internal body temperature; instead, their temperature is greatly influenced by their environment. True fish have a backbone and fins. Most also breathe with gills and have scales that cover their bodies. It is currently believed that fish began to evolve about 480 million years ago. There are about 22,000 known species of fish. A fish's fins are used for balance and to help propel and steer through the water. Most fish have 2 types of fins: single fins that are found along the centerline (top and bottom) of the fish, and paired fins. The caudal fin, or tail fin, is the main fin used to move the fish forward in the water, while the dorsal and anal fins (on the top and bottom, respectively) help the fish balance and keep it from rolling over. The paired fins help with steering and hovering. On the outside of the skin, most fish have scales. These overlap in rows and help protect the fish against injuries and infection. In some species (for example, puffer fish) the skin covers the scales—creating a living surface. Their edges are jagged and sharp in some fish, and smooth and rounded in others. Over the scales, fish secrete a mucous covering to further protect against infection. The mucus traps and immobilizes bacteria and viruses, keeping them from entering the fish's body. This covering also helps reduce friction, allowing the fish to move easily through the water. In order to breathe underwater, fish have developed special organs called gills. The gills, found on the side of the fish just behind the head, contain thousands of capillaries, or tiny blood vessels. Water is constantly pumped over the gills, which filter the oxygen out of the water and directly into the fish's blood. A gill cover, called the operculum, is a flexible bony plate that helps protect the sensitive gills. Gills are also important for excretion of waste products, particularly ammonia, from the fish's bloodstream. Fish have a unique internal organ known as the swim bladder or air bladder. It is usually found in the abdomen, and it helps fish move up or down in the water. By adjusting the amount of air in the bladder, fish can adjust the depth at which they float without continuously having to swim. In some fish, the swim bladder is also used to produce sounds. Members of the shark or ray family (elasmobranches) do not have a swim bladder. Many fish have excellent vision and can see colors. They also have nostrils and are able to detect odors in water. Fish may or may not have teeth, depending on the species. Another organ of sense unique to fish is called the lateral line, located along the side of the fish. It contains small sensory hairs that help detect underwater vibrations and determine their source, enabling fish to navigate even in low light or murky water. Last full review/revision July 2011 by Ruth Francis-Floyd, DVM, MS, DACZM	<urn:uuid:62bb55b9-be9e-4629-8dec-111c0f817fc3>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.merckmanuals.com/pethealth/print/exotic_pets/fish/description_and_physical_characteristics_of_fish.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705559639/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115919-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.959092	633	4.03125	4
How Christians went to war Among the remarkable side effects of the conflict between the United States and Iraq has been the revival of the just war theory, the set of ethical reflections specifying the conditions under which a "just war" may be declared (jus ad bellum) and how it must be waged (jus in bello). Catholic moral theologians, accustomed to talking shop primarily to their students and to one another, enjoyed a short but intense heyday in the media spotlight during Operation Desert Storm and again, briefly, during the recent U.S. bombing of Iraq. As the conflict unfolded in 1990 and early 1991, these theologians authored innumerable articles and appeared on talk shows to discuss the criteria for a just war-namely, that war is the last resort, taken only after all other measures have been exhausted; that the cause is just (e.g., self-defense against an aggressor); that the war is waged with the right intention (not to exact vengeance or confiscate territory); and that the war is declared by the proper authority and with a reasonable hope of success in attaining its objectives. Had the Bush administration and the international coalition satisfied these criteria? Once Desert Storm was under way, did it satisfy the jus in bello criteria: Were noncombatants reasonably protected from attack? Was the damage and suffering caused by the war in proportion to the moral benefits gained (e.g., the defense of Kuwait)? As they clarified these concepts and applied them to the situation in the gulf, theologians were suddenly "relevant" again. "It is not too much to say," wrote Russell Sizemore, "that for a brief moment just war rhetoric served as the lingua franca of American moral reflection." Indeed, the sight of government and military officials, politicians, educators, and pundits taking seriously a moral tradition rooted in Christianity was striking. Saint Augustine must be pleased. The famous convert, who was consecrated bishop of Hippo (in North Africa) in 395, was perhaps the church's most influential thinker on the subject of the relevance and applicability of Christian ideals and values to the so-called "real world"-that den of iniquity, power politics, and remorseless, take-no-prisoners warfare we call home. It was Augustine's singular achievement to provide an elaborate theological rationale for Christian participation in the affairs of the world, not least in its governance. From Roman political theory and Christian eschatology (the divine plan for bringing history to fulfillment) he fashioned the classic statement of the just war tradition. Christians of the early church had set themselves apart from the fallen world, standing both in judgment of it and in literal imitation of Jesus. Rejecting "an eye for an eye" morality, as the Lord had done, many practiced pacifism, refusing to serve in the military or take up arms, even in self-defense. No war could be considered "just" in their eyes. Once the emperor Constantine ended the Roman empire's persecution of Christians in 313, however, the radical witness of the few was eclipsed by the worldliness of the many. The church made room for thousands of new members who were quite at ease in the old dispensation. As Christians gradually moved into positions of civic authority, they developed a more flexible attitude toward the world and its foibles. Their enhanced sense of responsibility for public affairs necessitated the kind of theological justifications for "public Christianity" that Augustine and other theologians provided. Augustine, not one to shy from big ideas, developed a philosophy of history that captured the ordinary Christian's sense of divided loyalties that arose from living spiritually under Christ's reign but physically in a dissolute and declining empire. In his masterpiece, The City of God, written toward the end of his life, Augustine ruminated on ways of bridging the vast gulf between the "City of God" and the "City of Man," the two realms vying daily for the loyalty of the Christian. In so doing he articulated a powerful form of moral reasoning that translates abstract Christian values into concrete norms for living in the rough-and-tumble world of realpolitik. Part of Augustine's brilliance as a theologian was his uncanny ability to incorporate and subtly transform lessons learned from his intellectually charged (and somewhat checkered) past. Specifically, he borrowed elements from Manicheanism, the pagan philosophy of his youth, which divided the world into duelling absolutes, realms of pure light and impenetrable darkness. Behind this dualism of spheres, however, lies an encompassing order of love and justice, the mature Augustine-the Christian Augustine-now asserted. This divine ordering of reality is the standard by which partial realizations of love and justice are measured. In a sublimely practical move, Augustine refused to allow the perfection of the heavenly city to undermine striving for its semblance in the earthly. Christians are only passing through the City of Man, he acknowledged. Yet even on earth they may taste some of the happiness of the heavenly city. Partial and imperfect realizations of the eschaton, the final age of fulfillment, would have to suffice. Achieving them would be the burden of Christian politics. Politics, Christian or otherwise, is the art of compromise. If the definitive peace of the heavenly city is beyond the power of earthly rulers to deliver, he reasoned, they must strive for the next best thing-the provisional sort of peace and social order that is necessary for the cultivation of personal virtue and piety. Peace expressed as order, however imperfect, provides people with the opportunity to maintain or restore relationships threatened by turmoil in the political or ecclesial community. For Augustine, the Catholic ethicist Lisa Sowle Cahill comments, "social order as a form of peace is also a form of love." To preserve order, however, the proper authorities must be able to control the violent and anarchic behavior that fuels wars of conquest and revenge. And they must do so without adopting the tactics of the marauders and mercenaries bent on escalating the violence. Use compelling force, in other words, but don't get carried away with it. The just war theory lays down the guidelines for achieving this delicate balance. Augustine's writings on the justified use of force-the core of the just war theory-commended the use of violence under certain conditions. The violence must be deemed necessary to punish crime or to uphold the peace. The goal in using potentially lethal force, further, must be the establishment of justice rather than the punishment of enemies. Most important, only the legitimate civil authority could make the decision to employ violence. Obedience to just war criteria, in fact, was considered one sign of the ruler's legitimacy before God. Confronted with the growing acceptance of just war reasoning, pacifists invoked Jesus' "hard sayings" about turning the other cheek and loving the enemy. Augustine responded that Christians should heed these "counsels of perfection" in their personal affairs, but they should apply a different calculus when translating them to the complex arena of public governance. To kill selflessly for the common good may be the highest form of self-denial and love. Each age has its own Saddam Hussein. For Christians of late antiquity, whose faith had flowered under the peace of Constantine, the barbarians who sacked Rome and set about to dismantle Christian civilization embodied the anarchic violence that the just war theory compelled legitimate civic authorities to resist. It's perhaps harder for us to understand that heretics who threatened the unity of the African church also qualified, in Augustine's book, as candidates for "tough love" of the most lethal kind. Many Catholics, including scores of bishops, have recently questioned whether there can still be a just war of "right proportion" in our era of nuclear and biological weapons. Others continue to defend the instrumental use of deadly violence to preserve peace and avert greater evils. Augustine's logic of war remains relevant, they contend, in a world where peace must be understood not as the absence of violence, but as the preservation of a minimum standard of order within which Christianity might flourish. Saint Augustine may have to be held accountable, nonetheless, Cahill observes, for "his willingness to allow considerable leeway in history for Christian compromise with secular and civic values and 'necessities,' deferring eschatological transformation of major dimensions of Christian practice from history to heaven." Heaven can wait, in other words. But can we?	<urn:uuid:66b1dcab-dba7-4989-9b7d-7fd3e75b96d1>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.uscatholic.org/culture/war-and-peace/2008/07/how-christians-went-war	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705559639/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115919-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.952462	1,727	2.515625	3
So consider the case where there is a particle and a moving telescope: If the particle is located at position 1, and the telescope is moving horizontally as shown, the EM radiation appears to be coming from position 2, from the telescopes perspective. Let us now think of the object 1 as being an electron, producing a static electric field. Now, the telescope will detect the electric field to indeed be at position 1, despite travelling at the horizontal velocity. Why is there such a difference between EM and electric fields.	<urn:uuid:cee96e84-c6d3-40de-89cd-a7573863ef8f>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/52779/why-is-there-no-aberation-of-a-static-electric-field-but-there-is-aberation-for/52834	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368709037764/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125717-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.944951	105	3.125	3
As important as it is to get your blood pressure checked, doing it at the doctor's office is not the best strategy, a new study out of the UK finds. The researchers compared the cost-effectiveness and accuracy of clinical (in-office) blood pressure tests against home blood pressure monitors, and mobile monitors that are worn for 24 hours at a time. The data showed that mobile monitors cost the least, are most likely to catch hypertension early on, and are most likely to prevent other expensive health conditions like cardiovascular disease or organ damage. The Details: Roughly 10 to 20 percent of adults in the U.S. suffer from "white coat syndrome," which means that their blood pressure spikes when they visit the doctor, leading to inaccurate blood-pressure readings. Which is why patients with high numbers are usually asked to come back once a month for the next three months, so the doctor can get another reading (which means more money). Or a doctor just assumes the patient is nervous and lets it go, leading in some cases to undiagnosed hypertension (or high blood pressure) that can turn into more expensive health problems. In rare cases, a patient may exhibit high blood pressure at the office but not actually have high blood pressure, leading to unnecessary, expensive drugs that come with risky side effects. The study, published in The Lancet, used computer modeling to see if sending patients home with a mobile blood pressure monitor, usually worn for 24 hours while it takes blood pressure readings every 15 to 30 minutes, would be a better way to get a truly accurate reading for a lower cost. Their findings indicate patients could save as much as $500 if they relied on mobile blood pressure monitoring after a high blood pressure reading. And the savings were higher for younger patients and for women. Home blood pressure monitoring was also a cost saver, but the cost savings were lower overall and were the same for all ages and genders. What it Means: The costs associated with treating hypertension could be cut significantly if you catch it early on with accurate readings, and the best place to get those readings may not be the doctor's office. But the doctor's office test has become the norm. "Most of us have gotten away from continuous monitoring because when a patient comes to see you, you're measuring blood pressure and how it relates to other things like diabetes, as well," says Myrna Alexander Nickens, MD, FACC, a cardiologist and spokesperson for the American Heart Association. Drugs become the treatment of choice for most cases of hypertension. According to Consumer Reports, costs for blood pressure medications can range from $10 to $120 per month. As a country, we shelled out $76.6 billion in 2010 for health care services related to high blood pressure. Those costs skyrocket if misdiagnosed hypertension turns into heart disease. "Home blood pressure monitors and mobile monitors do cost more up front, but they can save money if we can diagnose hypertension correctly," she adds. Mobile monitors-the ones that you wear all day-are usually purchased by doctors and can cost upwards of $4,500, but patients (or their insurance companies) pay between $100 and $300 for each use, according to the American Academy of Family Physicians. A good home blood pressure monitor runs $30 to $130, but you can use it for your entire life, avoiding any future costs associated with misdiagnosed hypertension. Here are a few things to keep in mind if you suffer from white-coat syndrome or think you may have potentially misdiagnosed blood pressure: • Discuss your options. This new study has caused England's leading medical standards agency to change its guidelines about blood pressure monitoring, making mobile monitors required to prevent misdiagnosis. It isn't clear whether the U.S. will change its guidelines as well. So if you get anxious at your doctor's office and wind up with a high reading, ask about mobile blood pressure monitoring. • Get a good home monitor. The study's authors, and other physicians, did note that home blood pressure monitors are less accurate than mobile monitors you'd wear for 24 hours. But a recent study found that they more accurately reflect your true blood pressure than blood pressure readings at a clinic. • Send your blood pressure readings to your doctor. "In my own practice, I have my patients buy their own machine and have them email or send their readings back to me, so I can compare their blood pressure with mine," says Dr. Nickens. That way, she knows if a patient is just nervous or in fact has a serious problem.	<urn:uuid:ae27f7b7-42cc-4706-8c63-6d7060f59876>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.4to40.com/health/index.asp?p=The_Hidden_Cost_of_Blood_Pressure_Tests&c=Womens_Health	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368709037764/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125717-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.960187	928	2.59375	3
- Alcohol has been used as a medicine. Alcohol was used for centuries as a medicine in childbirth, sedation, - Alcohol is digested in the same way that food is digested. Alcohol is unique because it requires no digestion. It can be absorbed directly from the stomach, and even more rapidly from the small intestine. - Moderate consumption of alcoholic beverages is generally not harmful to Some studies show that moderate drinkers (those drinking no more than one to two drinks a day) tend to be at less risk for heart attacks than abstainers or heavy drinkers. However, it's not recommended that you start drinking for health benefits. - An estimated 85% of the adult Americans who drink are alcohol abusers. Of the adult Americans who drink, approximately 15% abuse alcohol. The majority of people who drink do so in a responsible manner which does not lead to alcohol-related problems. The 15% of drinkers who abuse alcohol account for far more than half of - Alcoholic beverages do not provide weight-increasing calories. Alcohol does contain calories: - alcohol contains 7 calories per gram - carbohydrates contain 4 calories per gram - fat contains 9 calories per gram - A blood alcohol concentration of 0.10% is the legal definition of alcohol intoxication in most states with respect to driving. - Alcohol is not a drug. - Approximately ten percent of fatal highway accidents are alcohol-related. - Eating while drinking slows the absorption of alcohol in the body. - It takes about as many hours as the number of beers drunk for the liver to completely burn up the alcohol ingested. - Few women become alcoholics. - Alcohol is considered a stimulant. - The most commonly drunk alcoholic beverages in the United States are distilled liquors (e.g., whiskey, gin, vodka). - To prevent a hangover, one should sip one's drink slowly, eat while drinking, have no more than one drink an hour, and not over-drink one's limit. - "Proof" on a bottle of liquor represents half the percent of alcohol contained in the bottle. - Alcohol consumption improves sexual performance. - A person cannot become an alcoholic by just drinking beer. - Drinking milk before alcohol slows down the absorption of alcohol into the body because it coats the stomach. - Responsible drinking can contribute to a state of relaxation, enhanced social interactions, and a feeling of well-being. - Drinking coffee or taking a cold shower can be an effective way of decreasing blood alcohol levels.	<urn:uuid:befd823a-e557-435e-9ec8-35fb6e81b60b>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.med.unc.edu/alcohol/prevention/quiz/quiz6.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368709037764/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125717-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.906056	543	3.1875	3
new(name, utc_offset, tzinfo = nil)public Create a new TimeZone object with the given name and offset. The offset is the number of seconds that this time zone is offset from UTC (GMT). Seconds were chosen as the offset unit because that is the unit that Ruby uses to represent time zone offsets (see Time#utc_offset). # File activesupport/lib/active_support/values/time_zone.rb, line 180 def initialize(name, utc_offset, tzinfo = nil) @name = name @utc_offset = utc_offset @tzinfo = tzinfo end	<urn:uuid:d7bb96c3-9dfb-498c-86b7-03c0b8ff95b7>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://apidock.com/rails/v2.2.1/ActiveSupport/TimeZone/new/class	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698924319/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516100844-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.773845	139	2.90625	3
\|Egyptian MiG-21 PFM\| \|First flight\|\|14 February 1955 (Ye-2)\| \|Status\|\|In active service (see list)\| \|Primary users\|\|Soviet Air Force Indian Air Force Romanian Air Force Polish Air Force \|Produced\|\|1959 (MiG-21F) to 1985 (MiG-21bis)\| (10,645 produced in the USSR, 657 in India, 194 in Czechoslovakia) The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 (Russian: Микоян и Гуревич МиГ-21; NATO reporting name: Fishbed) is a supersonic jet fighter aircraft, designed by the Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau in the Soviet Union. It was popularly nicknamed "Balalaika", from the aircraft's planform-view resemblance to the Russian stringed musical instrument or ołówek (English: pencil) by Polish pilots due to the shape of its fuselage. Early versions are considered second-generation jet fighters, while later versions are considered to be third-generation jet fighters. Some 50 countries over four continents have flown the MiG-21, and it still serves many nations a half-century after its maiden flight. The fighter made aviation records. At least by name, it is the most-produced supersonic jet aircraft in aviation history and the most-produced combat aircraft since the Korean War, and it had the longest production run of a combat aircraft (1959 to 1985 over all variants). The MiG-21 jet fighter was a continuation of Soviet jet fighters, starting with the subsonic MiG-15 and MiG-17, and the supersonic MiG-19. A number of experimental Mach 2 Soviet designs were based on nose intakes with either swept-back wings, such as the Sukhoi Su-7, or tailed deltas, of which the MiG-21 would be the most successful. Development of what would become the MiG-21 began in the early 1950s, when Mikoyan OKB finished a preliminary design study for a prototype designated Ye-1 in 1954. This project was very quickly reworked when it was determined that the planned engine was underpowered; the redesign led to the second prototype, the Ye-2. Both these and other early prototypes featured swept wings—the first prototype with delta wings as found on production variants was the Ye-4. The Ye-4 made its maiden flight on 16 June 1955 and made its first public appearance during the Soviet Aviation Day display at Moscow's Tushino airfield in July 1956. In the West, due to the lack of available information, early details of the MiG-21 often were confused with those of similar Soviet fighters of the era. In one instance, Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1960–1961 listed the "Fishbed" as a Sukhoi design and used an illustration of the Su-9 'Fishpot'. The MiG-21 was the first successful Soviet aircraft combining fighter and interceptor characteristics in a single aircraft. It was a lightweight fighter, achieving Mach 2 with a relatively low-powered afterburning turbojet, and is thus comparable to the American Lockheed F-104 Starfighter and Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter and the French Dassault Mirage III. Its basic layout was used for numerous other Soviet designs; delta-winged aircraft included Su-9 interceptor and the fast E-150 prototype from MiG bureau while the mass-produced successful front fighter Su-7 and Mikoyan's I-75 experimental interceptor combined a similar fuselage shape with swept-back wings. However, the characteristic layout with the shock cone and front air intake did not see widespread use outside the USSR and finally proved to have limited development potential, mainly because of the very small space available for the radar. Like many aircraft designed as interceptors, the MiG-21 had a short range. This was not helped by a design defect where the center of gravity shifted rearwards once two-thirds of the fuel had been used. This had the effect of making the plane uncontrollable, resulting in an endurance of only 45 minutes in clean condition. The issue of the short endurance and low fuel capacity of the MiG-21F, PF, PFM, S/SM and M/MF variants—though each had a somewhat greater fuel capacity than its predecessor—led to the development of the MT and SMT variants. These had a range increase of 250 km (155 mi) compared to the MiG-21SM, but at the cost of worsening all other performance figures (such as a lower service ceiling and slower time to altitude). The delta wing, while excellent for a fast-climbing interceptor, meant any form of turning combat led to a rapid loss of speed. However, the light loading of the aircraft could mean that a climb rate of 235 m/s (46,250 ft/min) was possible with a combat-loaded MiG-21bis, not far short of the performance of the later F-16A. Given a skilled pilot and capable missiles, it could give a good account of itself against contemporary fighters. Its G-limits were increased from +7Gs in initial variants to +8.5Gs in the latest variants. It was replaced by the newer variable-geometry MiG-23 and MiG-27 for ground support duties. However, not until the MiG-29 would the Soviet Union ultimately replace the MiG-21 as a maneuvering dogfighter to counter new American air superiority types. The MiG-21 was exported widely and continues to be used. The aircraft's simple controls, engine, weapons, and avionics were typical of Soviet-era military designs. The use of a tail with the delta wing aids stability and control at the extremes of the flight envelope, enhancing safety for lower-skilled pilots; this in turn enhanced its marketability in exports to developing countries with limited training programs and restricted pilot pools. While technologically inferior to the more advanced fighters it often faced, low production and maintenance costs made it a favorite of nations buying Eastern Bloc military hardware. Several Russian, Israeli and Romanian firms have begun to offer upgrade packages to MiG-21 operators, designed to bring the aircraft up to a modern standard, with greatly upgraded avionics and armaments. A total of 10,645 aircraft were built in the USSR. They were produced in three factories: GAZ 30[N 1] (3,203 aircraft) in Moscow (also known as Znamya Truda), GAZ 21 (5,765 aircraft) in Gorky [N 2] and at GAZ 31 (1,678 aircraft) in Tbilisi. Generally, Gorky built single-seaters for the Soviet forces. Moscow constructed single-seaters for export, and Tbilisi manufactured the twin-seaters both for export and for the USSR, though there were exceptions. The MiG-21R and MiG-21bis for export and for the USSR were built in Gorky, 17 single-seaters were helmed in Tbilisi (MiG-21 and MiG-21F), the MiG-21MF was first constructed in Moscow and then Gorky, and the MiG-21U was built in Moscow as well as in Tbilisi. \|Gorky\|\|83 MiG-21F; 513 MiG-21F-13; 525 MiG-21PF; 233 MiG-21PFL; 944 MiG-21PFS/PFM; 448 MiG-21R; 145 MiG-21S/SN; 349 MiG-21SM; 281 MiG-21SMT; 2013 MiG-21bis; 231 MiG-21MF\| \|Moscow\|\|MiG-21U (all export units); MiG-21PF (all export units); MiG-21FL (all units not built by HAL); MiG-21M (all); 15 MiG-21MT (all)\| \|Tbilisi\|\|17 MiG-21 and MiG-21F; 181 MiG-21U izdeliye 66–400 and 66–600 (1962–1966); 347 MiG-21US (1966–1970); 1133 MiG-21UM (1971 to end)\| A total of 194 MiG-21F-13s were built under licence in Czechoslovakia, and Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. of India built 657 MiG-21FL, MiG-21M and MiG-21bis (of which 225 were bis) \|This section does not cite any references or sources. (October 2011)\| The MiG-21 has a delta wing. The sweep angle on the leading edge is 57° with a TsAGI S-12 airfoil. The angle of incidence is 0° while the dihedral angle is −2°. On the trailing edge there are ailerons with an area of 1.18 m², and flaps with an area of 1.87 m². In front of the ailerons there are small wing fences. The fuselage is semi-monocoque with an elliptical profile and a maximum width of 1.24 m (4 ft 1 in). The air flow to the engine is regulated by a cone in the air intake. On early model MiG-21s, the intake cone has three positions. For speeds up to Mach 1.5 the cone is fully retracted to the maximum aft position. For speeds between Mach 1.5 and Mach 1.9 the cone moves to the middle position. For speeds higher than Mach 1.9 the cone moves to the maximum forward position. On the later model MiG-21PF, the intake cone moves to a position based on the actual speed. The cone position for a given speed is calculated by the UVD-2M system using air pressures from in front and behind the compressor of the engine. On both sides of the nose there are gills to supply the engine with more air while on the ground and during takeoff. In the first variant of the MiG-21, the pitot tube is attached to the bottom of the nose. After the MiG-21P variant, this tube is attached to the top of the air intake. The cabin is pressurized and air conditioned. On variants prior to the MiG-21PFM, the cabin canopy is hinged at the front. When ejecting, the SK-1 ejection seat connects with the canopy to make a capsule that encloses the pilot. The capsule protects the pilot from the high speed airflow encountered during high speed ejections. After ejection, the capsule opens to allow the pilot to parachute to the ground. However, ejecting at low altitudes can cause the canopy to take too long to separate. Some pilots have been killed after ejecting at low altitudes. On the MiG-21PFM, the canopy is hinged on the right side of the cockpit. On the under side of the aircraft there are three air brakes, two at the front and one at the back. The front air brakes have an area of 0.76 m², and a deflection angle of 35°. The back air brake has an area of 0.46 m² and a deflection angle of 40°. The back air brake is blocked if the airplane carries an external fuel tank. Behind the air brakes are the bays for the main landing gear. Also on the under side of the airplane, just behind the trailing edge of the wing are attachment points for two JATO rockets. The front section of the fuselage ends at former #28. The back section of the fuselage starts at former #28a and is removable for engine maintenance. The empennage of the MiG-21 consists of a vertical stabilizer, a stabilator and a small fin on the bottom of the tail to improve yaw control. The vertical stabilizer has a sweep angle of 60° and an area of 5.32 m² (on earlier version 3.8 m²) and a rudder. The stabilator has a sweep angle of 57°, an area of 3.94 m² and a span of 2.6 m. The MiG-21 uses a tricycle type undercarriage. On most variants the main landing gear uses tires that are 800 mm in diameter and 200 mm in width. Only the MiG-21F variants use tires with the size 660x200 mm. The wheels of the main landing gear retract into the fuselage after rotating 87° and the shock absorbers retract into the wing. The nose gear retracts forward into the fuselage under the radar. Operational history In 1961, the Indian Air Force (IAF) opted to purchase the MiG-21 over several other Western competitors. As part of the deal, the Soviet Union offered India full transfer of technology and rights for local assembly. In 1964, the MiG-21 became the first supersonic fighter jet to enter service with the IAF. Due to limited induction numbers and lack of pilot training, the IAF MiG-21 played a limited role in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. However, the IAF gained valuable experience while operating the MiG-21 for defensive sorties during the war. The positive feedback from IAF pilots during the 1965 war prompted India to place more orders for the fighter jet and also invest heavily in building the MiG-21's maintenance infrastructure and pilot training programs. By 1969, India had acquired more than 120 MiG-21s from the Soviet Union. Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 The expansion of IAF MiG-21 fleet marked a growing India-Soviet Union military partnership which enabled India to field a formidable air force to counter Chinese and Pakistani threats. The capabilities of the MiG-21 were put to the test during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. During the war, the MiG-21s played a crucial role in giving the IAF air superiority over vital points and areas in the western theater of the conflict. The 1971 war witnessed the first supersonic air combat in the subcontinent when an Indian MiG-21FLs claimed a PAF F-104 Starfighter with its GSh-23 twin-barrelled 23 mm cannon. By the time the hostilities came to an end, the IAF MiG-21s had claimed four PAF F-104s, two PAF F.6, one PAF North American F-86 Sabre and one PAF Lockheed C-130 Hercules. According to one Western military analyst, the MiG-21s had clearly "won" the much anticipated air combat between the MiG-21 and the F-104 Starfighter. Because of the formidable performance of the MiG-21s, several nations, including Iraq, approached India for MiG-21 pilot training. By the early 1970s, more than 120 Iraqi pilots were being trained by the Indian Air Force. Kargil War and Atlantique Incident It was also used as late as 1999 in the Kargil War, in which one Indian Air Force MiG-21 was shot down. The MiG-21's last known kill took place in 1999 during the Atlantique Incident, when two MiG-21 aircraft of the Indian Air Force intercepted and shot down an Breguet Atlantique reconnaissance aircraft of the Pakistani Navy with the R-60MK (AA-8 Aphid) air-to-air missile. \|Date\|\|Aircraft Scoring Kill\|\|Squadron\|\|Pilot\|\|Victim\| \|4 September 1965\|\|IAF MiG-21F-13\|\|PAF F-86E\| \|4 December 1971\|\|IAF MiG-21FL\|\|28 Squadron (First Supersonics)\|\|Manbir Singh\|\|PAF Sabre Mk.6\| \|6 December 1971\|\|IAF MiG-21FL\|\|S B Shah\|\|PAF F-6\| \|11 December 1971\|\|IAF MiG-21FL\|\|IAF MiG-21FL (Fratricide)\| \|12 December 1971\|\|IAF MiG-21FL\|\|28 Squadron (First Supersonics)\|\|B B Soni\|\|PAF F-104A\| \|16 December 1971\|\|IAF MiG-21FL\|\|29 Squadron (Scorpios)\|\|S B Shah\|\|PAF F-6\| \|17 December 1971\|\|IAF MiG-21FL\|\|29 Squadron (Scorpios)\|\|N Kukreja\|\|PAF F-104A\| \|17 December 1971\|\|IAF MiG-21FL\|\|29 Squadron (Scorpios)\|\|I S Bindra\|\|PAF F-104A\| \|17 December 1971\|\|IAF MiG-21FL\|\|29 Squadron (Scorpios)\|\|A K Datta\|\|PAF F-104A\| \|17 December 1971\|\|IAF MiG-21FL\|\|29 Squadron (Scorpios)\|\|S B Shah\|\|PAF F-104A (Damaged)\| \|1997\|\|IAF MiG-21bis\|\|PAF AV (Damaged)\| \|10 August 1999\|\|IAF MiG-21bis\|\|45 Squadron (Winged Swords)\|\|P K Bundela\|\|PAF Br.1150 Atlantic\| The Indonesian Air Force purchased 22 MiG-21s. In 1962, 20 MiG-21F-13s and MiG-21Us were received during Operation Trikora in the Western New Guinea conflict. Indonesian MiG-21s never fought in any dogfight. Right after the U.S. backed anti-communist forces took over the government, the entire Indonesian MiG-21 fleet (also MiG-17 and MiG-19) were delivered to the U.S. in exchange for T-33, UH-34D, and later, F-5 and OV-10 aircraft. The MiGs then formed "Red Eagles", a U.S. OPFOR squadron at Groom Lake. As may be seen from its range figures, the MiG-21 was designed for very short ground-controlled interception (GCI) missions. It became renowned for this type of mission in the skies over North Vietnam. The first MiG-21s arrived directly from the Soviet Union by ship in April 1966. After being unloaded and assembled they were given to North Vietnam's oldest fighter unit, the 921st Fighter Regiment which was created on 3 February 1964 as a MiG-17 unit. Because the North Vietnamese Air Force's 923rd FR was newer and less experienced, they would continue to operate MiG-17s while the arrival of the MiG-19s (J6 versions) from Communist China in 1969 would create North Vietnam's only MiG-19 unit, the 925th FR. On 3 February 1972, North Vietnam commissioned their fourth and last Fighter Regiment created during the war with the Republic of Vietnam, the MiG-21PFM (Type 94) equipped 927th Fighter Regiment. Although 13 of North Vietnam's flying aces attained their status while flying the MiG-21 (cf. three in the MiG-17) many North Vietnamese pilots preferred the MiG-17 because the high wing loading of the MiG-21 made it relatively less maneuverable and the lighter framed canopy of the MiG-17 gave better visibility. However, this is not the impression perceived by British author Roger Boniface when he interviewed Pham Ngoc Lan and ace Nguyễn Nhật Chiêu (who scored victories flying both MiG-17 and MiG-21). Pham Ngoc Lan told Boniface that "The MiG-21 was much faster, and it had two ATOLL missiles which were very accurate and reliable when fired between 1,000 and 1,200 yards." And Chiêu asserted that "...for me personally I preferred the MiG-21 because it was superior in all specifications in climb, speed and armament. The ATOLL missile was very accurate and I scored four kills with the ATOLL. [...] In general combat conditions I was always confident of a kill over a F-4 Phantom when flying a MiG-21." Although the MiG-21 lacked the long-range radar, missiles, and heavy bomb load of its contemporary multi-mission U.S. fighters, with its RP-21 Sapfir radar it proved a challenging adversary in the hands of experienced pilots, especially when used in high speed hit and run attacks under GCI control. MiG-21 intercepts of Republic F-105 Thunderchief strike groups were effective in downing US aircraft or forcing them to jettison their bomb loads. \|Date/Year\|\|MiG-21 Unit\|\|MiG-21 Weapon\|\|Aircraft Destroyed\|\|Destroyed Aircraft Unit/Remarks\| \|10-5-1966\|\|NVAF 921st Fighter Regiment (FR)\|\|AA-2 Atoll (K-13) air to air missile\|\|F-4C Phantom II\|\|USAF 433rd Tactical Fighter Squadron (TFS)\| \|12-14-66\|\|921st FR\|\|AA-2 Atoll\|\|F-105D Thunderchief\|\|USAF 357th TFS\| \|1967\|\|921st FR\|\|30mm cannon/AA-2 Atoll\|\|(7) F-105D, (3) F-105F, (5) F-4D, (2) F-4B, (1) RF-101 Voodoo\|\|USAF 13th TFS, 20th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron (TRS), 34th TFS, 44th TFS, 333rd TFS, 354th TFS, 357th TFS, 435th TFS, 469th TFS, 555th TFS. (1) F-4D from 555th TFS and (2) USN F-4Bs from VF-151 downed by unknown MiG units. (1) F-105D from 44th TFS downed by MiG-21 30mm cannon fire. (1) F-4B from VF-151 probably downed by MiG-21 cannon fire.\| \|1968\|\|921st FR\|\|AA-2 Atoll\|\|(3) F-105D, (1) F-4B, (1) F-4D, (1) F-4J\|\|USAF 34th TFS, 469th TFS, 497th TFS. USN VF-92 and VF-102.\| \|01-14-68\|\|921st FR\|\|AA-2 Atoll\|\|EB-66C Destroyer\|\|USAF 41st Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron (TEWS)\| \|02-03-68\|\|921st FR\|\|AA-2 Atoll\|\|F-102A Delta Dagger\|\|USAF 509th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron (FIS)\| \|1971\|\|921st FR\|\|AA-2 Atoll\|\|(2) F-4Ds\|\|USAF 13th TFS and 555th TFS\| \|1972\|\|921st FR\|\|AA-2 Atoll\|\|(1) F-4B, (1) F-4D, (7) F-4E, (1) RA-5C Vigilante\|\|USAF 4th TFS, 13th TFS, 308th TFS, 334th TFS, 555th TFS, 366th Tactical Fighter Wing (TFW). USN VF-51 and RVAH-13.\| \|05-11-72\|\|927th FR\|\|AA-2 Atoll\|\|F-105G\|\|USAF 17th Wild Weasel Squadron (WWS)\| \|1972\|\|927th FR\|\|30mm cannon/AA-2 Atoll\|\|(4) F-4D, (10) F-4E\|\|USAF 4th TFS, 25th TFS, 34th TFS, 307th TFS, 308th TFSs, 335th TFS, 336th TFS, 421st TFS, 469th TFS, 523rd TFS, 555th TFS. (1) F-4E from the 307th TFS was downed by possible MiG-21 cannon fire.\| \|08-26-72\|\|927th FR\|\|AA-2 Atoll\|\|F-4J\|\|USMC VMFA-232\| \|Total Aircraft Destroyed:\|\|56\| After a million sorties and nearly 1,000 US aircraft losses, Operation Rolling Thunder came to an end on 1 November 1968. A poor air-to-air combat loss-exchange ratios against the smaller, more agile enemy MiGs during the early part of the Vietnam War eventually led the USN to create their Navy Fighter Weapons School, also known as "Top Gun" at Miramar Naval Air Station on 3 March 1969. The USAF quickly followed with their own version, titled the Dissimilar Air Combat Training (sometimes referred to as Red Flag) program. These two programs employed the subsonic Douglas A-4 Skyhawk and the supersonic F-5 Tiger II, as well as the Mach 2.4-capable USAF Convair F-106 Delta Dart, which mimicked the MiG-21. Over the course of the air war, between 3 April 1965 and 8 January 1973, each side would ultimately claim favorable kill ratios. One MiG-21 was shot down on 21 February 1972 by an U.S. Air Force F-4 Phantom piloted by Major Lodge with Lt. Roger Locher as his RIO based at Udorn, Thailand. This was claimed to be the first ever U.S. Air Force MiG kill at night, and the first in four years at that time. The intercept occurred near the Fish's Mouth region of the Laos, North Vietnam border. Two MiG-21s were claimed shot down by U.S. Air Force Boeing B-52 Stratofortress tail gunners; the only confirmed air-to-air kills made by the B-52. The first aerial victory occurred on 18 December 1972, kill awarded to tail gunner SSgt Samuel Turner, who was awarded the Silver Star for his feat. The second air-to-air kill took place on 24 December 1972, kill awarded to A1C Albert E. Moore for downing a MiG-21 over the Thai Nguyen railroad yards. Both actions occurred during Operation Linebacker II (also known as the Christmas Bombings). These air-to-air kills were not confirmed by VPAF. The biggest threat to North Vietnam during the war had always been the Strategic Air Command's B-52 Stratofortress. Hanoi's MiG-17 and MiG-19 interceptors could not deal with those bombers at their flying altitude. In the summer of 1972 the NVAF was directed to train 12 MiG-21 pilots for the specific mission of attacking and shooting down B-52 bombers; with two-thirds of those pilots specifically trained in the night attack. On 26 December 1972, just two days after Tail gunner Albert Moore downed his MiG-21, a VPAF (North Vietnamese Air Force) MiG-21MF (number 5121) from the 921st Fighter Regiment, flown by Major Phạm Tuân over Hanoi, North Vietnam claimed responsibility for the first aerial combat kill of a U.S. Air Force Boeing B-52 Stratofortress in aviation history. The Stratofortress had been above Hanoi at over 30,000 feet (9,100 m) during Operation Linebacker II, when Major Tuân launched two Atoll missiles from 2 kilometres, claiming to have destroyed one of the bombers flying in the three plane formation. Other sources argue that his missiles failed to hit their mark, but as he was disengaging, a B-52 from a three-bomber cell in front of his target took a hit from a SAM, exploding in mid-air: this may have caused Tuan to think his missiles destroyed the target he had been aiming for. The Vietnamese side also claims another kill to have taken place on 28 December 1972 by a MiG-21 from the 921st FR, this time flown by Vu Xuan Thieu. Thieu is said to have perished in the explosion of a B-52 hit by his own missiles, having approached the target too closely. In this case the Vietnamese version appears to be erroneous: while one MiG-21 kill was claimed by Phantoms that night (this may have been Thieu's MiG), no B-52s were lost to any cause on the date of the claimed kill. Year-by-Year Kill Claims involving MiG-21s - 1966: U.S. claimed six MiG-21s destroyed; North Vietnam claimed seven F-4 Phantom IIs and 11 F-105 Thunderchiefs shot down by MiG-21s. - 1967: U.S. claimed 21 MiG-21s destroyed; North Vietnam claimed 17 F-105 Thunderchiefs, 11 F-4 Phantom IIs, two McDonnell RF-101 Voodoos, one Douglas A-4 Skyhawk, one Vought F-8 Crusader, one EB-66 Destroyer and three unidentified types shot down by MiG-21s. - 1968: U.S. claimed nine MiG-21s destroyed; North Vietnam claimed 17 US aircraft shot down by MiG-21s. - 1969: U.S. destroyed three MiG-21s; one Firebee UAV destroyed by a MiG-21. - 1970: U.S. destroyed two MiG-21s; North Vietnam claimed one F-4 Phantom and one CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopter shot down by MiG-21s. - 1972: U.S. claimed 51 MiG-21s destroyed; North Vietnam claimed 53 US aircraft shot down by MiG-21s, including two B-52 Stratofortress bombers. Soviet General Fesenko, the main Soviet adviser to the North Vietnamese Air Force in 1972, recorded 34 MiG-21s, nine MiG-17s, and nine MiG-19s destroyed in 1972. Egyptian-Syrian-Israeli conflicts The MiG-21 was also used extensively in the Middle East conflicts of the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s by the air forces of Egypt, Syria and Iraq. The MiG-21 first encountered Israeli Mirage IIICs on 14 November 1964, but it was not until 14 July 1966 that the first MiG-21 was shot down. Another six Syrian MiG-21s were shot down by Israeli Mirages on 7 April 1967. The MiG-21 would also face McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom IIs and Douglas A-4 Skyhawks, but was later outclassed by the more modern McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle and General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon, which were acquired by Israel beginning in the mid-1970s. During the opening attacks of the 1967 Six Day War, the Israeli Air Force struck Arab air forces in four attack waves. In the first wave, IDF aircraft claimed to have destroyed eight Egyptian aircraft in air-to-air combat, of which seven were MiG-21s; Egypt claims 10 Israeli aircraft destroyed, four or five of which were scored by MiG-21PFs. During the second wave the Israelis claimed four MiG-21s downed in air-to-air combat, and the third wave resulted in two Syrian and one Iraqi MiG-21s claimed destroyed in the air. The fourth wave destroyed some more Syrian MiG-21s on the ground. Overall, the Egyptians lost around 100 out of about 110 MiG-21s they had, almost all on the ground; the Syrians lost 35 of 60 MiG-21F-13s and MiG-21PFs in the air and on the ground. \|This section's factual accuracy is disputed. (October 2009)\| \|\|The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (December 2011)\| Between the end of the Six Day War and the start of the War of Attrition, IDF Mirage fighters had six confirmed kills of Egyptian MiG-21s, in exchange for Egyptian MiG-21s scoring two confirmed and three probable kills against Israeli aircraft. During the War of Attrition itself, the Israelis claimed 56 confirmed kills against Egyptian MiG-21s, while Egyptian MiG-21s claimed 14 confirmed and 12 probable kills against IDF aircraft. During this same time period, from the end of the Six Day War to the end of the War of Attrition, the Israelis claimed a total of 25 Syrian MiG-21s destroyed; the Syrians claimed three confirmed and four probable kills of Israel aircraft. High losses to Egyptian aircraft and continuous bombing during the War of Attrition caused the Egyptians to ask the Soviet Union for help. In June 1970, Soviet pilots and SAM crews arrived with their equipment. On 22 June 1970, a Soviet pilot flying a MiG-21MF shot down an Israeli A-4E. After some more successful intercepts by Soviet pilots and another Israeli A-4 being shot down on 25 July, the Israelis decided to plan an ambush in response. On 30 July Israeli F-4s lured Soviet MiG-21s into an area where they were ambushed by Mirages. Asher Snir, flying a Mirage IIICJ, destroyed a Soviet MiG-21; Avihu Ben-Nun and Aviam Sela, both piloting F-4Es, each got a kill, and an unidentified pilot in another Mirage scored the fourth kill against the Soviet-flown MiG-21s. Three Soviet pilots were killed and the Soviets were alarmed by the losses. However, Soviet MiG-21 pilots and SAM crews destroyed a total of 21 Israeli aircraft, which helped to convince the Israelis to sign a ceasefire agreement. In September 1973, a large air battle erupted between the Syrians and the Israelis; the Israelis claimed a total of 12 Syrian MiG-21s destroyed, while the Syrians claimed eight kills scored by MiG-21s and admitted five losses. During the Yom Kippur War, the Israelis claimed a total of 73 kills of Egyptian MiG-21s. Egypt claimed 27 kills of Israeli aircraft by its MiG-21s, plus eight probables. However, according to most reliable sources, these were exaggerated claims as Israeli air-to-air combat losses for the entire war did not exceed five to eight. On the Syrian front of the war, 6 October 1973 saw a flight of Syrian MiG-21MFs shoot down an IDF A-4E and a Mirage IIICJ while losing three of their own to Israeli IAI Neshers. On 7 October, Syrian MiG-21MFs downed two Israeli F-4Es, three Mirage IIICJs and an A-4E while losing two of their MiGs to Neshers and one to an F-4E, plus two to friendly SAM fire. Iraqi MiG-21PFs also operated on this front, and on that same day destroyed two A-4Es while losing one MiG. On 8 October 1973, Syrian MiG-21PFMs downed three F-4Es, but six of their MiG-21s were lost. By the end of the war, Syrian MiG-21s claimed a total of 30 confirmed kills against Israeli aircraft; 29 MiG-21s were claimed as destroyed by the IDF. Between the end of the Yom Kippur War and the start of the 1982 Lebanon War, the Israelis had received modern F-15s and F-16s, which were far superior to the old Syrian MiG-21MFs. According to the IDF, these new aircraft accounted for the destruction of 24 Syrian MiG-21s over this time period, though the Syrians did claim five kills against IDF aircraft with their MiG-21s armed with outdated K-13 missiles. The 1982 Lebanon War started on 6 June 1982, and in the course of that war the IDF claimed to have destroyed about 45 Syrian MiG-21MFs. The Syrians claimed two confirmed and 15 probable kills of Israeli aircraft. This air battle was the largest to occur since the Korean War. Other Middle East conflicts Egypt would be shipped some American Sidewinder missiles, and these were fitted to their MiG-21s and successfully used in combat against Libyan MiG-23s during the brief Libyan-Egyptian War of July 1977. \|Date\|\|Aircraft Scoring Kill\|\|Victim\| \|22 July 1977\|\|LARAF Mirage 5DE\|\|EAF MiG-21MF\| \|23 July 1977\|\|EAF MiG-21MFs\|\|3 (or 4) LARAF Mirage + 1 LARAF MiG-23MS\| \|1979\|\|EAF MiG-21MF\|\|LARAF MiG-23MS\| Iran–Iraq War During the Iran–Iraq War, 23 Iraqi MiG-21s were shot down by Iranian F-14s, confirmed by the Iranian, Western and Iraqi sources and 29 MiG-21s by F-4s. However, from 1980 to 1988, the Iraqi Mig-21 downed 43 Iranian airplanes, against 49 Mig-21 losses in the same period. Libyan MiG-21s saw limited service during the 2011 Libyan civil war. On 15 March 2011, one MiG-21bis and one MiG-21UM flown by defector Libyan air force pilots who joined the rebellion, flew from Ghardabiya AB (near Sirte) and landed at Benina airport to became part of the Free Libyan Air Force. On 17 March 2011 the MiG-21UM suffered a technical fault and crashed after takeoff from Benina airport. Syrian Civil War (2011-Ongoing) Starting from the final week of July, the involvement of the Syrian Air Force in the Syrian civil war, dramatically increased with videos showing that SyAF L-39 combat trainers, MIG-21 and MiG-23 fixed wing fighter jets started bombing rebel held areas. Up to that point only helicopters, mostly Mi-8/17 were captured on videos on strike missions, while few jets used as reconnaissance aircraft. Abu ad Duhur Air Base, home of a MiG-21 regiment, became an important focus for the rebel forces to deny this new threat posed by the loyalist Air Force. The base was put under siege with mortar shelling and antiaircraft guns at the end of August. On 30 August 2012, a Syrian Air Force MiG-21bis (s/n 2271) was shot down while taking off from Abu ad Duhur Air Base on a mission to provide air support for the loyalist forces. The aircraft was hit by the rebels’ antiaircraft heavy machine gun fire while at low altitude and speed after the take off. The pilot ejected successfully, but was killed by the rebels. 11 more were claimed to have been destroyed on the ground.<ref"Syrian MiG ‘shot down’ - 8,000 regime forces killed." Arab Times, 30 August 2012.</ref> On 4 September 2012, another Syrian Air Force MiG-21bis (s/n 2280) crashed during a landing approach to Abu al-Dahur air base. Since the base was under siege by insurgent forces, the pilot tried a hazardous maneuver which led the pilot to lose control of the MiG. The pilot ejected at low altitude, but the parachute did not deploy on time and the pilot was killed. Horn of Africa During the Ogaden War of 1977–78, American-supplied Ethiopian F-5As met Somalian MiG-21MFs in combat several times. In one lopsided incident, two F-5As piloted by Israelis engaged four MiG-21MFs that were armed only with bombs. The pilots destroyed two and then watched as the two remaining MiG-21s collided with each other while trying to avoid an AIM-9 fired by the F-5. The Ethiopian F-5As claimed 10 Somali MiG-21MFs; in return, Somali MiG-21MFs claimed four Ethiopian MiG-21MFs, three F-5Es, one Canberra bomber and three Douglas DC-3s. Ironically, Ethiopia also received MiG-21s. The Ethiopian MiG-21s were used to bomb Somali forces in the final Ethiopian counter-attack. Southern Africa One of the more notable uses of MiG-21s in combat occurred during the Angolan Civil War in the hands of the People's Air and Air Defence Force of Angola. Cuban Air Force pilots also flew MiG-21s over Angola during the war. MiG-21s were used as fighter-bombers and most losses were due to ground fire. However, both Angolan and Cuban MiG-21s often had encounters with South African Air Force Mirages. On 6 November 1981, Major Johann Rankin, flying a Mirage F.1CZ, scored the SAAF's first kill since the Korean War, downing the MiG-21MF of Lt. Danacio Valdez. On 5 October 1982, a SAAF Mirage IIICZ damaged a MiG-21MF with cannon fire, but the MiG managed to return to base safely. The SAAF acquired a MiG-21bis from the Angolan Air Force No. 340 through defection and the aircraft currently resides on display at the South African Air Force Museum, Swartkops Air Force Base in Pretoria. Yugoslavia purchased its first batch of MiG-21s in 1962 from the Soviet Union. In the period from 1962 to the early 1980s Yugoslavia had purchased up to 216 MiG-21s in nine variants. From 1964 to 1992, about 80 aircraft had been lost in accidents. Yugoslav Air force units that operated MiG-21 were the 204th fighter-aviation regiment at Batajnica Air Base (126th, 127th and 128th fighter-aviation squadrons), 117th fighter-aviation regiment at Željava Air Base (124th and 125th fighter-aviation squadron and 352nd recon squadron), 83rd fighter-aviation regiment at Slatina Air Base (123rd and 130th fighter aviation squadron), 185th fighter-bomber-aviation squadron (129th fighter-aviation squadron) at Pula and 129th training center at Batajnica air base. During the early stages of the 1991–1995 Yugoslav wars the Yugoslav People's Army used MiG-21s in a ground-attack role, while Croatian and Slovenian forces did not have air forces at the beginning of the war. Aircraft from air bases in Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina were relocated to air bases in Serbia. Detailed records show at least seven MiG-21s were shot down by AA defenses in Croatia and Bosnia. A MiG-21 shot down an EC helicopter in 1992. Croatia acquired three MiG-21s in 1992 through defections by Croatian pilots serving with the JNA, two of which were lost in subsequent actions – one to Serbian air defenses, the other in a friendly fire accident. In 1993, Croatia purchased about 40 MiG-21s in violation of an arms embargo, but only about 20 of these entered service, while the rest were used for spare parts. Croatia used them alongside the sole remaining defector for ground attack missions in operations Flash (during which one was lost) and Storm. The only air-to-air action for Croatian MiGs was an attempt by two of them to intercept Soko J-22 Oraos of Republika Srpska Air Force on ground attack mission on 7 August 1995. After some maneuvering, both sides disengaged without firing. Remaining Yugoslav MiG-21s were flown to Serbia by 1992 and continued their service in the newly created Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. During the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, 33 MiG-21s were destroyed on the ground. Beginning in 1993, Russia did not offer spare parts for the MiG-23 and MiG-29 for the Romanian Air Force. Initially, this was the context for the modernization of the Romanian MiG-21s with Elbit Systems, and because it was easier for the Romanians to maintain these fighter jets. A total of 110 MiG-21s were modernized under the LanceR designation. Today, only 48 LanceRs are operational for the RoAF. It can use both Western and Eastern armament such as the R-60M, R-73, Magic 2, or Python III missiles. They will be replaced by F-16s in the late 2010s. However due to lack of funds the MiG-21 LanceR may fly for years longer. From September 1963 the 19th Fighter Regiment of the Air Force received 12 units MiG-21F-13. Later some of these aircraft were converted for reconnaissance in the modification MiG-21F-13R, which were submitted to the 26th Reconnaissance Regiment in 1988. In January 1965 the 18th Fighter Regiment received a squadron of 12 pcs. MiG-21PF, some of which also were converted and used as a reconnaissance aircraft MiG-oboznachevnieto 21PFR. Submitted for operation in 26 Regiment reconnaissance planes from this squadron were removed from service in 1991, the army of the 15 Fighter Regiment in 1965 received another 12 fighters MiG-21PF and in 1977-1978 were submitted to operate another 36 refurbished aircraft. This modification regiment received two more planes in 1984 and operated by Aviation Regiment in 1992 For the purposes of intelligence reconnaissance regiment received 26 6 pcs. specialized reconnaissance MiG-21R in 1962 1969-1970 19 Fighter Aviation Regiment gets a weapons 15 pcs. MiG-21m, which operated in 21 Fighter Aviation Regiment and were removed from active service in 1990, 12 MiG-21MF number received in 1974-1975, but worked a reconnaissance version of the MiG-21MFR were submitted to the 26th Reconnaissance Regiment and eksloatirani until 2000, when removed from active service. From 1983 to 1990 Bulgaria Air Force received 72 pcs. aircraft MiG-21bis modification. Of them (30 pcs. 6 new and renovated) are under option with ACS and submitted to the 19th Fighter Regiment rest are equipped with the "Lazur". This batch was taken out of service in 2000 Besides war fighters, the Air Force has received training 39 MiG-21U (1 pc. In 1966.) MiG-21US (5 pcs. During 1969-1970) and MiG-21UM (27 new and during 1974-1980 6 refurbished Soviet in 1990). In 1982 the number of three MiG-21UM school were sold to Cambodia and in 1994 another 10 units. MiG-21UM were sold to India. Recent training aircraft were removed from active service in 2000 during the operation suffered a crash and lost 38 fighters. Bulgaria received a total of 224 aircraft. Known MiG-21 aces Several pilots have attained ace status (five or more aerial victories/kills) while flying the MiG-21. Nguyễn Văn Cốc of the Vietnam People's Air Force (VPAF; also referred to as the NVAF), who scored nine kills in MiG-21s is regarded as the most successful. Twelve other VPAF pilots were credited with five or more aerial victories while flying the MiG-21: Phạm Thanh Ngân, Nguyễn Hồng Nhị and Mai Văn Cường (both eight kills); Đặng Ngọc Ngự (seven kills), Vũ Ngọc Đỉnh, Nguyễn Ngọc Độ, Nguyễn Nhật Chiêu, Lê Thanh Đạo, Nguyễn Đăng Kỉnh, Nguyễn Đức Soát, and Nguyễn Tiến Sâm (six kills each), and Nguyễn Văn Nghĩa (five kills). Additionally, three Syrian pilots are known to have attained ace status while flying the MiG-21. Syrian airmen: M. Mansour recorded five solo kills (with one additional probable), B. Hamshu scored five solo kills, and A. el-Gar tallied four solo and one shared kill, all three during the 1973–1974 engagements against Israel. Due to the incomplete nature of available records, there are several pilots who have un-confirmed aerial victories (probable kills), which when confirmed would award them "Ace" Status: S. A. Razak of the Iraqi Air Force with four known kills scored during the Iran-Iraq War (until 1991; sometimes referred to as the Persian Gulf War), A. Wafai of the Egyptian Air Force with four known kills against Israel. For specific information on kills scored by and against MiG-21s sorted by country see the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 operators page. See also List of Syrian flying aces Current operators - Bulgaria - Croatia To be upgraded in 2013 and fly until 2018-2020 - India to be retired in 2015 - North Korea - Romania will be replaced by F16's in 2017 - South Africa - Civilian use only - United States - Civilian use only Former operators - Abkhazia - Abkhazian Air Force, Abkhazia was reported having 1 in service from 2001 to 2007 - Burkina Faso - Cambodia - China (Replaced by similar-looking Chengdu J-7. Other than Mig-21F13 supplied by Soviet Union, China also traded a small amount of Mig-21MFs with J-7 export variations, then developed J-7C/D based on Mig-21MFs. The deal was between China and a certain Middle Eastern country.) - Congo, Republic of the - Congo, Democratic Republic of - Czechoslovakia (Passed on to the Czech Republic and Slovakia.) - Czech Republic - East Germany (Passed on to Germany after reunification.) - Eritrea - Germany - Iran (Ex-Iraqi MiG-21 received after Iran-Iraq War) - Iraq (As of Saddam's Era) - Kyrgyzstan (Still houses some 100 partly dismantled fighters.) - Mongolia - Slovakia In 1993, after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, Slovak Air Force obtained 13 MiG-21MAs, 36 MiG-21MFs, eight MiG-21Rs, two MiG-21USs and 11 MiG-21UMs. They were withdrawn in 2003. Some of them are in museums across the country, some are stored and will be used if needed. - Soviet Union (Passed on to successor states.) - United States - Retired from United States Air Force after evaluation flights - North Yemen (Passed on to Yemen after reunification.) - South Yemen (Passed on to Yemen after reunification.) - Yugoslavia (Passed on to successor states.) - Zaire (Four were sold to the Zairean government by FR Yugoslavia.) Civil operators According to the FAA there are currently 44 privately owned MiG-21s in the U.S. There are companies that purchase MiG-21s, MiG-15s and MiG-17s from Russia and other countries for sale to civilians for around $US450,000. Draken International, located in Lakeland Florida is one of the largest private owners of MiG-21 aircraft. Draken International is a company based in Lakeland Florida, the CEO, Jared Isaacman has being arrested on a "fugitive warrant" in 2010 by U.S. Customs and Border patrol. Use as space launch platform Premier Space Systems in Hillsboro, Oregon is currently conducting flight tests for NanoLaunch, a project to launch suborbital sounding rockets from MiG-21s flying over the Pacific Ocean. Specifications (Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21-93) Data from - Crew: 1 - Length: 14.5 (with pitot) m (47 ft 6.86 in) - Wingspan: 7.154 m (23 ft 5.66 in) - Height: 4.125 m (13 ft 6.41 in) - Wing area: 23.0 m2 (247.3 ft2) - Gross weight: 8,825 kg (19,425 lb) - Powerplant: 1 × Tumansky R25-300, 40.21 kN (9,040 lbf) thrust dry, 69.62 kN (15,650 lbf) with afterburner each - Maximum speed: 2,228 km/h (1,468 mph) - Maximum speed: Mach 2.00 - Range: (internal fuel) 1,210 km (751 miles) - Service ceiling: 17,800 m (58,400 ft) - Rate of climb: 225 m/s (44,280 ft/min) - 2x 500 kg (1,102 lbs) bombs See also - Related development - Aircraft of comparable role, configuration and era - Dassault Mirage III - Dassault Mirage F-1 - Lockheed F-104 Starfighter - Northrop F-5A/B Freedom Fighter & F-5E/F Tiger-II - Saab 35 Draken - Related lists - "GAZ" - abbreviation for Russian "Государственный Авиационный Завод" - ГАЗ (State Aviation Plant). - Now called Nizhny Novgorod. - Gordon, Yefim. MiG-21 (Russian Fighters). Earl Shilton, Leicester, UK: Midland Publishing Ltd., 2008. ISBN 978-1-85780-257-3. - "MiG-21 – naddźwiękowy ołówek" (in Polish). lotniczapolska.pl, 6 September 2007. Retrieved: 1 December 2010. - Král, Martin. "MiG-21BIS." Soviet Hammer, 6 April 2012. Retrieved: 28 June 2012. - Mehrotra, Santosh. India and the Soviet Union: Trade and Technology Transfer. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 978-0-521-36202-3. - Rakshak, Bharat. "The Canberra and the MiG-21." bharat-rakshak.com. Retrieved: 1 December 2010. - Sharma, Shri Ram. India-USSR Relations: 1947–1971. Delhi: Discovery Publishing House, 1999. ISBN 978-81-7141-486-4. - Till, Geoffrey. Globalisation and Defence in the Asia-Pacific. London: Taylor & Francis, 2008. ISBN 978-0-415-44048-6. - "Air Force History." Globalsecurity. Retrieved: 1 December 2010. - "The 1971 Liberation War: Supersonic Air Combat." Bharat-Rakshak.com. Retrieved: 1 December 2010. - Coggins, Ed. Wings That Stay on. Nashville, Kentucky: Turner Publishing Company, 2000. ISBN 978-1-56311-568-4. - Cooper 2004[page needed]. - "Indian pilot 'killed in cold blood'." BBC, 30 May 1999. Retrieved: 1 December 2010. - "Indian Air-to-Air Victories since 1948." acig.org. Retrieved: 1 December 2010. - Davies 2012, p. 48. - Michel 1997, p. 81. - Toperczer 2001, pp. 6, 77. - Toperczer 2001, p. 27. - Toperczer #25 2001, p. 12. - Toperczer #25 2001, p. 88. - Toperczer #29 2001, p. 84. - Boniface 2005, p. 190. - Michel 1997, pp. 41, 78, 153. - Boniface 2005, p. 192. - Michel 1997, p. 83, 155. - Hobson 2001, p. 271. - Toperczer #29 2001, pp. 85–87. - Michel 1997, p. 40. - Hobson 2001, p. 97. - Hobson 2001, p. 126. - Hobson 2001, p. 238. - Michel 1997, p. 149. - Michel 1997, p. 186. - Michel 1997, p. 187. - Anderton 1987, pp. 70–71. - "The plaque on SSgt Turner's grave." waymarking.com. Retrieved: 1 December 2010. - "Linebacker II." The Colorado Springs Gazette, 16 July 2007. - Toperczer #25 2001, p. 61. - Toperczer #25 2001, p. 66 photo. - Toperczer #25 2001, p. 66. - Michel 2002, pp. 205–206. - Toperczer #25 2001, p. 67. - Michel 2002, p. 213. - Pollack 2004, p. 124. - Herzog 1975, p. 259. - Cooper and Bishop, 2004, pp. 85-88. - Cooper and Bishop 2004, pp. 87—88. - Gordon and Dexter 2008, pp. 390–392. - "Libyan Conflict: Fixed-wing Combat Aircraft make an Appearance." The Boresight, 20 March 2011. Retrieved: 9 May 2011. - "MiG-21UM/bis Fishbed K." Aviation Safety Net. Retrieved: 9 May 2011. - Cenciotti, David. "L-39 Albatros jet trainer spotted over Aleppo, Syria." The Aviationist, 25 July 2012. Retrieved: 13 September 2012. - "MiG-21bis." Aviation Safety Network,30 August 2012. Retrieved: 13 September 2012. - "MiG-21 shot down in Idlib." Brown Moses Blog, 4 September 2012. Retrieved: 13 September 2012. - "Russina revolt." Skywar.ru. Retrieved: 19 May 2013. - Cooper, Tom and Gianfranco Lanini. "Ogaden War, 1977-1978." Aciq, 10 February 2008. Retrieved: 13 September 2012. - Avijacija bez granica (Serbian) avijacijabezgranica.com. Retrieved: 1 December 2010. - "Austrian Radar Plots." acig.org. Retrieved: 1 December 2010. - "MiGs Over Croatia." acig.org. Retrieved: 1 December 2010. - Jan de Ridder, Dirk and Menso van Westrhenen. "Young at 95!" Air Forces Monthly magazine, February 2009 issue, p. 54. - "North Vietnamese Aces." AcePilots.com. Retrieved: 1 December 2010. - "Syrian Air-to-Air Victories since 1948." acig.org. Retrieved: 1 December 2010. - "Iraqi Air-to-Air Victories since 1967." acig.org.Retrieved: 1 December 2010. - "Egyptian Air-to-Air Victories since 1948." acig.org. Retrieved: 1 December 2010. - Hoyle Flight International 11–17 December 2012, p. 46. - Hoyle Flight International 11–17 December 2012, p. 45. - Krumova, Elli. "MIG-21 goes into retirement in show." Europost, 12 October 2012. Retrieved: 19 May 2013. - Hoyle Flight International 11–17 December 2012, p. 49. - Hoyle Flight International 11–17 December 2012, p. 50. - Hoyle Flight International 11–17 December 2012, p. 52. - Hoyle Flight International 11–17 December 2012, p. 54. - Hoyle Flight International 11–17 December 2012, p. 55. - Hoyle Flight International 11–17 December 2012, p. 56. - Hoyle Flight International 11–17 December 2012, p. 58. - Hoyle Flight International 11–17 December 2012, p. 59. - MiG-21 Supersonic Flight in South Africa - Hoyle Flight International 11–17 December 2012, p. 61. - Hoyle Flight International 11–17 December 2012, p. 62. - Hoyle Flight International 11–17 December 2012, p. 64. - "Cambodia". Scramble magazine. Retrieved: 19 May 2013. - "China Mig-21MF Trade." AirForceWorld.com. Retrieveda; 5 November 2011. - "Eritrea". Scramble magazine. Retrieved: 19 May 2013. - Culak, Josef. " (in Slovak). culak.blog. Retrieved: 13 September 2012. - Cooper, Tom and Pit Weinert. "Zaire/DR Congo since 1980." "Aciq, 2 September 2003. Retrieved: 13 September 2012. - "MiG-21 in U.S." FAA Registry. Retrieved: 13 September 2012. - "Nevada Fugitive Captured at Canadian Border." CBC, 19 November 2010. - "Vintage fighters return as launch platforms." citizensinspace.org, March 2012. Retrieved: 13 September 2012. - Anderton, David A. North American F-100 Super Sabre. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 1987. ISBN 0-85045-662-2 . - Boniface, Roger. Fighter Pilots of North Vietnam: An Account of their Combats 1965 to 1975. Gamlingay, Sandy, UK: Authors On Line, 2005. ISBN 978-0-7552-0203-4. - Cooper, Tom. Arab MiG-19 and MiG-21 Units in Combat. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2004. ISBN 978-1-84176-655-3. - Cooper, Tom and Farzad Bishop. Iranian F-14 Tomcat Units in Combat. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2004. ISBN 978-1-78200-709-8. - Davies, Steve. Red Eagles: America's Secret MiGs. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2012. ISBN 978-1-84603-970-6. - Eden, Paul. The Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft, London: Amber Books, 2004. ISBN 1-904687-84-9 - Gordon, Yefim. Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15: The Soviet Union's Long-Lived Korean War Fighter. Hinckley, UK: Midland, 2001. ISBN 1-85780-105-9. - Gordon, Yefim. Mikoyan MiG-21 (Famous Russian aircraft). Hinckley, UK: Midland, 2008. ISBN 978-1-85780-257-3. - Gordon, Yefim and Keith Dexter.Mikoyan Mig-21 (Famous Russian Aircraft). London: Ian Allan Publishing, 2008. ISBN 978-1-85780-257-3. - Herzog, Chaim. The War of Atonement. Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1975. ISBN 0-316-35900-9. - Hobson, Chris. Vietnam Air Losses, United States Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps Fixed-Wing Aircraft Losses in Southeast Asia 1961-1973. Midland Publishing, England; 2001. ISBN 1-85780-115-6. - Hoyle, Craig. "World Air Forces Directory". Flight International. Vol. 180, No. 5321, 13–19 December 2011, pp. 26–52. ISSN 0015-3710. - Hoyle, Craig. "World Air Forces Directory". Flight International. Vol. 182, No. 5321, 11–17 December 2012, pp. 40–64. ISSN 0015-3710. - Michel III, Marshall L. Clashes; Air Combat Over North Vietnam 1965–1972. Annapolis, Maryland, USA: Naval Institute Press, 2007, First edition 1997. ISBN 1-59114-519-8. - Michel III, Marshall L. The 11 days of Christmas. New York: Encounter Books, 2002. ISBN 1-893554-27-9. - Pollack, Kenneth M. Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991 London: Bison Books, 2004. ISBN 0-8032-8783-6. - Toperczer, Istvan. MiG-17 and MiG-19 Units of the Vietnam War. (Osprey Combat Aircraft, 25). Oxford, UK: 2001. ISBN 978-1-84176-162-6. - Toperczer, István. MiG-21 Units of the Vietnam War (Osprey Combat Aircraft, 29). Oxford, UK: Osprey Pub, 2001. ISBN 1-84176-263-6. - Wilson, Stewart. Combat Aircraft since 1945. Fyshwick, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 2000. ISBN 1-875671-50-1. \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21\| - MIG-21 Fishbed from Russian Military Analysis - MiG-21 Fishbed from Global Security.org - Warbird Alley: MiG-21 page – Information about privately owned MiG-21s	<urn:uuid:0c0b20a1-4eb8-45c7-abae-a279ed5d1e2f>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-21	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698924319/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516100844-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.917774	13,978	2.859375	3
a hormone - treats Burns, Peripheral vascular disease / claudication, Infertility, Interstitial cystitis, Dental pain, Heart protection during coronary artery bypass grafting, Immunomodulator, Exercise performance, Migraine headache, Kidney disease or failure, Transplants, Senile dementia, Cyclosporine toxicity, Critical illness, Adrenoleukodystrophy, Respiratory infections, Pre-eclampsia, Autonomic failure, Growth hormone reserve test / pituitary disorder diagnosis, Kidney protection during angiography, Chemotherapy adjuvant, MELAS syndrome, Raynaud's phenomenon, Heart failure, Chest pain, Anal fissures, Erectile dysfunction, Altitude sickness, Coronary artery disease / angina, High blood pressure, Wound healing, Asthma, Recovery after surgery, Myocardial infarction, Diabetes, Diabetic complications, Pressure ulcers, High cholesterol, Circulation problems, Gastrointestinal cancer surgery, Breast cancer, Intrauterine growth retardation, and Inborn errors of urea synthesis and prevents Prevention of restenosis after coronary angioplasty Alternate TitleL- arginine CategoryHerbs & Supplements 2- amino- 5- guanidinopentanoic acid, Arg, arginine, arginine hydrochloride (intravenous formulation), dipeptide arginyl aspartate, HeartBars, ibuprofen- arginate, L- arg, L- arginine, NG- monomethyl- L- arginine, Sargenor, Spedifen®. Note: Arginine vasopressin is different from arginine/ L- arginine, with an entirely different mechanism. NG- monomethyl- L- arginine is different from arginine/ L- arginine, and functions as an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthesis. L- arginine was first isolated in 1886. In 1932, scientists learned that L- arginine is needed to create urea, a waste product that is necessary for toxic ammonia to be removed from the body. In 1939, researchers discovered that L- arginine is also needed to make creatine. Creatine breaks down into creatinine at a constant rate, and it is cleared from the body by the kidneys. Arginine is considered a semi- essential amino acid because even though the body normally makes enough of it, supplementation is sometimes needed. For example, people with protein malnutrition, excessive ammonia production, excessive lysine intake, burns, infections, peritoneal dialysis, rapid growth, urea synthesis disorders, or sepsis may not have enough arginine. Symptoms of arginine deficiency include poor wound healing, hair loss, skin rash, constipation, and fatty liver. Arginine changes into nitric oxide, which causes blood vessel relaxation (vasodilation). Early evidence suggests that arginine may help treat medical conditions that improve with vasodilation, such as chest pain, clogged arteries (called atherosclerosis), coronary artery disease, erectile dysfunction, heart failure, intermittent claudication/ peripheral vascular disease, and blood vessel swelling that causes headaches (vascular headaches). Arginine also triggers the body to make protein and has been studied for wound healing, bodybuilding, enhancement of sperm production (spermatogenesis), and prevention of wasting in people with critical illnesses. Arginine hydrochloride has a high chloride content and has been used to treat metabolic alkalosis. This use should be under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional. In general, most people do not need to take arginine supplements because the body usually produces enough.	<urn:uuid:9159a578-3f13-430c-9ccc-edc397db1565>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.healthline.com/drugcompare?drug1=arginine	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698924319/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516100844-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.87503	786	2.5625	3
Courses in the Civil Rights subject area address the complex doctrinal and theoretical questions that implicate some of the most important legal and political issues being debated today. The area of civil rights law covers both statutory and constitutional law that protects individual civil and political rights. The Law School's offerings explore a range of topics and sources of law, including the Reconstruction amendments to the Constitution, the Voting Rights Act, anti-discrimination protections in areas such as housing and employment, and civil rights claims under section 1983 of the U.S. Code. For those interested in pursuing a practice in civil rights law, the required course in Constitutional Law provides a basic foundation. After Constitutional Law, students may choose to enroll in an overview course, such as Antidiscrimination Law, as well as civil rights courses and seminars dealing with the policy issues relating to minority groups in a diverse and complex society. Upper Level Survey & Introductory Courses Upper Level Courses in Specialized Topics Related Subject Areas	<urn:uuid:cfbeb3b0-1279-408a-848a-53167773a37e>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.law.fordham.edu/registrar/4664.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698924319/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516100844-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.93746	201	2.578125	3
Roger Williams chose this site in 1636 after he was exiled from Massachusetts. He secured title to the land from Narragansett chiefs and named the place in gratitude for "God's merciful providence." The settlement grew as a refuge for religious dissenters. Many of its buildings were burned in King Philip's War (1675-76). Prosperity came in the 18th cent. with foreign commerce, and after the American Revolution, industrial development was rapid. The Brown brothers, John, Nicholas, and Moses, played leading roles in the growth of the town, prospering in foreign trade and fostering the textile and other industries. In 1842, Thomas W. Dorr led a rebellion that collapsed after an abortive assault on the armory there. The city became sole capital of Rhode Island in 1900 (Newport had been joint capital until then). In 1901 the state legislature began to meet in the impressive marble-domed capitol designed by McKim, Mead, and White. Providence is the seat of the noted Rhode Island School of Design, some of whose work is related to the city's famous silverware and jewelry industry; and of Brown Univ., Johnson and Wales Univ., Providence College, Rhode Island College, and the New England Institute of Technology. It has several noted libraries, including the John Carter Brown Library of Brown Univ. and the Atheneum (1753), one of the oldest libraries in the United States. Among the city's many historic structures are the old statehouse (where the general assembly met 1762-1900; now a courthouse), the old market building (1773), the Stephen Hopkins House (c.1755), the John Brown House (1786), and the First Baptist Meetinghouse (1775; the congregation was organized in 1638). The city has monuments to Oliver Hazard Perry (1928) and Nathanael Greene (1931). On Prospect Terrace is Leo Friedlander's heroic statue of Roger Williams (1939). Another memorial to the founder is in Roger Williams Park, which contains a museum of natural history and a natural amphitheater. The Capital Center District, where construction began in the early 1980s, and Waterplace Park have contributed to the city's downtown revival. Providence suffered severely in hurricanes in 1938 and 1954; a hurricane barrier was completed in 1966. See G. F. Kimball, Providence in Colonial Times (1912, repr. 1972); P. Conley and P. Campbell, Providence: A Pictorial History (1983); J. N. Arnold, Vital Record of Providence, Rhode Island (1988). City (pop., 2000: 173,618), capital of Rhode Island, U.S. It is located at the head of Narragansett Bay on the Providence River. Founded in 1636 by Roger Williams as a refuge for religious dissenters, it was partly destroyed in King Philip's War in 1676. It played an important role in the American Revolution and was a major port in trade with the West Indies in the 18th century. Incorporated as a city in 1831, it became the sole capital of the state in 1900. Previously it had shared that honour with Newport since 1854. A seaport and an industrial and commercial centre, it is the focus of a metropolitan area that includes Pawtucket and East Providence. Educational institutions include Brown University and the Rhode Island School of Design. Learn more about Providence with a free trial on Britannica.com. There were 124 households out of which 36.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.8% were married couples living together, 18.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.4% were non-families. 18.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.51 and the average family size was 2.81. In the town the population was spread out with 27.0% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 24.8% from 25 to 44, 26.4% from 45 to 64, and 13.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 95.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.6 males. The median income for a household in the town was $33,542, and the median income for a family was $39,375. Males had a median income of $38,750 versus $24,821 for females. The per capita income for the town was $19,382. About 6.5% of families and 10.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.2% of those under age 18 and 15.3% of those age 65 or over. PROVIDENCE COUNTY GRAND JURY INDICTS JOSE ISMAEL SANTOS ON COUNTS OF ROBBERY, ASSAULT WITH DANGEROUS WEAPON, CARRYING PISTOL WITHOUT LICENSE Feb 10, 2006; The Rhode Island attorney general issued the following news release: Jose Ismael Santos, DOB: 9/26/70 1626 Summerfield Street... Providence Tarzana Medical Center and Children's Hospital Los Angeles Partner to Enhance Pediatric Care in the Valley Jan 25, 2013; By a News Reporter-Staff News Editor at Health & Medicine Week -- "providence believes strongly in providing the services...	<urn:uuid:f799c77d-24be-4545-8fed-42544d782c16>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.reference.com/browse/providence	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698924319/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516100844-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.969194	1,152	2.875	3
If distracted drivers and icy sidewalks weren't enough, researchers at the University of Maryland have tracked a new danger for pedestrians: wearing headphones. Closed off to the warning sounds around them, the number of walkers killed or badly injured in crashes in the US tripled from 16 in 2004 to 47 in 2011. It's a small sample, but suggests strolling to your favorite artist's rhythm is unsafe. In a number of the 116 crashes reviewed, motorists blared their car horns as a warning. The web site Healthjockey.com analyzed the important factors at play: distraction and sensory deprivation. Walkers with headphones create an attention deficit. It's reasonable to think that runners and bicyclists create the same hazzard when they are tuned in and tuned out.	<urn:uuid:72c93704-1c24-4754-b858-82b5ab443242>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.silentsports.net/blogs/137566848.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698924319/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516100844-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.952315	157	2.65625	3
To shoot a simple sequence you need at least three shots - - A master shot showing the person engaged in their activity - A shot of the person's face - A close up of the activity CLOSE UP ON ACTIVITY - If you are covering an activity that can be repeated, I'd suggest your first shot is the "Master Shot". This is a good insurance shot. Then, if all else fails, you can just use the master! - The master shot should be wide enough to show the whole action – which (if repeatable) should be recorded from beginning to end. - As you get better at sequences you won't need to record the action from beginning to end. You'll know where you want to cut and therefore know when to: stop the action; change shot; and restart the action with - Keep a close eye on what the subject is doing – which hand did they use to pick up the phone – continuity errors can spoil a good sequence. - You must offer the editor a variety of shots (at least three remember) – this entails changing either: » the camera lens angle e.g. wide shot, mid shot,close up » camera position e.g. over the shoulder, profile, head » camera height e.g. high angle, eye height, low angle - The average shot is about 4 seconds long. BUT, you must shoot enough to leave the editor some flexibility- as a general rule record shots that are at least 10 seconds long. - Ensure that you record the complete action e.g. Frame up on a telephone, start recording and keep recording as the hand comes in to pick up the receiver - then put the receiver back - the hand goes out of shot - hold - then stop recording. Now your editor has flexibility to start (or end) the shot at any given point in the action. - You must try not to cross the line. Be clear in your mind where the line of action runs and stay one side of the line. - Don't forget to shoot the cutaways, e.g. if someone is using the photocopier, appropriate cutaways might be: » the buttons being pressed » the copy coming out of the machine - Of your three sequence shots, the shot of your subject's face concentrating on what they are doing is very important. This can be edited in almost anywhere – and may get you over a continuity problem. - If your subject is concentrating hard, then get in close. For simpler activities, an MCU will probably be - It doesn't look good to edit into or out of moving shots. Keep zooming, panning and tilting to a minimum. Hold the camera steady and let the subject provide the movement and visual interest. - Letting your subject enter shot or exit, acts as a reason to edit. A kind of visual full stop. - If you let your subject leave shot, then you can change location and see them enter shot for the next sequence. - If the sequence is being used to introduce an interviewee - make sure they leave the last shot (eg their hands leaving shot after putting down the phone). It will look strange if you go from a shot of a person on the phone straight to a shot of them being interviewed. Back to the top. CROSSING THE LINE When I ask people who come on my course whether they understand crossing the line - most look back with an expression that says I think so - but don't expect me to explain it. One person summed it up brilliantly. It's like the off side rule in soccer, we under stand it is important but couldn't really explain it. To do crossing the line justice I'm going have to take some pictures and make sure I get the words right. Please be patient. The answer will be here soon - it is so important I really want to make the effort to explain it well. 2000 - 2010	<urn:uuid:7e55a460-4847-46ef-bea6-913fb539d20b>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.urbanfox.tv/creative/sequences.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698924319/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516100844-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.925859	853	2.53125	3
The Center City District in Philadelphia has made physical improvements spawning safer streets and economic vitality. In the 1980s, downtown Philadelphia was ridden with crime and economic decline. The Center City District Business Improvement District formed to promote a “clean, safe, attractive and well-managed public environment.” Center City District’s plan to create a more pleasant and profitable urban environment succeeded primarily because of pedestrian-oriented improvements. Streetscape improvements include new pedestrian-scale lampposts, trees, street furniture, and effective, directional signage to local destinations. Short-term improvements have already been implemented, including narrowing roads, adding amenities and installing art. The pedestrians who now fill the streets keep downtown safe and promote local business. In the ten years following the inception of the Center City District plan, crime plummeted, and the downtown economy boomed. Small business improvement districts with smaller operating budgets can follow this model for promoting neighborhood revival.	<urn:uuid:4b5da0a8-0004-4ef7-a29c-ef21fbd19e43>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://nycsr.org/global-lessons/philadelphia/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702810651/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516111330-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.917404	190	2.546875	3
A more extreme from of Magnifying and Minimizing is All-or-Nothing Thinking. Consider this cheerleading scenario. Your cheerleading squad is at Nationals and you have come in 3rd in your division. You all know that your performance was excellent; you hit everything. What’s your reaction? Do you smile with pleasure, knowing that your squad performed so well? Are you angry that you didn’t place first? Are you complaining that the judging was unfair? Well, All-or-Nothing Thinking occurs when you wipe out everything positive and only look at the negative. This can have a snow ball effect such that EVERYTHING becomes negative. So, in this case, the thinking would be look like this: “We lost. We were terrible. I should just get out of cheerleading. I don’t think the coaching was good either. And the judges always pick that other squad. We’ll never come in first. This is the worst experience of my life.” See how easily misery can happen? Such cognitive distortions can discourage you from trying new things or deter you from taking good risks. Tip: In a situation like this, the squad can benefit from a debriefing in which everyone is asked what went well, what went very well, and what, if anything can be learned from the event.	<urn:uuid:8eb247c0-adb2-4f68-b274-48188b9751aa>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.confidentcheerleadingblog.com/tag/all-or-nothing-thinking/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702810651/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516111330-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.974383	280	2.640625	3
The Arctic is ground zero for the impacts of climate change . Defenders of Wildlife is actively involved in a number of policy initiatives that will help species like polar bears , wolverines and walruses adapt to the realities of a warming planet. How We’re Helping Defenders participates in regular planning workshops and provide input to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s draft Polar Bear Conservation/Recovery Plan. As the “poster child” of climate change in the U.S., polar bears and their habitat have become a natural focus as we work to help the many species affected by climate change. We also provide technical assistance and policy guidance to a number of state and national agencies to ensure wildlife and habitat considerations are deliberately and appropriately factored into land management and planning decisions in Alaska, particularly in such sensitive areas as the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge , the Chugach National Forest and the Kenai Peninsula .	<urn:uuid:ec9c6b44-7fbf-4988-8665-7ad8de6c1bd2>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.defenders.org/print/5162	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702810651/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516111330-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.926284	195	2.796875	3
Ivory Coast, officially the Republic of Cote d'Ivoire, is a country in West Africa. Ivory Coast borders Liberia and Guinea to the west, Mali and Burkina Faso to the north, Ghana to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south. Close ties to France since independence in 1960, the development of cocoa production for export, and foreign investment made Cote d'Ivoire one of the most prosperous of the West African states, but did not protect it from political turmoil. In December 1999, a military coup - the first ever in Cote d'Ivoire's history - overthrew the government. Junta leader Robert Guei blatantly rigged elections held in late 2000 and declared himself the winner. Popular protest forced him to step aside and brought Laurent Gbagbo into power. Ivorian dissidents and disaffected members of the military launched a failed coup attempt in September 2002. Rebel forces claimed the northern half of the country, and in January 2003 were granted ministerial positions in a unity government under the auspices of the Linas-Marcoussis Peace Accord. President Gbagbo and rebel forces resumed implementation of the peace accord in December 2003 after a three-month stalemate, but issues that sparked the civil war, such as land reform and grounds for citizenship, remained unresolved. In March 2007 President Gbagbo and former New Forces rebel leader Guillaume Soro signed the Ouagadougou Political Agreement. As a result of the agreement, Soro joined Gbagbo's government as Prime Minister and the two agreed to reunite the country by dismantling the zone of confidence separating North from South, integrate rebel forces into the national armed forces, and hold elections. Disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration of rebel forces have been problematic as rebels seek to enter the armed forces. Citizen identification and voter registration pose election difficulties, and balloting planned for November 2009 was postponed to 2010. On 28 November 2010, Alassane Dramane Ouattara won the presidential election, defeating then President Laurent Gbagbo. Gbagbo refused to hand over power, resulting in a 5 -month stand-off. In April 2011, after widespread fighting, Gbagbo was formally forced from office by armed Ouattara supporters with the help of UN and French forces. Several thousand UN peacekeepers and several hundred French troops remain in Cote d'Ivoire to support the transition process. Life Expectancy at Birth: Overview: Cote d'Ivoire is heavily dependent on agriculture and related activities, which engage roughly 68% of the population. Cote d'Ivoire is the world's largest producer and exporter of cocoa beans and a significant producer and exporter of coffee and palm oil. Consequently, the economy is highly sensitive to fluctuations in international prices for these products, and, to a lesser extent, in climatic conditions. Cocoa, oil, and coffee are the country's top export revenue earners, but the country is also producing gold. Since the end of the civil war in 2003, political turmoil has continued to damage the economy, resulting in the loss of foreign investment and slow economic growth. GDP grew by more than 2% in 2008 and around 4% per year in 2009-10. Per capita income has declined by 15% since 1999, but registered a slight improvement in 2009-10. Power cuts caused by a turbine failure in early 2010 slowed economic activity. Cote d'Ivoire in 2010 signed agreements to restructure its Paris Club bilateral, other bilateral, and London Club debt. Cote d'Ivoire's long term challenges include political instability and degrading infrastructure. In late 2011, Cote D'Ivoire's economy was recovering from a severe downturn of the first quarter of the year that was caused by widespread post-election fighting. Gross Domestic Product: Current Environmental Issues: For more info please contact: Published: Thursday, September 04, 2008 © 2013. The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.	<urn:uuid:fe34a788-c901-4629-8926-bc44d249362b>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.international.ucla.edu/print.asp?parentid=96732	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702810651/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516111330-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.940655	831	2.609375	3
Smarter Living: Shopping Wise Meals of Mass Destruction: Shrimp The Gulf oil spill made Americans think twice before tossing shrimp on the grill and that might not be such a bad thing. After seeing the horrifying pictures, many are about as interested in eating seafood that's been swimming in the Gulf as they are in diving into the water themselves. What Americans might not realize, however, is that the shrimping industry is an environmental scourge much older than the oil spill. The Hazards of the Harvest Shrimp is the most popular seafood in the U.S. and the demand for it has been growing rapidly in the last twenty years. Americans currently consume more than one billion pounds of shrimp every year, and about 90 percent of that is imported from overseas. The primary producers of shrimp—namely China, Thailand, Vietnam, Brazil and Ecuador—provide mostly farm-raised shrimp. American shrimp, on the other hand, is almost always caught wild offshore. Until recently, most wild North American fisheries were based in the Gulf of Mexico, though that has changed due to recent events. Other common varieties include "Pink Shrimp" which comes from Oregon and "Spot Prawn," which is fished in British Columbia. Unfortunately neither fishing nor farming is a truly sustainable way to produce shrimp. Farming is responsible for habitat destruction and is often done cheaply, producing a lower quality product, while trawling for wild shrimp is harmful to the oceanic environment and its inhabitants. So which is the lesser of the two evils? There’s no easy answer. "There are three main production methods in shrimp farming," explains Victoria Galitzine, a science analyst at Fishwise, a non-profit organization committed to improving the sustainability of seafood producers, "The majority of production is comprised of open ponds with a small amount of water exchange. Next are inland ponds that either only drain once a year or recycle their water. Finally, there are intensive recirculating systems that produce no effluents and recycle [the treated wastewater] within a closed system." The last option, which is the most expensive to run, produces the least environmental impact among the three. Shrimp farming is usually based in coastal areas, and can be destructive to both the ecological and human communities with which it comes into contact. When multiple intensive farming operations are concentrated around the same river, estuary, or bay, as they often are, the waste, uneaten feed and bacteria produced by the farms pollutes the surrounding waters, overwhelming the environment and harming other species. This waste also creates conditions that breed infections among the shrimp themselves. To protect from the shrimp pathogens that inevitably spread, some farmers feed their shrimp chloramphenicol, a carcinogenic antibiotic which may be unsafe for human consumption. Shrimp may also be treated with sodium triple phosphate, a neuro-toxicant, to prevent it from drying out during shipping, and borax to preserve its pink color. These shrimp farms may provide jobs, but what gains are made in employment are often offset by the people displaced from their homes and the havoc wrought on the local agricultural and fishing industries, according to the advocacy organization New American Dream. (Read more about that in OnEarth). Habitat destruction has not only affected local economies, but has also taken its toll on human lives. In 1991, a tsunami struck Bangladesh where the coastal mangroves had been decimated and replaced with shrimp ponds—in the resulting devastation, thousands of people died. A comparable tsunami that occurred in 1960, when the mangrove forests were still intact, had zero casualties. Wary of Wild Wild-caught shrimp, though they have the advantage of often coming to us from much closer on the globe, do not come without cost. The practice of shrimp trawling essentially means scraping a massive conical net along the ocean floor, taking not only shrimp, but important parts of the seabed with it. (Read "Here's the Catch" to learn which harvesting methods are "good" and which are "bad" like bottom trawling) For each pound of shrimp caught, trawling results in up to 15 pounds of "bycatch," the unintended capture of other species. Bycatch, which includes seabirds, marine mammals, fish, and sea turtles, is typically left to die on boat decks and then discarded at sea. (Read OnEarth Magazine’s report on the effect of fishing operations on sea turtle populations here). Not all wild shrimp operations are created equal, however. North American wild shrimp, at least on paper, is better than imported varieties, since American trawlers must follow stricter environmental standards than their foreign counterparts. A series of laws passed over the last twenty or so years, for example, mandates the use of bycatch reduction devices and turtle excluder devices in the United States. Unfortunately, the profits to be made by disregarding these laws far outweigh the penalties, so there is a lack of incentive to abide by them fully and many companies cut corners to save money. If you live near the coast, it might be a good idea to talk to your local fishermen to try to separate out the good operations from the bad. Wild-caught shrimp that originates in the Pacific Ocean is generally a better choice than shrimp from the Atlantic, according to the Monterey Bay Aquarium, because Pacific shrimp fisheries are monitored more closely than Atlantic and trap-catching in BC is much less destructive than trawling. The truth is, not everyone is willing to give up eating shrimp. And you don't necessarily have to. New, more sustainable production practices are being developed, but it's up to the consumer to ask for them in supermarkets and restaurants. Independent certification programs, such as the Marine Stewardship Council's, make it easy to identify responsible seafood producers when you're shopping or eating out. The New England-based seafood distributor Ecofish is a leading example of an MSC-certified alternative to industrial shrimp producers. "Our mission from the outset has been not only to provide consumers with a solution to the seafood problem, but also to set an example that you can sell sustainable seafood and still be successful," says Henry Lovejoy, President and Founder of Ecofish. "We've partnered up with an independent advisory board of leading marine conservation scientists who recommend responsible shrimp farms for us to support, something that was unheard of ten years ago." Though there is still no USDA organic standard for "aquaculture" or fish farming (one should be released in about a year for shrimp, tilapia, and catfish farming, according to Lovejoy), the farms that Ecofish works with down in Ecuador are certified organic by the Naturland Association for Organic Agriculture. The company uses inland-style ponds with minimal water exchange, a practice most closely aligned with the second method described above by Galitzine. Unlike industrial farms, these farms don't release polluted water into the surrounding environment or use any pesticides or chemicals, and they have a relatively low protein-diversion ratio when it comes to the amount of shrimp being produced per pound of feed. Also, not only is there no mangrove destruction associated with their farms' production methods, but Ecofish even plants new mangrove forests in the surrounding area. Whether you pledge to eliminate shrimp from your diet or simply try to be more conscientious about which brands you support, shrimp is one part of your diet that definitely deserves a closer look. What You Can Do - Eat less shrimp! The Worldwatch Institute estimates that for every 1,000 people who stop eating shrimp, we can save more than 5.4 tons of sea life per year. - Replace your industrial shrimp purchases with Henry & Lisa's Natural Seafood (Ecofish's retail brand) available at 3500 stores nationwide, including Whole Foods and Target Superstores. - Seek out the blue Marine Stewardship Council ecolabel, which indicates sustainable practices, when shopping or dining out. Here's a list of stores and restaurants that stock MSC-certified products. - When buying wild-caught shrimp, look for varieties from the Pacific coast, particularly Oregon and British Columbia. - Ask your favorite restaurants and stores what kind of shrimp they are stocking, and if you're not satisfied with their answer, let them know! last revised 7/8/2011	<urn:uuid:76ee9789-8d08-4246-977d-a823c4e6a502>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.nrdc.org/living/shoppingwise/meals-mass-destruction-shrimp.asp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702810651/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516111330-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.962377	1,707	2.75	3
POSEIDONAS CAVE that occupies the site known as "Myli" constitutes a monumental rock-cut tomb or sanctuary. This particular type was very common in the Eastern Aegean Sea. Certain traces suggest the existence of a wooden cover at the cave entrance. The cave was probably a sanctuary dedicated to Aphrodite, a very popular goddess with the lower social class. Statuettes of the goddess have been found in Pigadia. In all probability, the open-air sanctuary of the goddess stood in Parthenos Cave, 2 km away, in the area of Vathypotamos. The cave has been eroded over time due to its continuous and extensive use by shepherds.	<urn:uuid:baa0b5ae-b1e6-4901-9f46-f6f08be4d02c>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.visitgreece.gr/en/touring/caving/poseidonas_cave	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368702810651/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516111330-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.969512	143	2.609375	3
With most of the holidays behind us, it is a good time to reflect on friends, family, and more. If you have good friends, most likely your friends have great character. Many people are drawn to those with great character. Caillou was a character that was created in 1990 by French author Christine L’Heureux and illustrator Hélène Desputeaux. Christine wanted to encourage children to develop their own unique characteristics while growing in peace with others and the world around them. She also wanted to depart from the normal practice of using animals in children’s books, and instead used a more identifiable component- humans themselves. Her reasoning was that children could better relate to the stories that she was telling with a human, instead of an animal. Was she right? How does your little one relate to Caillou? Feel free to leave your comments below. Caillou encourages your children to explore the world around them, to use their imagination, and to have adventures. There’s nothing like using your imagination to solve a problem as opposed to playing hours of shoot ‘em up video games. Which way would you rather have your child spend his or her time? Click here to check out fun games and how to build with Caillou.	<urn:uuid:476605e0-2eb7-4e60-9c31-570d4bbb2031>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://blog.tystoybox.com/tag/character/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705953421/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120553-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.974815	263	2.9375	3
Manta rays spend their lives in the ocean, sweeping up microscopic animals. And yet scientists have found that their well-being depends on forests. Meadows in the northwestern United States are ecologically linked to salmon thousands of miles out at sea. Today, I’ve got a piece in Yale Environment 360 in which I explore the bonds that join land and sea together. Check it out. Links to this Post - Darwiniana » The Vital Chain: Why Manta Rays Need Forests \| May 18, 2012	<urn:uuid:3bd4290f-5998-4294-b316-afc6d19b8081>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/loom/?p=5900	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705953421/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120553-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.934166	104	2.765625	3
Episcopal Diocese of Missouri \|Diocese of Missouri\| \|Ecclesiastical province\|\|Province VI\| \|Cathedral\|\|Christ Church Cathedral, St. Louis\| \|Bishop\|\|George Wayne Smith\| Location of the Diocese of Missouri The Episcopal Diocese of Missouri is the diocese of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America with jurisdiction over 54 counties in eastern Missouri. It has 47 congregations and is in Province 5. Its cathedral, Christ Church Cathedral, is in St. Louis, as are the diocesan offices. The current bishop is the Rt. Rev. George Wayne Smith. From frontier to the 20th century The Episcopal Dioceses of Missouri was founded in 1841 by the Episcopal congregations that already existed in the state. In 1844, the diocese elected its first bishop, Cicero Hawks, who presided over five priests and nine congregations. He held the diocese together during the Civil War, increasing the reputation of the Episcopal Church in Missouri. After Bishop Hawks' death in 1868, the diocese elected the Rt. Rev. Charles Robertson as the second bishop of the diocese. By the time of his death in 1886, the diocese had grown to 51 congregations and 40 missions throughout the state. After the election of the third bishop, the Rt. Rev. Daniel S. Tuttle, the Diocesan Convention approved a plan to split the diocese in half. Bishop Tuttle supported the newly created Episcopal Diocese of West Missouri by providing funds to sustain it through its first years. The church's mission expands As Bishop Tuttle aged, the Diocesan Convention appointed Frederick Johnson as bishop coadjutor in 1911. He took over as diocesan bishop upon Tuttle's death in 1923. During Bishop Johnson's tenure, the diocese expanded its youth and campus ministries. As Bishop Johnson's health failed, the dean of Christ Church Cathedral, William Scarlett, was appointed as bishop coadjutor. He succeeded Johnson in 1930. Bishop Scarlett worked tirelessly for social reform, championing the cause of those left jobless and homeless during the Great Depression. In 1935, the Episcopal City Mission was formed to minister to those in jail. He also revitalized the Christian Education system at this time. The civil rights movement Scarlett was succeeded by Arthur C. Lichtenberger in 1950. As Bishop, he held a prominent role in the St. Louis civil rights movement. He was elected as the presiding bishop of the Episcopal Church in 1958. He was succeeded as diocesan bishop by the Rev. George Cadigan. who continued Lichtenberger's civil rights mission, Cadigan worked with lay leaders and community members to fight for the rights of African-Americans in Missouri. He also gave more control of the church to laity. Bishop Cadigan retired in April 1975 and died December 14, 2005. Recent developments in the diocese The Rt. Rev. William Jones succeeded Bishop Cadigan, and he immediately attempted to deal with the discord in the diocese. While great strides had been made on the social front for which the Church could be proud, the number of Episcopalians was declining as the Church failed to attract new members to replace those who left over disagreement with the direction the Church was taking, exemplified by a new Book of Common Prayer and the ordination of women. Bishop Jones retired in 1992. He was replaced by the Rt. Rev. Hays Rockwell, who had been elected bishop coadjutor in 1990. Bishop Rockwell’s episcopacy has been characterized as a time of renewal with an influx of new rectors for many of the congregations, a restructuring of the diocesan staff, an emphasis on congregational development, and maintenance of an Episcopal presence in the city of St. Louis and rural areas of the diocese. Bishop Rockwell retired in June 2002 and was replaced by the Rt. Rev. George Wayne Smith on June 6, 2002. - Official Episcopal Diocese of Missouri website - A complete list of parishes in the diocese. - Official Website for the Episcopal Church - Journal of the Annual Convention, Diocese of Missouri	<urn:uuid:27757363-029f-49b0-89c4-5b83f9b24cd7>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episcopal_Diocese_of_Missouri	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705953421/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120553-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.973362	864	2.546875	3
Women who are very thin as well as those who are substantially overweight may have fertility problems . Low body weight disrupts hormonal function and can cause: - Anovulation—no ovulation - Oligomenorrhea—few menstrual periods - Amenorrhea —the absence of a menstrual period Being overweight can also disrupt hormone levels and can lead to irregular menstrual cycles. Before attempting to change your weight, you should consult with your doctor who may recommend a referral to a dietitian. Dietitians are trained health professionals who can help you determine what weight range is right for you and the best plan to get to that weight. When you do become pregnant, eating a healthy, balanced diet in the months before pregnancy can help to support a healthy pregnancy. Talk to your doctor about strategies to stop smoking . Chronic, heavy drinking negatively affects ovarian function and can lead to irregular menstrual cycles, loss of ovulation, and cessation of menstruation. Even moderate drinking (five or fewer drinks per week) has been associated with reduced rates of conception and increased risk of miscarriage . Remember that any drinking during pregnancy increases the chance of birth defects. Conception is more likely to occur when you have intercourse in the days surrounding ovulation. You can find out when you are ovulating by taking your body temperature (at rest, when you first wake up) and recording it on a chart. Your temperature drops just before ovulation, and then rises at ovulation and remains elevated during the second half of your cycle and throughout pregnancy. Consider buying an ovulation calendar to help you calculate your ovulation times. There are also kits available in pharmacies that predict ovulation by testing your urine for the LH hormone surge that occurs just before ovulation. A good rule-of-thumb is that ovulation occurs fourteen (14) days prior to onset of a period flow. You will need to record several months of periods to determine the regular length of your cycle. Depression and high levels of stress hormones can affect ovarian function. Try to develop a system for managing stress and depression, either through regular exercise, yoga, or fulfilling leisure activities. To help reduce mental and emotional stress in your life, consider learning relaxation exercises, yoga or tai chi, or talking to a counselor about problems or stressful relationships in your life. Talk to your health care provider about which stress management options may be best for you, and request a referral to a stress management program. - If you are not sure if you need to gain or lose weight If you need help with: - Designing a healthy, balanced diet - Quitting smoking - Abstaining from alcohol - Determining when ovulation occurs during your cycles - Depression or other mood disorders - Reviewer: Andrea Chisholm - Review Date: 10/2012 - - Update Date: 10/31/2012 -	<urn:uuid:205359ae-84ff-4944-80a2-810da3b36a07>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://memorialhospitaljax.com/your-health/?/2010814526/Lifestyle-Changes-to-Manage-Infertility-in-Women	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705953421/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120553-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.935944	590	2.859375	3
The "Around the Web" series highlights informative websites, and also targeted blog posts and news articles, relevant to the courses I teach. This semester I teach Anth 143: Biology of Human Behavior, an introductory-level course that covers the basics of evolution, behavioral biology, and the interaction of biology and culture. My hope is that these posts are useful not only for my current students, but other people hoping to gain background or insight into these topics. On the week we learned about stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, we didn't just talk about Type A personalities or parachute jumping. Instead, I tried to apply our understanding of how acute and chronic stress impact the body by examining social disparities and racism. This led to all of us being confronted with some very harsh statistics about the health of people of color in this country and the long-term effects of systemic oppression, and powerful narratives about internalized oppression in first and second-generation immigrants. I wanted to augment that lecture with some links on social disparities and racism. I have a TON of links for this topic, so enjoy! Check my what? First, some primers to help us contextualize social disparity and conversations about it. One of my favorites is "Check my what?" On privilege and what we can do about it. This is a post that does get updated from time to time, and it defines privilege, and instructs the reader how to identify one's own privilege, accept it, and from that point of acceptance, move towards actions and attitudes that are pro-equality. I like this because of the way it implicitly explains the uselessness of the seemingly pro-equality stance of "not seeing color." A slightly more humorous, but still important, primer, is called Derailing for Dummies. I hope a reading of this primer will help people communicate respectfully around oppression. I also wanted to share a few posts about Western perspectives on mental health, because of the time we spent in class on immigration. Aspects of immigration and acculturation are stressful, and cultural contexts strongly influence behavior. Another issue to consider is whether Western perspectives on mental health overpathologize context-dependent behaviors (that is, doing things that make sense in context and are occurring in context, like a toddler tantrum, or grieving after losing a loved one). Take a look at these links: Will anyone be normal? discusses the overpathologization issue I just mentioned; Westerners vs. the World: we are the WEIRD ones brings population variation in behavior to light; and a related story interviewing Ethan Watters, Going Mad the American Way. The science of oppression In addition to the material we learned in lecture on race and immigration, I wanted to add some other good sources. Science of oppression I is a great primer from Racialicious. Scicurious also has a great researchblogging post on inflammatory responses to stress, particularly as they relate to social rejection. She reviews a particular paper that links immune health to neural sensitivity to social rejection (meaning, those demonstrating the most sensitivity to social rejection also had an increase in inflammatory markers), which is interesting since it demonstrates a relationship between the immune system and psychosocial stress. This Jonah Lehrer article in Wired follows up on the Sapolsky article we read about stress vaccines. I also like this story (well, press release) from ScienceDaily on how stress relates to one's coping method. I imagine this is also linked, in some ways, to the study Scicurious discussed on neural sensitivity. It seems as though if we can change some of our coping and sensitivity behaviors, we can probably alter the degree to which stress negatively impacts our health. I also wanted to link to this special edition of Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences that was exclusively on "The Biology of Disadvantage." Really great articles in there. Finally, this post at Language Log critically analyzes some of the ways in which we misunderstand and essentialize disadvantage. An important read. Random, unrelated, but always interesting, stuff Patrick Clarkin has a great post on Evolutionary Aesthetics -- basically, the idea that our concept of beauty is context-dependent in more ways than we may realize. I found it inspiring and insightful. Here's a weird story about mercury exposure and how it changes the sexual behavior of the ibis. See how flexible sexuality can be? This is a piece I really enjoyed on the ways in which current journalism practices don't get at the subtlety and complexity of science. It refers back to a kerfuffle earlier this year when Martin Robbins of the Lay Scientist wrote a very funny satire piece called This is a news website article about a scientific paper. Finally, while it's a bit belated, a nice Thanksgiving post by Krystal D'Costa over at Anthropology in Practice.	<urn:uuid:119b20b9-e625-4f97-9ed4-d6b99fa0b210>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://professorkateclancy.blogspot.com/2010/12/around-web-stress-and-social.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705953421/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120553-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.944781	990	2.734375	3
* Realistic applications integrated throughout the text, including (but not limited to): - Symmetries of artistic patterns - Computer vision - Computer graphics - Stability of architectural structures - Molecular biology - Pattern recognition * Historical notes included in many chapters * Instructor's Manual with solutions available for all adopters of the text Meyer's Geometry and Its Applications, Second Edition, combines traditional geometry with current ideas to present a modern approach that is grounded in real-world applications. It balances the deductive approach with discovery learning, and introduces axiomatic, Euclidean geometry, non-Euclidean geometry, and transformational geometry. The text integrates applications and examples throughout and includes historical notes in many chapters. The Second Edition of Geometry and Its Applications is a significant text for any college or university that focuses on geometry's usefulness in other disciplines. It is especially appropriate for engineering and science majors, as well as future mathematics teachers. Junior/Senior level undergraduate courses in geometry Geometry and Its Applications, 2nd Edition 1. The Axiomatic Method in Geometry 2. The Euclidean Heritage 3. Non-Euclidean Geometry 4. Transformation Geometry I: Isometries and Symmetries 5. Vectors in Geometry 6. Transformation Geometry II: Isometries and Matrices 7. Transformation Geometry III: Similarity, Inversion and Projection 8. Graphs, Maps and Polyhedra Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises Quotes and reviews [Reviewed by Fernando Q. Gouvêa, on 03/25/2006] OK, I’ll admit it. I didn’t think I was going to like this book. But it surprised me. It is, in my opinion, just the sort of thing its intended audience needs, and quite well executed. Most American mathematics departments offer a regular course in geometry, usually aimed mostly at future teachers. Given that students now arrive in college with very little geometrical knowledge, these courses have settled on a fairly standard pattern. First, one does a little synthetic geometry, following Euclid as modified by Hilbert, in more or less detail and at varying levels of rigor. Next comes some (still synthetic) non-Euclidean geometry, usually very lightly done. At that point, coordinates, vectors, and transformations can come in, which creates the opportunity to introduce various other kinds of geometry (especially projective) and/or to spend some time considering symmetries of the plane and related topics (Meyer does the latter). From there on, one is free to consider special topics; Meyer chooses to do a little bit of the theory of polyhedra. All this is fairly standard, as is the provision, made through a web site, of software support (in this case, using Geometer’s Sketchpad). What makes Meyer’s book stand out are two things. First, he puts to good use his experience in industry (at Grumman Corporation, where he ran a robotics research program) in order to present applications that, while usually simple, seem real. This includes some fairly important (and non-classical) material, such as a discussion of Voronoi diagrams. The second is harder to pin down; I’d describe it as the book’s “voice”: a humane, intelligent, reflective way of discussing things that is quite interesting to read. Read his discussion of what axioms are, early in the first chapter, to see what I mean. If we can get students to read the book and think about what they read, they’ll learn a lot from this book. So: this may look fairly traditional (especially from the outside), but it’s actually quite creative and very well done. Anyone teaching this kind of geometry course should consider adopting this book. -- Fernando Q. Gouvêa is professor of mathematics at Colby College	<urn:uuid:2f35d605-5d8b-4c3b-a062-392379ddb4ed>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://store.elsevier.com/product.jsp?isbn=9780123694270	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705953421/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120553-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.939049	838	3.171875	3
Monday, September 24, 2007 Let's talk about peregrine falcons Since my camera is going to be in the camera hospital for 2 or 3 weeks, I am going to have to pull posts out of my a**, I guess. I like doing species profiles, so let's start off with my favorite raptor, the Peregrine Falcon: The peregrine falcon's scientific name is Falco Peregrinus, which means Falcon Wanderer. There are three recognized subspecies in North America: F.P. Pealei from the coastal islands off Alaska; F.P. Tundrius, which nests above the tree line in the Arctic; and F.P. Anatum, which once ranged over North America from coast to coast. They are the same size and weight of a crow. In the 1960s, scientists discovered that DDT was interfering with egg shell formation of meat and fish eating birds. Healthy birds were laying eggs so thin they were crushed by the weight of the incubating adult. By 1965, no Peregrine falcons were fledged in the eastern or Central United States. By 1968, the Peregrine population was completely eradicated east of the Mississippi River. In 1972, use of DDT was severely restricted in the United States and worldwide. Efforts to breed the Peregrine in captivity and reestablish populations depleted during the DDT years were greatly assisted by methods of handling captive falcons developed by falconers. (So if you know a falconer, be sure to give them a hug) The Peregrine's awesome speed and power also made it the favorite bird for falconers in the Middle Ages. The female, which is slightly larger and more powerful than the male, was preferred and only she is given the title of “falcon”. A male Peregrine is referred to as a “tiercel” or "tercel" meaning third. Baby falcons are called eyasses (pronounced eye-esses). They are covered by white down when they are born, which is replaced by feathers in three to five weeks. Although they have a high mortality rate, Peregrines have been known to live as long as 15 years. They usually begin breeding when they are about two years old. They double their weight in only six days and at three weeks will be ten times their birth size. They are nature's fastest fliers: Peregrines have been clocked in horizontal flight at 40 to 55 mph, and diving, or stooping, at speeds of up to 220 miles per hour. They are the fastest moving creature on the planet. Peregrine falcons feed primarily on birds they take in the air: their prey includes ducks, pheasants, and pigeons (and if we are lucky, starlings and house sparrows). They hit their prey with half-closed feet, basically punching the bird in mid-air, and either retrieve the dead bird in flight or from the ground. Falconry clubs are alive and well in the U.S. Falconry is an ancient sport, dating back to China before 2000 B.C. Shakespeare was a falconry fan, who brought falconry terms into popular speech, like "hag" or "haggard" which is a term for a mature hawk or falcon. Ancient Egyptian art depicts falconry, and Horus, an Egyptian god, was a falcon. The "Eye of Horus" is a stylized falcon eye. The Peregrine Falcon has one of the longest migrations of any North American bird. Tundra-nesting falcons winter in South America, and may move 15,500 miles in a year. Peregrines are currently listed as endangered in Ohio. All the major cities in the state have a nesting pair. Young falcons raised from the nest in Columbus have nested in New York, Michigan and Indiana. Other Columbus young have been observed in Alabama, Texas, West Virginia and Canada. The falcon management program is funded by contributions to the Endangered Species and Wildlife Diversity Fund (State Income Tax check-off and Wildlife Conservation License plate). Stats from the 2006 nesting season: 18 nesting pairs, 60 chicks fledged. Now, is it any wonder that Lucy (above) is my favorite?	<urn:uuid:34970b58-8b99-4482-ae07-0cb91ef9cc6f>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://susankwilliams.blogspot.com/2007/09/lets-talk-about-peregrine-falcons.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705953421/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120553-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.96394	906	2.765625	3
Environment May Be Especially Key to Autism Other research finds that certain antidepressants taken in pregnancy might influence risk. MONDAY, July 4 (HealthDay News) — Contrary to current thinking, environmental factors may play a larger role than shared genes in the development of autism, a new study in twins suggests. A second study in the same journal finds that anti-depressants during pregnancy may be one important environmental trigger. In the first study, researchers from Stanford University identified 192 pairs of twins from a statewide California registry of children who receive services for developmental disabilities. At least one twin was diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder, which researchers confirmed by examining and testing each child. The study included 54 pairs of identical twins (meaning they share all of the same genes) and 138 pairs of fraternal twins (who share half of their genes). About 42.5 percent of the male-male pairs and 43 percent of the female-female pairs of identical twins both had autism. About 12.9 percent of the male-male fraternal twins and 20 percent of the female-female fraternal twins both had autism, researchers said. It's not surprising that the identical twins were more likely to each have autism, since they share all the same genes, explained lead study author Dr. Joachim Hallmayer, an associate professor of psychiatry and behavioral science at Stanford University. Research has suggested that genetics play a role in the development of autism. Nevertheless, if a disorder was 100 percent due to genetics, both siblings in each pair of identical twins would have it, which is not the case with autism. That means the shared environment -- and this could be in utero or in early life -- has to play a major role, the researchers explained. According to their calculations, this means that genes account for 37 percent of the risk of "classic," or severe autism and 38 percent of the risk of milder autism spectrum disorders. By the same calculations, environmental factors would explain 55 percent of the risk of autism and 58 percent of the risk for an autism spectrum disorder, the Stanford team concluded. "I was very surprised. The environmental influence is stronger than I thought," Hallmayer said. "It doesn't mean that genes don't play a role, but they may not play as big a role as thought." Earlier small studies on twins had suggested that genetics accounts for about 90 percent of the autism risk. Researchers pointed out, however, that unlike the Stanford study, those studies did not include standard clinical assessments for autism diagnoses. The Stanford study is published in the July 4 online issue of Archives of General Psychiatry. The research is interesting and a good reminder that it's important for researchers to search for environmental triggers of autism, said Dr. Gary Goldstein, president and CEO of the Kennedy Krieger Institute in Baltimore. However, a close look at the statistics shows they might not be as powerful as it seems, Goldstein said. The statistics have a wide "confidence interval," or range of uncertainty. For the genetic influence on autism, for example, the confidence interval was 9 percent to 81 percent -- meaning there's a chance that the actual number could fall anywhere in that range, he said. "I think everyone in the field believes that genetics are important to autism and that the environment must also be involved. But we don't know exactly what those environmental factors are, and how those factors interact with the genes," Goldstein said. "This study gives further support that we should be looking at both genes and the environment." "Environmental" influences mean anything that isn't in the genetic code. Research has suggested that a host of possible factors, including advanced maternal or paternal age, assisted reproductive technology and artificial insemination, maternal infections during pregnancy, giving birth to multiples, prematurity and low birth weight and complications during birth, could be among the environmental factors. One widely-publicized, and now discredited claim, was that the MMR vaccine was a trigger, but the research was found to be fraudulent. "This study should not lead to a revisit of the vaccine issue," Goldstein said. Another possible environmental factor is the use of certain medications during pregnancy, including antidepressants. In another study also published in the online issue of the journal, researchers found a two-fold risk of autism spectrum disorder among children whose mothers took antidepressants known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) during pregnancy, and that the risk was more than three times higher if the mothers took the drugs during early pregnancy, compared to children without the disorder. SSRIs include widely used antidepressants such as Celexa, Paxil, Prozac and Zoloft. However, the researchers, from Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program in Northern California, cautioned that the number of children in the study who were exposed prenatally to SSRIs was low. They say that further studies are needed to validate the results. About 6.7 percent of women who had a child with autism reported taking anti-depressants during pregnancy, compared to 3.3 percent of controls, or women who did not have a child with autism, researchers said. Though the risks and benefits taking any medication during pregnancy should be carefully considered, Dr. Natalie Meirowitz, chief of the division of maternal fetal medicine at Long Island Jewish Medical Center in New Hyde Park, advised expectant mothers who suffer from depression not to toss their medications. That's because depression itself poses a risk to mother and baby. Depressed women may self-medicate with drugs and alcohol, fail to eat right and keep their prenatal appointments, and be unable to care for their baby after delivery, Meirowitz said. "Pregnancy is a very emotional time for women, and we know that a woman who stops her medication needs a lot of support," she said. "The decision to stop medications has to be made very carefully with the patients' psychiatrist, obstetrician and with their significant other. It shouldn't be made lightly."	<urn:uuid:6ac759e7-47dc-42ba-8c6e-8a313c1c3726>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.everydayhealth.com/autism/0705/environment-may-be-especially-key-to-autism.aspx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705953421/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120553-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.972025	1,224	3.015625	3
APPLICATIONS OF TECHNOLOGY: - Solar energy - Air and water purification / decontamination - Absorb energy over the entire solar spectrum - Narrow band gap - 1.54 eV - Stable after extensive use and storage - Production method may expand optical absorption of other semiconductor nanostructures Sam Mao and a team of scientists at Berkeley Lab have developed a titanium dioxide nanoparticle that absorbs energy over the entire solar spectrum. These photocatalysts can be used to efficiently convert solar radiation to fuel (hydrogen) and purify air and water containing contaminants. The Berkeley Lab invention uses hydrogenation, doping, or a combination of both to engineer disorder into a certain region of the titanium dioxide nanoparticles. The resultant nanostructures have substantial and stable photocatalytic activity and absorb photons over the whole solar spectrum, including the visible and near infrared wavelengths. The concept of disorder engineering opens a new route for manipulating the optical absorption of semiconductor nanostructures, potentially expanding the types of materials used for clean energy and environmental technologies. In tests, the disorder-engineered titanium dioxide nanocrystals had a significantly narrower band gap (1.54 eV) than that of the unmodified nanocrystalline material (3.30 eV). When irradiated with a solar simulator, these particles catalyzed the splitting of water to produce hydrogen gas at a rate that was two orders of magnitude higher than that of known semiconductor photocatalysts. Moreover, they maintained this catalytic efficiency over weeks of use and after storage in the dark. Their photocatalytic activity in purifying contaminated water was also tested. The particles were placed in a solution of methylene blue, a common contaminant of water and a model for other nitrogenous pollutants. When exposed to solar radiation, the nanoparticles rapidly and completely catalyzed the degradation of methylene blue. Most of the existing titanium dioxide semiconductors used for solar-driven photocatalysis have an electronic band gap in the ultraviolet (UV) range and therefore cannot absorb radiation at other wavelengths. As a result, the approximately 90% of solar radiation that falls in the visible and infrared range is wasted in titanium dioxide solar cells. Doping—adding metal or non-metal impurities to titanium dioxide crystals—has been used with limited success to narrow the band gap and extend absorption to the visible and IR ranges. The Berkeley Lab technology, however, achieves the long-sought goal of absorbing energy over the entire solar spectrum. DEVELOPMENT STAGE: Functional prototype. Published Patent Cooperation Treaty patent application WO 2010/104717 available at www.wipo.int. Available for licensing or collaborative research. FOR MORE INFORMATION: Krotz, D. “A Dash of Disorder Yields a Very Efficient Photocatalyst,” Berkeley Lab News Center, January 28, 2011. SEE THESE OTHER BERKELEY LAB TECHNOLOGIES IN THIS FIELD: REFERENCE NUMBER: IB-2686	<urn:uuid:e6c2f941-f772-470d-8fdc-b005da0b06a5>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.lbl.gov/tt/techs/lbnl2686.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705953421/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120553-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.879341	632	3.265625	3
You are reading a NORD Rare Disease Report Abstract. NORD’s full collection of reports on over 1200 rare diseases is available to subscribers (click here for details). We are now also offering two full rare disease reports per day to visitors on our Web site. NORD is very grateful to Peter W. Stacpoole, PhD, MD, Professor of Medicine, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, for assistance in the preparation of this report. Synonyms of Leigh Syndrome - classical Leigh syndrome - Leigh necrotizing encephalopathy - Leigh's disease - necrotizing encephalomyelopathy of Leigh's - subacute necrotizing encephalopathy - adult-onset subacute necrotizing encephalomyelopathy - infantile necrotizing encephalopathy - X-linked infantile nectrotizing encephalopathy Leigh syndrome is a rare genetic neurometabolic disorder. It is characterized by the degeneration of the central nervous system (i.e., brain, spinal cord, and optic nerve). The symptoms of Leigh syndrome usually begin between the ages of three months and two years. Symptoms are associated with progressive neurological deterioration and may include loss of previously acquired motor skills, loss of appetite, vomiting, irritability, and/or seizure activity. As Leigh syndrome progresses, symptoms may also include generalized weakness, lack of muscle tone (hypotonia), and episodes of lactic acidosis, which may lead to impairment of respiratory and kidney function. Several different genetically determined enzyme defects can cause the syndrome, initially described over 60 years ago. Most individuals with Leigh syndrome have defects of mitochondrial energy production, such as deficiency of an enzyme of the mitochondrial respiratory chain complex or the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. In most cases, Leigh syndrome is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait. However, X-linked recessive and mitochondrial inheritance are additional modes of transmission. Organizations related to Leigh Syndrome The information in NORD’s Rare Disease Database is for educational purposes only. It should never be used for diagnostic or treatment purposes. If you have questions regarding a medical condition, always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health professional. NORD’s reports provide a brief overview of rare diseases. For more specific information, we encourage you to contact your personal physician or the agencies listed as “Resources” on this report. The National Organization for Rare Disorders (NORD) web site, its databases, and the contents thereof are copyrighted by NORD. No part of the NORD web site, databases, or the contents may be copied in any way, including but not limited to the following: electronically downloading, storing in a retrieval system, or redistributing for any commercial purposes without the express written permission of NORD. Permission is hereby granted to print one hard copy of the information on an individual disease for your personal use, provided that such content is in no way modified, and the credit for the source (NORD) and NORD’s copyright notice are included on the printed copy. Any other electronic reproduction or other printed versions is strictly prohibited. Copyright 1987, 1988, 1990, 1992, 1994, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012, 2013 NORD's Rare Disease Information Database is copyrighted and may not be published without the written consent of NORD.	<urn:uuid:79b15608-5aee-40ad-be56-273e5a1b615f>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.rarediseases.org/rare-disease-information/rare-diseases/byID/392/viewAbstract	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705953421/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120553-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.892764	705	2.515625	3
Zovirax cream is an antiviral medication that is used to treat cold sores, which are caused by herpes simplex viruses. The prescription medication helps the body fight the infection by preventing the virus from multiplying. Although Zovirax cream cannot prevent an outbreak, it can help cold sores to heal quicker when applied at the first signs of an outbreak. Potential side effects include dry lips and dry skin. Zovirax® cream (acyclovir cream) is a prescription antiviral medication used to treat cold sores in adults and adolescents age 12 and older. This article refers to the cream form of Zovirax, which is different from the ointment form (see Zovirax Ointment). It is made by Biovail Pharmaceuticals. Cold sores are caused by viruses -- specifically, the herpes simplex viruses (HSV). Zovirax cream is an antiviral medication that helps the body fight the infection by preventing the virus from multiplying. It is important to understand that once a person has been infected with these viruses, they never go away. They remain inactive in certain nerve cells of the body, waiting to become active again. In addition, treatment with Zovirax cream does not prevent future outbreaks of cold sores. A few studies have looked at Zovirax cream for the treatment of cold sores in people who have frequent outbreaks. These studies showed that people who used it at the first signs of an outbreak had cold sores that healed half a day sooner, compared to people who did not use Zovirax cream.	<urn:uuid:32294d2e-b451-436b-aef7-99a5d1551e9c>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://herpes.emedtv.com/zovirax-cream/zovirax-cream.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368710006682/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516131326-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.94785	331	2.578125	3
- Historic Sites Salem At Peace October 1992 \| Volume 43, Issue 6 If witches and their meaning for the modern world pall, the other, brighter Salem inhabits many of the same streets walked by the bedeviled citizens of 1692. The red line leads to the waterfront and maritime Salem, whose motto, “To the farthest port of the Rich East,” reflects the late-eighteenth-century years when sea trade made this the sixth-largest city in America. Today the National Park Service operates most of the handsome buildings that face Derby Street, across from the windy, grassy reaches where fifty wharves once stood. Several buildings are open to the public, including the Customs House, where Nathaniel Hawthorne worked as a surveyor, and Salem’s oldest brick house, dating from 1762, the home for twenty years of Elias Hasket Derby, known as America’s first millionaire. The son of Richard Derby, a sea captain whose fortunes were built on an extraordinarily successful career during the Revolution as an owner of privateers and letters of marque (ships authorized to capture enemy vessels and their goods), Elias carried his father’s acumen many steps farther. “He was the one who took the early chances,” I read in the excellent Park Service handbook. “He was an innovator, the first Salem merchant to use a supercargo, or seagoing business agent, on a voyage.… He developed a centralized world trade network and a system for consigning his cargoes to a foreign house.…” His mansion, with its clean lines and richly restrained furnishings, speaks of a man who was eager not only to help wrest his home country from imperial rule but to take every advantage of the new world he had helped create. “Many gathered around him, many imitated his enterprises, & many shared in their success,” said the Reverend William Bentley, Derby’s eulogist. As much as the people of Salem may have wished to wash away their year of darkness, in time it brought tourism as well as opprobrium. At the height of the trade, from 1790 to 1807, Derby’s wharf would have held fourteen warehouses, while the fifty other wharves would have been similarly crowded with ships tied up, cargoes being loaded on and off, crews setting sail, and others disembarking with a little money to spend in the shops that lined Derby Street. Where that raucous life once thronged, there is only the tourist now to wander the half-mile-long Derby wharf, cleared of all but the occasional sea gull and the low-growing cornflower, clover, and bachelor’s button that sprout from the grass. It may look unfinished, but this is a massive work of restoration, brought back from a crumbling wreck by the Park Service in 1938. There are further plans to erect a typical warehouse along the wharf and perhaps to have a replica trading vessel tied up to it. But in its present whispering immensity, the wharf might better remain furnished solely with one’s own imaginings.	<urn:uuid:bce32d72-86af-4580-b92f-e0812222a02b>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.americanheritage.com/content/salem-peace?page=2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368710006682/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516131326-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.973625	658	2.65625	3
Five Ingenious Ways Humans Move Water Photo via R Stanek @ flickr Sometimes it's not the lack of water that causes problems but the difficulties in reaching the nearest water source that can send societies scrounging. But for centuries, inventive city planners have found ways to work around that challenge, moving mass amounts of water over incredible distances. Read on to see some of the most brilliant ways - both ancient and modern - that humans have found to control their water supply.Water is not always an easy thing to move: it's heavy, it can become unsanitary, and there are limited ways to carry it. The most effective way to transport water is by re-routing it, since large-scale overland systems can result in massive environmental damage (even when it's bottled)--though as you'll see in the technologies below, even ground transport can be made easier, greener, and healthier. c. 312 B.C.-226 A.D.: Roman Aqueducts The Roman Empire is still known for its engineering marvels, including its aqueduct system, in which 11 tunnels carried water to the city from as far away as 60 miles. The underground lead or concrete pipes followed an almost level grade—except where U-shaped dips, called siphons, helped the water flow uphill—and tanks scattered along the route purified the water. c. 1859: Finding the Ismalia Canal While building the Suez Canal through Egypt to connect India and Western Europe, a parallel canal—the Ismailia Canal—was built between the Nile River and Lake Timsah. This freshwater source also branched out toward the north and south, providing clean drinking water to the villages and workers along the Suez route. c. 1909: Honor Oak Reservoir The Honor Oak Reservoir, brick-built underground in London by Thames Water, becomes the largest service reservoir—meaning that the water it collects is safe for drinking—in the world at that time. Still in use, it holds enough water for 800,000 people and provides enough above-ground space for a golf course. c. 2006: The Hippo Roller The Hippo Roller gives African villagers a break from transporting 5-gallon buckets of water on their heads by providing a grounded alternative: Each UV-stabilized, 20-gallon barrel can be rolled from river to town, cutting back on the health issues incurred by the old system while moving five times as much water. C. 2008: Back to Aquaducts...Sort of The Aquaduct water-filtering bike allows the rider to pedal to a water supply, load up the cycle with 20 gallons of water (enough for a family of four’s daily usage), and ride home; meanwhile, the pedaling action engages a pump that cleans the water while it’s transported. More on the water crisisHow to Go Green: WaterPeak WaterGlobal Warming Will Worsen West's Water Crisis in Coming Years	<urn:uuid:2c58d87a-2d81-4bff-b66f-cdb2c6e2ebf4>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.treehugger.com/clean-water/five-ingenious-ways-humans-move-water.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368710006682/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516131326-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.943168	615	3.421875	3
Energy is a scalar physical quantity and is often defined as the ability to do work. In physical terms, the conservation of energy describes the conversion from one (status, object) to another. In social terms, energy is converted to other 'products' such as heat, steam, electricity. Energy becomes less useful to society when transformed to heat or electricity as it will be used-up after conversion. In society, the use of energy is one important aspect for development. With the use of usable energy resources (such as fuels, petroleum products and electricity in general) human society can adapt to the environment (e.g. darkness, heat, cold) and expanded technological development. A developed society relies on energy supply and energy management. The increasing use of energy since the Industrial Revolution has initiated serious problems. Whenever usable energy resources are consumed, e.g. by turning on light, running an industrial machine or a car, new energy must be produced to sustain human basic and/or secondary needs. Many electric power plants burn fossil fuels in order to generate electricity for energy needs. This process generates air pollutants and Green House Gases. Oil, Coal, and Gas take the highest share in the global energy mix (at the given ranking) and the largest resources of fossil fuels (at the given ranking). The industrial sectors electricity generation, steel, non-ferrous metals, construction materials, oil processing and chemicals account for nearly 70% of the global energy use. In the construction materials sector, China produced about 44% of the world's cement in 2006. Saudi Arabia is the largest producer of crude oil (507mt in 2006, equaling ~13% of the world production) and exporter (306mt p.a.). The US is globally the largest consumer of fossil fuels and producer of nuclear power. The US consumes 25% of the world's energy (with a share of global productivity at 22% and a share of the world population at 5%). For electricity consumption, China is ranking two on the global scale behind the US. Russia is the largest producer and exporter of natural gas whereas China is the largest producer of coal and hydroenergy. Japan is the largest importer of coal. The most significant growth of energy consumption can currently be measured in China, which has been growing at 5.5% per year over the last 25 years. Its population of 1.3 billion people is currently consuming energy at a rate of 1.6 kW per person. Despite headlines about global warming and campaigns urging consumers to consider conservation, Americans continue to use resources at a rapid rate. Over the past four years, electricity consumption in the US has risen 1.46 percent between 2004 and 2008 (mkwh/a). Power consumption is projected to hit 4,333,631 mkwh by 2013 resulting in a growth rate of 1.93 percent over the next five years. The US should be mature to tackle this conflict, unlike developing or transformation countries such as China, India, and Indonesia. As described above, the use of energy is one important aspect for development. Therefore, focus shall be on China, the 'growing energy eating dragon', and the EU, the growing 'energy importing community'. China is facing environmental problems as the energy production is consumed within China; the EU is decentralizing this problem by importing energy. Nonetheless, when burning fossil fuels, pollution will take place within the EU and Green House Gas Emissions will have a global effect.	<urn:uuid:ce98a8f0-465a-46ca-bf01-160339f766e3>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://gemmeronline.de/energy-cdm.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699273641/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516101433-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.925262	700	3.28125	3
4.4 Summary, One- and Two-Sample Tests Table IV, adapted from Siegel & Castellan (1988), attempts a summary, demonstrating an apparent wide world of non-parametric tests available for sample comparison; but is this really so? In deciding which test(s) are relevant, the following points should be noted; the decision may be made for you. The two-sample and k-sample cases each contain columns of tests for related samples, i.e. matched-pair samples or samples of paired replicates. This is common experimental practice in biological and behavioural sciences, where the concept of the control sample is highly developed. It is not so common in astronomy for obvious reasons, but has been exploited on occasion. The powerful tests available to treat such experiments are listed in Table IV, and are described by Siegel & Castellan. The table runs downward in order of increasing sophistication of measurement level, from ``nominal'' (in which the test objects are simply dumped into classes or bins) through ``ordinal'' (by which objects are ranked or ordered) to ``interval'' (for which objects are placed on a scale, not necessarily numerical, in which distance along the scale matters). None of the tests requires measurement on a ``ratio'' scale, the strongest scale of measurement in which to the properties of the ``interval'' scale a true zero point is added. (Degrees Celsius for temperature measurement represents an ``interval'' scale, and Kelvins a ``ratio'' scale.) An important feature of test selection lies in the level of measurement required by the test: the table is cumulative downward in the sense that at any level of measurement, all tests above this level are applicable. The efficiency of a particular test depends very much on the individual application. Is the search for goodness-of-fit and general difference, i.e. is this sample from a given population? Are these samples from the same population? Or is it a particular property of the distribution that is of interest, such as the location, e.g. central tendency, mean or median; or the dispersion e.g. extremes, variance, rms. For instance in the two-sample case, the 2 and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov (two-tailed) tests are both sensitive to any type of difference in the two distributions, location, dispersion, skewness, while the U test is reasonably sensitive to most properties, but is particularly powerful for location discrimination. To aid the process of choice, Tables V (single samples) and VI (two samples) summarize the attributes of the one- and two-sample tests. The choice of test may thus come down to Hobson's. If it does not, however, and two (or more) alternatives remain - beware of this plot of the devil - it might be possible to ``test the tests'' in search of support of a point of view. If such a procedure is followed, quantification of the amount by which significance is reduced must be considered: for a chosen significance level p in a total of N tests, the chance that one test will (randomly) come up significant is Np (1 - p)N-1 Np for small p. The application of efficient statistical procedure has power, but the application of common sense has more.	<urn:uuid:bde56d28-9f41-4208-8331-7e4faaa4d12e>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Wall2/Wal4_4.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699273641/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516101433-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.933864	690	3	3
American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition - n. A place where an extensive variety of woody plants are cultivated for scientific, educational, and ornamental purposes. Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia - n. A place in which trees and shrubs, especially rare ones, are cultivated for scientific or other purposes; a botanical tree-garden. - n. A place where many varieties of trees are grown for research, educational, and ornamental purposes. GNU Webster's 1913 - n. A place in which a collection of rare trees and shrubs is cultivated for scientific or educational purposes. - n. a facility where trees and shrubs are cultivated for exhibition - From Latin arborētum ("place grown with trees"), from arbor ("tree"). (Wiktionary) - Latin arborētum, a place grown with trees, from arbor, tree. (American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition) “So having ramps connecting from SR 520 in/out of the arboretum is "paving it"?” “Unless you're willing to trade in your nice job and weekend trips to the mountains on your Subaru Outlook for a monastic existence, quit playing the rest of us about how we humans are supposed to have zero impact on our surroundings. revroux also pine grove, the environmentally sensitive area "the arboretum" is a urban park but is not an urban place.” “An arboretum is a collection of all the different species of a natural order of trees and shrubs planted together; and it does not necessarily imply that these orders should be arranged in any particular manner; as indeed botanists disagree as to how they should be placed, Jussieu having adopted one plan, De Candolle another, and Dr. Lindley another.” “On the east side of the arboretum was a beautiful rose garden with a vine-covered gazebo, the back of the structure overhanging a pond filled with koi and lily pads.” “The arboretum was a serious ongoing project dedicated to cultivating and growing plants from all three worlds, but it was also designed to be enjoyed.” “The arboretum is a public botanical garden and a scientific research facility of the Agricultural Research Service.” “Then they saw the enormous hangar bay and something called an arboretum—a strange place where the Earthers kept plants, intentionally.” “Nittolo said that in coming years he hopes to turn his attention to the creek downstream from the arboretum, which is overgrown with non-native plants.” “He called the arboretum "a world-class institution" and said that the new post "allows me to combine my two passions, teaching and directing a world-respected garden.” “Another central feature of the arboretum will be the Biodiversity Center, she said.” These user-created lists contain the word ‘arboretum’. A complete Barron's Wordlist for GRE preparation. Your online flashcard replacement. Words that sound like they might be the names of elements of the periodic table, but that aren't. Many of the words listed here were actually proposed as names for substances their creators thought... A list of words that are odd or words that I have looked up. Band names that are also common words or phrases. Interesting, there is a traditional vocabulary of an Ukrainian, that differs from vocabulary of average American. It would be nice to explore it. Words as I learn them. List? What list? This is the list that makes up the world. Looking for tweets for arboretum.	<urn:uuid:6b6d75f5-b509-401a-8025-2d188e9013b7>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.wordnik.com/words/arboretum	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703298047/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112138-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.933629	812	3.0625	3
Database Attach and Detach There are often situations when an Analysis Services database administrator (dba) wants to take a database offline for a period, and then bring that database back online on the same server instance, or on a different one. These situations are often driven by business needs, such as moving the database to a different disk for better performance, gaining room for database growth, or to upgrade a product. For all those cases and more, the Attach and Detach commands enable the Analysis Services dba to take the database offline and bring it back online with little effort. The Attach command enables you to bring online a database that was taken offline. You can attach the database to the original server instance, or to another instance. When you attach a database the user can specify the ReadWriteMode setting for the database. The Detach command enables you to take offline a database from the server. The Attach command is used to bring online an existing database structure. If the database is attached in ReadWrite mode, it can be attached only one time to a server instance. However, if the database is attached in ReadOnly mode, it can be attached multiple times to different server instances. However, the same database cannot be attached more than one time to the same server instance. An error is raised when an attempt is made to attach the same database more than one time, even if the data has been copied to separate folders. If a password was required to detach the database, the same password is required to attach the database. The Detach command is used to take offline an existing database structure. When a database is detached, you should provide a password to protect confidential metadata. To protect the content of the data files, you should use an access control list for the folder, subfolders, and data files. When you detach a database, the server follows these steps. Detaching a read/write database Detaching a read-only database The detaching password cannot be changed for a read-only database. An error is raised if the password parameter is provided for an attached database that already contains a password. The Attach and Detach commands must be executed as single operations. They cannot be combined with other operations in the same transaction. Also, the Attach and Detach commands are atomic transactional commands. This means the operation will either succeed or fail. No database will be left in an uncompleted state. Server or database administrator privileges are required to execute the Detach command. Server administrator privileges are required to execute the Attach command.	<urn:uuid:de1c10d7-9c6f-419f-99d8-2429a9a67074>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc280583(v=sql.100).aspx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706153698/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516120913-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.869548	528	2.859375	3
\|week 2 "prepare" artist chosen introduction\| he was an illustrator whose work lives on in the memories of generations of Americans who read and loved Little Golden Books. This particular book with its wonderful and funny pictures, Little Peewee or, Now Open The Box was written by Dorothy Kunhardt in 1934, but illustrated by Miller as a Little Golden Book in 1948. why that image inspired you only i can say the reason i choose this artist work, it is let me remember my childhood, it is just like child dawning, colorful and lovely. what aspects of that artist's work you intend to incorporate in your own efforts i think only i can do it is try to make the act funny and cute. It is time to post the second word "prepare". First, we should know what it is "prepare" about.The word prepare is used as a verb. It has its origin in Latin and is taken from the word prepare. It was adapted preparer by Old French and as prepare by Middle English. When someone prepares something, he is said to make it ready or arrange it. For example: the students were prepared for the tests by their teachers. Prepare could also mean to put together or mix various substances or elements to form something different. It could also mean 'to manufacture or compound.' For example: He prepared a sweet dish for his mother. He made it ready for someone or something. Prepare could also mean 'to fit out or equip'. For example: he prepared the car for the forest trip. It means that he fitted the necessary things into the car and fuelled it. In musical context, prepare is to lead to a pitch and soften the impact. Example: he was prepared for the interview. Here, prepare is used intransitively. here it is some idea come from: \|the frog prepared to catch the bug.\| \|He want prepared to add some furniture\| \|It could also mean 'to manufacture or compound. For example: He prepared a cake for his mother.\| \|in there i try to think about to prepared to the race, the three letters it is means to count down, and then people speed up to run out, and large space to show it is a big race.\|	<urn:uuid:633f153d-a6df-4119-b6c1-6045981d0719>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://kaihuanggraphicdesign.blogspot.ca/2012/01/week-2-prepare-artist-chosen.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368711005985/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516133005-00027-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.976825	470	3.671875	4
Injectable nanogel can monitor blood-sugar levels and secrete insulin when needed. Ainissa G. Ramirez is passionate about shattering stereotypes of scientists as serious and dull. Ramirez wants to show kids what she knows firsthand: Science can be fun. Ramirez, who has recently been named an MIT Martin Luther King Jr. Visiting Professor, created the successful and engaging Science Saturdays lecture series at Yale for school children. Ramirez, an associate professor of mechanical engineering at Yale, also hosts the campus-based show, which introduces middle-school-age children to scientists--who they are, and how and why they study what they study. According to Ramirez, a materials scientist who has developed novel materials for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) by exploring how materials thinner than a human hair behave mechanically. "Science is for everyone and those who do it come in all colors, shapes and sizes. I am committed to getting the word out so that more New Haven children can benefit from this program," she said. The scientists participating in the program are of various backgrounds, ages and disciplines, and they speak on topics such as "Why Birds Are Dinosaurs" and "What Frogs Are Telling Us." Ramirez, who received a Ph.D. degree in materials science and engineering from Stanford University, researches the development of thin film NiTi shape memory alloys for MEMS systems. MEMS, which integrates mechanical elements, sensors, actuators and electronics on a silicon substrate, enables the development of "smart" products in which the computational ability of microelectronics is augmented with microsensors and microactuators. Before joining the faculty at Yale in 2003, Ramirez worked as a member of the technical staff at Bell Labs' Lucent Technologies in Murray Hill, N.J., for four years. At Bell Labs, she developed an advanced solder, now being commercialized by Adhera Technologies, that can bond directly to glass and ceramics. MIT's Technology Review, when naming Ramirez one of the world's 100 Top Young Innovators (TR100) in 2003, called her discovery a "holy grail" of metallurgy: a universal solder that can bond metals to ceramics, glass, diamonds and particularly the oxide materials used in semiconductor fabrication. Researchers have been seeking this kind of compound for decades because existing solders have failed in electronic and optical devices. "I think I've brought excitement to unsexy materials like solder," Ramirez said	<urn:uuid:6bfc2ffb-081c-439d-af23-fc9fb650944b>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2007/ramirez-0529.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.947736	512	3.09375	3
Mystery of dolphin and penguin deaths Scientists searching for the cause of the mass deaths of dolphins and pelicans off the coast of Peru think they know what killed the pelicans. After weeks of study, investigators say they think they know why the 4450 pelicans have died: hotter than usual ocean temperatures have driven a type of anchovy deeper into the sea, beyond the reach of many young pelicans. But scientists studying the deaths of hundreds of dolphins and porpoises from early February to mid-April say it remains a mystery, due in part to the government's slowness in investigating the phenomenon. They say the deaths of the dolphins and pelicans were unrelated and it was a coincidence that they happened around the same time. Authorities were so late in gathering tissue from the mammals that crucial clues were lost, said the scientist heading the dolphin death probe, Armando Hung, head of the molecular biology lab at Cayetano Heredia University. From the end of January, daily catches of about five tonnes of anchovies a day by fishermen in the northern region of Lambayeque dwindled after they began finding the small fish dead on the beach, said Fernando Nique, president of the Puerto Eten fishermen's association. "After that, we haven't seen any more anchovies," he said. Patricia Majluf, a biologist and former deputy fisheries minister, said that tongues of warm water reach into coastal zones, driving anchovies deeper underwater where many birds can't reach them. "For a coast as dynamic as ours, it's not rare that this occurs," said Majluf. "It looks ugly because this has occurred at the same time and place [as the dolphin deaths]." A biologist at the National University of Trujillo, Carlos Bocanegra, said his analysis of 10 dying pelicans last week supports the theory. Their digestive tracts were either empty or had the remains of fish pelicans don't normally eat. Scientists say the dead pelicans are generally young, around three years old, an age in which they do not dive as deep as adults. Ocean temperatures in the region, said Bocanegra, are 6 degrees above normal for this time of year, Peru's autumn. Similar pelican die-offs have happened in 1982-1983 and in 1997-1998 when the El Nino meteorological phenomena warmed the ocean, Bocanegra said. The dolphin die-off remains a mystery. Hung told The Associated Press that lab tests have so far ruled out a number of bacterial infections as the cause. Because the dolphins were so decomposed, Hung said, it was impossible to rule out a theory promoted by the sea mammal conservation group Orca, which initially publicised the dolphin die-off. Its director, Carlos Yaipen, says he believes the cetaceans were killed by shock waves generated by acoustic "explosions" used to test the sea bed for oil deposits. Yaipen says he found dolphins with broken bones in their ears, internal hemorrhages and some of their organs collapsed. He described his findings at a congressional hearing on Tuesday, saying he encountered the first batch on February 12. The government agency in charge of the investigation, the Peruvian Sea Institute (IMARPE), did not explain the delay in obtaining dolphin samples for testing. "At the moment I have no answer," agency spokesman Vicente Palomino said on Tuesday. Government officials have said they have no evidence the dolphin deaths are related to seismic oil exploration work that was carried out off northern Peru between February and April. Hundreds of dolphins have at times turned up dead on beaches in various parts of the world, though the number in northern Peru was particularly high. Scientists have said that agrochemical runoff from rivers or heavy metals from upstream mining could be potential factors in Peru. However, IMARPE's director, Raul Castillo, said Tuesday that testing had ruled out heavy metals, pesticides and algae-related biotoxins. "One of the things we do know is just how fragile we have discovered our ecosystems have become," said Sue Rocca, a US-based marine biologist with the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. She said blooms of algae or other biotoxins can affect marine mammals and could be involved.	<urn:uuid:3ab643a9-34b9-442d-bd7e-4a8f4e286baf>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.canberratimes.com.au/environment/conservation/mystery-of-dolphin-and-penguin-deaths-20120509-1ycqu.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.969792	888	2.96875	3
From: Tasheeva Drayton Time: 1:22:08 AM Remote Name: 188.8.131.52 How well did the African Americans cope with being slaves in America South? Did free blacks suffer as well as slaves? Slaves in the South were used to the institution of slavery and they did try to cope with it by becoming spiritual. Their faith is all they had to believe in. They held church or just a gathering whenever they could. This was all they had to hold on to in order to keep their sanity. They dealt with slavery but they never learned to just accept it. Many slaves made attempts to escape some of them successfully. They traveled the infamous underground railroad to the North where they thought freedom was at. In the North African Americans were free meaning no chains and shackles, no masters, but really free they were not. The free African Americans suffered just as much as the slaves. They tried to fight to get slavery abolished but only to a certain extent they didnít want to jeopardize their freedom. They felt that as long as slavery existed their own rights were likely to be denied even their freedom was at risk. Their thinking was right because even though they were free they were forced to get a white person as their guardians in the south. All over blacks were treated as social outcasts and denied legal and political equality. Public facilities were segregated. Blacks were not allowed to vote in four New England states. The job market was not good either. Blacks could not find decent jobs; they were hired for jobs as casual day labor or domestic service. Blacks were excluded from public schools, federal government didnít allow them to enlist in the military or work postal jobs. Even though they were free they faced a whole new way of being oppressed. They shared the same pain that the slaves did just in a different form. It was just as bad to be free as it was to be a slave.	<urn:uuid:d7197f89-e110-4eab-b60c-64182826aaa8>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.historians.org/teaching/AAHE/h67cutler/_disc2/0000013d.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.996231	394	3.6875	4
Bates Fork Area Closure: May 9-11 The Bates Fork area will be closed to the public from 6 pm on Thurs, May 9, to 7 am on Sat., May 11. USDA resource management activities will be conducted day and night during this time period. Call 803-647-3960 for info. History & Culture The Early Past Prehistoric foragers hunted the area and fished its waters. The Congaree Indians claimed the floodplain and Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto recounted the intrigue of the area in his journals. Around 1700, the Congarees were decimated by a smallpox epidemic introduced with the arrival of European settlers. The new residents obtained land grants from the King of England until 1776 when the state of South Carolina assumed the right to distribute ownership of the land. Attempts to make the land suitable for planting, as well as grazing, continued through 1860. The floodplain's minor changes in elevation and consequent flooding stifled agricultural activity; but the intermittent flooding allowed for soil nutrient renewal and enabled the area's trees to thrive. Bald Cypress, in particular, became a target for logging. By 1905, the Santee River Cypress Lumber Company, owned by Francis Beidler, had acquired much of the land. Poor accessibility by land confined logging to tracts near waterways so that logs could be floated down river. In the perpetual dampness, though, many of the cut trees remained too green to float. Operations were suspended within ten years, leaving the floodplain basically untouched. In 1969 relatively high timber prices prompted private landowners to consider resuming logging operations. As a result of an effective "grass roots" campaign launched by the Sierra Club and many local individuals, Congress established Congaree Swamp National Monument in 1976. That designation was not enough to protect the area from the force of Hurricane Hugo in September 1989. The park lost several National Champion trees, but the overall effect was a natural stimulus to growth. Hugo snapped tree tops, thereby allowing sunlight to come through the canopy, promoting new growth beneath. Fallen trees have provided shelter for many species of organisms; standing dead trees became new homes for a variety of plant and animal species, including fungi, insects, reptiles, birds, and bats. On June 30, 1983 Congaree Swamp National Monument was designated an International Biosphere Reserve. In July of 2001 it was designated a Globally Important Bird Area, and on November 10, 2003 it was designated as the nation's 57th National Park. Did You Know? The Harry Hampton Visitor Center is the first national park visitor center built in partnership with Army and Air Force National Guard civil engineering units, the South Carolina Richland County Delegation, Richland County and Columbia’s River Alliance.	<urn:uuid:2428f079-cfd6-470a-946a-7fc3c876ae4a>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.nps.gov/cong/historyculture/index.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.952312	565	3.234375	3
Oct. 29, 2012 Biologists from the University of Bonn have discovered that the cichlid fish Pelvicachromis taeniatus can see in the near infrared range; this was thought to be unlikely until now. Seeing in the infrared range is apparently helping fish to hunt in shallow African rivers. The results will be published in the journal Naturwissenschaften and are already available online now. A research team in the work group of Prof. Dr. T. C. M. Bakker at the Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, has been studying the biology of the African cichlid fish Pelvicachromis taeniatus for years. Researchers conducted a prey choice experiment Researchers investigated the ability to see in the infrared range using a classical prey choice experiment. P. taeniatus also feeds on small crustaceans, such as freshwater shrimp. These prey animals reflect near infrared radiation. The researchers used this fact to examine the perception of infrared light. In a dark room a prey selection experiment was set up illuminated by infrared lamps. In front of the water basin containing the fish freshwater shrimp were offered in two separate chambers. One of the chambers with the prey was covered with a filter blocking infrared wavelengths. The other chamber was covered with a filter that would let only infrared light pass. "Consequently, the fish were only able to perceive the freshwater shrimp in one chamber in the near infrared range" explains Dr. \|Sebastian Baldauf, one of the scientists involved in the study. Physiologists thought that seeing in the near ir range would be unlikely The experiment showed that the fish spent more time and were more frequently in front of the chamber that let infrared light pass. "The fish detect their prey based on infrared radiation alone" reports the biologist from the University of Bonn. "Until now, physiologists thought that noise levels in the near-infrared range were too high to allow visual perception." As the experiment has shown, the fish were capable of perceiving prey in a wavelength range above 780 nanometers. It is well-known that snakes can perceive far infrared radiation at longer wavelengths above 2,000 nanometers. "But they don't use their eyes for this purpose; instead they have a heat-sensitive pit organ," says Dr. Baldauf. Human eyes are not capable of seeing infrared radiation. Seeing infrared is useful in the natural habitat The advantage of the fish's ability to see infrared may become obvious when you look at its natural habitat. The shallow rivers of West Africa have a relatively large amount of infrared radiation. "That's exactly why it makes sense to use infrared cues for detecting prey organisms," explains Dr. Baldauf. "It is a clear selective advantage if you can perceive additional signals that others cannot perceive." It is quite likely that other animals also have evolved a perception of near-infrared radiation, e.g. for hunting or orientation, such as other fishes or birds. The researchers from the University of Bonn now want to study more closely the physiology of infrared vision, and to what extent infrared radiation is relevant in other contexts. Infrared radiation in partner selection? When performing color measurements on these fish the researchers found that certain regions of the cichlid body reflect the light in the near-infared range. "We found that females reflect infrared radiation from their belly region, and males from their fins" says Dr. Baldauf. The female belly is important for mate choice, and the fins are displayed during aggressive encounters between males. "Perhaps near-infrared signals play a role in visual communication in this species" says the biologist. "And that's what we additionally would like to study in further experiments." Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: - Denis Meuthen, Ingolf P. Rick, Timo Thünken, Sebastian A. Baldauf. Visual prey detection by near-infrared cues in a fish. Naturwissenschaften, 2012; DOI: 10.1007/s00114-012-0980-7 Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.	<urn:uuid:1be531b2-27ee-49e9-be69-09b1bf5ae5b4>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/10/121029081354.htm?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+sciencedaily%2Fplants_animals%2Fzoology+%28ScienceDaily%3A+Plants+%26+Animals+News+--+Zoology%29	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.953922	859	3.78125	4
An estimated 80% of adult learning takes place outside of formal education (Cross 1981). For language learning, it is likely that out-of-class experiences play an equally important role (cf. de Bot 2007). It is therefore surprising that the role of informal language learning has received very little attention over the years, with the vast majority of research instead focusing on classroom methods, materials and interaction. Researchers from a range of backgrounds, however, have started to realise the important contribution of informal language learning, both in its own right, and in its relationship with classroom learning. Studies in the areas of learner autonomy, learning strategies, study abroad, language support, learners’ voices, computer-mediated communication, mobile-assisted language learning, and many others, all add to our understanding of the complex and intersecting ways in which learners construct their own language learning experiences, drawing from a wide range of resources, including materials, teachers, self-study, technology, other learners, and native speakers. Because of the predominance of informal language learning, it is important that the existing body of research is solidified and that the various disciplines that have looked at this area are brought together to present the current state of knowledge in one, accessible volume. For this reason, the researchers below have been invited from different backgrounds to contribute individual chapters that together cover all the relevant areas. Table of contents Phil Benson and Hayo Reinders 1. Language learning and teaching beyond the classroom: An introduction to the field 2. Family, friends and learning beyond the classroom: Social networks and social capital in language learning 3. Places for learning: Technology-mediated language learning practices beyond the classroom 4. From milk cartons to English roommates: Context and agency in L2 learning beyond the classroom Paula Kalaja, Riikka Alanen, Åsa Palviainen, and Hannele Dufva. 5. Affordances for language learning beyond the classroom 6. Becoming multilingual: An ethnographic approach to SLA beyond the classroom 7. Talk about language use: I know a little about your language 8. A possible path to progress: Out-of-school English language learners in Sweden 9. Teenagers learning languages out of school: What, why and how do they learn? How can school help them? 10. Older language learners, social learning spaces, and community 11. Tandem learning in virtual spaces: Supporting non-formal and informal learning in adults Ursula Stickler and Martina Emke 12. Home tutor cognitions and the nature of tutor-learner relationships 13. Materials development for language learning beyond the classroom Introduction to the book Introduction: Phil Benson and Hayo Reinders This volume brings together 13 chapters that have been especially written for this collection in response to an international call for contributions to a book devoted to research on language learning and teaching beyond the classroom. In one sense, the common factor among the papers lies in what they are not; there are no studies of classroom language learning or teaching in this volume. This is a significant point, because so many studies are based on research carried out in classrooms or with classroom learners and quite possibly informed by hidden assumptions related to the classroom setting. Studies of language learning and teaching in settings beyond the classroom are valuable, therefore, because they provide alternative perspectives on the meaning of, and social and cognitive processes involved in, language learning and teaching. At the same time, we are aware of the risks involved in describing this volume in terms of what it is not – risks that are highlighted by the difficulty of avoiding terms such as informal, out-of-class, non-instructed, and so on, which appear to take this way of describing our object of inquiry for granted. We are also aware of the risk of treating the world beyond the classroom as an alternative to the classroom, as if classrooms were the natural place for language learning to take place and the world beyond the classroom a strange and hostile territory in which languages are learned with difficulty, if at all. With the rise of mass education over the past 50 years or so, there has certainly been a tendency for language learning to migrate into educational institutions, to the point where research often views language learning as an ‘effect’ produced by the ‘cause’ of classroom language teaching, which is likely to be stronger or weaker according to the teaching method or style and a variety of social and individual difference variables among the learners. Yet is also common knowledge among teachers that the progress made by students who learn languages only in the classroom tends to be limited, especially in their ability to use the language for spoken or written communication. Well-rounded communicative proficiency, it seems, depends to a large extent on the learner’s efforts to use and learn the language beyond the walls of the classroom. For this reason alone, settings for language learning beyond the classroom deserves much more attention in research than they have received hitherto. The balance of published research suggests that language learners spend more time learning languages in classrooms than outside them. Whether this is an accurate reflection of current patterns of language learning worldwide is open to question. We suspect that it is not and that vast swathes of the territory for language learning beyond the classroom remain undiscovered by research. One of the interesting features to emerge from this volume, therefore, is the range of settings investigated, several of which, such as those that deal with language learning in the learner’s homes, have not been the subject of research to date. A second interesting feature to emerge has been the significance of teaching in settings beyond the classroom. The dichotomy between classroom and out-of-class learning is often paired with a dichotomy between instructed and non-instructed, or ‘naturalistic’ learning, which can also lead to an assumption that the classroom is a place for teaching and learning, while the world beyond the classroom is only a place for learning. The contributions to this volume suggest that this is a false assumption, and that much of the interest in language learning beyond the classroom lies in the distinctive modes of pedagogy that are found in different settings. These issues are addressed at a theoretical level in Benson’s opening chapter (Chapter 1), which offers an analytical framework for investigating language learning beyond the classroom, involving dimensions of location, formality, pedagogy and locus of control, and a distinction between settings and the modes of practice in learning and teaching that they support. The chapters that follow report data-based studies of learning and teaching in a variety of settings, using a variety of theoretical perspectives and research methodologies. Chapters 2 to 5 each explore patterns of language learning beyond the classroom from four different, but related, theoretical perspectives. In an interview study of female English learners and their families in the United Arab Emirates, Palfreyman (Chapter 2) uses Social Networking theory to focus on the role of relationships with family and friends, arguing that interaction with ‘significant others’ is a crucial element in language learning beyond the classroom. Palfreyman’s study is particularly valuable in showing how access to target language resources,such as reading materials or native speakers, is likely to be mediated through learners’ family and friendship networks. Kuure (Chapter 3) uses Mediated Discourse Analysis to analyze case study data of a Finnish English learner’s out-of-school, technology-mediated language learning. Here the setting is both the home and the virtual gaming environments in which the learner spends much of his spare time. Kuure shows how online games and the activities around them provide important affordances for language learning, although language learning is not necessarily the objective, as a means of nurturing social relationships through collaborative problem-solving and networking among online peers. Kalaja an her research team (Chapter 4) report a study based on Vygotskyan theory and using qualitative analysis of open-ended questionnaire responses, which compares the different ways in which young Finns learn English and Swedish in and out of school. They find that while their school-based experiences are similar, their out-of-school experiences are very different, with students being much more active in exercising their agency in learning English – an illustration of how different modes of practice can develop in very similar settings, in this case for the learning of different languages. Menezes (Chapter 5) uses narrative data from a collection of written language learning histories, to explore the concept of ‘affordances’ in Ecological theory as a metaphor for understanding how Brazilian learners of English seek out opportunities for learning beyond the classroom. Arguing that affordances do not simply exist in the environment, but are constructed within the learners relationship with it, she examines how learners exercise their agency to find their own particular ‘niches’ and reconstruct their learning environments. Chapters 6 to 8 look more closely at what is actually learned in language learning beyond the classroom. In an ethnographic study of two Spanish women who arrived in France refugees from the Spanish Civil War and learned French largely ‘naturalistically’, Divita (Chapter 6) makes the important point that, in non-institutional settings, ‘language acquisition’ might be better conceived as a process of becoming multilingual that unfolds in idiosyncratic ways and is shaped by experiences of the sociohistorical conditions in which it occurs. Adopting an approach that pays close attention to language data, Divita seeks evidence for this process in the two women’s use of language and, in particular, their use of code switching. Zimmerman’s (Chapter 7) study is also based on close analysis of language data, using Conversation Analysis techniques, consisting of interactions between Korean learners of Japanese and their homestay hosts. Zimmerman provides important evidence of ‘teaching and learning’ episodes in these interactions, which illustrate the sense in which pedagogy may always be present in language learning beyond the classroom. Sundqvist’s (Chapter 8) quantitative study directly tackles the question of whether Swedish students who engage in English learning language learning beyond the classroom actually learn more than those whose learning is limited to school. The results are interesting, if not entirely, predictable: she finds a strong correlation between time spent on out-of-class learning and oral proficiency/vocabulary size, as well as correlation between these factors and gender patterns in the types of activities, which meant that learning beyond the classroom had a greater impact on boys than girls. Chapters 9-12 examine issues arising from institutional initiatives to provide opportunities for language learning beyond the classroom: a self-directed language learning programme for young people in France, a self-access English project for elderly people in Japan, a tandem learning project involving participants in Germany, Italy, Poland and the United Kingdom, and home tutoring in English for migrants to New Zealand. Bailly’s (Chapter 9) project provided learners in a vocational high school in France with the opportunity to learn a language of their choice outside school, supported by advisory sessions, web-based learning materials and opportunities to talk with native speakers of the target languages. Evaluation of the project identified continuities between out-of-school language learning and the learners’ school, personal and social lives and three important conditions for success in self-directed language learning: motivation, learning resources and learning skills. Murray’s project (Chapter 10) was also designed to provide language learning opportunities to people who would not otherwise receive them, in this case elderly Japanese attending a university self-access language learning centre designed for use by the general public. His evaluation suggests that older language learners can especially benefit from the creation of social learning spaces offering possibilities for participation in a community of learners and pedagogical support. Stickler & Emke (Chapter 11) report on a tandem learning project for adult learners involving partners in four European countries. Using language data from the project, they investigate how formal, non-formal and informal learning processes support the acquisition of key competences, arguing that non-formal learning plays an important role in adult language learning. Lastly, Barkhuizen’s (Chapter 12) narrative interview study with home tutors of New Zealand migrants deals directly with language teaching beyond the classroom and in the homes of the learners. Focusing on the interpersonal, emotional dimensions of teaching, which come to the fore in one-to-one teaching in the learner’s home, he argues that the nature of the tutor-learner relationship is a major factor in the decision-making processes and practices of tutors and ultimately in the success of their learners. A number of chapters highlight the role of teaching and, indeed, teachers in language learning beyond the classroom, which suggests that the distinction between classroom and out-of-class learning is a fuzzy one at best. In particular, language learning beyond the classroom is often initiated by teachers who work in educational institutions, and may even take place in these institutions or in off-campus locations. The important role that teachers often play is highlighted in Reinders’ concluding chapter (Chapter 13) which offers principles and practical advice on the design of language learning materials for use in a range of out-of-class settings. Language learning and teaching beyond the classroom is not a new area of research, in the sense that studies have appeared in the literature from time to time over the years. This volume is timely, however, because the number of studies is increasing and, indeed, it is unlikely that our call for contributions would have received such a positive response 20 or even 10 years ago. In our view, this opens up the possibility of exploring language learning beyond the classroom as an area of inquiry with its own theoretical assumptions and issues of particular concern. Increased interest in out-of-class learning is prompted, in part, by a shift in the basic assumptions of second language acquisition research among many researchers, who no longer see acquisition in purely cognitive terms, but in terms of participation in communities and contexts of various kinds. This view has led to interest in qualitative studies of learners’ lives and often to the use of ethnographic or retrospective self-report data to investigate learning in out-of-class settings. The studies in this volume illustrate this trend, but are also diverse in their use of research methods, especially in the use of quantitative methods and close analysis of language data. The key issues to emerge from the volume, which readers may wish to keep in mind as they read, include (1) how we might develop a more comprehensive view of the shared and distinctive features of diverse settings for language learning beyond the classroom, (2) the distinctive characteristics of learning processes and what learners actually learn in these settings, and (3) the roles and distinctive forms of teaching and pedagogy. These issues are likely to be most of interest to the growing number of educators who work with learners in non-conventional settings for language teaching and learning, but the possibility of developing a more general understanding of relationships between settings (including classroom settings), learning and pedagogy means that they are equally relevant to teachers who do most of their work in classrooms.	<urn:uuid:588c256f-fa86-4452-ad4e-42e47fe303b0>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://innovationinteaching.org/books/beyond-the-classroom/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.95349	3,091	3.328125	3
The Kindergarten curriculum at Challenge Charter School is structured to integrate Core Knowledge topics with state standards and subject matter of local interest. All aspects of the English language are covered in Language Arts. Learning to read and write on their own is our goal for all Kindergarteners. We supplement our reading curriculum with Systematic Instruction in Phoneme Awareness, Phonics and Sight Words (SIPPS) which is a developmental program that teaches phonemic awareness skills, sight words and spelling-sound relationships. In Math, we cover patterns and classification, numbers 0-30, geometry, money, measurement and addition and subtraction to 10. Hands-on activities with manipulative, games and integrated lessons throughout the curriculum allow students to develop mastery and apply their knowledge. Social Studies begins by learning what it means to be a good citizen and then moving onto lessons on Geography and the early explorations of Columbus and the Pilgrims. The Core Knowledge curriculum is the ultimate foundation for teaching patriotism and pride to Americans. We teach our students about our presidents and the significance of important American symbols. Kindergarteners also become familiar with at least one Native American tribe or nation. In Science students learn the five senses and body parts as well as how to take good care of themselves. We introduce the students to weather, magnetism, animals and their needs and plants. One of the most exciting science observations is our study of small system changes in an ant or worm farm.	<urn:uuid:2a426ed4-e15b-4c70-a475-cce365cbce2c>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.challengecharterschool.net/classes/kindergarten/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.937296	301	3.75	4
Common Health Concerns Understanding common health concerns and what can be done to prevent or treat them can go a long way towards reducing the stress you feel when it comes to your health and the health of those in your care. Whether you have seen a health story on the news, your child has come home from school with a note about immunizations, or your teenage daughter wants to go to another country on an exchange program, you are looking for information to guide you through the steps toward making informed health decisions. Having easy to understand health information at your fingertips will help you to focus on the key facts and save time. In this section, there are information topics about some of the most common health concerns, so it is easy for you to find what you are looking for as quickly as possible. Information in this section: Diseases and Conditions From asthma to sleep problems, this section covers a variety of diseases and conditions, including information on causes, symptoms, treatments, and some prevention guidelines you can use to maintain or improve your health. Whether you burned your finger while cooking or got an insect bite during a camping trip, you will find useful first aid information in this section. Children & Teens' Health The health of your children is likely something you think about on a regular basis. In this section you can find topics that help explain some of the basics of keeping your children or teens healthy and happy. Women’s health covers topics about the body and mind. From reproductive health to issues of day-to-day stress, we have gathered topics that are important to women. More than ever, men are thinking about their health and well-being. There are topics that concern men of all ages, and in this section we have brought them together in one place. As our population ages, seniors’ health is becoming a more significant topic. Decisions affecting quality of life and injury prevention are easier to make when clear information is available. In this section we have topics that are important to seniors and their care-givers. The Aboriginal people of British Columbia have their own unique health care needs and in this section, we have provided health information and topics that are important to Aboriginal people and their communities.	<urn:uuid:a7bc8e0c-b1b3-43f9-a920-de56d7d67725>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.healthlinkbc.ca/commonhealthconcerns/?WT.svl=Footer	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.960079	456	3.15625	3
Hristo Bojinov wants you to forget your password. More precisely, he wants you to never really know it in the first place. Bojinov, a computer scientist at Stanford, and his colleagues have developed a computer program that can implant passwords in a person’s subconscious mind--and retrieve them subconsciously too. The technique could make it impossible for, say, a high-security government agent to reveal his password; the agent wouldn’t actually know the secret code. Eventually, the use of subconscious passwords could even trickle down to the rest of us. And considering the precarious state of password protection, that probably can’t happen soon enough. “The problem with passwords is that they are easy to breach,” says Ram Pemmaraju, the CTO of security company StrikeForce Technologies. The tools for cracking them, such as malware, are easy to come by. New processors and open-source software can break an encrypted password in days, if not hours or minutes. Take a seven-character password with upper- and lowercase letters, numbers, and symbols. Five to 10 years ago, the average computer would have needed more than 1,000 years to guess it. Today’s home computers can do it in about a month. Because of this increasing computer power, some experts recommend 20- to 30-character passwords. But human laziness is also a huge problem. Who wants to remember a 30-character password? One recent study found that 5 percent of passwords are some variation of “password.” If a person could subconsciously learn a password, though, he would never have to bother memorizing it. He wouldn’t forget it by accident. And he’d never write it down on a Post-it note for others to find. Those are the benefits Bojinov had in mind this summer at the prestigious USENIX Security Symposium, where he presented his study--the first to show that people can subconsciously store passwords and retrieve them from their minds. In the experiment, participants learned a password by playing a computer game. On the screen, black circles fell one after another from the top to the bottom of six columns labeled S, D, F, J, K, and L. When a circle reached the bottom, the player typed the letter corresponding to that column. The game, which is nearly 4,000 keystrokes long, took about 30 to 45 minutes to complete. The players didn’t know it, but the game contained a password--a sequence of 30 letters that they typed in 105 times. By the time players finished the game, they knew the password well enough that it seemed slightly familiar, but they still couldn’t recognize it, let alone recite it. (On average, they rated the password’s familiarity as a 6 out of 10, and a random password as a 5 out of 10.) To use the password, the participants played a 5- to 10-minute version of the game. This time, the software compared how accurately they typed the actual password versus randomly generated 30-letter sequences. Seventy-one percent of participants scored better on the real passwords than the fake ones. Playing the game two weeks later, 61 percent did. In the future, people could use a similar game to log into their computers in the morning. But Bojinov cautions that the work is still preliminary. The learning process takes too long for the majority of people, he says, so he’s currently focused on honing the technique for high-security situations--the kinds of applications in which a 45-minute password ritual would be worth the trouble. He suggests that the system could be used as a form of secondary authentication, a substitute for the security questions now required to reset a password on an e-mail account. No matter what the application, Bojinov says researchers still need to answer critical questions about the technique. How can they make it work for more people? What’s the best way to speed up the process? And how long do subconscious passwords last? The answers to those questions could lead to an interesting twist in password protection. Russell Dietz, CTO of data protection company SafeNet, says the current strategy is to secure a system against both human cleverness and human failure. “You want to prove that someone is who they are while eliminating the weak link—the human users themselves,” he says. But as Bojinov’s research demonstrates, human experience might be the thing that no other person, or computer, can fake.	<urn:uuid:d79ba1d7-3780-4618-a6ae-8ff6fd9241ad>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2012-11/why-only-secure-password-one-you-don%E2%80%99t-even-know-you-know	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.955012	944	3.4375	3
What considerations should be made in order to develop accessible web-based distance learning courses? AccessIT Article ID: 1173 Today, distance learning courses employ a wide array of electronic and information technologies. These include web pages, chat software, multimedia, and audio and video conferencing. To assure that the electronic and information resources used are accessible to all students and instructors associated with a course, administrators should address the following issues. Consider the characteristics of potential instructors and students. Keep in mind that your audience may be diverse in terms of age, language skills, learning styles, physical abilities, and sensory abilities. Regarding disabilities: - Students and instructors may have mobility impairments that require them to use alternative keyboards and mice, speech recognition, or other specialized input devices to access Internet-based course materials. If their input method is slow, they cannot effectively participate in real-time "chat" communications. - Participants who are blind may use screen reader software and speech synthesizers to access a course. With this technology, a synthesized voice reads aloud the text content on the screen. The content of graphics can be understood only if text descriptions are provided. Other visual materials, such as video presentations, also create access challenges for participants who are blind if the content is not also provided in text form. - Students and instructors who have low vision may use magnification software to enlarge the content of the screen. By doing so, they may view only a small portion of a standard screen page at a time. Web pages that are cluttered and use inconsistent formats can make navigation and comprehension of the content difficult for these individuals. - People who are color-blind may experience difficulties accessing course materials and navigational mechanisms that require the ability to distinguish one color from another. - Some participants may have specific learning disabilities that impact their ability to read, write, and/or process information. Some individuals with learning disabilities have trouble understanding the content of websites when the information is cluttered and poorly organized and when screen layouts are not consistent. - Most Internet resources do not require the ability to hear. However, when multimedia materials include audio output without providing text captioning or transcription, individuals with hearing impairments cannot access the content. - Some web pages include flashing content to grab the viewer's attention. Flashes at certain rates (often between 2 and 55 hertz) can induce seizures for people who are susceptible to them. Consider the accessibility of distance learning course authoring tools. The authoring tools used to develop a distance learning course should be accessible to all potential students, instructors, and course designers, including those with disabilities. Distance learning authoring tools, such as Blackboard™ and WebCT™, include some accessibility features. Keep in mind, however, that in order to create an accessible course the designer needs to employ the accessibility features provided. For more information on distance learning authoring tools, see the AccessIT Knowledge Base article How do various courseware products differ on accessibility? Consider the accessibility of web pages. Regardless of whether or not you use an authoring tool, the web pages for promoting and delivering distance learning courses should be accessible to everyone. This requires that developers either avoid certain types of inaccessible features or formats or create alternative methods for performing the functions or accessing the content provided through inaccessible features. Lists of standards and guidelines exist for designing accessible web pages. The two most commonly used lists are those developed by the World Wide Web Consortium and the Section 508 standards developed for United States federal agencies. For more information on these standards, see the AccessIT Knowledge Base article What is the difference between the W3C guidelines and the Section 508 standards for web accessibility? Other countries and organizations have developed standards as well. In addition, web authoring tools, such as Dreamweaver™ and Front Page™, include accessibility features that, if employed, can help to make web pages accessible. More information about the accessibility of web authoring tools can be found in the AccessIT Knowledge Base article Can I make accessible web pages using web authoring tools such as FrontPage and Dreamweaver? Consider how teachers and students will interact. Text-based resources such as Usenet discussion groups, bulletin boards, electronic mail, and distribution lists are generally accessible to students and instructors with disabilities. On the other hand, "chat," where participants communicate synchronously, is not accessible to everyone. For example, a student with a learning disability or a student with a mobility impairment that makes it impossible to input text quickly may have difficulty keeping up with the pace of the conversation. The accessibility of a chat room to individuals who are blind and using screen reader technology depends on how the chat room was developed. For more information on this topic, consult the AccessIT Knowledge Base article Are chat rooms accessible to people with disabilities? Consider the accessibility of video and audio clips. To make video clips accessible to students or instructors who are deaf, captioning can be provided. Similarly, transcripts should be provided for audio clips. Audio description (a technique for verbally describing visual content) should be provided for those who are blind. More information on open and closed captioning can be found in the AccessIT Knowledge Base articles What is the difference between open and closed captioning? and Is it better to caption or transcribe educational multimedia? The National Center for Accessible Media (NCAM) has developed a free software tool called Media Access Generator (MAGpie) that allows multimedia specialists, publishing companies, and service providers to add captions, subtitles, and audio descriptions to their work. You can visit the MAGpie website to find out more information about the product's features and to download a free copy. Accessible design is good design. People without disabilities may have situational limitations that are similar to the limitations imposed by disabilities. For example, a student or instructor may need to access course content from a handheld computer, low resolution monitor, or slow modem connection. High graphic content may not be easily viewable by these individuals. Also, a student or instructor may need to access multimedia content in a noisy environment and may be better able to access audio if it's captioned or transcribed. Designing a distance learning course to be accessible to students and instructors with disabilities will make it more accessible to everyone. For more information on making distance learning courses accessible, consult the article Distance Learning: Universal Design, Universal Access, Steps Toward Making Distance Learning Accessible to Students and Instructors with Disabilities published in Information Technology and Disabilities, or the comprehensive document IMS Guidelines for Developing Accessible Learning Applications. Last update or review: January 24, 2013	<urn:uuid:4a59ca85-76a2-4e3a-b1cb-a68c786367cb>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.washington.edu/doit/CUDE/articles?1173	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.899503	1,343	3.765625	4
\|\|Wind dispersal of alpine plant species: A comparison with lowland species\| \|\|Oliver Tackenberg, Jürg Stöcklin\| \|\|Journal of Vegetation Science 19: 109-118\| Question: The prominent role of wind dispersal in alpine habitats has been recognized early but has rarely been quantified. The aim of this study is to compare wind dispersal under alpine and lowland conditions and to analyse whether differences are caused by species traits, e.g. terminal velocity of seeds (Vterm) or weather conditions.\| Location & Methods: We characterized wind dispersal potential of >1100 Central European species using measured Vterm. To quantify the habitat effect on wind dispersal, we measured meteorological key-parameters and simulated dispersal distance spectra of nine selected species under typical alpine conditions (foreland of the Scaletta-glacier, Switzerland) and typical lowland conditions (grassland near Bad Lippspringe, Germany). Results: Lowland species had higher Vterm compared to alpine species. However, this difference disappeared when focusing on species of open habitats. The meteorological measurements showed that the alpine habitat was mainly characterized by higher frequency and strength of updrafts. The simulations showed that under alpine conditions long distance dispersal occurred much more frequent. Conclusions: More than 50 % of the alpine species have a good chance to be dispersed by wind over long distances, while this proportion is less than 25 % for species from open habitats in the lowland. The more prominent role of wind dispersal in alpine habitats is mainly a result of differences in environmental conditions, namely more intense vertical turbulence in the alpine habitat, and does not result from prominent differences in plant traits, namely Vterm, between alpine and lowland species. \|\|dispersal kernel, dispersal strategies, functional ecology, glacier foreland, long distance dispersal, macro-ecology, seed dispersal model, simulation model, terminal velocity, wind dispersal model \|\|Jürg Stöcklin: email \| webpage \| list of publications\|	<urn:uuid:e4e8b097-379b-4376-ab69-2823e557ebcb>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://pages.unibas.ch/botschoen/abstracts/2008tackenberg_stoecklin.shtml	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.880194	434	3.3125	3
By facilitating international trade, U.S. seaports play a significant role in shaping the country's economic health. All major U.S. ports are owned by public port authorities; many are also operated by public authorities. A 1990 report by the American Association of Port Authorities showed that 30 percent of the 66 port authorities surveyed were operating at a loss. Government-owned and operated ports face many problems. Lacking exposure to full commercial competitive pressures, publicly owned and operated ports may have reduced incentive to operate efficiently and are often subject to political interference. These public ports can absorb scarce funds from local governments and drag down local economies. On the other hand, efficiently operated public ports, such as the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, are often targeted by cities that want to siphon off surplus funds. Overseas, 36 governments including Argentina, Brazil, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Panama, Singapore, and Venezuela are considering or are in the process of privatizating—through concessions or asset sales—some or all of their major shipping ports. The 1985 divestiture of the container operations at Kelang Port Authority (KPA), Malaysia's principal port, resulted in more than a halving of repair, maintenance, and administrative costs. In 1983, the United Kingdom sold the 19 ports that formed the Associated British Ports. Asset-sale privatization enabled the ports to adopt efficient practices, diversify their assets, and increase capital investment. The overseas trend in transferring government port operations and assets to the private sector suggests that U.S. public ports can benefit from greater private-sector participation. By improving incentives to perform, greater reliance on private management and capital will increase autonomy, efficiency, and competitiveness of U.S. ports.	<urn:uuid:e375a531-2d34-4cad-8269-771454bdb23d>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://reason.org/news/show/127650.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.955086	356	2.90625	3
Studio equipment has evolved dramatically in the past few years. Consoles are now control surfaces. Audio is delivered primarily via computers. Air talent and their supporting casts depend heavily on access to the Internet for audio bits, news and other content. As their need for more computers and monitors grow in the studio environment the studio furniture must be designed to address this. Studio furniture must now have cabinetry designed to hold multiple computers, flat-screen monitors, keyboards, and mice in addition to the usual collection of broadcast equipment. Where there is a computer there is generally heat and noise. Because it's not always possible to house the computers in the technical center and extend the keyboard, mouse and video we have to provide a stable area for the computer that includes baffling for noise in the room and usually inside the furniture. This requires the computer to be sealed inside the cabinet. Sound-deadening insulation is often added within this space to minimize fan noise, even though current computers have come a long way to minimize noisy fans. Many are now available with passive cooling systems or quiet variable speed cooling fans. Regardless of the cooling system within the computer the studio furniture must provide adequate ventilation for the computer to prevent heat build up and component failure. The rack or cabinet that houses the computers can provide cooling via passive or active ventilation. Passive ventilation allows the heat to escape through vent holes in the cabinetry. Be sure to keep the warm air from ventilating into areas that may affect other equipment or even the people working around the furniture. Active ventilation uses low velocity fans to force air through the cabinetry. Air from a low-velocity studio HVAC can be ducted into the furniture to provide cooling. This solution usually requires an elevated floor to accommodate the HVAC ductwork. The computer and all equipment must be accessible in the front and back. Some manufacturers use specially designed drawers that pull out and turn, while others use access panels that are strategically located — usually out of sight — to access the rear of the equipment. Cabling to and from the equipment must be taken into account to minimize cable runs. Penetration points should be well planned to keep the cabling neat and unobtrusive. The widespread use of computers for audio delivery, Internet access and now console and router monitoring has dramatically increased the number of monitors in the studio. Luckily, the bulky CRTs of years past are quickly being replaced by flat-screen monitors. Although flat-screen monitors take up significantly less desktop real estate, they still pose a challenge to the studio designer. The ever-growing number of monitors in the studio can cause serious problems for the talent and their guests. Consider the placement of the monitors. Improper placement can block sight lines between talent and guests. A monitor too far away from the talent will prevent him from being able to read the screen. A monitor too close may be in the way of the console operator. The proper monitor arm can go a long way to alleviate these problems. There are many brands of mounts available to address specific needs at each position around the furniture. Telescoping and articulating arms are common. As more monitors are added a method of ganging becomes necessary. Monitors can be ganged vertically, one over the other, horizontally, in a curve around the operator if there are more than two, or in a matrix two over two or three over three. The proper monitor mount will depend on placement, specific use and the operator's preference. Perhaps the most challenging problem for the inclusion of computers in the studio is the placement and management of the human interface devices as well as the automation control devices. Keyboards take up a lot of the counter area just by nature of their size. A smaller, or mini, keyboard can be used for many applications, but these miniaturized keyboards can be frustrating for some people. Keyboards are often mounted on pull-out drawers beneath the countertop, if the console installation or furniture design will allow it. Keyboards can also be mounted on the monitor arms, depending on the style of mount. Another application that can help simplify the computers in a studio is a touch screen. Modern LCD touch screens are still rather expensive, but can help the operator because it can act in a heads up manner for the operator. Because Windows is probably the most common operating system in use, adding a touch screen to most any computer is as easy as running a serial cable from the touch screen monitor to the computer and installing the proper drivers. RS-232 can run for several hundred feet. New touch screens can provide for serial control as well as USB connections. Also, the touch screen can be used in conjunction with the mouse. The mouse now can be left to the side and only used when absolutely needed by the application. Kramer is director of engineering for Reach Media and The Tom Joyner Morning Show, Dallas. Rice is engineering director for Bonneville International's St. Louis Radio Group. Manufacturers of furniture, racks and mounting accessories Advanced Furniture System Balsys Wood Arts Chatsworth Products (CPI) Efron Computerized Studios European Cabinetry Unlimited Innovative Office Products Middle Atlantic Products Murphy Studio Furniture Nigel B Furniture Progressive Marketing Products RAM Systems and Communications Inc RCI Custom Products Solutions Custom Furnishings Spacewise Broadcast Furniture Acceptable Use Policy blog comments powered by Disqus [an error occurred while processing this directive] Today in Radio History The history of radio broadcasting extends beyond the work of a few famous inventors. EAS Information More on EAS The feed provides feeds for all US states and territories. Need a calendar for your computer desktop? Use one of ours. Information from manufacturers and associations about industry news, products, technology and business announcements. This high-visibility and high-traffic area got the full acoustic treatment. Browse Back Issues[an error occurred while processing this directive] Also in the May Issue - Remote Access and Site Connectivity: Wireless - Standards of FM Allocation and Interference - Side by Side: Mic Processors - Field Report: Deva Broadcast DB4004 - Field Report: APT WorldCast Systems Horizon NextGen - New Products - 20 Years of Radio magazine: May 1994	<urn:uuid:d5efd4f0-5b9c-4c09-bae3-ba12b029b0f1>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://radiomagonline.com/infrastructure/facility_design/radio_built_solid/index1.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.844213	1,294	2.53125	3
Lower Cholesterol Radically From the revised version of Dr. Fuhrman's book Cholesterol Protection for Life, now available! We know that populations worldwide with very low cholesterol simply do not have heart attacks. For example, in rural China where the average total cholesterol was found to be 127 and very little animal foods are consumed, less than 5% of the population suffered from heart attacks. These findings, from the China Project, suggest that even small intakes of foods of animal origin are associated with significant increases in plasma cholesterol concentration, which are associated, in turn, with significant increases in heart disease mortality rates.1 By comparison, in the United States more than 40 percent of the population dies of heart attacks. It is a simple fact that if you eat American-style food you will die an American-style death. Don't expect to escape from the biological laws of cause and effect. The Standard American diet is also responsible for our relentless epidemic of obesity and cancer. This book is all about taking charge of our own health destiny through excellent nutrition and not waiting helplessly until a major disease strikes. In the famous Framingham study, 35 percent of heart disease occurred in those with total cholesterol levels in the range of 150 to 200 mg/dl, but no heart disease deaths occurred in those whose total cholesterol levels were below 150 mg/dl.2 Multiple dietary intervention trials have taken place in our country with diets suggested by the American Heart Association that only offer small improvements over what Americans usually eat. These moderate, politically-correct dietary recommendations have failed to show substantial benefits. Therefore, most medical authorities and physicians place no importance on dietary modifications and instead rely almost exclusively on medications since the "typical" dietary recommendations do not lower cholesterol effectively. Certainly, the "ideal" cardio-protective cholesterol ranges cannot be achieved with traditional dietary recommendations. The vast majority of people are not aware that the proper diet can heart-attack-proof their body. They do not know that there is a more effective option than the American Heart Association's dietary guidelines. I have no problem with people choosing to eat a diet that places them at risk of heart disease, or people choosing to smoke or to not exercise, that is their right. However, at the very least they should be correctly informed of the dangers of their choices and not have doctors, dieticians and health authorities let them think they are doing all they can to protect themselves. Unfortunately, economic and political forces make it difficult for Americans to be clearly informed that heart disease is nutritionally-induced by our outmoded and incorrect dietary model. For example, six of the eleven members, including the chairman, of the USDA's Dietary Guidelines Committee in the year 2000 had financial ties to the meat, dairy, and egg industries. Not surprisingly, the foods these industries produce figure prominently in government dietary recommendations in spite of their documented links to increased health risks. Similar problems exist in recommendations by non-profit health organizations who receive funding from industry. Sadly, even the American Heart Association advocates a diet that actually has been shown to increase heart disease.3 The researchers concluded that "the response to the AHA diet is too small to have any value in the clinical management of adults with high cholesterol" Another problem is that in America, we have been told that compared to the standard American diet, the Mediterranean diet lowers heart disease risk about 30 percent, the Asian diet lowers heart disease risk about 35 percent and the Polynesian diet lowers heart disease risk and so on. I am not satisfied with just reducing my risk somewhat. I want more for myself, my family, and my patients. My point of view is this--let's use modern nutritional science to the fullest extent and not be satisfied with reducing our risk by 20 to 50 percent; let's reduce our risk by as close to 100 percent as possible. It is possible for you to live a long life with your intellect intact until an uneventful death, without strokes, heart attacks, cancer or dementia. Only nutritional excellence, not drugs can offer all these protective features. In this day and age, we can use the best features of diets from around the world, and we can use a variety of great-tasting regional recipes. If we understand the precise qualities of each of these diets that account for the benefits and avoid the worthless parts, we can get radically better results. The fact is, every heart disease death is a tragedy, because it simply did not have to happen. 1. Campbell TC, Junshi C. Diet and chronic degenerative diseases: perspective from China. Am J Clin Nutr 1994;59(5 Suppl):1153S-1161S. 2. Gordon T, Castelli WP, Hjortland MC, et al. Predicting coronary heart disease in middle-aged and older persons. The Framington study. JAMA 1977 Aug 8;238(6):497-499. 3. Ramsey LE, Yen WW, Jackson PR. Dietary reduction of serum cholesterol concentration: time to think again. BMJ 1991;303(6808):953-957.	<urn:uuid:68f4da4a-2b9f-4e6d-ab97-d928a63c9042>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.diseaseproof.com/archives/cardiovascular-disease-lower-cholesterol-radically-print.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.940879	1,039	2.8125	3
Bats are threatened worldwide, and their colonies and habitats are destroyed -- both intentionally and inadvertently -- because of myths, misinformation, and lack of scientific knowledge and understanding. Bat populations are declining almost everywhere in North America. Losing bats has far-reaching consequences for natural ecosystems and human economies. Knowledge is the key to their conservation and protection. During CU Outreach Program, presenters will sort through the facts and myths regarding these gentle mammals that perform many tasks that are beneficial to humans. Attendees will learn about the diversity and natural history of these often misunderstood animals, and why bat conservation is important. Museum specimens will give students a close look at several species of bats native to Colorado. This program supports Colorado S.T.E.M. (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) education. Since 1988, Colorado University's Science Discovery award-winning classroom outreach program has visited classrooms, libraries, and community centers, bringing engaging hands-on science programs to communities throughout Colorado. Each month, the Estes Valley Library offers something different for families with children in kindergarten through fifth grade. It might be a make and take craft, games, stories or songs specifically chosen to promote fun and shared family experiences. All family nights are open to the public and are free of charge. Space is limited for the Bat Tales program, so register by calling the library at 586-8116.	<urn:uuid:8e0b1ad5-2e05-41ac-ae5c-8302a313996c>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.eptrail.com/entertainment/ci_21786023/bat-tales-oct-23-at-estes-valley-library	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.931253	281	3.671875	4
In a earlier post, Green Queen introduced the Green Halloween movement. We simply love it! Here, 10 reasons why Green Halloween is the right choice for your body and for the planet. Or, 10 facts to spout to your friends and family when they ask why you are joining Green Halloween! - 1) Processed candy is NOT friendly to the environment – from the non biodegradable wrappers to the toxic preservatives, there is nothing Green about industrially produced candy. - 2) High sugar intakes in children is linked to a host of behavioral problems such as ADHD and ADD. - 3) Healthy eating habits are best learned early. Green Halloween will teach your kids to make the right choices when they are the most susceptible. - 4) Adults end up consuming way too much candy on Halloween – go Green and solve the problem. - 5) Green Halloween means companies and people who make green, healthy options will benefit due to increased demand of their products, thereby greening the planet further and driving the prices for green treats down. - 6) Green Halloween encourages parents and kids to spend quality time at home making green treats, eco-friendly costumes and home-made greeting cards. Teach them to sow, encourage them to do arts & crafts and introduce them to cooking- all wonderfully fun and green activities. - 7) Raise Eco-Warriors- Green Halloween promotes the right environmental values to children so they can grow up into sustainably-minded adults. - 8 ) Improve your children’s life expectancy – our children have a lower life expectancy than we did, due to the worrying trends of diet-related illnesses such as diabetes, heart disease and cancer. Teach them young the importance of a balanced, healthy diet. - 9) Candies are chemicals- 6,000 chemicals are used in the processed foods industry. On top of that, 30%-90% of non-organic crops contain cancer causing herbicides, pesticides, etc. - 10) Buying costumes and face paints exposes your children to host of chemicals and toxins such as lead, cadmium, phtalates and more ; buy green or make your own. For more information on how to go green, sign up to Green Queen!	<urn:uuid:14d77d8c-d18a-4044-aed9-ef41cd5aabca>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.greenqueen.com.hk/10-reasons-for-green-halloween/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.916405	458	2.65625	3
What is WWSF? WWSF, a humanitarian, secular, non-governmental and international, non-profit organization with United Nations consultative status (ECOSOC, UNFPA and DPI), works for a new development paradigm with and for women and children. Created in Geneva on 8 March 1991 (International Women's Day), its principle objective is to empower women, children and NGOs. WWSF programs serve to help implement women's and children's rights, to generate increased commitment and support for the realization of agreed development goals, and to hold world leaders accountable to their promises made at numerous UN summits and international conferences. WWSF launched in 2000 the World Day for Prevention of Child Abuse, a Day to be commemorated every 19 November in synergy with the anniversary of the International Day for the rights of the child (20 November). Why was WWSF created? Recognizing that women and children (girls and boys under the age of 18) represent the world's largest constituency who have almost nothing to say in shaping the economic and political space in which they live, it is imperative that their thoughts and visions, skills, concrete and effective participation in development, and their deep aspiration for a more just and peaceful world be considered to help catalyze the necessary political will for the transformation of systems and structures into pathways of equality, development and peace.	<urn:uuid:1f2f9be6-c488-495b-b4d9-ad7c4e590e56>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.woman.ch/index.php?page=general_aboutWWSF&hl=de_DE	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.951319	275	2.625	3
Healthy, Wealthy, and Wise: Living Ethically in the Light of the Bible Matthew 24:1-14; Romans 8:18-39; Psalm 67; Numbers 27-29 Our view of suffering and how we deal with it plays a major role in many ethical decisions. Many ethically controversial practices are justified by some because they relieve suffering. For some people, eliminating suffering is of primary importance. Today’s passage from Romans 8 holds up another view. It provides a way of tolerating suffering by looking forward to a better time. As Christians, we groan in our suffering, just as the whole creation groans. We don’t pretend that things are not hard, or claim that pain is not real. This world is not the way it was supposed to be. But we also have a hope in a future when our bodies will no longer suffer as they do now. Because of that, we endure patiently the suffering we currently experience. We do not have to take things into our own hands every time we suffer. We don’t need to accept ethically questionable practices just because they might relieve some suffering. We do not need to eliminate the sufferer, just because we suffer. Saint Patrick was a man who applied this passage in his life. Most know about him from March 17 being his feast day, but we know a lot more about him from a book he wrote around 450 AD and that is available here. As a teenager he was kidnapped and brought to Ireland as a slave. Left alone on the mountains to shepherd sheep, he became a man of prayer. He endured many hardships then, during his escape, and when he later returned to Ireland as a missionary. Throughout these times, God was his comfort. On one occasion he experienced the Holy Spirit helping him in prayer, and recalled Romans 8:26 saying, “The Spirit comes to help our inadequacy at prayer. For when we cannot choose words in order to pray properly, the Spirit himself expresses our plea with great emotion that cannot be put into words.” Patrick suffered physically at the hands of the pagan Irish, and in other ways at the hands of Christians who betrayed him and attacked his work in Ireland. Two things kept him going. One was his intimate relationship with God, what he called “the great and beneficial gift of knowing and loving God.” The other was his calling from God to go to Ireland so that through him “many people were born again in God.” These were “a people newly come to belief whom the Lord took from the very ends of the earth.” He saw himself fulfilling what was promised in Psalm 67. What helped him endure his suffering was his hope that he would be with Christ and thus “have gained both my soul and my body.” In keeping with Romans 8, he believed that all Christians “will undoubtedly rise … in the glory of Christ Jesus our Redeemer, as sons of the living God, joint heirs with Christ and made in his image.” What we must bear in our suffering varies. But Romans 8 promises that Christ will be with us to work for the good of those who love him.	<urn:uuid:03ede381-0247-4fba-9680-300f5984dc26>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://bioethicsireland.ie/bible/bibeth/march/mar17/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.988379	657	2.59375	3
Quanah Parker was an important Comanche chief, a leader in the Native American Church, and the last leader of the powerful Quahadi band before they surrendered their battle of the Great Plains. With five wives and 25 children, Quanah had numerous descendants. Many people in Texas and Oklahoma claim him as an ancestor. S.C. Gwynne recently published a book on Quanah Parker, and is giving a lecture on him at the museum on April 5. Here is part 3 of my blog on Quanah Parker. If you missed it, don’t worry, you can read part 1 here and part 2 here. 1872 saw continued Comanche raids into Texas, attacking settlements and raiding cattle. Once more, President Grant sent the Fourth Cavalry after them. This time, they applied the hard learned lessons from the past. They attacked a Comanche village, killing fifty-two Indians and taking 124 prisoners and the band’s horses (Gwynne 2010:255). However, that night Comanche warriors took back most of the captured horses. From then on a new policy was instituted regarding Comanche horses: they were always all shot (Gwynne 2010:256). By 1874, extensive contact between Comanche bands and the settlements, as well as a decline in Indian population resulted in the Comanche slowly losing their identity. The bands started to intermingle. By that year, their staple food supply, the buffalo, was fast dwindling in numbers. White hunters, armed with high-powered rifles had started to kill off the buffalo, in an attempt to weaken the Comanche and other tribes who relied on them for food (Gwynne 2010: 260). Starvation set in. MacKenzie kept his patrols in the field, even in winter. Things from bad to worse fast. \|Dwindling range of the American buffalo Photo courtesy of Wikipedia Against this backdrop of utter despair a prophet appeared. His name was Isa-tai, a magician, and some say con man as well (Gwynne 2010:264). He claimed he had medicine that made one bullet proof. He also claimed that he had visions of waging a final war against the white man, which would result in chasing them off Indian lands (Gwynne 2010:265). Quanah Parker accompanied him on his visits to the bands. Together they made an impressive pair of leaders: one man who claimed invincibility and the other who had remained victorious against the white man. Quanah became the first – and last – Principal Chief of the Comanches. \|Isa-tai leaning against a propped up buffalo hide, ca. 1874. W.P. Bliss, photographer. The photo is part of the Lawrence. T. Jones III collection, Southern Methodist University, Central University Libraries, DeGolyer Library. Agreements were made. A night attack would ensue. The target was buffalo hunter camp at Adobe Walls (Gwynne 2010: 267). The whole operation was expected to be a sure success. It all backfired. The hunters were wide awake and well prepared when the attack came in the middle of the night. Their superior weapons (buffalo hunting rifles with a range up to a mile) and their use of the saloons and other buildings as defensive barriers helped them carry the day (Gwynne 2010: 270-273). \|Model 1874 “Billy Dixon” Rifle, named after a scout, who hit a Kiowa warrior at 1538 yards during the attack on Adobe Walls. Image courtesy of Cherry’s Fine Guns, Greensboro, NC. The white settlers decided to settle the Comanche problem once and for all. The Red River Campaign spelled the end of the Comanche as people roaming the Plains freely. Five mounted columns converged on the Texas Panhandle, looking for Comanche lodges. For months, battles and skirmishes raged across the Panhandle. Most often the cavalry carried the day, occasionally the Indians got the upper hand (Gwynne 2010:277). The final battle took place on September 28, 1874 in Palo Duro Canyon (Gwynne 2010:280-282). The Comanche were beaten, large numbers died, and the survivors “straggled off to Fort Sill, Oklahoma in the following weeks, thoroughly beaten and never to roam off the reservation again” (Gwynne 2010: 283). \|Major battle sites of the Red River Campaign, 1874. Image courtesy of Texas Beyond History, Texas Archeological Research Laboratory, University of Texas at Austin. On June 2, 1875, Quanah Parker and his band of fellow Quahadi surrendered. Thus began the final chapter of Quanah’s life, one that would last another thirty-six years. When he arrived at Fort Still, he was living in poverty. He lived in a tipi close to the agency, and stood in line with the others to draw rations (Gwynne 2010: 290). Slowly, however, Quanah learned about the rationing process, in particular the phenomenon of splitting up the tribes into “beef bands,” and he managed to have himself appointed leader of the third-largest band (Gwynne 2010: 291-292). He also struck up a friendship with the man who had pursued him to the end of the earth, MacKenzie. On MacKenzie’ s behalf he tracked down and brought back to the reservation a small group of renegade Comanches (Gwynne 2010:292). Quanah made a fortune leasing out the grazing rights on Indian held territory. His fortune improved, as did his fame. A book was published about his mother, who had died in 1870, five years before Quanah came to the reservation. He ended up building an extraordinary house in 1890. The moneys came from cattlemen he had befriended (Gwynne 2010: 301). Over the years he would host numerous guests, from fellow Comanches to President Teddy Roosevelt (Gwynne 2010: 312). His generosity eventually caused him to give most of his wealth away. He died on February 23, 1911, at the time of writing this exactly 100 years ago to the day. Resting here until day breaks And shadows fall And darkness disappears Is Quanah Parker, the last chief of the Comanches. Make sure you check out S.C. Gwynne’s lecture on the Comanche on April 5, 2011 at the museum. The museum’s Plains Indian collection is quite extensive; at its core is the Gordon W. Smith collection, which the museum acquired in 2008. For more information, see here. Anyone interested in the history of Texas, and its close connection to the history of the Comanches, check out our exhibit on Texas!, on display now at the museum.	<urn:uuid:3e60f8da-aca2-489d-b32b-2b4e0aeabc67>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://blog.hmns.org/tag/palo-duro-canyon/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.966111	1,412	3.546875	4
Southern Pines has renamed a road to honor Felton Capel, one of its quiet champions of racial justice. It left me marveling, again, at how much heavy lifting has been done, collectively, by people whose efforts drew little attention outside their communities. It also left me wondering how they feel about hearing the civil rights movement referred to in the past tense. I've never met "most people," but most of those I know subscribe to a narrative that neatly disposes of slavery and all things racial: There was slavery in the South, then the Civil War and the Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves, then came Reconstruction, then Jim Crow laws as whites struggled to reassert themselves, followed by the civil rights movement, followed by a new era of equal rights and nondiscrimination. What if someone told you that the whole thing was wrong - except, of course, the part about who lost the war? In the beginning there was slavery almost everywhere: from North to South, from sea to shining, um, wilderness. The South later made war to perpetuate slavery in the Territories; but the typical U.S. soldier or sailor was more concerned about preserving the Union than he was about freedom and the equality of men. The whole country had received a measure of indoctrination - Lincoln and some of his more famous generals not excepted. His proclamation ignored slaveholding in states other than those "in rebellion." Efforts to subdue blacks and ensure white dominance were ongoing before, during and after Reconstruction. And they succeeded - not in some poetic or hyperbolic sense, but in actual fact. The time in which a black man could seek public office with a realistic hope of winning was a mere flicker before the candle was snuffed out. For most, the vote was held beyond their reach. When I say that those efforts were successful, I don't mean they were successful merely in reminding blacks who was boss. I mean that thousands of African-Americans were shopped for, bought, chained, enslaved on plantations and in mines without pay, beaten and worked (literally to death, in many cases), right up until a few years before I was born. I know: You don't believe me. Read Douglas A. Blackmon's "Slavery by Another Name," and dicker with the primary sources. By the way, night-riding goons didn't make any of that happen. The Klan was a bit player compared with the institutions of state and local government. Where are the lines? A year ago, we had a Racial Justice Act. It exposed profound and pervasive racial bias in jury selection. The General Assembly - your elected representatives and mine - hastily gutted it. The U.S. Supreme Court is expected to weaken or overturn the Voting Rights Act's preclearance provision. What, if anything, will it make of the fact that in recent decades the Justice Department has approved thousands of voting changes but refused to clear thousands of others? Were the thousands that it rejected turned down due to clerical errors, perhaps? Did the department misread every scrap of evidence? With a former Republican Florida governor openly saying that Republican lawmakers labored to suppress the presumably Democratic-leaning black vote, should we rush to declare the act obsolete? Now, about the civil rights movement, and the two great laws that trailed Brown v. Topeka by almost a decade: Show me those sharp, bright lines. When was the lore abandoned? On what famous date, known to every schoolchild, did the hatred end? The movement is not in our past. It's all around us. It's in us. It lies ahead of us. America's great unfinished business awaits us. What are we teaching our children? Gene Smith is the Observer's senior editorial writer. He can be reached at 486-3581 or firstname.lastname@example.org. You can discuss this column online by going to fayobserver.com/opinion.	<urn:uuid:74dc1ceb-8af8-4c8b-bcfb-27616a73a786>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://fayobserver.com/articles/2012/12/01/1220915?sac=fo.home	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.977613	822	2.734375	3
This map of Japan shows Japan's 47 prefectures from Hokkaido in the north to Okinawa in the south. The present 47 prefectures date from the reorganization of the old feudal domains (han) which were finally rationalized in 1888. Hokkaido is the biggest prefecture by area; Kagawa in Shikoku the smallest. In terms of population, Tokyo is the largest Japanese prefecture with over 12,000,000 inhabitants with Tottori the smallest with just over 600,000 people. Like this blog? Sign up for the JapanVisitor newsletter Yahoo Japan Auction Service Tokyo Apartments Search Japan Job Search Rough Guide To Japan	<urn:uuid:fa65fc40-a077-49fe-bff9-20c2eb17fd1a>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://japanvisitor.blogspot.com/2011/03/map-of-japans-prefectures.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.859774	143	2.75	3
Pythagoras was a well-known ancient Greek mathematician and philosopher. There are many legends about his life, and it is difficult to determine which are based on truth and which are not. All of the writers agree that Pythagoras was born on Samos, a Greek island off the coast of Asia Minor, around 580 B.C. Like Thales, he travelled in his youth. He likely visited both Egypt and Babylon, like Thales. He also went to the Ionian school founded by Thales. It is unlikely that he studied directly under Thales though, because Thales would have been quite old by then. Pythagoras later founded his own school/cult in the Greek colony of Croton in Magna Graecia (southern Italy). His school had about 300 members, divided into two groups: mathematikoi (Greek for "scientists"; this is from where English gets the word mathematics), the elite of the school, who were privy to Pythagoras' mathematical truths, and the akousmatikoi (Greek for "those who hear"), who followed the sect's rules but didn't know about the mathematical mysteries of the cult. Pythagoras believed that the natural numbers were the basis of all reality. For example, he felt that musical harmonies were not merely related to ratios of whole numbers; they were ratios of whole numbers. Pythagoras said that "all is number", and he fostered a number mysticism which classified numbers as male (odd numbers), female (even numbers), triangular, square, prime, composite, perfect, deficient, abundant, amicable, or into other categories. Pythagoras is most famous for his proof of the Pythagorean Theorem. The ancient Egyptians had known that a right triangle could be made with sides of lengths 3, 4, and 5, but were not aware of the general rule. The Babylonians knew that a² + b² = c², but they never attempted to prove this theorem. Pythagoras was the first person to do so. This theorem led the school to a sensational discovery when applied to a right triangle whose two legs were of length 1.	<urn:uuid:7c7f9c45-01c4-4ee5-80c7-86698c1e876f>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://mathlair.allfunandgames.ca/pythagoras.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.986727	446	3.859375	4
When the history of the 21st century is written, the years 2010-2012 will almost certainly be seen as a watershed. In two intergovernmental processes between now and 2012 - the ‘Rio+20’ Conference on Sustainable Development and the UNFCCC Conference of Parties negotiations - the world’s governments will respond to the inter-linked challenges of sustainable development and climate change. In this crucial period humankind will take – or not take - decisions that will determine our common destiny. Let’s consider how future historians might judge us. Where We Are Now Based on evidence now widely available, historians could reasonably conclude the following. In 2010, we humans knew that: - Our economic activities and lifestyles had set in train far-reaching changes in global ecosystems and atmospheric processes. These changes were well documented, had led to major international commitments in 1992 and 2002, and were closely monitored. While there were some scientific uncertainties, it was understood that many of these changes could have irreversible and potentially catastrophic impacts. The extinctions of numerous species and melting ice sheets were clear indicators of the profound changes already underway. - Our civilization – including our diverse political, social and economic systems – was wholly built and dependent on the healthy functioning of natural eco-systems. It had become clear, however, that over-use of non-renewable and renewable natural assets, and the failure to limit the production of waste materials, were undermining the foundations for future human and ecological well-being. The issue of climate change in particular highlighted the dilemma. Our USD 60 trillion global economic system was based largely on finite supplies of fossil fuels. However, avoidance of dangerous climate change - an essential pre-condition for sustainable development - implied substantial de-carbonization within decades. - There was no single, universally agreed cause of the destructive process that had been triggered. Some pointed to ‘market failures’, where the real value of natural assets and services was not properly reflected in their price, resulting in unsustainable production and consumption patterns. Others pointed to governance or ethical failures, including corporate vested interests influencing decision-making for their own short-term economic gains. Whatever the differences, it was known that nearly seven (and shortly nine) billion people all stood to be adversely - The scale and speed of the changes underway created huge political and communications problems for political and business leaders. Responses – political, institutional and economic – were not in proportion to the magnitude of the problems. There was a growing sense that in addressing near-term economic pressures, leaders had failed to communicate how disruptive change could be, and how the transition to a resource- efficient green economy was no longer an option but an imperative. In turn, this ‘vision gap’ encouraged the tendency to think short term and led to reactions that included denial, helplessness and even resignation. And our response? While the decisions to be taken between now and 2012 remain unknown, it is challenging to consider what historians might identify as some of the successful response options that were – or could have been - adopted at the time to align human and ecosystem health. Led by governments, climate change and sustainability were prioritized by all sectors of society. Changes in the Earth’s natural systems were finally seen as ‘game changers’ which could not be addressed by ‘business as usual’ policies and institutions. By recognizing the unprecedented scale of the challenges and putting them at the heart of government strategy, it became easier to find the policies, resources and synergies necessary to act decisively. Although committing national budgets above the levels, for example, of military spending was considered to be expensive, this was seen as an investment in security of an even more fundamental kind. It also helped create sustainable growth and avoid progressively higher adaptation costs down the road. Policy responses were integrated. It was recognized that an effective climate change response could not be achieved without an equally effective and just sustainability response. It made no sense, for example, to massively develop renewable energy if this drove even higher levels of resource consumption and waste. An effective response to climate change, including a green energy revolution, however, would be a major contribution to sustainable development. Policy approaches were judged on their effectiveness to measurably improve the net sustainability footprint. No approach was excluded, and responses ranged from voluntary approaches to product bans or phase-outs and sector nationalization. Particular attention was given to ensuring that global trade and investment policies were consistent and supported climate and sustainability goals. The limitations of a market-based economic system were recognized and adjusted where required. Harnessing the full power of free enterprise was understood to be crucial in order to develop new technologies, help shape consumer and investor behaviour, and to create new business models. At the same time, free enterprise did not mean being free to do anything. Business was the new front line of defence, but had to prove that it took the well-being of society into consideration to retain its license to operate. Recent financial crises had exposed the large-scale risks of under-regulated markets, and raised deeper questions about their net contribution to human and ecological welfare. Business led the change by measuring and reporting its contribution to climate protection and sustainable development. Regulators offered incentives and encouraged reforms, such as the integration of financial and ‘non-financial’ reporting, which provided the missing transparency on sustainability Policy mechanisms routinely favoured long-term benefits. While near-term challenges such as avoiding double dip recession, creating jobs and saving financial institutions were seen as important, response strategies sought win/win approaches that increased the growth of activities that would lead to reduced energy and materials use, while vastly expanding investments in education, health and the other foundations of future prosperity. Regions of the world that were the poorest, fastest growing or neediest became early adopters. A UN Conference in 2012 laid the foundations of a decisive global push towards green and equitable development. It built on climate change commitments in a context that fast-tracked emissions reduction through a mix of policies driving emissions transparency and the rapid uptake of energy efficiency and clean energy technologies. In this way, a green industrial revolution was launched that increased resilience to the changes underway and made markets work for, instead of New decision-finding mechanisms were actively developed. Recognizing that responses to 21st century problems were not being addressed quickly or effectively enough, innovative approaches took the place of often rigid and out-of-date diplomatic processes and groupings. Multi-stakeholder initiatives at local, national and international level unlocked diverse and creative responses which profiled and built on best practices. Skilled professionals, including financial experts, sociologists and communications experts provided knowledge on change management. These initiatives were actively promoted, supported and employed by governments and international The historical record will surely show that in a time of impending crisis we had the knowledge, the technologies and the finance to react to the challenges at hand. Historians may also reasonably conclude that the single greatest decision taken in the 2010-2012 period was whether or not to respond in a manner commensurate to the scale of the problems. That crucial piece of history is still to be written. How we do it will determine our future and claim to the name ‘homo A former Australian diplomat, Paul Hohnen is an Associate Fellow of Chatham House and an independent consultant on sustainable development. 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Indigenous Australian Culture - Browse all works influenced by/about Indigenous Australian Culture - Browse all artists who have written works influenced by/about Indigenous Australian Culture Indigenous influences in Australian composition This short introduction discusses Indigenous influences in Australian compositions - for an in-depth article about the role of music in Aboriginal culture, read Jo Dyer's article 'Living Songs: Music, Law and Culture in Aboriginal Australia'. In tribal Aboriginal society, song is an intricate part of the ritual relationship of the people to the land; like any story, dance or totemic design, each song is ‘owned’ by individuals or groups and is therefore, in many cases, taboo to others. ‘Open’ songs, however, can be shared – given as a gift or used by permission of the owner(s). Musicologists Alice Moyle, Alan Marett and Stephen Knopoff, to name a few, have made valuable contributions to a broader understanding of Aboriginal music, but as early as 1802, Europeans had begun to notate Aboriginal melodies. Australia’s first professional composer, Isaac Nathan, made transcriptions with parlour-piano style accompaniments in the 1840s, and Henry Tate advocated the integration of Aboriginal melody, alongside native birdsong, as the basis for a new national music in the early twentieth century. Percy Grainger depicted ‘the lonely desert man…’ in one work. Clive Douglas came as close, as Roger Covell has noted, to being the musical equivalent of a Jindyworobak – one of those writers of the 1930s dedicated to creating an ‘indigenous’ modern Australian art independent of Europe – in part by evoking Aboriginal sounds, and Mirrie Hill included Aboriginal melodies in several works including film scores about tribal life. When the inflected modal system of Aboriginal music met the procrustean bed of equal temperament the results were not always happy. But as Western avant-garde techniques – including the exploration of different methods of tuning – were taken up in Australia, the different musical cultures paradoxically had a greater chance of meeting on equal grounds, as they do in a number of works of Peter Sculthorpe. Moreover, while a few individuals still maintain that the only ‘authentic’ Indigenous music involves tribal song, clap-sticks and didjeridu, the general consensus is that Indigenous culture, like any other, is essentially dynamic and flexible: the results in recent years have included some striking works born of respectful collaboration between musicians of both cultures. \|Young Kabbarli (1964) by Margaret Sutherland and Maie Casey\|\|is a short opera about pioneering journalist and student of South and Western Australian Aboriginal culture, Daisy Bates. It is possibly the first Western score to include didjeridu, though the instrument is not endemic to the regions in which Bates lived.\| \|Sextet for didjeridu and wind instruments (1971) by George Dreyfus\|\|brings together a self-consciously avant-garde sensibility and language with the sound of the didjeridu.\| \|Earth spirit (1982) by Colin Bright\|\|brings together the didjeridu (two players) and symphony orchestra to make a powerful political and musical statement.\| \|The Compass (2006) by Liza Lim and William Barton\|\|one of numerous works written in collaboration with didjeridu virtuoso and composer William Barton, and one in which there is a perfect synergy between Indigenous and Western elements.\| \|Kalkadungu (2007) by William Barton and Matthew Hindson\|\|a concerto for William Barton (who also sings and plays electric guitar), depicting the history of his ancestral people from central Queensland.\| \|Corroboree by John Antill\|\|lays claim to being a foundation work of Australian music. Conceived as a ballet, it uses no actual Indigenous material, but in a mid-century modernist idiom lovingly evokes an Aboriginal world.\|	<urn:uuid:3f4135dc-ecef-4d3d-9a0b-749c2453dcdf>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.australianmusiccentre.com.au/subject/indigenous-australian-culture	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.94409	830	3.46875	3
Pope Innocent III succeeded to the papacy in 1198, and the preaching of a new crusade became the goal of his pontificate. His call was largely ignored by the European monarchs: the Germans were struggling against Papal power, and England and France were still engaged in warfare against each other. However, due to the preaching of Fulk of Neuilly, a crusading army was finally organized at a tournament held at Écry by Count Thibaut of Champagne in 1199. Thibaut was elected leader, but he died in 1200 and was replaced by an Italian count, Boniface of Montferrat. Boniface and the other leaders sent envoys to Venice, Genoa, and other city-states to negotiate a contract for transport to Egypt, the object of their crusade; one of the envoys was the future historian Geoffrey of Villehardouin. Genoa was uninterested, but in March 1201 negotiations were opened with Venice, which agreed to transport 33,500 crusaders, a very ambitious number. This agreement required a full year of preparation on the part of the Venetians to build numerous ships and train the sailors who would man them, all the while curtailing the city's commercial activities. The crusading army was expected to comprise 4,500 knights (as well as 4,500 horses), 9,000 squires, and 20,000 foot-soldiers. The majority of the crusading army that set out from Venice in October 1202 originated from areas within France. It included men from Blois, Champagne, Amiens, Saint-Pol, the Ile-de-France and Burgundy. Several other regions of Europe sent substantial contingents as well, such as Flanders and Montferrat. Other notable groups came from the Holy Roman Empire, including the men under Bishop Martin of Pairis and Bishop Conrad of Halberstadt, together in alliance with the Venetian soldiers and sailors led by the doge Enrico Dandolo. The crusade was to make directly for the centre of the Muslim world, Cairo, ready to sail on June 24, 1202. This agreement was ratified by Pope Innocent, with a solemn ban on attacks on Christian states. As there was no binding agreement among the crusaders that all should sail from Venice, many chose to sail from other ports, particularly Flanders, Marseilles, and Genoa. By 1201 the bulk of the crusader army was collected at Venice, though with far fewer troops than expected; 12,000 instead of 33,500. Venice had performed her part of the agreement: there lay war galleys, large transports, and horse transports - enough for three times the assembled army. The Venetians, under their aged and blind Doge, would not let the crusaders leave without paying the full amount agreed to, originally 85,000 silver marks. The crusaders could only pay some 51,000 silver marks, and that only by reducing themselves to extreme poverty. This was disastrous to the Venetians, who had halted their commerce for a great length of time to prepare this expedition. In addition to this 20-30,000 men (out of Venice's population of 60,000 people) were needed to man the entire fleet, placing further strain on the Venetian economy. Dandolo and the Venetians succeeded in turning the crusading movement to their own purposes as a form of repayment. Following the 1182 massacres of all foreigners in Constantinople, the Venetian merchant population had been expelled by the ruling Angelus dynasty with the support of the Greek population. These events gave the Venetians a hostile attitude towards Byzantium. Dandolo, who joined the crusade during a public ceremony in the church of San Marco di Venezia, proposed that the crusaders pay their debts by attacking the port of Zara in Dalmatia. The city had been dominated economically by Venice throughout the twelfth century, but had rebelled in 1181 and allied with King Emeric of Hungary and Croatia (the two were in a personal union). Subsequent Venetian attacks were repulsed, and by 1202 the city was economically independent, under the protection of the King. The Hungarian king was Catholic and had himself agreed to join this Crusade (though this was mostly for political reasons, and he had made no actual preparations to leave). Many of the Crusaders were opposed to attacking Zara, and some, including a force led by the elder Simon de Montfort, refused to participate altogether and returned home. While the Papal legate to the Crusade Peter Cardinal Capuano endorsed the move as necessary to prevent the crusade's complete failure, Pope Innocent was alarmed at this development and wrote a letter to the Crusading leadership threatening excommunication. Historian Geoffrey Hindley's The Crusades: Islam and Christianity in the Struggle for World Supremacy mentions that in 1202, Innocent III “forbade” the Crusaders of Western Christendom from committing any atrocious acts on their Christian neighbours, despite wanting to secure papal authority over Byzantium (Hindley 143, 152). This letter was concealed from the bulk of the army and the attack proceeded. The citizens of Zara made reference to the fact that they were fellow Catholics by hanging banners marked with crosses from their windows and the walls of the city, but nevertheless the city fell after a brief siege. Both the Venetians and the crusaders were immediately threatened with excommunication for this by Innocent III. Boniface of Montferrat, meanwhile, had left the fleet before it sailed from Venice, to visit his cousin Philip of Swabia. The reasons for his visit are a matter of debate; he may have realized the Venetians' plans and left to avoid excommunication, or he may have wanted to meet with the Byzantine prince Alexius Angelus, Philip's brother-in-law and the son of the recently deposed Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelus. Alexius had fled to Philip when his father was overthrown in 1195, but it is unknown whether or not Boniface knew he was at Philip's court. There, Alexius IV offered 200,000 silver marks, 10,000 men to help the Crusaders, the maintenance of 500 knights in the Holy Land, the service of the Byzantine navy to transport the Crusader Army to Egypt and the placement of the Greek Orthodox Church under the Roman Catholic Church if they would sail to Byzantium and topple the reigning emperor Alexius III Angelus. It was a tempting offer for an enterprise that was short on funds. Greco-Latin relationships had been complicated ever since the Great Schism of 1054. The Latins of the First, Second, and Third Crusade had been hostile to Constantinople on their way to the Holy Land, whereas the Greeks had been accused of betraying the Crusaders to the Turks. A large number of Venetian merchants were also attacked and deported during anti-Latin riots in Constantinople in 1182. However, the Byzantine prince's proposal involved his restoration to the throne, not the sack of his capital city, which Count Boniface agreed to. Alexius IV returned with the Marquess to rejoin the fleet at Corfu after it had sailed from Zara. The rest of the Crusade's leaders eventually accepted the plan as well. There were many leaders, however, of the rank and file who wanted nothing to do with the proposal, and many deserted. The fleet of 60 war galleys, 100 horse transports, and 50 large transports (the entire fleet was manned by 10,000 Venetian oarsmen and marines) arrived at Constantinople in late June 1203. In addition, 300 siege engines were brought along on board the fleet. When the Fourth Crusade arrived at Constantinople, the city had a population of 150,000 people, a garrison of 30,000 men (including 5,000 Varangians), and a fleet of 20 galleys. The Crusaders' initial motive was to restore Isaac II to the Byzantine throne so that they could receive the support that they were promised. Conon of Bethune delivered this message to the Lombard envoy who was sent by the reigning emperor Alexius III Angelus, who had deposed his brother Isaac. The citizens of Constantinople were not concerned with the deposed emperor and his exiled son; usurpations were frequent in Byzantine affairs, and this time the throne had even remained in the same family. The Crusaders sailed alongside Constantinople with 10 galleys to display Alexius III, but from the walls of the city the Byzantines taunted the puzzled crusaders, who had been promised that Prince Alexius would be welcomed. First the crusaders captured and sacked the cities of Chalcedon and Chrysopolis, then they defeated 500 Byzantine cavalrymen in battle with just 80 Frankish knights. To take the city by force, the crusaders first needed to cross the Bosphorus. About 200 ships, horse transports and galleys would undertake to deliver the crusading army across the narrow strait, where Alexius III had lined up the Byzantine army in battle formation along the shore, north of the suburb of Galata. The Crusader's knights charged straight out of the horse transports, and the Byzantine army fled south. The Crusaders followed south, and attacked the Tower of Galata, which held one end of the chain that blocked access to the Golden Horn. As they laid siege to the Tower, the Greeks counterattacked with some initial success. However, when the Crusaders rallied and the Greeks retreated to the Tower, the Crusaders were able to follow the soldiers through the Gate, and the Tower surrendered. The Golden Horn now lay open to the Crusaders, and the Venetian fleet entered. On July 11, the Crusaders took positions opposite the Blachernae palace on the northwest corner of the city , and began the siege in earnest on July 17, with four divisions attacking the land walls, while the Venetian fleet attacked the sea walls from the Golden Horn. The Venetians took a section of the wall of about 25 towers, while the Varangian guard held off the Crusaders on the land wall. The Varangians shifted to meet the new threat, and the Venetians retreated under the screen of fire. The fire destroyed about 120 acres of the City. Alexius III finally took offensive action, and led 17 divisions from the St. Romanus Gate, vastly outnumbering the crusaders. Alexius III's army of about 8,500 men faced the Crusader's 7 divisions (about 3,500 men), but his courage failed, and the Byzantine army returned to the city without a fight. The retreat and the effects of the fire greatly damaged morale, causing the citizens of Constantinople to turn against Alexius III, who then fled. The destructive fire left 20,000 people homeless. Prince Alexius was elevated to the throne as Alexius IV along with his blind father Isaac. Thus Alexius IV had to deal with the growing hatred by the citizens of Constantinople for the "Latins" and vice versa. In fear of his life, the co-emperor asked the Crusaders to renew their contract for another six months, to end by April 1204. There was, nevertheless, still fighting in the city. In August 1203 the crusaders attacked a mosque, which was defended by a combined Muslim and Greek opposition. Meanwhile, Alexius IV had led 6,000 men from the Crusader army against his rival Alexius V in Adrianople. On the second attempt of the Venetians to set up a wall of fire to aid their escape, they instigated the "Great Fire", in which a large part of Constantinople was burned down. Opposition to Alexius IV grew, and one of his courtiers, Alexius Ducas (nicknamed 'Murtzuphlos' because of his thick eyebrows), soon overthrew him and had him strangled to death. Alexius Ducas took the throne himself as Alexius V; Isaac died soon afterward, probably of natural causes. The crusaders and Venetians, incensed at the murder of their supposed patron, demanded that Murtzuphlos honor the contract which Alexius IV had promised. When the Byzantine emperor refused the Crusaders assaulted the city once again. On April 8th, Alexius V's army put up a strong resistance which did much to discourage the crusaders. The Greeks pushed enormous projectiles onto the enemy siege engines, shattering many of them. A serious hindrance to the crusaders was bad weather conditions. Wind blew from the shore and prevented most of the ships from drawing close enough to the walls to launch an assault. Only five of the Greek towers were actually engaged and none of these could be secured; by mid-afternoon it was evident that the attack had failed. The clergy discussed the situation amongst themselves and settled upon the message they wished to spread through the demoralized army. They had to convince the men that the events of 9 April were not God's judgment on a sinful enterprise: the campaign, they argued, was righteous and with proper belief it would succeed. The concept of God testing the determination of the crusaders through temporary setbacks was a familiar means for the clergy to explain failure in the course of a campaign. The clergy's message was designed to reassure and encourage the crusaders. Their argument that the attack on Constantinople was spiritual revolved around two themes. First, the Greeks were traitors and murderers since they had killed their rightful lord, Alexius IV. The churchmen used inflammatory language and claimed that "the Greeks were worse than the Jews", and they invoked the authority of God and the pope to take action. Although Innocent III had again demanded that they not attack, the papal letter was suppressed by the clergy, and the crusaders prepared for their own attack, while the Venetians attacked from the sea; Alexius V's army stayed in the city to fight, along with the imperial bodyguard, the Varangians, but Alexius V himself fled during the night. On 12 April 1204 the weather conditions finally favoured the Crusaders. A strong northern wind aided the Venetian ships to come close to the wall. After a short battle, approximately seventy crusaders managed to enter the city. Some Crusaders were eventually able to knock holes in the walls, small enough for a few knights at a time to crawl through; the Venetians were also successful at scaling the walls from the sea, though there was extremely bloody fighting with the Varangians. The crusaders captured the Blachernae section of the city in the northwest and used it as a base to attack the rest of the city, but while attempting to defend themselves with a wall of fire, they ended up burning down even more of the city. This second fire left 15,000 people homeless. The Crusaders took the city on April 12. The crusaders inflicted a horrible and savage sacking on Constantinople for three days, during which many ancient and medieval Roman and Greek works were either stolen or destroyed. The magnificent Library of Constantinople was destroyed. Despite their oaths and the threat of excommunication, the Crusaders ruthlessly and systematically violated the city's holy sanctuaries, destroying, defiling, or stealing all they could lay hands on; nothing was spared. It was said that the total amount looted from Constantinople was about 900,000 silver marks. The Venetians received 150,000 silver marks that was their due, while the Crusaders received 50,000 silver marks. A further 100,000 silver marks were divided evenly up between the Crusaders and Venetians. The remaining 500,000 silver marks were secretly kept back by many Crusader knights. Speros Vryonis in Byzantium and Europe gives a vivid account of the sack of Constantinople by the Frankish and Venetian Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade: The Latin soldiery subjected the greatest city in Europe to an indescribable sack. For three days they murdered, raped, looted and destroyed on a scale which even the ancient Vandals and Goths would have found unbelievable. Constantinople had become a veritable museum of ancient and Byzantine art, an emporium of such incredible wealth that the Latins were astounded at the riches they found. Though the Venetians had an appreciation for the art which they discovered (they were themselves semi-Byzantines) and saved much of it, the French and others destroyed indiscriminately, halting to refresh themselves with wine, violation of nuns, and murder of Orthodox clerics. The Crusaders vented their hatred for the Greeks most spectacularly in the desecration of the greatest Church in Christendom. They smashed the silver iconostasis, the icons and the holy books of Hagia Sophia, and seated upon the patriarchal throne a whore who sang coarse songs as they drank wine from the Church's holy vessels. The estrangement of East and West, which had proceeded over the centuries, culminated in the horrible massacre that accompanied the conquest of Constantinople. The Greeks were convinced that even the Turks, had they taken the city, would not have been as cruel as the Latin Christians. The defeat of Byzantium, already in a state of decline, accelerated political degeneration so that the Byzantines eventually became an easy prey to the Turks. The Crusading movement thus resulted, ultimately, in the victory of Islam, a result which was of course the exact opposite of its original intention.(Vryonis, Byzantium and Europe, p.152). According to Choniates, a prostitute was even set up on the Patriarchal throne. When Innocent III heard of the conduct of his pilgrims, he was filled with shame and strongly rebuked them. According to a prearranged treaty, the empire was apportioned between Venice and the crusade's leaders, and the Latin Empire of Constantinople was established. Boniface was not elected as the new emperor, although the citizens seemed to consider him as such; the Venetians thought he had too many connections with the former empire because of his brother, Renier of Montferrat, who had been married to Maria Comnena, empress in the 1170s and 80s. Instead they placed Baldwin of Flanders on the throne. Boniface went on to found the Kingdom of Thessalonica, a vassal state of the new Latin Empire. The Venetians also founded the Duchy of the Archipelago in the Aegean Sea. Meanwhile, Byzantine refugees founded their own successor states, the most notable of these being the Empire of Nicaea under Theodore Lascaris (a relative of Alexius III), the Empire of Trebizond, and the Despotate of Epirus. Almost none of the crusaders ever made it to the Holy Land, and the unstable Latin Empire siphoned off much of Europe's crusading energy. The legacy of the Fourth Crusade was the deep sense of betrayal the Latins had instilled in their Greek coreligionists. With the events of 1204, the schism between the Church in the West and East was complete. As an epilogue to the event, Pope Innocent III, the man who had launched the ill-fated expedition, thundered against the crusaders thus: The Latin Empire was soon faced with a great number of enemies, which the crusaders had not taken into account. Besides the individual Byzantine Greek states in Epirus and Nicaea, the Empire received great pressure from the Seljuk Sultanate and the Bulgarian Empire. The Greek states were fighting for supremacy against both Latins and each other. Almost every Greek and Latin protagonist of the event was killed shortly after. Murtzuphlus' betrayal by Alexius III led to his capture by the Latins and his execution at Constantinople. Not long after, Alexius III was himself captured by Boniface and sent to exile in Southern Italy. One year after the conquest of the city, Emperor Baldwin was decisively defeated at the Battle of Adrianople on 14 April 1205 by the Bulgarians, and was captured and later executed by the Bulgarian Emperor Kaloyan. Two years after that, on 4 September1207, Boniface himself was killed in an ambush by the Bulgarians, and his head was sent to Kaloyan. He was succeeded by his infant son Demetrius of Montferrat, who ruled until he reached adulthood, but was eventually defeated by Theodore I Ducas, the despot of Epirus and a relative of Murtzuphlus, and thus the Kingdom of Thessalonica was restored to Byzantine rule in 1224. Various Latin-French lordships throughout Greece — in particular, the duchy of Athens and the principality of the Morea — provided cultural contacts with western Europe and promoted the study of Greek. There was also a French cultural work, notably the production of a collection of laws, the Assises de Romanie (Assizes of Greece). The Chronicle of Morea appeared in both French and Greek (and later Italian and Aragonese) versions. Impressive remains of crusader castles and Gothic churches can still be seen in Greece. Nevertheless, the Latin Empire always rested on shaky foundations. The city was re-captured by the Nicaean Greeks under Michael VIII Palaeologus in 1261, and commerce with Venice was re-established. In an ironic series of events, during the middle of the 15th century, the Latin Church tried to organize a crusade which aimed at the restoration of the Byzantine Empire which was gradually being torn down by the Ottoman Turks. The attempt, however, failed, as the vast majority of the Byzantines refused to unite the churches. The Greek population found that the Byzantine civilization which revolved around the Orthodox faith would be more secure under Ottoman rule. Overall, religious-observant Byzantines preferred to sacrifice their political freedom in order to preserve their faith's traditions and rituals. In the late 14th and early 15th century, two kinds of crusades were finally organised by the Kingdoms of Hungary, Poland, Wallachia and Serbia. Both of them were checked by the Ottoman Empire. During the Ottoman siege of Constantinople in 1453, a significant band of Venetian and Genoese knights died in the defense of the city. In April 2004, in a speech on the 800th anniversary of the city's capture, Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I formally accepted the apology. "The spirit of reconciliation is stronger than hatred," he said during a liturgy attended by Roman Catholic Archbishop Philippe Barbarin of Lyon, France. "We receive with gratitude and respect your cordial gesture for the tragic events of the Fourth Crusade. It is a fact that a crime was committed here in the city 800 years ago." Bartholomew said his acceptance came in the spirit of Pascha. "The spirit of reconciliation of the resurrection... incites us toward reconciliation of our churches." The Fourth Crusade was one of the last of the major crusades to be launched by the Papacy, though it quickly fell out of Papal control. After bickering between laymen and the papal legate led to the collapse of the Fifth Crusade, later crusades were directed by individual monarchs, mostly against Egypt. Only one subsequent crusade, the Sixth, succeeded in restoring Jerusalem to Christian rule, and then only for a short time. The Crusades, as it seems, became politically and economically efficient for Crusaders less inclined to follow a spiritual but an ambitious, worldly conscience. The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople: Jonathan Phillips Sees One of the Most Notorious Events in European History as a Typical 'Clash of Cultures' May 01, 2004; THE CAPTURE OF CONSTANTINOPLE by the armies of the Fourth Crusade was one of the most remarkable episodes in medieval history....	<urn:uuid:0d8639cb-5992-4d0b-8bcc-368328f0c364>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.reference.com/browse/fourth+crusade	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.978636	4,897	3.40625	3
By: Kayla Falcinelli When the Presidential election roles around every four years it is time to decide who gets your vote. Although this is true, many people say, “Why bother?” “It’s not like my vote means anything.” There are others who simply don't care. Does your vote really make a difference? Looking at how many people vote it is hard to believe that one person not showing up to the polls is really going to matter. There are about 300 million people living in the United States. Out of those 300 million approximately 200 million are over 18 years of age, and are eligible to vote. This number seems very large but remember only about 60% of these people will actually vote. It is hard to decide your one vote matters when you are up against a million others. The answer is simple; yes your vote does matter. Can you imagine if everyone thought his or her vote wasn’t important? No one would show up for Election Day and you wouldn’t be able to voice your opinion. It is important to vote for a candidate you feel capable to run this country. Our country's economy isn’t doing well and it could use a president who knows what they are doing. Our country gives us the right to vote and we should take advantage of it. If you are feeling indifferent about the candidates then simply get online and inform yourself about each one. Looking deeper might reveal one you prefer. Your vote does make a difference! Your vote does matter! Make sure to register; your deadline is October 30th by person, and October 23rd postmarked by mail. Be there November 6th at you local voting station to cast your vote! To help promote the 2012 election, WCSU students in the Writing, Linguistics and Creative Process Department's Advertising, Copywriting and Promotions class created a Twitter page. Also check out their blogs at www.danbury.patch.com. Get educated on whom to vote for by visiting our Facebook page.	<urn:uuid:706c5202-4a1c-4037-9bc5-e7aab3093ee2>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://danbury.patch.com/groups/wcsuvotes2012s-blog/p/bp--okay-but-my-vote-doesnt-make-a-difference	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.974313	417	2.75	3
river 420 miles (676 kilometers) cen Idaho flowing into Snake River Name that originally referred to the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and now also refers to six species of Pacific salmon (genus Oncorhynchus, family Salmonidae): chum, chinook, pink, and sockeye salmon; coho; and the cherry salmon (O. masu) of Japan. Adult salmon live at sea, then migrate, fighting rapids and leaping high falls, to the stream where they hatched to spawn. Pacific salmon die soon after spawning; many Atlantic salmon live to spawn again. See alsotrout.	<urn:uuid:e603707d-271b-45bc-9b2e-4ca67d28d678>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://east.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/salmon	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.860908	130	2.671875	3
The UN designated Oct. 11 as the first International Day of the Girl Child, calling on countries to recognize girls’ rights and the unique challenges girls face. It also expressed the hope that countries around the world would promote the day and celebrate it each year. The UN said that paying increased attention to the needs of females can spur economic growth and help eliminate poverty. Allowing women to take an active part in decisions that affect them is an integral part of breaking the cycle of violence that affects females and further developing and protecting their human rights. Unfortunately though, our government has been slow to respond, despite petitions from the Garden of Hope Foundation and many individual women. Vice Premier Jiang Yi-hua (江宜樺) decided to hold off on deciding whether to declare a “Taiwan Girls’ Day” and asked whether Taiwan would need a special day for males if one was allocated for females. He also questioned whether such a day would become too commercial and even said that Taiwanese females already have it good, questioning the need for any such day at all. The Garden of Hope Foundation has held the Annual Formosa Daughters event for 10 years in a row. This year we also hosted the Asian Girls’ Rights Campaign, which brought together 80 organizations from 15 countries representing 100,000 females from across Asia. In contrast, our government has missed an opportunity to lead Asia in establishing a special day for females here in Taiwan, which is highly regrettable. Government support would send out a statement while also showing resolve to pay more attention to women’s issues. If we take a look at their personal rights, their rights in the media, their rights to health, personal safety and their educational rights, it is easy to see that many young Taiwanese females grow up suffering from discrimination. Many babies are selected for their gender and many females are never born. The media creates negative self-images among females and this has severely damaged the self-esteem of countless women. To cater to media-generated stereotypes as well as warped male concepts of female beauty, many women blindly accept ideas like fad dieting and cosmetic surgery. Many young females also get illegal abortions and give birth to unreported children, which can endanger their health. Indeed, the personal safety of females is an area that is one of the biggest challenges of all. The main reason for these problems is because, from a young age, Taiwanese females are never treated in a fair and serious manner and grow up facing discrimination at home, at school and in broader society. Many young Taiwanese females develop a negative self-image as a result and related problems such as prostitution, sexual harassment, sexual assault, teenage pregnancies, eating disorders and cosmetic surgery are rampant. Taiwan needs a special day for females and we also need the government to show its resolve, to treat females better and to empower them. I would like to tell all females in Taiwan not to despair if our country does not care about our needs and is unwilling to give us a special day of our own. We can all cheer now that the first International Day of the Girl Child has been held. I would also like to encourage every female in Taiwan to declare that she will live a better life and that one day we will have the final say in establishing a special day here in Taiwan for females.	<urn:uuid:ffa65e34-f14b-41f5-9e05-58913fe7e5a9>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2012/10/17/2003545375	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.970414	680	2.625	3
When we frame the food crisis as a "system failure", it simultaneously obviates the guilt-tripping about what we eat and also points to near-term solutions we're gonna need to implement. Something like a "fundamental rethink" of our food system, says Tim Lang of Britain's Food Council (via bbcnews). A food system designed in the 1940s to capture cheap energy and ignore "astronomic" ecosystem costs cannot be patched-up, says Lang. It must be built on a series of "new fundamentals." This is doubly urgent, says Lang, since "growth in food production per capita is dropping off” just as human population is exploding. So, we can't even meet the vaunted productivity goals of this failing system. According to Lang, we need a new food system that is: - far less energy-intensive - has a much smaller ‘water footprint’ - promotes biodiversity - fits in an increasingly urban landscape Seen a food system like that lying around? Nope? Guess we’re gonna need to re-invent one…	<urn:uuid:ec2ad94a-8ab5-4d6d-bda0-f54d547287ef>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://kauaian.net/blog/?p=1382	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.937939	231	2.546875	3
Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/1959.13/24521 - Can reservoir bottom sediments be used in the estimation of long-term catchment sediment budgets? Rowan, J. S.; Duck, R. W.; Dyer, T. D.; Franks, Stewart W.; Wyatt, Adam M. - In the last 30 years, major progress has been made in the development of methods for establishing catchment sediment budgets. Reservoir bottom sediments are important because they provide valuable medium- to long-term archives of catchment sediment yield. Dating techniques, such as 137Cs and 210Pb further provide the opportunity to subdivide this stratigraphic record into shorter time periods. Recently, sediment-fingerprinting approaches have been applied to dated sediment cores to gain insight into changing patterns of sediment supply. In this study, a land-use-based sediment fingerprinting study was undertaken in the 4.9 km2 Crombie Reservoir catchment in northeast Scotland to infer historical changes in sediment supply over the past 135 years. The unmixing model employed, features a novel enrichment-inclusive subroutine. Fingerprinting results show a rise in agricultural sediment production from effectively zero in 1890 to >80% in 1980, with patterns broadly correlating to known land-use changes with a climatic overprint. - Sediment Budgets 2: Proceedings of symposium S1 held during the Seventh IAHS Scientific Assembly at Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil, April 2005. (Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil April 3-9, 2005) - IAHS Press - Resource Type - conference paper	<urn:uuid:2e47db68-59c8-4455-8f8a-e83652d63410>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://nova.newcastle.edu.au/vital/access/manager/Repository/uon:505?exact=title%3A%22Can+reservoir+bottom+sediments+be+used+in+the+estimation+of+long-term+catchment+sediment+budgets%3F%22&sort=metadata.fulltext%5C	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.856331	361	3.03125	3
Friday, October 4, evening service 6:15 pm Saturday, October 5, morning service 7:10 am Bodhidharma is known as the founder of Ch'an (Zen) Buddhism. Little is known about him historically, but there are versions of his biography that exemplify his influence on Buddhism in Asia and now the West. He is described as a monk from India who studied with Prajnadhara. Some time after completing his studies he left India for China. As recorded in the first case of Blue Cliff Record, he met Emperor Wu of Liang, who was a patron of Buddhism. The Emperor had built many monasteries; he asked Bodhidharma what merit his generosity had earned. "No merit," said Bodhidharma. The Emperor asked, "What is the highest meaning of the holy truths." Bodhidharma replied, "Vast emptiness; no holiness." The Emperor asked, "Who is facing me?" Bodhidharma replied, "I don't know." After Bodhidharma left, the Emperor brought this up to Master Chih and asked him about it. Master Chih asked, “Does your majesty know who this man is?” The Emperor said, “I don’t know.” Master Chih said, “He is the Mahasattva Avalokitesvara, transmitting the Buddha Mind Seal.” The Emperor felt regretful, so he wanted to send an emissary to go invite Bodhidharma to return. Master Chih told him, “Your majesty, don’t say that you will send someone to fetch him back. Even if everyone in the whole country were to go after him, he still wouldn’t return.” Often portrayed as "wide-eyed," Bodhidharma, according to the stories, was at one point so frustrated by his drowsiness that he tore off his eyelids. Image from Wikipedia: Bodhidharma and Huike [Bodhidharma's disciple]. Ink painting by Sesshu.	<urn:uuid:0a7a36e6-83e9-40a8-ae8d-078cb9b9290b>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://sfzc.org/zc/display.asp?catid=2,69,201&pageid=3420&mode=c	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.985782	434	2.53125	3
\|Oct1-08, 10:16 AM\|\|#1\| flow problem with a two diemsional water flow divider A two-dimensional water flow divider is shown in the sketch. The flow in through opening A varies linearly from 3 to 6 m/s and is inclined with angle α=45 degrees to the opening itself. The area of the A opening is .4m2 per unit depth, that of B is .2m2 per unit depth, and that of C is .15 m2 per unit depth. the flow at B, normal to the opening, varies linearly from 3 to 5 m/s; and the flow at C, normal to the opening is approximately uniform. Find velocity at C. I'm having difficult setting up the relation needed to solve the problem. I've attached a figure for the problem. I would appriciate a step by step solution. This is what I was thinking: Min=Mb out +Mc out. what expression would I use for Min and Mb out I'm thinking Mc out would equal V.45m2cos(0) would Mb out= integral from 0 to 4 of (x/2)+3 dx and Min= integral from 0 to7 of (3x/7)+3dx than just sove for V correct? \|Similar Threads for: flow problem with a two diemsional water flow divider\| \|Linear Algebra, Water Flow Problem\|\|Calculus & Beyond Homework\|\|3\| \|Tap water flow and water diameter at end of it (Bernoulli eqzn...)\|\|Introductory Physics Homework\|\|4\| \|Rate of flow - height of water problem\|\|Differential Equations\|\|4\| \|water flow venturi meter problem! Heeeelp please :)\|\|Introductory Physics Homework\|\|21\| \|HELP! relationship between rate of flow of water and height of water column\|\|Introductory Physics Homework\|\|1\|	<urn:uuid:93759927-9c6f-4b67-8982-462a55461ab6>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.physicsforums.com/showthread.php?t=260819	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.903339	417	2.734375	3
Is this topic for you? This topic has general information about food allergies. If you would like more specific information about peanut allergy, see the topic Peanut Allergy. What is a food allergy? When you have a food allergy, your body thinks certain foods are trying to harm you. Your body fights back by setting off an allergic reaction. In most cases, the symptoms are mild—a rash, a stuffy nose, or an upset stomach. A mild reaction is no fun, but it isn't dangerous. A serious reaction can be deadly. But quick treatment can stop a dangerous reaction. Allergies tend to run in families. You are more likely to have a food allergy if other people in your family have allergies like hay fever, asthma, or eczema (atopic dermatitis). Food allergies are more common in children than adults. Children sometimes outgrow their food allergies, especially allergies to milk, eggs, or soy. But if you develop a food allergy as an adult, you will most likely have it for life. Food allergy versus food intolerance Food intolerances are much more common than food allergies. True food allergies are a reaction to food or food additives by your body's immune system. Many people think they have a food allergy, but in fact they have a food intolerance. Food intolerance is much more common. It can cause some of the same symptoms as a mild food allergy, like an upset stomach. But a food intolerance does not cause an allergic reaction. A food intolerance can make you feel bad, but it is not dangerous. A serious food allergy can be dangerous. What are the symptoms? Food allergies can cause many different symptoms. They can range from mild to serious. If you eat a food you are allergic to: - Your mouth may tingle, and your lips may swell as you start to eat the food. - You may have a stuffy nose, wheeze, or be short of breath when the allergens reach your mouth and lungs. - You may have cramps, an upset stomach, or diarrhea as the food is digested. - You may feel dizzy or lightheaded if your blood pressure drops as the allergens circulate through your bloodstream. - You may have itchy skin with red, raised bumps called hives as the allergens reach your skin. Kids usually have the same symptoms as adults. But sometimes a small child just cries a lot, vomits, has diarrhea, or does not grow as expected. If your child has these symptoms, see your doctor. Some people have symptoms after eating even a tiny bit of a problem food. As a rule, the sooner the reaction begins, the worse it will be. The most severe reaction is called anaphylaxis (say "ANN-uh-fuh-LAK-suss"). It affects your whole body. Anaphylaxis can start within a few minutes to a few hours after you eat the food. And the symptoms can go away and come back hours later. If you have anaphylaxis: - Your throat and tongue may swell quickly. - You may suddenly start wheezing or have trouble breathing. - You may feel sick to your stomach or vomit. - You may feel faint or pass out. Anaphylaxis can be deadly. If you have (or see someone having) any of these symptoms, call 911 right away. What foods most often cause a food allergy? A few foods cause most allergies. A food that causes an allergy is called a food allergen. The protein in the food causes the problem. - Milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, shellfish, wheat, and soy cause most problems in children. - Milk, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and shellfish cause most problems in adults. If you are allergic to one food, you may also be allergic to other foods like it. So if you are allergic to shrimp, you may also be allergic to lobster or crab. How is a food allergy diagnosed? Your doctor will ask questions about your medical history and any family food allergies. And he or she will do a physical exam. Your doctor will also ask what symptoms you have. He or she may want you to write down everything you eat and any reactions you have. Your doctor will consider other possibilities that could be confused with food allergies, such as a food intolerance. Because food allergies can be confused with other problems, it is important for your doctor to do a test to confirm that you have a food allergy. Your doctor may first start out with either skin testing or a blood test to determine what you are allergic to, but an oral food challenge is the best way to diagnose a food allergy. In an oral food challenge, you will eat a variety of foods that may or may not cause an allergic reaction. Your doctor watches to see if and when a reaction occurs. A skin prick test can help to find out which foods will cause a reaction. The doctor will put a little bit of liquid on your skin and then prick your skin. The liquid has some of the possible food allergen in it. If your skin swells up like a mosquito bite, your doctor knows that you are allergic to that food. Your doctor may also do blood tests to look for the chemicals in your blood that cause an allergic reaction. How is it treated? The best treatment is to never eat the foods you are allergic to. Learn to read food labels and spot other names for problem foods. For example, milk may be listed as "caseinate," wheat as "gluten," and peanuts as "hydrolyzed vegetable protein." When you eat out or at other people's houses, ask about the foods you are served. If you have a history of severe food allergies, your doctor will prescribe an allergy kit that contains epinephrine (say "eh-puh-NEH-fren") and antihistamines. An epinephrine shot can slow down or stop an allergic reaction. Your doctor can teach you how to give yourself the shot. You can have symptoms again even after you give yourself a shot. So go to the emergency room every time you have a severe reaction. You will need to be watched for several hours after the reaction. If you have had a serious reaction in the past, your chance of having another one is high. Be prepared. - Keep an allergy kit with you at all times. - Wear a medical alert bracelet to let others know about your food allergy. - Check the expiration dates on the medicines in your kit, and replace the medicines as needed. If your child has a food allergy, what else should you think about? Talk to your child's teachers and caregivers. They should know how to keep problem foods away from your child. Teach them what to do if your child eats one of these foods by mistake. If your child has ever had a severe reaction, keep an allergy kit nearby at all times. Some kids carry their kit in a fanny pack. Have your child wear a medical alert bracelet. Teach all caregivers to act quickly. They should: - Know the signs of a severe reaction. - Know how to give an epinephrine shot. - Call 911 right away. Frequently Asked Questions Learning about food allergies: Health Tools help you make wise health decisions or take action to improve your health. \|Actionsets are designed to help people take an active role in managing a health condition.\| \|Allergies in Children: Giving an Epinephrine Shot to a Child\| \|Allergies: Giving Yourself an Epinephrine Shot\| Food allergies occur when the body's immune system overreacts to substances in food you have eaten, triggering an allergic reaction. Food allergies are more common in young children than in adults. - Milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, shellfish, wheat, and soy cause most problems in children. Some babies are so sensitive to these foods that if the offending food is eaten by the mother, drinking her breast milk can cause a reaction. Most children outgrow allergies to eggs, milk, wheat, and soy. - Peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and shellfish cause most of the allergic reactions in teens and adults. Adults typically remain allergic to the food for life. Food allergies are most common in people who are atopic, meaning they have an inherited tendency to have allergic conditions. These people are more likely to have asthma, various allergies, and a skin condition called atopic dermatitis. Asthma can make the reaction to a food more severe. If you are highly sensitive to a particular food, you may have an allergic reaction by simply being near the food. Flying in airplanes where other passengers are eating peanuts or simply eating in a seafood restaurant may cause symptoms. Because peanuts are used in so many foods, peanut allergy has increased in the United States. For more information, see the topic Peanut Allergy. Many people, but not all people, are allergic to foods that are similar or somehow related. This is called cross-reactivity. For example, if you are allergic to shrimp, you may also be allergic to other shellfish, like crab or lobster. If you are allergic to peanuts, you may be allergic to other members of the legume family, such as peas and beans. You don't need to stop eating a cross-reactive food if you show no signs of an allergic reaction to it. Oral allergy syndrome is a type of cross-reactivity. With this syndrome, people who have pollen allergies (such as a grass allergy) may develop itching, redness, and swelling of the lips and mouth when they eat fruits or vegetables that contain a protein that reacts with the pollen. These symptoms usually resolve quickly and do not involve other parts of the body. Oral allergy syndrome usually involves a reaction to fresh fruits and raw vegetables:1 - If you are allergic to ragweed, your mouth may itch when you eat melons, especially cantaloupe. - If you are allergic to birch pollen, you may react to apple peels. A growing number of people, especially health care workers, are discovering that they have an allergy to latex. Latex is the natural sap of the rubber tree. It is used in making surgical gloves, condoms, balloons, and other products. If you have a latex allergy, you may also have allergies to bananas, avocados, kiwi, and chestnuts.1 Some people have allergic reactions to food after they exercise. This is called exercise-induced food allergy. As a person's body temperature rises with exercise, symptoms such as itching and lightheadedness start, sometimes leading to hives and even anaphylaxis, which can be deadly. To avoid exercise-induced food allergy, do not eat for a few hours before you exercise or right after exercising. Symptoms of food allergy can affect many parts of your body, including your: - Digestive system. Symptoms include stomach cramps, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, itching in the mouth and throat, and rectal bleeding (rare in adults). These symptoms occur more often in children than in adults. - Skin. Symptoms include hives or welts, swelling, itching, redness, and atopic dermatitis. Skin reactions are common in children. - Respiratory system. Symptoms include coughing; wheezing; an itchy, stuffy, runny nose; sneezing; and trouble breathing. Children usually have the same symptoms as adults. Symptoms of milk or soy allergies in children may include eczema, a runny nose, and wheezing. But sometimes the only symptoms are extreme crying, vomiting, blood in the stool, diarrhea, constipation, or poor growth. Symptoms vary from mild to life-threatening and can appear from within minutes to days of eating a food. The most severe reaction is anaphylaxis, which affects many body systems and can be deadly. Anaphylaxis can start within a few minutes to a few hours after you eat the food. And the symptoms can go away and come back hours later. Common triggers for anaphylaxis are peanuts, nuts, and seafood. In children, peanuts cause anaphylaxis more often than other foods.2, 3 Aspirin, exercise, or alcohol can increase the risk for anaphylaxis.2 Symptoms may be more severe if you also have another type of allergy, such as an allergy to pollens or mold. Tobacco smoke, stress, and colds can also make symptoms worse. The first time you eat a food that triggers an allergic reaction, your body's immune system recognizes the food as a foreign substance (allergen). Your body reacts by developing antibodies against the food. When you eat the offending food again, the antibodies attack the allergen, releasing histamine and other chemicals that cause the symptoms of an allergic reaction. What Increases Your Risk You have a greater chance of developing food allergies if you: - Have a family history of allergy. If both of your parents have allergies, you are more likely to have allergies. - Have another allergic condition such as atopic dermatitis or asthma. - Are young. Infants and children have more food allergies than adults. - Have a medical condition that makes it easier for allergens to pass through the walls of the stomach and intestines and enter the bloodstream. These conditions include gastrointestinal disease, malnutrition, prematurity, and diseases that impair the immune system, such as eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE). You have a greater risk for a life-threatening allergic reaction (anaphylaxis) from food allergy if you: - Have asthma. - Develop allergy symptoms within minutes of eating the food. If you or your child has a severe food allergy, always carry an allergy kit and know how to use it. You should also wear a medical alert bracelet at all times. Being prepared to immediately deal with a severe allergic reaction reduces the risk of death. When To Call a Doctor Call 911 or other emergency services immediately if you have had a severe reaction in the past from the same food and similar symptoms are developing. If you have an allergy kit prescribed by your doctor for severe allergic reactions, give yourself the epinephrine shot before you call for help. If possible, have someone else call while you give yourself the shot. Because symptoms can come back even after the injection, go to the emergency room every time you have a reaction, even if you are feeling better. You should be observed for several hours after the reaction. Call 911 or other emergency services immediately if you have any of the following symptoms: - Rapid swelling of the throat or tongue - Trouble breathing, wheezing, or deep cough; a pale face or blue lips or earlobes - Feeling faint - Signs of shock, including: - Lightheadedness or a feeling that you are about to pass out - Restlessness, confusion, or a sense of impending doom - Moist, cool skin, or possibly profuse sweating - Weakness, thirst, nausea, or vomiting If you witness a severe allergic reaction and the person becomes unconscious, call 911 or other emergency services immediately. If your food allergy symptoms are getting worse, call your doctor. It is important to know which foods are to blame so that you can avoid them. If your food allergy symptoms do not get worse or are not too severe or bothersome, you can try eliminating suspect foods from your diet to see whether symptoms disappear. Who to see The following health professionals may evaluate and treat mild food allergies: An allergy specialist may be needed when: - You need to identify the foods that trigger allergic reactions. - Your work or school performance or quality of life is affected because of allergy symptoms or medicine side effects. - You have other medical conditions, such as recurrent asthma. You may also be referred to other specialists, such as a: - Dermatologist , to treat allergic skin problems. - Pulmonary specialist , when moderate or severe asthma is also present. A nutritionist or registered dietitian can help you keep a balanced diet even when you can't eat some foods. A nutritionist or dietitian can also help you learn how to avoid hidden allergens in foods and give you ideas about how to make substitutions in recipes. To prepare for your appointment, see the topic Making the Most of Your Appointment. Exams and Tests To diagnose a food allergy, your doctor will start with a medical history and a physical exam. Your doctor may ask: - What symptoms you have. - If your family has any food allergies. - How soon the symptoms begin after eating food. - If over-the-counter medicines helped. - If other people also got sick. - How the food was prepared. - If you ate any other foods. It's important to find out whether you have a food allergy or food intolerance. Your doctor may ask you to keep a record of all the foods you eat and any reactions you have to them. Your doctor will also consider if your reaction could have been caused by things like allergies to medicines or insect stings, food poisoning, irritants in foods, or exposure to skin irritants. Your doctor may ask you to try an elimination diet, an oral food allergy challenge, or both. - In an elimination diet, you avoid eating foods that may be causing an allergic reaction and see if your symptoms go away. If symptoms come back when you eat the food again, your doctor can confirm your food allergy. The elimination diet can last from 2 to 8 weeks. - In an oral food allergy challenge, you eat a variety of foods that may or may not cause an allergic reaction. Your doctor watches to see if and when a reaction occurs. This test is considered the best way to diagnose a food allergy. After you have been diagnosed with a food allergy, you may also have allergy tests, such as skin tests or blood tests, to find out which foods you are allergic to. The best treatment for food allergies is to avoid the food that causes the allergy. When that isn't possible, you can use medicines such as antihistamines for mild reactions and the medicines in an allergy kit for serious reactions. Start by telling your family, friends, and coworkers that you have a food allergy, and ask them to help you avoid the food. Read all food labels, and learn the other names that may be used for food allergens. If your baby has a milk or soy allergy, your doctor may suggest either that you change the formula or that you feed your baby only breast milk. Specially prepared formulas are available for infants who have soy and milk allergies. If you or your child has mild allergies, your doctor may suggest nonprescription antihistamines to control the symptoms. You may need prescription antihistamines if over-the-counter medicines don't help or if they cause side effects, such as drowsiness. If you have a severe allergic reaction, your first treatment may be done in an emergency room or by emergency personnel. You will be given a shot of epinephrine to stop the further release of histamine and to relax the muscles that help you breathe. How to treat a reaction If your doctor has prescribed an allergy kit, always keep it with you. It contains a syringe of epinephrine and antihistamine tablets. Your doctor or pharmacist will teach you how to give yourself a shot. Be sure to check the expiration dates on the medicines, and replace the medicines as needed. For step-by-step instructions on how to give the shot, see: - Allergies: Giving Yourself an Epinephrine Shot. - Allergies in Children: Giving an Epinephrine Shot to a Child. You should also wear a medical alert bracelet or other jewelry that lists your food allergies. You can order medical alert jewelry through most drugstores or on the Internet. Children and food allergies It's important to take special care with children who have food allergies. A child with severe food allergies may have a life-threatening anaphylactic reaction to even a tiny amount of a food allergen. Your child should always wear a medical alert bracelet and carry an allergy kit. Make sure that all caregivers (school administrators, teachers, friends, coaches, and babysitters): - Know about your child's food allergy. - Can recognize the symptoms of a food allergy. - Know where the allergy kit is kept and how to give the epinephrine shot. - Know to call 911 immediately. Children may have only mild symptoms in the first few minutes after they eat the food allergen, but they may have severe symptoms in 10 to 60 minutes. Children always should be observed in a hospital for several hours after a reaction. Make sure that your child: - Always wears a medical alert bracelet. - Always carries an allergy kit. Children at risk of severe allergic reactions should keep the kits at school or day care as well as home. Older, mature children should be taught to give themselves the shot. Food allergies often occur in people who have a family history of asthma, atopic dermatitis, or allergies to pollen, mold, or other substances. These people are said to be atopic, meaning they have an inherited tendency to have allergic conditions. Allergies cannot be prevented in these people. There isn't enough proof to recommend that people who are at risk for allergies should avoid common foods that cause allergies or foods that may be similar to common allergens like milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, soy, wheat, fish, and shellfish. If you are a woman with a food allergy who is planning on a pregnancy and breast-feeding, talk to your doctor about what foods to avoid while pregnant or nursing. But if you don't have food allergies, avoiding certain foods during your pregnancy isn't recommended as a way to prevent the baby from having food allergies. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that all babies be breast-fed for the first year of life or longer.4 For babies with family members who have food allergies, breast-feeding only for at least 4 months helps prevent allergies to milk.5 If your baby is at high risk for allergies and you can't breast-feed, try a hydrolyzed milk formula. The milk protein in hydrolyzed formulas is changed to try to prevent allergies.6 There is no proof that giving your baby soy formula instead of cow's milk formula will prevent a food allergy in children at risk for food allergies. Tobacco smoke can make allergies worse, so it is important to have a smoke-free environment. Knowing which foods trigger food allergies and avoiding those foods is the best way to prevent allergic reactions. Unfortunately, food allergens are often hidden in sauces, ice creams, baked goods, and other items. If you have food allergies, read food labels carefully. Be aware of other names for food allergens, such as "caseinate" for milk or "albumin" for eggs. Many people think that seeing "nondairy" on a label means there is no milk in the product. This is not necessarily true. Sometimes products are recalled when food ingredients are missing from food labels. For a list of recalled products, see the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's Recalls, Market Withdrawals, and Safety Alerts page at www.fda.gov/opacom/7alerts.html. Tips for eating out Eating out can be dangerous for people with severe food allergies. - Bring safe substitutes from home. For example, bring soy milk to have with cereal. - Be aware of possible cross-contamination. For example, an ice cream scoop may have been used for Rocky Road ice cream, which contains peanuts, and then used for your vanilla ice cream. - Alert the wait staff to the possibility of a severe food reaction. Carefully question them about ingredients. If they are not sure, ask to speak to kitchen staff. - Always wear medical alert jewelry that lists your food allergies. Medical alert jewelry can be ordered through most drugstores or on the Internet. If you or your child has ever had a severe allergic reaction, always carry an allergy kit that contains a syringe of epinephrine and antihistamine tablets. Give the epinephrine shot as soon as you or your child feels a reaction starting. Then take the antihistamine. - Allergies: Giving Yourself an Epinephrine Shot - Allergies in Children: Giving an Epinephrine Shot to a Child If you are traveling to another country, learn the words for the foods that trigger your allergy so that you can ask in restaurants and read food labels. Call airlines, tour operators, and restaurants ahead of time to explain your food allergy and request safe meals. Prepare your own food when possible. Discuss your travel plans with your doctor. Medicine is used to treat some food allergies. Medicines to treat a severe allergic reaction or an anaphylactic reaction are packaged in a prescribed allergy kit. For mild allergic reactions, people often try nonprescription medicines first. You can try prescription medicines if over-the-counter medicines fail to control allergy symptoms or if they cause drowsiness or other bothersome side effects. Medicines used to treat a severe allergic reaction include: - Epinephrine . Epinephrine is given as a shot. It acts quickly to stop the further release of histamine and to relax the muscles that help you breathe. - Antihistamines. Antihistamines block the action of histamine during an allergic reaction and help improve symptoms such as itching and sneezing. - Corticosteroids . These medicines help reduce inflammation. Medicines used to relieve mild food allergy symptoms include: Other Places To Get Help \|American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology\| \|555 East Wells Street\| \|Milwaukee, WI 53202-3823\| \|Phone:\|\|1-800-822-2762 (information and doctor referral line) The American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology (AAAAI) is a professional organization representing allergists, asthma specialists, clinical immunologists, allied health professionals, and others with a special interest in the research and treatment of allergic disease. The AAAAI Web site provides information about current research and clinical trials, educational resources, and maintains the National Allergy Bureau, a comprehensive pollen information source with U.S. and Canadian pollen count information. \|American College of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology (ACAAI)\| \|85 West Algonquin Road\| \|Arlington Heights, IL 60005\| \|Phone:\|\|1-800-842-7777 (allergist referral service)\| The American College of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology (ACAAI) provides allergy information for consumers, including a nationwide allergist referral service. \|Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (AAFA)\| \|1233 20th Street NW\| \|Washington, DC 20036\| The Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (AAFA) provides information and support for people who have allergies or asthma. The AAFA has local chapters and support groups. And its Web site has online resources, such as fact sheets, brochures, and newsletters, both free and for purchase. \|Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network\| \|11781 Lee Jackson Hwy\| \|Fairfax, VA 22033-3309\| The Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network (FAAN) publishes several newsletters and dozens of books, booklets, and videos designed to educate people about food allergies. The nonprofit organization also works on federal, state, and local initiatives in such areas as food labeling, schools, emergency medical services, camps, restaurants, and airlines. The FAAN Web site includes links to children's and teenagers' food allergy Web sites. \|National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health\| \|NIAID Office of Communications and Government Relations\| \|6610 Rockledge Drive, MSC 6612\| \|Bethesda, MD 20892-6612\| The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases conducts research and provides consumer information on infectious and immune-system-related diseases. - American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology (2006). Food allergy: A practice parameter. Annals of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, 96(Suppl 1): S1–S68. Available online: http://www.aaaai.org/professionals/resources/pdf/food_allergy_2006.pdf. - Sicherer SH (2002). Food allergy. Lancet, 360(9334): 701–710. - Loizides AM, Wershil BK (2006). Allergic gastrointestinal disorders. In FD Burg et al., eds., Current Pediatric Therapy, 18th ed., pp. 1139–1142. Philadelphia: Saunders. - American Academy of Pediatrics, Section on Breastfeeding (2005). Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics, 115(2): 496–506. - Committee on Nutrition, American Academy of Pediatrics (2000). Hypoallergenic infant formulas. Pediatrics, 106(2): 346–349. - Osborn DA, Sinn J (2006). Formulas containing hydrolysed protein for prevention of allergy and food intolerance in infants. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1). Oxford: Update Software. Other Works Consulted - Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network (2010). How to read a label. Available online: http://www.foodallergy.org/files/media/downloads/HTRLsheet2010.pdf. - Abramowicz M (2007). Drugs for allergic disorders. Treatment Guidelines From The Medical Letter, 5(60): 71–80. - American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology (2010). Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of food allergy in the United States: Report of the NIAID-sponsored expert panel. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 126(6): S1–S58. Available online: http://download.journals.elsevierhealth.com/pdfs/journals/0091-6749/PIIS0091674910015666.pdf. - Branum AM, Lukacs SL (2008). Food allergy among U.S. children: Trends in prevalence and hospitalizations. National Center for Health Statistics Data Brief, No. 10. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. Available online: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db10.pdf. - Katz DL, Friedman RSC (2008). Food allergy and intolerance. In Nutrition in Clinical Practice, pp. 275–280. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. - Sampson HA (2003). Adverse reactions to foods. In NF Adkinson et al., eds., Middleton's Allergy Principles and Practice, 6th ed., vol. 2, pp. 1619–1643. Philadelphia: Mosby. - Skripak JM, Sampson HA (2008). Towards a cure for food allergy. Current Opinion in Immunology, 20: 690–696. \|Primary Medical Reviewer\|\|Sarah Marshall, MD - Family Medicine\| \|Specialist Medical Reviewer\|\|Rohit K Katial, MD - Allergy and Immunology\| \|Last Revised\|\|March 23, 2011\| Last Revised: March 23, 2011 To learn more visit Healthwise.org © 1995-2012 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.	<urn:uuid:815686de-0591-4df7-998e-bf1e7581abe4>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://cancer.dartmouth.edu/pf/health_encyclopedia/te7016	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.923348	6,662	3.65625	4
Feb 22, 2012 Drexel engineers develop cement with 97% smaller carbon dioxide and energy footprint Drexel University engineers have found a way to improve upon ordinary Portland cement (OPC), the glue that's bonded much of the world's construction since the late 1800s. In research recently published in Cement and Concrete Composites the group served up a recipe for cement that is more energy efficient and cost effective to produce than masonry's most prevalent bonding compound. Drexel's "green" variety is a form of alkali-activated cement that utilizes an industrial byproduct, called slag, and a common mineral, limestone, and does not require heating to produce. According to Dr. Michel W. Barsoum, A.W. Grosvenor professor in Drexel's Department of Materials Science and Engineering, this alternative production method and the ubiquity of the mix ingredients, lessens the cost of materials for Drexel's cement by about 40 percent versus Portland cement and reduces energy consumption and carbon dioxide production by 97 percent. "Cement consumption is rapidly rising, especially in newly industrialized countries, and it's already responsible for 5 percent of human-made carbon dioxide. This is a unique way to limit the environmental consequences of meeting demand," Dr. Alex Moseson, one of the lead researchers on the project, said. While forms of alkali-activated cement have been used as far back as the 1950s and 1960s in several buildings in the former Soviet Union, much of the inspiration for this research came from the Pyramids in Egypt, as well as buildings in ancient Rome. "Our cement is more like ancient Roman cement than like modern Portland," Moseson said. "Although we won't know for 2,000 years if ours has the longevity of Roman buildings, it gives us an idea of the staying power of this material." In contrast to ordinary Portland cement, Drexel's cement is made of up to 68 percent unfired limestone, a plentiful, cheap, and low-carbon dioxide resource; American Society for Testing and Materials' standards for Portland cement limit the amount to 5 percent. To this base, a small amount of commercial alkali chemical is added along with the iron slag byproduct. In Portland cement the substitute for this mixture, called clinker, is produced by firing a number of ingredients in a kiln, thus requiring more energy and generating more carbon dioxide. During Moseson's work in India to commercialize the technology, he developed products that meet local standards, using entirely local materials and techniques. He also investigated how the availability of green cement could help make quality building materials more affordable and accessible to marginalized populations living in slums, and create jobs by jump starting small-scale cement manufacturing in the country. "Our results and the literature confirm that it performs as well or better than OPC," Barsoum said. "We are very close to having the cement pass an important commercialization milestone, ASTM C1157, a standard that judges cement-like products on performance, such as strength and setting-time, regardless of composition" The next step for the cement is getting it to the market, which the group is working toward via a start-up company called Greenstone Technologies, Inc. Source: Drexel University	<urn:uuid:266064a0-17d6-4a5f-b5e9-62cecc0cbefd>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://environmentalresearchweb.org/cws/article/yournews/48704	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.95414	676	3.40625	3
Greeley County, Kansas From Ancestry.com Wiki \|This article is a stub. Help us to expand it by contributing your knowledge. For county page guidelines, visit U.S. County Page Content Suggestions.\| Greeley is a county in Kansas. It was formed in 1873 (1889) from the following county/ies: unorganized . Greeley began keeping birth records in 1896–1904 , marriage records in 1887, and death records in 1897–1905. It began keeping land records in 1886, probate records in ?, and court records in 1880. For more information, contact the county at 208 Harper St./Box 277, Tribune 67879-0000. On the attached map, Greeley is located at A4. For information about the state of Kansas see Kansas Family History Research.	<urn:uuid:df310dd1-4563-463f-861c-fc674951b841>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.ancestry.com.au/wiki/index.php?title=Greeley_County,_Kansas	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.91193	174	2.65625	3
Published in Blood Weekly, April 8th, 1996 Three GBV viruses - GBV-A, GBV-B, and GBV-C - have recently been identified. In January 1996 hepatitis X, a long-awaited agent referred to informally for several months at scientific meetings, was designated hepatitis G or HGV (Linnen et al., Science, 1996;271:505-509). "Isolation of the GB viruses A and B as novel flavivirus-like agents in tamarins infected originally with acute icteric hepatitis, facilitated the identification... Want to see the full article? Welcome to NewsRx! Learn more about a six-week, no-risk free trial of Blood Weekly NewsRx also is available at LexisNexis, Gale, ProQuest, Factiva, Dialog, Thomson Reuters, NewsEdge, and Dow Jones.	<urn:uuid:821d13f7-efe2-43b2-ae8d-b2687ae38d8a>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.newsrx.com/newsletters/Blood-Weekly/1996-04-08/0408968833051BW.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.904294	186	2.625	3
It is past time to have a discussion with you concerning the most undervalued plants growing on your property. These uncultivated, unappreciated, demonized plants are all grouped into a single category — weeds. A weed is defined as a plant growing where it is not wanted. It is understandable to object to chickweed stealing water and nutrients from a planting of alyssum, or crabgrass aggressively turning a bluegrass lawn into a rough meadow. But is a plant a weed if it is holding an unattended banking from eroding or painting a field in with black-eyed Susans, Queen Anne’s Lace and Ox-eye daisies? What if the plant palette is composed of bracken, curled dock, devils paintbrush, horsetail and yarrow, all early colonizers that survive on severely disturbed ground and prevent it from washing or blowing away? Many weeds develop taproots several feet deep that aid in breaking up hardpan layers, thus improving drainage and aeration. Their deep questing roots bring to the surface nutrients and trace elements that have long been lost or consumed by previous crops. They allow subsequent surface-rooting crops, flowers and vegetables to root and feed and better withstand drought. Purslane (Portulaca), pigweed (Amaranthus), lamb’s quarter (Chenopodium) and burdock (Arctium) fiberize and condition the soil and provide a supportive environment for beneficial soil micro-flora to prosper. They serve as a “green manure” crop to increase the organic matter content of the soil. Weeds store up nutrients and minerals that otherwise would be washed, blown or leached away from bare ground. Weeds provide cover and food for wildlife. They can serve as forage for farm animals. Certain weeds serve as indicators of soil or environmental conditions. Numerous weeds came to these shores from Europe, used as medicinal herbs and food plants. Dandelion, plantain, coltsfoot, stinging nettle, greater celandine and dozens of other plants were used medicinally. Lamb’s quarters, chicory, witchgrass, watercress, along with dandelion were commonly eaten. Many plants have aesthetic qualities such as milkweed, goldenrod, Joe Pye weed and boneset. At a recent agricultural fair at Old Sturbridge Village, I was privileged to judge a series of dried flower bouquets created from the seed stems, leaves and pods of weeds. Weeds are an important aspect of nature. In the eye of man, they are a plant out of place; in the scheme of nature, they are very much in place. Gardens have myriad needs (May 5, 2013) Chilly nights still a concern (Apr 28, 2013) From garden to plate (Apr 21, 2013) Spring cleanup on tap (Apr 14, 2013) Get your grass going (Apr 7, 2013) Focus indoors (Mar 31, 2013) Bring on the spring (Mar 24, 2013) Ready to ditch snow shovels (Mar 17, 2013) Changes are underfoot (Mar 10, 2013) Several peas to ponder (Mar 3, 2013)	<urn:uuid:813615db-5e80-4488-be30-13e4051c8717>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.telegram.com/article/20120923/COLUMN18/109239984/0/living15	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.943797	666	3.125	3
Birth: About 1639 in England Death: 10 April 1695 in Massachusetts, America Benedict (or Benedictus) was the first Pulsipher to arrive in America, and possibly the first “Pulsipher” in the world. While it is suspected that his father was Benjamin Pulsipher (born in about 1614 in Ireland), it is hard to trace the family any further back due to confusions about the name. While it was a mystery for a long time, recent years have suggested that the family was originally the Pulford family, but changed their name upon reaching America (or just before) to escape association with the Puritans in England that had just beheaded Charles I. Additionally, throughout the years, the name has adapted many different spellings (including Pulcipher, Pulsifer, Pulcifer, etc.). Benedict was married to his second wife, Susanna A. Waters (1 February 1649-21 December 1726) in February of either 1673 or 1674 in Ipswich, Massachusetts, America. His first wife’s name is unknown, but he married her a few years before coming to America. Benedict and Susanna had several children: Richard Pulsipher, William Pulsipher, Susanna Pulsipher (died as a child), Joseph Pulsipher, Jonathan Pulsipher, Johanna Pulsipher (Jonathan’s twin), Susanna Pulsipher, Elizabeth Pulsipher, David Pulsipher and Margret Pulsipher. Benedict had other children with his first wife, as well, however their records are not as clear. These children include: Benedict Pulsipher Junior and John Pulsipher. Benedict was considered well educated for the time. He lived out the rest of his life as a farmer in the Massachusetts Bay Colony.	<urn:uuid:b24b1a62-359c-433b-86bf-725ab65dbeb3>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://beyondthehome.blogspot.com/2010/07/benedict-pulsipher.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.986755	386	2.671875	3
The data can be found here. Description of region codes: Cornwall, Devon and Pembrokeshire were pooled to represent the South/West (SW) and the area that could be considered the closest surrogate to the Ancient British. Kent, Norfolk and Lincolnshire were pooled to represent the East (E) and the area most directly influenced by the Anglo-Saxon invasions. Cumbria, Yorkshire and the North East were pooled broadly to represent the North of England (N); Oxfordshire and the Forest of Dean were combined to represent the Central region of England (CN); and Orkney was kept separate from the others, largely because of the known substantial Norse Viking influence in Orkney. Of interest are the NRY haplogroup data: The SW seems to have the lowest R1a1 frequency (1.3%). This is in agreement with the Dodecad v3 results for Cornwall (1.8% East European). The E seems to have an intermediate frequency (3.5%), again in agreement with Dodecad v3 for Kent (3.7%). Orkney has the highest R1a1 frequency (34.2%) and also the highest East European component in Dodecad v3 (11%). So, it does seem that R1a1 frequency tracks an eastern population element in the British isles. R1xR1a1 has its lowest values in E and OR; this is probably consistent with the idea that Germanic invaders from the east possessed less of this haplogroup than the pre-Germanic population. The minor alleles in MC1R are associated with red hair, and it seems that this is maximized in Orkney. The admixture estimates are also quite interesting, showing a dependence on the use of local (L) vs. non-local (N) surnames; the results do suggest non-trivial shifts in genetic composition since the adoption of surnames. Also of interest: A British approach to samplingEuropean Journal of Human Genetics advance online publication 10 August 2011; doi: 10.1038/ejhg.2011.127 People of the British Isles: preliminary analysis of genotypes and surnames in a UK-control population Bruce Winney et al. There is a great deal of interest in a fine-scale population structure in the UK, both as a signature of historical immigration events and because of the effect population structure may have on disease association studies. Although population structure appears to have a minor impact on the current generation of genome-wide association studies, it is likely to have a significant part in the next generation of studies designed to search for rare variants. A powerful way of detecting such structure is to control and document carefully the provenance of the samples involved. In this study, we describe the collection of a cohort of rural UK samples (The People of the British Isles), aimed at providing a well-characterised UK-control population that can be used as a resource by the research community, as well as providing a fine-scale genetic information on the British population. So far, some 4000 samples have been collected, the majority of which fit the criteria of coming from a rural area and having all four grandparents from approximately the same area. Analysis of the first 3865 samples that have been geocoded indicates that 75% have a mean distance between grandparental places of birth of 37.3 km, and that about 70% of grandparental places of birth can be classed as rural. Preliminary genotyping of 1057 samples demonstrates the value of these samples for investigating a fine-scale population structure within the UK, and shows how this can be enhanced by the use of surnames.	<urn:uuid:c840d9a2-13c9-4560-8925-145ea2aae3ff>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://dienekes.blogspot.com/2011/08/first-people-of-british-isles-paper.html?showComment=1313272905227	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.949732	764	2.640625	3
14 Answers votes newest views recent 5Geometric Interpretations of Homotopy Theoretical Constructions 2Topology on extensions of topological groups 1LaTeX based document editors 2What is the proper initiation to the theory of motives for a new student of algebraic geometry? 5A Learning Roadmap request: From high-school to mid-undergraduate studies 0Learning to Think Categorically 41What should be offered in undergraduate mathematics that’s currently not (or isn’t usually)? (2) 5What is lambda calculus related to? 1Why is it a good idea to study a ring by studying its modules? 2How are invariants represented in category theory? 1The importance of EGA and SGA for “students of today” 0“A gentleman never chooses a basis.” 20Free, high quality mathematical writing online? 27Best online mathematics videos?	<urn:uuid:304aaa83-b9fe-42ae-926f-5a63839d630d>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://mathoverflow.net/api/useranswers.html?userid=956&page=1&pagesize=30&sort=recent	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.895279	183	2.640625	3
Science Fair Project Encyclopedia Aleksis Kivi was born at Nurmijärvi, Finland, in a tailor’s family. In 1846 he left for school in Helsinki, and in 1859 he was accepted to the University of Helsinki, where he studied literature and developed an interest in the theater. His first play was Kullervo, based on a tragic tale from Kalevala. He also met the famous journalist and statesman Johan Vilhelm Snellman. By this time, he had finnicized his Swedish surname Stenvall ('stone bank') to the Finnish Kivi ('stone'). From 1863 onwards, Kivi devoted his time to writing. He wrote 12 plays and a collection of poetry. The novel Seven Brothers took him ten years to write. Literary critics, especially the prominent August Ahlqvist, disapproved of the book, at least nominally because of its realism – romanticism was in its forte at the time – but maybe also because it was written in the south-western variety of Finnish, the "peasant’s language", instead of the more "cultural" Swedish or north-eastern variety of Finnish. The Fennomans also disapproved of its depiction of not-so-virtuous rural life that was far from their idealized point of view, and his excessive drinking may have alienated some. In 1865 Kivi won the State Prize for his still often performed comedy Nummisuutarit (The Cobblers on the Heath). However, the less than enthusiastic reception of his books was taking its toll and he was already drinking heavily. His main benefactor Charlotta Lönnqvist could not help him after the 1860s. Physical deterioration and developing schizophrenia set in, and Kivi died in poverty at the age of 38. In 2002 director Jari Halonen's movie The Life of Aleksis Kivi (Finnish title: Aleksis Kiven elämä) premiered in Finnish cinemas. The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details	<urn:uuid:b0160864-8aab-4bfe-872c-6effabb896e8>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/science_fair_projects_encyclopedia/Aleksis_Kivi	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.981166	450	2.765625	3
8 September 2009. Eight universities, including the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid through its Facultad de Informática, are participating in the European DynaLearn Project, part of the Seventh Framework Programme for Information and Communications Technologies (FP7-ICT). This project is to develop an interactive learning environment enabling students to individually or collaboratively build conceptual models of the scientific subjects under study. The ultimate aim of this project is to play a role, through the integration of well-established technological developments, in raising European youth’s interest in studying scientific disciplines. It is important for human beings to understand how things work. It is vital to be able to explain and predict their behaviour to use the accessible educational resources for the benefit of humanity. Therefore, society needs to find effective instruments to improve individual education in different fields. However, there is a clear decline in science education. The number of students is dropping sharply, as fewer and fewer students are opting for a science education and, of those that do, more and more are dropping out. Recent surveys, like Osborne’s 2003 study, offer extensive information on this problem and identify under-commitment and under-motivation in science education as one of its main causes. They also pinpoint the under-use of information technologies for the purpose that they are really most necessary, that is, as tools for dealing interactively with the theoretical concepts explaining all sorts of different natural phenomena. These educational needs are what are behind the DynaLearn project. DynaLearn sets out to integrate well-established but currently independent technological developments and utilize the resulting added value from their integration to meet such needs and alleviate these problems. The priority objective of DynaLearn is to develop an interactive learning environment enabling students to build conceptual models of the scientific subjects individually or in a collaborative environment. This environment will have three key features: it will tailor the use of the conceptual knowledge to the learning experience, it will appeal to students and it will react to each student’s individual learning requirements. Students will handle graphical elements to build the knowledge models and interact with other students and experts (teachers) to exchange knowledge on different subjects. The resulting technology will have the potential of becoming a secondary and higher education standard for knowledge acquisition across a wide range of subjects. The developed software will significantly improve students’ ability to understand and explain scientific system behaviour. Also, avatars will encourage students to use the software, getting them to collaborate and compete with each other and stimulating the social side of learning. Finally, thanks to semantic technology, students will be able to automatically compare their results against the models created by other students and by teachers. This will provide information on how to improve their models and advice on an individualized learning itinerary. DynaLearn is a European Union Seventh Framework Programme Project for Research on Information and Communications Technologies (FP7-ICT), coordinated by the University of Amsterdam and partnered by the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid Facultad de Informática’s Ontological Engineering Group, the University of Augsburg, the University of Brasilia, Tel Aviv University, the University of Hull, the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and the University of Natural Resources and Applied Science of Vienna. This news item on other websites Espacio Madrileño de Enseñanza Superior 16.09.2009 Consumer EROSKI 12.09.2009 ACM Tech News 09.09.2009 Cordis (english) 09.09.2009 Alpha Galileo (english) 08.09.2009 Alpha Galileo 08.09.2009	<urn:uuid:65d03fb8-0823-4f18-8e4d-1670ea75ca64>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.fi.upm.es/?id=tablon&acciongt=consulta1&idet=289	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.880226	738	3.375	3
Web server (Apache) From Oxxus Wiki Web server, Apache, is an Open Source server application and can be installed from the source or appropriate distro's package. With Apache, by default, comes PHP interpreter, which has to be installed separately if installation is done from the source. If it's done with automatic packages, it'll pull it for installation automatically. Instructions on installation from packages is detailed below. For Ubuntu/Debian OS, Apache comes as deb package and can be installed either using dpkk installer, which requires deb package, or by apt-get, automatic installer. For RedHat related, like Centos, RedHat ES or Fedora, rpm installer can be used for installation, which again requires rpm package, or yum, automatic updater/installer. In either case, once Apache is installed, you're ready to configure it for default s and start it up to serve your web pages. Apache comes with default configuration file which needs minor settings to be able to serve web pages. Configuration file is at Apache's configuration folder and is named httpd.conf, regardless which OS distribution is used. Several required settings for Quick-Start-Up First, ServerName directive needs proper name, or Apache will assume that there is no name assigned to web server and will start as localhost service. ServerName directive always uses domain's name which web pages are to be served. Port directive tells which TCP port will be used for this service, commonly it's 80 because every browser is going to send request to port 80 in order to access web pages served by server. If set to any other port, you'll have to do the redirection from 80 to custom port. With these directives your web server is ready to serve your web site pages. All web site related files have to be placed into Apache main web folder. By default, this is /var/www/html/ for RedHat related, or /var/www/ for Debian related OS. Main web folder, if not used one from default configuration, can be set in Apache's configuration file with directive DocumentRoot "" By default, Apache queries for index.html or index.php which are standard index pages, depending if pages are written in PHP or in plain HTML This one can be set to custom value with directive DirectoryIndex Default Character Code set is not defined, but if you need special characters or Foreign Language support for your pages, then you can set it up with directive AddDefaultCharset Another interesting feature of Apache service is having aliases. This feature allows serving pages from by files that are not in main web folder but are placed anywhere in server. Setting is pretty straight-forward. Place Alias directive like follows. Alias /test/ “/var/www/test/”. With this example Apache will serve pages defined in files from folder /var/www/test/ You can restrict accessing entire folders, and subfolder, and any contents within by setting .htaccess feature In Apache configuration file, set the directive AllowOverride All and here are files that has to be placed into desired folder. Apache will automatically vring up this service once it finds .htaccess. .htaccess file (place it into desired folder) AuthName ZoneName AuthType Basic AuthUserFile FOLDER_FOR_PROTECTION/.htpasswd Require valid-user If you have access to shell prompt of apache's server then use commands below in order to generate .htpasswd file with users and passwords allowed htpasswd -nbm USENAME PASSWORD >>.htpasswd Execute this command from shell prompt and at folder where .htpasswd is defined to at .htaccess file All these directives are allowed for global web server configuration, set to serve pages from default web folder. But they can be set for specific folders as well. This is enabled by directive Directory, set as follows, in example <Directory /FOLDER_NAME> ...options and directives set here are strictly for this FOLDER_NAME and files server from it </Directory> Serve contents for multiple domains With Apache application server, you can also serve contents for multiple domains, separately. This feature is called Virtual Hosting and basic settings for test.com is as follows. NameVirtualHost :80 (required for Apache to set to serve multiple domains) <VirtualHost :80> DocumentRoot FOLDER_WHERE_WEB_FILES_ARE_STORED ServerName test.com ServerAlias www.test.com ErrorLog logs/test.com-error_log CustomLog logs/test.com-access_log common </VirtualHost> With configuration set as above and web files placed into FOLDER_WHERE_WEB_FILES_ARE_STORED, you can restart Apache and access web site contents of www.test.com By configuring virtual domains as shown, you can serve as many domains as you need. Apache's configuration file contains detailed how-to instructions for all directives and options that are required for your web site to work correctly.	<urn:uuid:9b7b5596-4d31-4469-ac03-57d68554ced7>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.oxxus.net/wiki/Web_server_(Apache)	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.861375	1,071	3.34375	3
\|Chapter 4: Claiming Land Ole Rudd travels across the eastern segment of Washington Territory in search of good farm land. After surveying the land on a plateau above the Columbia River in North Central Washington, Rudd establishes a farm, and begins to raise his crops. \|Chapter 5: Hardships Strike Financial hardships hit the Washington Territory, but Mr. Rudd manages to rise above it by diversifying his crops and livestock. Ole also becomes the first County Surveyor of Douglas County, and finds he holds this office through several elections. Sadness hits the Rudd family when they must deal with the death of a daughter. \|Chapter 6: The Need to Try New Things Ole becomes one of the early growers of apples in North Central Washington. World War I is taking place, and is being blamed for higher costs of living. Because of these higher costs, farmers are experimenting with new technologies to make their ranches and farms more profitable.	<urn:uuid:65bc41b3-9fdf-4672-a849-78134ac13173>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.pacificnorthwestjourneys.org/year3/unit.cfm?UID=8	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.950299	194	2.984375	3
The International Baccalaureate Organization aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable, and caring young people who help create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect. The learner profile consists of the learner outcomes for the program. They are a set of ideals to define the type of learner we hope to develop at Quarry Bay School. They understand the importance of intellectual, physical, and emotional balance to achieve personal well-being for themselves and others. They show empathy, compassion, and respect towards the needs and feelings of others.They have personal commitment to service, and act to make a positive difference to the lives of others and to the environment. They understand and express ideas and information confidently and creatively in more than one language and in a variety of modes of communication. They work effectively and in collaboration with others. They develop their natural curiosity.They acquire the skills necessary to conduct inquiry and research and show independence in learning.They actively enjoy learning and this love of learning can be sustained throughout their lives. They explore concepts, ideas, and issues that have local and global significance.In so doing, they acquire in-depth knowledge and develop understanding across a broad and balanced range of disciplines. They understand and appreciate their own cultures and personal histories, and are open to the perspectives, values, and traditions of other individuals and communities. They are accustomed to seeking and evaluating a range of points of view, and are willing to grow from the experience. They act with integrity and honesty, with a strong sense of fairness, justice, and respect for the dignity of the individual, groups, and communities.They take responsibility for their own actions and the consequences that accompany them. They give thoughtful consideration to their own learning and experience. They are able to assess and understand their strengths and limitations in order to support their learning and personal development. They approach unfamiliar situations and uncertainty with courage and forethought, and have the independence of spirit to explore new roles, ideas, and strategies. They are brave and articulate in defending their beliefs. They exercise initiative in applying thinking skills critically and creatively to recognize and approach complex problems, and make reasoned, ethical decisions. Click here for an introductory video on The Learner Profile	<urn:uuid:4adbc946-e433-4ff6-9eef-6fc6c825b4e4>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.qbs.edu.hk/learning-qbs/our-learner-profile	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.936511	456	3.15625	3
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction International Conference on Early Warning (EWC-II) \|Summary of the Second International Conference on Early Warning (EWC II) The impacts across the globe of extreme natural events such as floods and droughts and storms are enormous, and are a serious handicap to the advancement of struggling developing societies. Too often, those at risk do not have proper early warning of the events and are not well equipped to respond to warning information that is available. Against this background, the Second International Conference on Early Warning (EWC II) was organized in Bonn, Germany, from 16-18 October 2003, in order to stimulate an enhanced awareness and commitment by policy makers to reduce the negative impact of disasters through better early warning systems. It aimed to build on the solid background of knowledge generated by the first Early Warning Conference (EWC’98), held in Potsdam, Germany. It is widely recognized that disaster reduction measures have to be integrated into sustainable development policies and plans of action, across the social, economic and environmental dimensions, and at all levels of society. Early warnings have repeatedly been identified as an essential element of disaster reduction strategies and of other critical development agendas. The high level of interest in the Conference, which was held in the Internationales Kongresszentrum Bundeshaus, Bonn, was demonstrated by active participation of government ministers and officials from thirteen countries, representatives of UN and other multilateral development assistance agencies, technical and research institutions and non-governmental organizations – over 400 participants The conference deliberations were structured to provide for interaction and the generation of practical guidance and recommendations for future action. Sessions were held on good practices in early warning and on emerging issues. Panel discussions looked at solutions for integrating early warning into public policy; at linking new technologies and low-technology solutions for early warning systems; at the responsibilities of policy makers in the context of early warning and urban risks; and at early warning as a decision tool for emergency management. Additional sessions were also held to discuss flooding, the use of hazard maps for effective early warning, integrated approaches to reduce societal vulnerability to droughts, the implementation of trans-boundary early warning systems for floods, and new technologies and scientific networks. Many valuable, well-informed recommendations were made, and these were collated and distilled into the conference outcome document “Effective Early Warning to Reduce Disasters: The Need for More Coherent International Action.” As is indicated by the title of this document, a key recommendation was that a more sustained international effort was required. There was a sense that insufficient progress had been made in implementing early warning systems since the Potsdam conference and that this was partly a result of inadequate dialogue and activity at the international level. Participants strongly voiced the need to maintain the momentum initiated in Potsdam and Bonn, in order to facilitate, sustain and further nurture efforts by all to make early warnings more effective. Of course this is not an easy task. Fostering international efforts, getting people to work together who are not accustomed to, raising political awareness, developing good supporting information, and building enduring commitment are long term efforts. Encouragingly, the Government of Germany expressed its interest to support such efforts under the auspices of the UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR), has led to the establishment of the early warning platform.	<urn:uuid:6664e891-e5e5-48ef-bb93-fcca04cec979>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.unisdr.org/2006/ppew/info-resources/ewc2-summary.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.945757	704	2.765625	3
Killer Bobble-Headed Penguins! Spheniscus penguins are your basic model. Collectively, the four living species are sometimes known as “tuxedo penguins” for their striking color patterns, which resemble a tuxedo motif just a bit more than those of other types of penguins. These four species are among the most warm-weather adapted of modern penguins, and live in Africa, South America and the Galapagos Islands. Spheniscus penguins also have a really good fossil record, with lots of skeletons discovered in the past few years in places like Peru and Chile. Many of these specimens are very similar to the living Humboldt Penguin (Spheniscus humboldti), which plies the coasts of South America today. However, two species stand out for their remarkable appearance. Spheniscus urbinai and Spheniscus megaramphus were discovered in the prolific fossil deposits of the Peruvian Atacama Desert (also referred to a the Sechura Desert). These penguins appear to be standard, although slightly larger, versions of the basic Spheniscus plan from the toes up the neck. Flippers, legs, vertebrae – all these bones are not easily distinguishable from the same elements in a Humboldt Penguin to the untrained eye. The head, though, is a different story. These two penguins have “bobble heads” – skulls that are proportionally too big for their body. Well, too big for a normal penguin’s body anyway – no one seems to have sent a memo to Spheniscus urbinai or Spheniscus megaramphus. Aside from the big heads, these penguins had killer beaks. The tips, instead of being straight like many fossil penguins or lightly down-turned like most modern species, were powerfully developed into a sharp menacing hook. This is a style of beak often seen in aeriel predators like eagles and fish-snatching birds like frigatebirds. One of the basic facts about fossil bird beaks is that they tend to tell only half the story. That is because the bony part of the beak is covered by a layer of keratin in life. This sheath can greatly extend the tip of the bill in some species, and Spheniscus penguins are a perfect example. The bony beaks of these birds have a modest sharp hook at the tip. When the sheath is added though, the tips start looking pretty fierce. Adding the keratin layer to Spheniscus urbinai and Spheniscus megaramphus would rachet up the beak from menacing to downright scary. What were these fossil species doing with there intimidating beaks? Most likely catching tough prey. A powerful hook would be well suited to ripping into fish and squid, and is more useful for holding onto a larger victim than gathering up tiny things like sardines. Whatever their ecology, the bobble-headed Spheniscus species did not make it to the present day. After splitting off from the main Spheniscus lineage around 6 million years ago, Spheniscus urbinai and Spheniscus megaramphus enjoined a few million years of successful hunting before vanishing.	<urn:uuid:3f29aedd-8047-4038-a432-3a69f9cd3d26>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://fossilpenguins.wordpress.com/2012/09/25/killer-bobble-headed-penguins/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.933261	688	3.40625	3
(PhysOrg.com) -- In an effort to make computer chips even faster than those of today, many researchers have recently been investigating the possibility of optical computing. In an optical computer, information is encoded as photons rather than electrons, allowing large amounts of data to be processed simultaneously. But before an optical computer can be realized, researchers need to design a 3D structure that can sufficiently manipulate light. Electronic computers switch electric current on and off using semiconductors with band gaps for electrons, in which electric current is forbidden to pass through. By analogy, optical computers are expected to require optical semiconductors with photonic band gaps, in which light of a range of wavelengths is forbidden to pass through. Manufacturing 3D structures that can control light in this way is difficult, since the technology currently used to manufacture todays computer chips involves building the structures on the chip layer by layer. This technique would be time-consuming and expensive for fabricating 3D optical chips. But recently, a team of researchers from the Netherlands led by Professor Willem Vos from the MESA+ Institute at the University of Twente, the University of Eindhoven, the ASML company, and the TNO Institute has for the first time fabricated 3D structures with a photonic band gap that can control the emission of light. The 3D structures are photonic crystals that possess an artificial diamond structure, which is etched in a silicon wafer using CMOS-compatible methods. For a complete photonic band gap, it is crucial to have 3D structures at ones disposal, University of Twente researchers Willem Tjerkstra, Léon Woldering, and Vos told PhysOrg.com. Our work is the first ever demonstration of the radical control of the spontaneous emission of light by means of a photonic band gap (while electronic band gaps are known for a long time, there is no such thing as spontaneous emission of current). The researchers described how to fabricate these 3D structures in two recent studies. Starting with crystalline silicon wafers, the researchers first etched a set of pores in a rectangular pattern on the top surface of the wafers. To do this, they used advanced deep-UV lithography, in which a giant camera uses UV light to project the pore structure onto the silicon surface. This light created an etch mask with millions of tiny pores. Then the researchers used a plasma etching process that is commonly used in the computer chip industry to deeply etch nanopores into the silicon wafer. Next, the researchers etched a set of pores in the same rectangular pattern on the thin side of the wafer, so that this set of pores crossed the first set of pores at a 90° angle. Although the researchers used the same standard equipment to etch the side pores as the top pores, it was much more difficult due to the extreme precision required. The mask pattern had to be aligned as accurately as possible in order for the pores to be correctly, perpendicularly aligned with the first set. As the researchers explained, this fabrication process involves two significant advances: it consists of only two etching steps, and it does not require any specialized equipment. The team reported the development of the precise etching technique in a paper published in the Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology. In a second paper, published in Advanced Functional Materials, they reported applying the technique to make the 3D photonic crystals with artificial diamond structures. The central result of the Tjerkstra, et al., article is the fact that we have, for the first time, developed a way to realize 3D nanostructures in silicon by making etch-masks on two different sides of a wafer, the researchers said. The accuracy with which the two etching masks are aligned is unprecedented: the mask patterns are aligned to within a distance of 30 nm and within an angle of 0.5° of the optimal configuration. As a result, a complex 3D structure can be made in only two etching steps, instead of tediously making such a structure by stacking layer-by-layer, as in standard CMOS-compatible fabrication. The central result of the van den Broek, et al., paper is that we have employed our 3D etch-masking method to realize a complex 3D periodic array (a crystal structure) of pores in silicon. The intersections of the pores are ordered in the same way as atoms in a diamond crystal. As the pores are spaced by several hundred nanometers, the structure is a photonic crystal, that is, a metamaterial that radically modifies the propagation and emission of light. This diamond structure is what gives the structure its photonic band gap, which is required for future optical computers. Theoretically, the 3D structure reflects 100% of incoming light of a certain wavelength, although in reality the maximum reflectivity is limited by the roughness and the size of the crystal. Also, the band gap appears at the near-infrared wavelengths between 1330 and 1550 nm, which are used in the telecommunications industry, making the structure appear promising for applications. Since the methods involved are compatible with standard chip-technology, the researchers hope that the optical structures can be easily integrated with existing electronic computer chips. To use these structures to manipulate data in an optical computer, the researchers will need to integrate a cavity inside the highly reflective 3D structures to capture photons. Inside this cage for light, light will continually bounce between the walls of the cage until it is set free by the press of a button. In this way, the cavity will serve as an optical one-bit memory, although researchers are still discussing how to optically define ones and zeros. Integrating such a cavity into the 3D structures will require additional nanofabrication methods. The researchers noted that similar cavities have already been made in 2D photonic crystals, although the light can leak out by escaping in the third dimension. Ultimately, these steps could lead to the development of an optical computer that can process far more data simultaneously than a conventional computer. Because the components on an optical device must operate at a certain size set by the wavelength of light, they would not be governed by Moores law. According to Moores law, the number of transistors on an electronic computer chip doubles approximately every two years, meaning more computing power per chip area. Moores Law - in the sense of miniaturizing devices to pack them in a higher density - does not apply to photonic components because when photonic crystals become smaller their properties change: If one were to make crystals smaller by removing unit cells, their ability to manipulate light diminishes, and if one would make the feature sizes smaller, the wavelengths of the photonic band gap in the electromagnetic spectrum decrease (typically to ranges where light is absorbed), the researchers explained. If one were able to control and manipulate information in the form of optical bits, this has an important feature, namely that much more information can be handled simultaneously than with well-known electronic schemes. The reason is that light can be modulated at a much higher frequency than electronic systems (typically 100 to 1000 times faster), on account of its much higher natural frequency. Whether this will lead to a new type of Moores law is not known at this time. In addition to computing, the new 3D structures could have other optical applications. For instance, in a third paper , the researchers demonstrated for the first time the inhibition of the spontaneous emission of light. Predicted 25 years ago by American scientists, this phenomenon provides a new way to control transitions of electrons inside atoms or molecules, and could lead to enhanced semiconductor LEDs, solid-state lasers, and solar cells. The results may also serve to shield sensitive quantum systems from ubiquitous noise as a result of vacuum fluctuations of light. There are other important applications that can be addressed with the new results, the researchers said. For instance, new nanophotonic know-how is leading to unconventional ways to realize microscopy with unprecedented resolution. And our methods and techniques are also expected to yield much more efficient LEDs and green technology, as this will allow mankind to considerably save on power consumption while simultaneously allowing for much higher comfort and well-being for many more people on our beautiful planet. Explore further: Is there an invisible tug-of-war behind bad hearts and power outages? More information: R.W. Tjerkstra, L.A. Woldering, J.M. van den Broek, F. Roozeboom, I.D. Setija, and W.L. Vos. A method to pattern etch masks in two inclined planes for three-dimensional nano- and microfabrication. Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B. (soon online) J. M. van den Broek, L. A. Woldering, R. W. Tjerkstra, F. B. Segerink, I. D. Setija, and W. L. Vos. Inverse-Woodpile Photonic Band Gap Crystals with a Cubic Diamond-like Structure Made from Single-Crystalline Silicon. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2011. DOI:10.1002/adfm.201101101 M. D. Leistikow, A. P. Mosk, E. Yeganegi, S. R. Huisman, A. Lagendijk, and W. L. Vos, Inhibited spontaneous emission of quantum dots observed in a 3D photonic band gap. Phys. Rev. Lett. 107, 193903: (2011). DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.193903	<urn:uuid:1e709029-6096-488e-907e-87e811428f7c>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://phys.org/news/2011-11-light-controlling-artificial-diamond-optical.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.927097	2,001	4.09375	4
Royal Niger CompanyFlag of the Royal Niger Company Sir George Taubman Goldie conceived the idea of adding to the British empire the then little known regions of the lower and middle Niger River, and for over twenty years his efforts were devoted to the realization of this conception. The method by which he determined to work was the revival of government by chartered companies within the empire, a method supposed to be buried with the British East India Company. The first step was to combine all British commercial interests in the Niger, and this he accomplished in 1879 when the United African Company was formed. In 1881 Goldie sought a charter from Gladstone's government but his attempts failed. At this time French traders, encouraged by Léon Gambetta, established themselves on the lower river, thus rendering it difficult for the company to obtain territorial rights; but the Frenchmen were bought out in 1884, so that at the Berlin Conference on West Africa in 1885, Goldie, present as an expert on matters relating to the river, was able to announce that on the lower Niger the British flag alone flew. Meantime the Niger coast line had been placed under British protection. Over 400 political treaties drawn up by Goldie were made with the chiefs of the lower Niger and the Hausa states. The scruples of the British government being overcome, a charter was at length granted (July 1886), the National African Company becoming the Royal Niger Company, with Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare as governor and Goldie as vice-governor. It was, however, evidently impossible for a chartered company to hold its own against the state-supported protectorates of France and Germany, and in consequence, on January 1, 1900, the Royal Niger Company transferred its territories to the British government for the sum of £865,000. The ceded territory together with the small Niger Coast Protectorate, already under imperial control, was formed into the two protectorates of northern and southern Nigeria. - This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.	<urn:uuid:202af074-c5b9-46e3-b890-84a42d2eaf1b>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://wikipedia.atpedia.com/en/articles/r/o/y/Royal_Niger_Company_19a7.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.971818	433	3.21875	3
Alan Turing broke the enigma code in World War Two, and devised machines that became programmable computers. Turing's homosexuality resulted in a criminal prosecution in 1952, when homosexual acts were still illegal in the United Kingdom. He lost his security clearance, and accepted treatment with female hormones (chemical castration) as an alternative to prison. He commited suicide in 1954, just over two weeks before his 42nd birthday, from cyanide poisoning. Visit Manchester University's official Alan Turing page, and sign up for their newsletter. June 23, 2012, is the Centenary of Alan Turing's birth in London. During his relatively brief life, Turing made a unique impact on the history of computing, computer science, artificial intelligence, developmental biology, and the mathematical theory of computability. 2012 will be a celebration of Turing's life and scientific impact, with a number of major events taking place throughout the year. Most of these will be linked to places with special significance in Turing's life, such as Cambridge, Manchester and Bletchley Park. "Memory Of The Future" was heard on 'Radio 2 In Concert', Wed 5 Dec 2012, BBC Philharmonic Studio, Salford, part of a piece Tennant and Lowe have been writing inspired by Alan Turing youtube.com 18 Dec 12 The Universal Machine A new musical about the life and death of Alan Turing. New Diorama Theatre, London - Tue 16 Apr - Sat 11 May newdiorama.com 18 Dec 12 the British codebreaker, should be pardoned posthumously over his historic conviction for homosexuality, Prof Stephen Hawking and other leading scientists have said telegraph.co.uk 14 Dec 12 The Minister of State, Ministry of Justice (Lord McNally): Dr Turing's conviction, essentially for homosexual activity, was the result of an offence which we would now consider discriminatory and which has now been repealed. This was a shocking and inappropriate fate for someone who had contributed so much to science and to the defence of his country. However, it is long-standing Government policy that pardons under the Royal Prerogative of Mercy should be reserved for cases where it can be established that the convicted person was innocent of the relevant offence, and not to undo the effects of legislation which we now recognise as wrong. Lord Sharkey introduced a Private Member's Bill in the House of Lords on 25 July which would grant a statutory pardon to Dr Turing, and the Government will consider their response to this Bill in due course. Written Answers in the House of Lords - Asked by Lord Grade of Yarmouth, Tuesday 11 December 2012 To ask Her Majesty's Government whether they will reconsider their decision not to grant a posthumous pardon to Alan Turing. The son of one of Alan Turing's closest friends has called for the codebreaking hero to be pardoned Speaking at a signing of the new Alan Turing Monopoly game, William Newman, said: "I don't see why they can't pardon him, it's not a crime anymore. Who does it hurt? miltonkeynes.co.uk 6 Nov 12 Lego portraits of and other LGBTQ icons from the Little Artists - 10% from every print sold in November to the Terence Higgins Trust littleartist.co.uk Labour Shadow Justice Minister backs Campaign to pardon Alan Turing miltonkeynes.co.uk 2 Nov 12 Bank of England adds Alan Turing to a list of suggestions of people who could be featured on banknotes, after he received 21,996 e-votes bankofengland.co.uk 26 Oct 12 UK LGBT History Month pre-launch at Bletchley Park, focusing on Maths, Science and Engineering, and Alan Turing covered all 3 disciplines - Thu 15 Nov LGBT History Month 23 Oct 12 director of Codebreaker says Alan Turing's story needs to be told. The movie being premiered in the USA washingtonblade.com Oct 12 Graham Moore's screenplay about Alan Turing's story has been bought by Black Bear Pictures, after Warner Bros passes deadline.com 8 Oct 12 GCHQ Chief, Iain Lobban, said the unique people the country needed were often mavericks, and it was his job to set them to work in the world of secret intelligence, "not to tell them how to live their lives" at treatment of Alan Turing - his death robbed the country of "one of our greatest minds" National Portrait Gallery Photo mug of Alan Mathison Turing - £10.21 amazon.co.uk 22 Jun 1 Bletchley Park Shop "The first computer started here. Alan Turing Bletchley Park 1943" - £7.99 bletchleypark.org.uk 22 Jun 12 New drama documentary about the heroic life, tragic death, and lasting legacy of Alan Turing. A shorter version of this film broadcast on Channel 4 in 2011, attracted 1.5 million viewers turingfilm.com 22 Jun 12 seeks art works for the Alan Turing Centenary at Bletchley Park, launching mid September facebook.com 28 May 12	<urn:uuid:7bcd5514-686f-4d0d-a6ce-038b9da0c1f4>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.gaytoz.com/alan_turing.asp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.945655	1,045	2.8125	3
Workshop on karst conservation in Kien Luong district, Kien Giang province On December 29, 2009, the Center of Biodiversity and Development (CBD) of the Institute of Tropical Biology (ITB) in HCMC, in cooperation with IUCN and Holcim Vietnam Ltd (HVL), the global cement company, and the Kien Giang Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (DARD) organized a workshop in Rach Gia on conservation planning in the karst hills of Kien Luong District in Kien Giang Province . Forty-five participants attended from provincial and district government, NGOs, and research centers. The purpose of the workshop was to review the draft conservation plan that CBD has prepared with financial support from IUCN, HVL, and the MacArthur Foundation. Kien Luong's karst is a conservation priority because they are home to a large number of endemic species and are highly threatened. In Kien Luong, the principal threat is quarrying for cement production. HVL has a large operation in the district. Two state-owned cement companies are also present in Kien Luong. The Kien Luong karst is considered of special interest because it is geographically isolated from other karst areas in Vietnam. For IUCN, this initiative is of special interest because it is an example of the use of conservation offsets, in this case by HVL to offset the impact of its limestone quarrying. Conservation offsets are defined as measurable conservation outcomes, deliberately achieved to balance significant biodiversity losses that cannot be countered by avoidance, mitigation, or restoration. Offsets are becoming increasingly common because often high pressure on limited resources means that trade-offs are unavoidable. Some impacts cannot be avoided, mitigated, or restored; they must be offset. Some environmental groups oppose conservation offsets on the basis that they give industry a license to pollute and destroy the environment. But that may not be a realistic approach. In Vietnam, rapid urbanization and industrialization require an adequate supply of concrete. The question is not whether karst hills will be quarried but what conservation benefits can be gained from the activity―the offset. In Kien Luong, the offset is the creation of a new protected area to improve management of the seven karst hills that are not being or are not slated to be quarried. Next steps include the completion of the feasibility study for the proposed protected area by FIPI and engaging the state-owned cement companies in this process. For more information about conservation offsets, go to http://bbop.forest-trends.org/.	<urn:uuid:13fc25ae-3ae0-4abe-aa54-bd20017abe1b>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.iucn.org/es/noticias/noticias_por_fecha/2010_news_sp/febrero_news_2010/?4775/Workshop-on-karst-conservation-in-Kien-Luong-District-Kien-Giang-Province	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.934761	539	2.515625	3
About the artwork The view in this picture is from the Liverpool dock shore looking towards Birkenhead and Tranmere. St Mary's Church in Birkenhead can be clearly seen as can the, still extant, windmill on Bidston Hill and another above Tranmere. Although the architecture is a rather generalised mixture of chimneys and houses some sense of the substantial distinctive new stone terraces of Hamilton Square in Birkenhead is conveyed. Dockside parting scenes were popular pictorial subjects during the 1850s. The most famous of these was a picture by Henry Nelson O'Neill, exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1857, entitled 'Eastwood Ho August 1857'. It showed soldiers leaving for India after the Indian Mutiny. An engraving after O'Neill's picture was published in 1860 and may have part-prompted Lee's choice of subject. The figures of women and men on the dockside are probably all portraits, or if not, then certainly based upon studies made from real people. The artist himself appears on three occasions - as the sailor facing the viewer from the right-hand corner, as the young sailor talking to the woman holding a green umbrella and as the sailor in profile, this time bearded, embracing the woman in the Paisley shawl. In the rowing boat an older bearded man appears twice. Although we do not know his name he was also used by the artist as a model in another picture. Of particular interest is the just visible black sailor in the rowing boat. He too appears in naval uniform. There were many black sailors in Liverpool and this one appears to be of South-east Asian origin. Anchored in the centre of the River Mersey is HMS Majestic, an obsolete 80 gun wooden warship. She had been used during the Crimean War and was not only sail-powered but also screw-driven. Between 1860 and 1866 she was part of the river defences of Liverpool and was scrapped in 1868. Her most memorable achievement during her period on the Mersey was the prevention from leaving the river of two American Confederate warships that had been built at Laird's shipyard in Birkenhead. The men who are leaving to board her may only be going on a tour of duty lasting a week or two. The provisions that they appear to be taking with them include a barrel of the beer, which, according to the inscription on its top, is from Alsopp's brewery. The use of models, the precise delineation of specific fabrics, the attention to topographical accuracy and above all the use of very bright colours applied in small brushstrokes onto a white ground makes this a Pre-Raphaelite picture in the manner of Holman Hunt. In the very small group of pictures that can with certainty be ascribed to John Lee this one is usually considered to be his masterpiece. For this reason it was bought in 1980 to add to the Walker's collection. So strong was the feeling within the Liverpool Academy for and against Pre-Raphaelite principles that it eventually lead to the institution itself splitting into fragmented exhibiting societies. This was not in the interest of any of the artists involved. It was not really until the founding of the Liverpool Autumn Exhibition in 1873 that major exhibiting opportunities for artists from within and outside of Liverpool again arose. John Lee (active 1859 -1867) was one of the group of Merseyside artists who, during the 1850s and 1860s, admired and emulated the brightly-coloured, minutely detailed painting style of the London based Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Very little is known about Lee. He exhibited at the Liverpool Academy between 1859 and 1867 and at the Royal Academy in London between 1863 and 1867. He lived in Rock Ferry near Birkenhead and had a studio in Liverpool. In 1866 he moved to London, possibly in part prompted by the demise of the Liverpool Academy. Liverpool was unique among provincial towns in having a substantial Pre-Raphaelite following among its artists. In part this arose as a result of the exhibiting opportunities that were available to outside artists who were able to show at the annual Liverpool Academy exhibition. There was a £50 ‘non-member prize’ awarded by the Liverpool Academy that was won on seven occasions between 1851 and 1859 by London Pre-Raphaelites or their associates. John Everett Millais, William Holman Hunt, Ford Madox Brown, and William Dyce all won this prize on one or more occasions. In part, Pre-Raphaelitism developed in Liverpool because of the vigorous advocacy of its principles by the artist William Windus, who, having first visited the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition in 1851, returned to Liverpool full of enthusiasm for the new movement. Windus became in effect the leader of a younger group of artists within the Liverpool Academy who sought to distance themselves from more traditional figures like the topographical view painter Herdman and the animal painter Huggins. Also among the several prosperous individuals buying pictures in Liverpool was a tobacco merchant, John Miller of Everton, who bought a number of works by both London and Liverpool Pre-Raphaelite painters.	<urn:uuid:a84a2549-6944-408f-b873-28e78cb16466>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/picture-of-month/displaypicture.asp?venue=2&id=249	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.981239	1,058	2.59375	3
Books Written By Margaret Mead Coming of Age in Samoa: A Psychological Study of Primitive Youth for Western Civilization. Growing Up in New Guinea: A Comparative Study of Primitive Education The Changing Culture of an Indian Tribe Kinship in the Admiralty Islands Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies Cooperation and Competition Among Primitive Peoples The Mountain Arapesh And Keep Your Powder Dry: An Anthropologist Looks at America Balinese Character: A Photographic Analysis. New York Academy of Sciences. Male and Female: A Study of the Sexes in a Changing World The School in American Culture Soviet Attitudes Toward Authority: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Problems of Soviet Character Growth and Culture: A Photographic Study of Balinese Childhood The Study of Culture at a Distance Themes in French Culture Childhood in Contemporary Cultures An Anthropologist at Work: Writings of Ruth Benedict. The Golden Age of American Anthropology Continuities in Cultural Evolution. Anthropologists and What They Do. The Wagon and the Star: A Study of American Community Initiative The Small Conference: An Innovation in Communication Science and the Concept of Race Culture and Commitment: The New Relations Between the Generations in the 1970s. A Rap on Race Blackberry Winter: My Earlier Years Twentieth Century Faith: Hope and Survival To Love or to Perish: The Technological Crisis and the Churches. World Enough: Rethinking the Future Letters From the Field: 1925-1975 An Interview with Santa Claus With a Daughter's Eye: A Memoir of Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, by Catherine Bateson Margaret Mead: A Voice for the Century, by Robert Cassidy. Uncommon Lives: My Lifelong Friendship with Margaret Mead, by Patricia Grinager Margaret Mead: The Complete Bibliography 1925-1976, by Joan Gordon (editor) Margaret Mead: A Life, by Jane Howard Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict: The Kinship of Women, by Hilary Lapsley For Interested Younger Readers Margaret Mead (Making Their Mark), by Liza N. Burby Margaret Mead, by Julie Castiglia She Never Looked Back: Margaret Mead in Samoa, by Sam Epstein Margaret Mead: Coming of Age in America, by Joan T. Mark and Owen Gingerich (editor) Margaret Mead, Anthropologist (Giants of Science), by Michael Pollard Margaret Mead, Grandma Moses, by E. B. White To Grandmother, With Love, Andrews McMeel Publishing Importance of Margaret Mead Margaret Mead: Anthropologist (American Women of Achievement)	<urn:uuid:b43b3228-9c6a-4153-92b1-e5d478ac17b5>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.rochester.edu/College/ANT/faculty/foster/ANT292/Projects/mmead2001/books.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.802363	571	2.671875	3
How Has Childbirth Changed in This Century? Childbirth itself has not changed at all! Babies are still born today in the same way that that they have been born for generations. But many things associated with childbirth have changed, including: - Women's expectations of childbirth - Pain management options - The economics of childbirth and the system of healthcare - The technology used during pregnancy and birth. These factors have greatly changed women's childbirth experiences. How have women's expectations of childbirth changed? Today, a woman having a baby in an industrialized nation can reasonably expect that both she and her baby will have a healthy journey through pregnancy and birth. Childbearing is generally safe and does not represent illness or disability. A hundred years ago, many women faced childbirth with some fear because they knew of a mother or baby who had died. Today, however, there is some expectation that changes in childbirth technology not only minimize risks that might have led to death or disability a century ago, but promise a perfect outcome. Additionally, in many parts of the world today, women can plan their pregnancies and tend to have fewer children than a century ago. This has created a culture where each pregnancy and baby generates intense attention. Expectations of pain management have also changed. One hundred years ago, most children throughout the world were born at home. Although many factors contributed to the movement of childbirth from the home to the hospital, one important reason for this change was the development of pain-reducing childbirth anesthesia, which was only available at the hospital. How has pain management changed? When childbirth occurred in the home, pain management was dependent on the skill of a woman's midwife or her family in helping her through childbirth. In the late 1800s, the labor analgesic "Twilight Sleep," a combination of morphine and scopolamine that both relieved pain and caused women to forget most of their labor and birth, became available in the hospital. At first, this option was only available to wealthy women who could pay for hospital care, but women's rights activitists advocated its availability for all women. There were problems, however, with forms of dense anesthesia for childbirth. Women who were heavily medicated had difficulty communicating and difficulty pushing. Forceps and cesarean sections were often necessary to complete the birth. Babies who were born to heavily medicated women were born sleepy, with a decreased drive to breathe, and often needed resuscitation. The development of spinal anesthesia, known in the mid-20th century as a "saddle block," helped relieve the pain of delivery, but often left women unable to push, again necessitating forceps deliveries. Anesthesiologists have continued to refine spinal anesthesia techniques, and in most Western hospitals today, many women may choose to have some form of epidural or spinal anesthesia for birth. Risks and benefits of these techniques are more fully discussed in the topics Why Should I Consider a Holistic Approach to Pregnancy and Childbirth? and What Factors Influence the Normal Progression of Labor?. As a culture, it appears that women have become more interested in a pain-free labor experience. When did natural (unmedicated) childbirth become popular? During the 1950s and 60s, women became more aware of the problems associated with heavy anesthesia during labor. Dense anesthesia had negative effects on women and their babies, and left women unable to play a role in their own care and that of their babies. Control of childbirth shifted from women (the birthing mother and her midwife), to the physician, (generally male at that time). The growing women's movement drew attention to this power change and set the stage for the natural childbirth movement. There was a strong sentiment that women, not their healthcare provider, should be in charge of the labor experience. At first glance, the natural childbirth movement may have seemed a step backward in terms of comfort in labor and birth, but several advances had been made in non-medicinal methods of pain relief. Early proponents of natural childbirth (Dick-Read, 1943; Karmal, 1959; Lamaze, 1970; Leboyer, 1975; and Bradley, 1978) developed programs to prepare women for childbirth that included relaxation, patterned breathing, hypnosis, and water immersion. Encouraged by the work of these early experts, women began to reclaim their autonomy in the birth process. Additionally, advances in medical treatment of pain have resulted in pain management techniques that are safer and less disruptive to the process of labor than earlier methods had been, although these are still not risk free. The Additional Readings include recent and available works from childbirth experts with the most up-to-date methods of holistic pain management, and also include the classic works of the natural childbirth pioneers. Current pain management methods are discussed more fully in the topics What About Pain? and What About Childbirth Classes and Birth Plans? How have the economics of childbirth changed? During the 20th century, childbirth shifted to the hospital for several reasons: - The availability of pain medications in the hospital. - The belief that physicians were the most qualified to attend births. - Women's and physician's beliefs that hospital births were safer. - The increased ability of families in the United States to pay for what they felt represented the best care (physician and hospital care). Childbirth has remained in the hospital for reasons that are largely economic. Throughout time, midwives have provided the majority of maternity care around the world, however, the late 1800s and early 1900s represented a time of change. The development of forceps in the mid 1700s, which were only used by physicians, introduced the doctor to maternity care. Physicians were called to births when progress was slow or there were other problems, and thus their introduction to childbirth was in problem situations where the outcome was often poor. At the same time, the medical profession was shifting its professional basis. Organized schools of medicine replaced apprenticeships as the preferred method of learning and obstetrics was included as an area of study. Physicians in the U.S. organized the American Medical Association in 1847, which sought to promote the wellbeing of its profession. For the first time, under the influence of the AMA, states passed laws regulating who could practice medicine. In general, this was a benefit to healthcare consumers, as it helped keep unqualified people from claiming to practice medicine, and it lead to the accreditation of medical and other professional schools. However, in the early 1900s these laws nearly put an end to the practice of midwifery as physicians sought the "business" of caring for pregnant women, using the medical practice acts to limit the activity of midwives. (A busy rural midwife in the early 1900s was estimated to make $678, compared to the estimated physician's salary at the time of $730, thus maternity care was a lucrative practice to seek!) Physicians and hospitals also recognized that if a positive relationship was established with a pregnant woman, it would influence where she sought care for herself and her family for a lifetime. This provided another motivation to seek pregnant women as clients and is still a motivation today. Beginning in the early 20th century and continuing today, hospitals recognized that they could gain income from providing services as well as providing a place to give birth. Epidural or spinal anesthesia, labor inductions, cesarean sections, even the placement of IV lines are a source of additional revenue for both the hospital and the practitioners involved (physicians, midwives, and anesthesiologists). From the perspective of the hospital, a low-intervention natural childbirth is not the most financially profitable. How has our system of healthcare changed? The system of healthcare in the United States has changed dramatically over the past century. At the turn of the last century, people paid for their healthcare from their own pockets. As employer-provided health insurance and public health insurance programs such as Medicare and Medicaid developed, women's access to healthcare improved, but the cost of healthcare has increased at a rate well above the rate of increase in our incomes. Most individuals now receive their health insurance through a managed care program of some sort, either individually purchased, employer, or government provided. A managed care program attempts to balance access to quality care with controlling healthcare costs. Managed care has introduced some key changes for women seeking prenatal care, among them: - The choice of providers may be limited. - Most midwives and physicians practice in groups. While this is beneficial to an individual provider, as it prevents them from potentially working an unsafe number of hours, it may mean that the provider that a woman has seen through her pregnancy may not be available when she goes into labor. Medical liability has also had an impact on current prenatal care and birth. The liability insurance premiums for providers of obstetric care are expensive and so is being sued. Consequently, practitioners seek any legal protection they can find. Following the standards of care established by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) may offer some protection from liability. Practitioners feel more protected if the standards are cautious, even if they are not well founded in research. However, this may lead to an overuse of birth technologies. How has birth technology changed? A typical physician-attended hospital birth today looks very little like a home birth of a century ago. The past century has brought numerous advances in childbirth technology, including how the baby's wellbeing is monitored, tests and procedures during pregnancy, and birth practices. Monitoring the baby's wellbeing The baby's wellbeing can be assessed by several methods: - A century ago, the baby could only be monitored by using a stethoscope, or a specially designed fetal stethoscope, and a baby can still be monitored in this way today. - In the 1960s, the electronic fetal monitor was introduced, that provided the physician or midwife with a paper record of the baby's heartbeat. Providers can monitor electronically by either using an external device placed on the mother's abdomen, which uses Doppler ultrasound to detect the baby's heartbeats, or with an internal device placed directly on the baby's head during an internal exam, which measures the electrical current generated by the heart. - A handheld Doppler device can be placed on the mother's abdomen to listen to the heartbeat. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) has outlined specific protocols for monitoring the heartbeat of a baby during labor and specific criteria have been developed for evaluating the heart rate. The ACOG protocols reflect research that shows that there is no benefit for low-risk women in using continuous monitoring as opposed to listening to the baby's heart rate intermittently. Moreover, continuous monitoring limits a woman's mobility and her ability to assume positions of comfort. If there is no remote telemetry monitoring available, she may be unable to walk or to use a shower or tub. Continuous monitoring has also been associated with an increase in other interventions, such as forceps, vacuum extractors, and cesarean section, without evidence of benefit to the baby. Despite this evidence and the support for intermittent monitoring by the ACOG protocols, most laboring women in the hospital today are monitored continuously throughout their active labor. As a result, many labor nurses have grown so accustomed to continuous monitoring that they are unfamiliar with the option of intermittent monitoring. Tests and procedures Let's consider some tests and procedures physicians and midwives use to promote the health of the mother and baby. Providers generally offer women an array of screening and diagnostic tests during their pregnancy. (A screening test identifies an increased risk of a problem. A diagnostic test diagnoses the problem being considered. For example, the prenatal Quad Screen may identify a woman as having an increased risk of having an infant with Down Syndrome, but does not provide a diagnosis. The diagnosis can only be made with an amniocentesis). It is now possible to identify more problems and risks earlier in pregnancy than ever before. This means that woman and their families have more decisions to make. For each offered test or procedure, women must decide if they want the test, and if so, what they are willing to do based on the results. For some women, the increased options for prenatal testing may lead to an increase in anxiety. All pregnant women desire a healthy baby, and to receive test results during pregnancy that indicate a potential problem leads to increased stress. One perspective that may be helpful is to consider if the prenatal testing offered will be useful in making subsequent decisions. Some women don't want specific testing, because the information would not change what they plan to do. Some women want all the available information to help them make plans for potentially caring for a child with a disability, or to help them make a decision regarding pregnancy termination. A full discussion of all of these tests available during pregnancy is beyond the scope of this module, but they are briefly outlined in this short guide to tests. Ginny was offered first trimester screening to identify if she was at an increased risk of having a child with Down Syndrome or other chromosomal problems. After considering the screening tests available, and the follow-up tests that would be recommended if the screening tests indicated a problem, she and Charles decided that they wanted to be prepared if they had a child with chromosome problems, but she was not willing to take the small risk of miscarrying a normal child that could happen after amniocentesis. Her screening tests showed that she was at no greater risk of having a child with Down Syndrome than other women her age. Ginny and Charles felt relieved, but they understood that the potential for having a child with chromosome problems still existed. Several birth practices have also changed in the past 100 years. Although cesarean sections and forceps were used early in the 20th century, their frequency was low. Today, the cesarean section rate is approaching 30% in the United States. A very recent trend is the elective cesarean section, that is, a cesarean section done without a current medical indication but that might potentially prevent future problems such as incontinence. The development of the vacuum extractor has decreased the use of forceps, although both are still used frequently. Inductions of labor are becoming increasingly more common, and today, an estimated 40% of all women are induced, despite estimates that only 10% of women need to be induced for a medical reason. Fortunately, some birth practices introduced in the past century, such as shaving a woman's pubic hair or routinely cutting an episiotomy, have been shown ineffective and discontinued. However, other practices, such as the routine placement of an IV, permitting a laboring women to have only ice chips, and not allowing her to use a tub if her bag of waters has broken, have continued to be a standard of care, even though not supported by research. What is clear from the research is that although technological interventions may be helpful in many situations, their routine use for all pregnant and birthing women is not warranted. How do all these changes affect my baby and me? The good news about having a baby today is that a wealth of information is readily available: from your provider, on the web, in bookstores, and at the library. Medical ethics have also changed. The paternalistic and well-meaning "doctor knows best" attitude of a century ago has been replaced with a respect for the autonomy of the birthing woman and an understanding that all women must be provided with information and give consent before medical treatment. Most midwives and physicians have a strong desire to do just that. However, a few providers although well-meaning, might provide fear-based, limited information, particularly if a woman is identified as being high-risk. Imagine being told, "unless you have this procedure, your baby might die" without additional information about the actual likelihood of death or disability, or alternatives to the procedure. How would you respond in such a situation? Fortunately, these practices are rare, and, even for women who have identified risk factors, many options and alternatives remain available to her during pregnancy and childbirth. It is important to discuss any proposed tests, treatments, or interventions with your midwife or doctor. For many women, this is challenging. Think about the last time you had a talk with an authority figure, or someone whose area of expertise was different from your own. Chances are you found it a bit intimidating. Now add to this the challenge of having such a discussion during labor, a time when women may feel especially vulnerable. Clearly, the discussion of childbirth choices should begin during the prenatal period. With this in mind, research prospective plans of care or treatment options, ask informed questions, and expect to be a full participant in decision-making during your pregnancy and birth. Information and discussion can help you identify when childbirth technology might offer the best outcome for you and your baby, or when a less technological approach would be more appropriate. Lorinda and Marcus moved to a new town early in Lorinda's pregnancy. They knew that they wanted to find a provider who involved them fully in Lorinda's prenatal care and who would support their choices in holistic and alternative healthcare measures. They also knew that they wanted a provider who did not routinely induce labor, in a birth center where waterbirth was an available option. The first midwife that they saw in their new town supported their holistic choices, but did not offer waterbirth. However, she helped them find a midwifery practice that did include waterbirths. Works by Contemporary Childbirth Experts (Available in bookstores and libraries): Active Birth: The New Approach to Giving Birth Naturally, Revised ed. (1992). Janet Balaskas. Harvard Common Press. Birthing from Within (1998). Pam England, CNM. Partera Press. Immaculate Deception II: Myth, Magic & Birth (1994). Suzanne Arms. Celestial Arts. Ina May's Guide to Childbirth (2003). Ina May Gaskin. Bantam. Natural Childbirth the Bradley Way, Revised ed. (1996). Susan McCutcheon-Rosegg. Plume. Our Bodies, Ourselves: Pregnancy and Birth (2008). Boston Women's Health Book Collective. Simon & Schuster. Pregnancy, Childbirth and the Newborn: The Complete Guide (2001). Penny Simkin. Meadowbrook. The Birth Partner, 2nd ed. (2001). Penny Simkin. Harvard Common Press. The Official Lamaze Guide: Giving Birth with Confidence (2005). Judith Lothian, & Charlotte DeVries. Meadowbrook. The Thinking Woman's Guide to a Better Birth. (1999). Henci Goer. Perigee Trade. Updated Works by Natural Childbirth Pioneers (Likely found in the library, but may be at some bookstores or available from used-book sellers): Birth without Violence: The Book That Revolutionized the Way We Bring Our Children into the World (2004). Leboyer, F. Childbirth Without Fear: The Original Approach to Natural Childbirth (1994). Dick-Read, G., Wessel, H., & Ellis, H.F. HarperCollins. Husband-Coached Childbirth: The Bradley Method Of Natural Childbirth, 4th ed. (1966). Bradley, R.A., Hathaway, M., Hathaway, J. Bantam Books. Immaculate Deception: A New Look at Women and Childbirth in America (1977). Arms, Suzanne. Painless Childbirth: The Lamaze Method (1984). Lamaze, F. Thank You, Dr Lamaze (2005). Marjorie Karmel, M., & Karmel, A. London: Pinter & Martin. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). (2005). Intrapartum fetal heart rate monitoring. ACOG practice bulletin No. 70. 2006 Compendium of Selected Publications. Washington, D.C.: ACOG. Burst, C.G. (1995). Catching babies: The professionalization of childbirth, 1870-1920. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Rooks, J.P. (1997). Midwifery & childbirth in America. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Thacker, S.B., Stroup, D., & Chang, M. (2001). Continuous electronic fetal heart rate monitoring for fetal assessment during labor. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 2, Article No. CD000063. Wagner, M. (2006). Born in the USA: How a broken maternity system must be fixed to put women and children first. Berkeley: University of California Press.	<urn:uuid:bfa04654-be01-48ea-a2a3-17e26b5058d0>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.takingcharge.csh.umn.edu/explore-healing-practices/holistic-pregnancy-childbirth/how-has-childbirth-changed-century	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.963942	4,275	3.515625	4
Here is my answer to the question: In what sense did the images provided by the early modern microscope explain anything? I believe that the images provided by the early modern microscope explained (in part) a great variety of phenomena. Perhaps, though, ‘explained’ is a strong word that indicates a greater role for the microscope than it indeed played. Instead of the microscope as ‘explanatory’ I think it would be better to characterize its role as lending support to a wide variety of theories in a number of different disciplines: from philosophy and theology to physiology and biology. For instance, microscopic observations were used to support: 1. Rationalist and Idealist/Empiricist philosophies (Malebranche and Berkeley) The rationalist philosopher Nicholas Malebranche used microscopic observations in order to further his philosophical stance that certain knowledge can be gained only through the process of ratiocination, which is grounded in God's greatness. Strangely, Malebranche uses (with certainty) microscopic observations (that is, observations which are empirical) to further an argument against the possibility that such observations can be certain! He states that, “only the intelligible can through its evidence and light supply food for intelligent minds” (251 Malebranche) . But then he proceeds to use microscopic evidence and essentially refute in practice what he has said theoretically: I began to read a book which I had with me, and I found therein a very astounding thing, namely, that there is in the world an infinite number of insects at least a million times smaller than the one I had just been examining, fifty thousand times smaller than a grain of sand… These philosophers are very glad that the facts they put before us can be verified at any time, and that people are able to appreciate with certainty the multiplicity and delicacy of the wonderful works of the author of the universe. (252-253 Malebranche). So, even though using empirical data from the realm of microscopy contradicts what he is attempting to illustrate (that we cannot gain certain knowledge from our senses, and thus, from the microscope) Malebranche does so anyway! I think this is interesting, because it shows us how convincing (or at least impressive) the observations from the microworld were in the early modern period; so convincing that Malebranche felt he had to include them in order to strengthen his argument. In addition to the rationalist’s (irrational?) utilization of the microscope, George Berkeley used the microscope to further his own idealistic philosophy. Berkeley is almost diametrically opposed to Malebranche, in that he believes that our existence is not founded on rationality, but on our being perceived. For Berkeley, to be is to be perceived. But his adoption of microscopic observations was much more specific than Malebranche’s: he used the microscope (among other examples) to show that Locke’s distinction between primary and secondary qualities cannot hold (423-424 Berkeley). 2. Anti-spontaneous theories of generation One of the expectations from the microscope was that it might settle the debate about generation (for example: where do the maggots on rotting meat come from, how does fermentation occur, etc.). There were two sides to this debate. One believed that the maggots (or the fermentation, etc.) were the result of some sort of spontaneous generation, due to a vegetative force (Needham) or, later, some sort of chemical process (Leibig). The other side thought that generation was never (and could not be) spontaneous, and that all generation could be explained by animal/bacterial or plant reproduction. Thus, early experiments in favor of spontaneous generation (Needham’s hermetically sealed mutton gravy) were seen as instances of poor experimental procedure by the anti-spontaneity camp. Surprisingly, definitive evidence could not be provided for either side until much later than expected (dates vary, but certainly by Pasteur in 1857). In the mean time, the microscopic evidence provided by the anti-spontaneists began tilting the scales steadily toward their position. In the first half of the 19th century, the anti-spontaneists used microscopic observations of yeast to illustrate that fermentation was not a simple chemical process (and thus, that life did not emerge spontaneously), but the work of small plant-like globules (yeast). Cagniard-Latour elaborates: The principal results of the present work are: (1) The beer yeast is a mass of small globules which are able to reproduce, and consequently are organized, and are not a simple organic or chemical substance, as has been supposed…” (23 Cagniard-Latour). He achieved his results through the use of a microscope which “enabled him to obtain enlargements of 300-400 times.” (20 Cagniard-Latour). Schwann obtained similar results, using similar methods to Cagniard-Latour: “Microscopic examination of the beer yeast showed the familiar little grains which the ferment forms…it is without a doubt a plant” (18, Schwann). 3. Spermist (animalculist) ideas about preformation There was also a lot of optimism in the early modern period that the microscope would be helpful in the physiological debate about how children are formed (that is, how life emerges from the womb). A popular theory (for theological reasons) was the doctrine of preformation which stated that all future living creatures were created in the instant of creation (about 7000 years ago). Thus, every human being that would ever exist was, in some way, completely formed in either Eve's ovaries or Adam's testicles (depending on whether you were an ovist or a spermist). The support provided by the microscope for the spermist (or as it is sometimes called, animalculist) doctrine of preformation is best illustrated by Leeuwenhoek in a letter to William Brounker about the constitution of semen: As regards the parts themselves of which the denser subtance of the semen is mainly made up, as I have many times observed with wonder, they consist of all manner of great and small vessels, so various and so numerous that I have not the least doubt that they are nerves, arteries and veins… (293,295 Leeuwenhoek). This is an odd case indeed, as the editor Dobell has noted. We now know (with the aid of more powerful microscopes) that there could not have been veins or arteries in the sperm that Leeuwenhoek was examining. This seems to be a case where the theory has affected the evidence that attempts to prove that theory: Leeuwenhoek believed in preformation, and, thus, his experiments/examinations led him to the conclusion (one that he wanted to hear) that preformation was in fact true. Leeuwenhoek in fact seems to (somewhat indignantly) defend himself against objections that his observations cannot be repeated (335, 337 Leeuwenhoek). Though we may now ask the question as to whether or not this is a case of ‘explanation’ of a phenomenon or manipulation, clearly, at the time their was no better evidence available with which to measure Leeuwenhoek’s claim. 4. Theological and Cosmological ideas A number of theological ideas found support in the new worlds opened up by the microscope. We have already seen that preformation (which has its roots in the Christian account of creation) found support in the microscope. But, other biblical interpretations were attacked using microscopic support. In Joseph Glanville’s book The Vanity of Dogmatism he argues that before the fall, Adam had perfect senses. That is, he was able to experience the world exactly as it was, from the tiniest hair on a mite’s leg, to the faintest whisper. After his exile from the garden, however, Adam lost this direct connection to the ‘real’ world, and had the imperfect senses that we now have. Henry Power denied this interpretation in the preface to his Experimental Philosophy: Neither do I think that the Aged world stands now in need of Spectacles, more than it did in its primitive Strength and Lustre: for howsoever though the faculties of the soul of our Primitive father Adam might be more quick and perspicacious in Apprehension, than those of our lapsed selves; yet certainly the Constitution of Adam's Organs was no divers from ours, nor different from those of his Fallen Self, so that he could never discern those distant, or minute objects by Natural Vision, as we do by the Artificial advantages of the Telescope and Microscope… (Preface, Power) So here Power is using the microscope to claim that we now have more knowledge about the world than Adam could ever have possibly had. He uses the worlds opened up by the microscope (and the telescope) to illustrate that, far from becoming more and more distant from God’s creation, we are becoming ever closer to understanding it. Robert Hooke has similar notions about the cosmological role of the microscope. He states in the preface to his Micrographia that: The next care to be taken, in respect of the Senses, is a supplying of their infirmities with Instruments, and, as it were, the adding of artificial Organs to the natural; this in one of them has been of late years accomplisht with prodigious benefit to all forms of useful knowledge, by the invention of Optical Glasses… by the help of Microscopes, there is nothing so small, as to escape our inquiry; hence there is a new visible World discovered to the understanding (3-4 Hooke) Like Power, Hooke is proposing that with the help of these “artificial organs” we can discover new worlds, and come to understand the true nature of reality more closely. So, though I do not believe that the microscope by itself ‘explained’ anything, I do believe that it was used to further solidify larger explanations for a wide variety of phenomena, with varying degrees of importance. For instance, the role that the microscope played in the philosophy of Malebranche was decidedly (and necessarily) minimal, but, it played a huge part in deciding between theories of generation. It seems that without the support lent to biological/physiological theories, debates may have continued for much longer over the ‘true’ nature of the phenomena. Though it seems the role microscopic observations were not decisive in philosophical debates, a case could possibly be made to the contrary (possibly through a more detailed philosophical analysis of both Hooke and Power). Exploding the notion of use/disuse The productivity of waste? How can political economy deal with waste Nothing is a closed or open system Nothing is anything I'm so fucking clever.	<urn:uuid:2e0c118b-102b-4938-b38b-063c033e9ef9>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://everything2.com/user/cabin+fever/writeups/The+explanatory+power+of+the+microscope+in+early+modern+Europe	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.968504	2,262	2.953125	3
Democratic consultant Donna Brazile brought home America’s reluctance to talk openly about race in a New York Times article that preceded the Barack Obama speech that now has the whole nation buzzing. In essence, she said in her quote, any serious discussion about race has the effect of clearing a room. Brazile’s remark and the presidential hopeful’s groundbreaking speech about a subject that politicians generally tiptoe around in public hint at the complexities of race relations in America today. As we approach the second decade of the 21st century, research shows that many Americans feel anxious during interracial interactions whether or not race is even mentioned. Now a provocative new study from Northwestern University suggests that whites who are particularly worried about appearing racist seem to suffer from anxiety that instinctively may cause them to avoid interaction with blacks in the first place. “The Threat of Appearing Prejudiced and Race-based Attentional Biases,” by Jennifer A. Richeson, associate professor of psychology and African-American studies and faculty fellow at the Institute for Policy Research (IPR) at Northwestern, and Sophie Trawalter, post-doctoral fellow, IPR, recently appeared in the journal Psychological Science. Study participants indicated that they worry about inadvertently getting in trouble for somehow seeming biased. As a result, the study suggests, they behaved in a way that research shows people respond when faced with stimuli that cause them to feel threatened or anxious: they instinctively look at what is making them feel nervous and then ignore it. In this case, study participants, 15 white college students, indicated that they were motivated to respond in non-prejudiced ways toward blacks primarily for appearance’s sake because of concern about social disapproval -- rather than because of their internal values. They then took a standard psychological test that measures attention patterns related to anxiety provoking or threatening stimuli. The white students initially focused on images of black faces with neutral expressions, relative to white faces with similar expressions, and then quickly disengaged and paid greater attention to the white faces. Participants who were selected for the study first had to complete a Motivation to Respond Without Prejudice Scale. Those who were selected had scores that indicated that they were externally, rather than internally, motivated to not appear racially biased. On a one-to-nine scale, they rated their agreement with statements that included: “Because of today’s politically correct standards, I try to appear non-prejudiced toward black people.” They then participated in a computer test that featured in all the trials a black face and a white face, with either similar neutral expressions or similar happy expressions. Theoretically, they shouldn’t have paid attention to either of the two faces, one black and one white, appearing on either side of the computer screen, because they were told to keep their attention fixated on a cross in the middle of the screen. But, as expected, they inevitably turned their attention to the faces. Because everything happened so fast, however, they weren’t aware that they had paid different amounts of attention to black faces, compared to the white faces. When a dot appeared on the computer screen where one of the faces had previously appeared, they had to quickly say whether it appeared on the right or the left side of the fixation point. Finding the dot the fastest was an indication that attention had been directed to the face that had just disappeared from the position where the dot was displayed. For the shorter trials (30 milliseconds) with the neutral faces, study participants tended to find the dot quickly when it was located behind the black face, which tended to be the initial focus of attention. During the slightly longer trials (450 milliseconds), however, the dot-probe test indicated that they tended to quickly turn their attention away from the neutral black face to the white face with the same expression. “Think of it as initially turning your attention to something that poses a threat or causes anxiety and then ignoring it because you don’t want to deal with it,” said Richeson. “These low-level psychological processes happen dynamically, and our tests indicate that people probably avoided the neutral black faces because they provoke anxiety, not necessarily because of racial animus.” Patterns of attentional biases were eliminated when the faces were smiling. Well-established clinical and cognitive psychology research shows that people process expressions of emotion quickly, and presumably black male faces with smiling expressions did not seem threatening or provoke anxiety. The article cites a similar study that tested how children with chronic pain responded to pain-relevant words. In short trials, they tended to look at the pain-relevant words, and in the longer trials they avoided them. Richeson’s study draws from a body of such clinical psychology research on threat and attention. Basically, that research shows that people who have anxiety about various stimuli in everyday life tend to ignore what is stressing them out, unlike people with clinical anxiety, who tend to fixate on what triggers their anxiety. Richeson stresses in every class she teaches on stereotyping and prejudice that a solution to a problem often presents another problem. Ironically, her study suggests, standards to create a diverse yet harmonious society may unwittingly be encouraging anxious responses toward blacks. “Norms and standards to achieve diversity are a great solution to undermining racial bias,” Richeson said. “Our research suggests that we now also need to start thinking about creating opportunities to undermine anxieties about living up to those standards, to let people know they are going to be okay if they engage in interracial relationships.” Source: Northwestern University Explore further: Ketamine shows significant therapeutic benefit in people with treatment-resistant depression	<urn:uuid:d8ee33b8-23ff-4f8e-b0ad-55565d891d16>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://phys.org/news126286173.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.964567	1,176	3.125	3
Transamazonian highwayArticle Free Pass Transamazonian highway, Portuguese Rodovia Transamazônica, system of paved and unpaved roads in Brazil that is designed to facilitate settlement and exploitation of the vast underpopulated Amazon River Basin. The system consists of several major parts. A 3,400-mile (5,100-kilometre) east-west segment extends from Recife, on the Atlantic coast, through Marabá, Itaituba, Humaitá, and Rio Branco to Cruzeiro do Sul, on the Peruvian border. The two major north-south links are Rio de Janeiro–Brasília–Porto Franco–Belém and São Paulo–Cuiabá–Santarém, further west. An additional road links Cuiabá northwestward with the Transamazonian highway at Humaitá and continues northward to Manaus and beyond to the partially completed Northern Perimeter Highway. The rapid pace of construction of this road system has raised serious questions about the preservation of the Amazon Rainforest’s fragile ecology and of the region’s aboriginal Indian population in the face of the growing numbers of Brazilian farmers, loggers, and miners who now have access to the Amazon Basin. None of these fears, however, was expected to alter Brazil’s determination to provide an outlet for its burgeoning population and a means of exploiting the enormous, so far almost untapped, mineral wealth of the basin, which includes bauxite, copper, iron, manganese, petroleum, and tin. What made you want to look up "Transamazonian highway"? Please share what surprised you most...	<urn:uuid:74df93e4-5e75-442d-bb6d-6e96bfecc8e0>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/602357/Transamazonian-highway	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.930922	344	2.90625	3
The layer of cells that lines the heart, blood vessels, lymph vessels, and certain tissue-lined cavities throughout the body. Researchers are especially interested in the vascular (blood vessel) endothelium and its role in the development of such medical conditions as heart disease and diabetic retinopathy (eye disease). Researchers who study atherosclerosis (narrowing of the arteries) and heart disease are keenly interested in the function—and dysfunction—of the vascular endothelium. Endothelial dysfunction, a condition in which the blood vessels are unable to dilate fully when needed, is thought to be one of the earliest signs of atherosclerosis. Research shows that endothelial dysfunction tends to develop before the blood vessel walls start to thicken and before atherosclerotic plaques begin to appear on them. Researchers think that it may cause atherosclerosis by promoting stiffening of the blood vessels, the adhesion of platelets and other substances to the inner walls of blood vessels, inflammation, and blood clotting. Endothelial dysfunction may be an important mechanism by which Type 2 diabetes raises the risk of heart disease. Recent research has shown that insulin resistance (a condition in which the body’s cells do not respond to insulin properly) may be a major contributor to endothelial dysfunction. Other risk factors for endothelial dysfunction may include poor high blood glucose levels, blood lipid (cholesterol and triglyceride) abnormalities, and high blood pressure. Researchers believe that taking steps to control these risk factors, including dietary modification, exercise, weight loss, and drug therapy to control diabetes, lipid levels, and blood pressure, could help improve endothelial dysfunction—and lower the risk of atherosclerosis and heart disease. Researchers are also studying the vascular endothelium in the context of angiogenesis, or the growth of new blood vessels. Cells within the endothelium tend to promote angiogenesis, with the help of growth factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Angiogenesis can adversely affect diabetic retinopathy by promoting the development of abnormal new blood vessels in the retina, which tend to leak and cause scarring. Researchers hope someday to stop or delay the progression of diabetic retinopathy by using drugs that block the action of VEGF.	<urn:uuid:bbf5c3e8-8303-4573-90eb-42fbce7d1c47>	CC-MAIN-2013-20	http://www.diabetesselfmanagement.com/Articles/Diabetes-Definitions/endothelium/1/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00028-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz	en	0.908557	459	3.546875	4